Text -- 1 Peter 1:20 (NET)

1:20 He was foreknown before the foundation of the world but was manifested in these last times for your sake.

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Robertson: 1Pe 1:20

Who was foreknown indeed ( proegnōsmenou men ).

Perfect passive participle (in genitive singular agreeing with Christou ) of proginōskō , old verb, to know beforehand (Rom 8:29; 2Pe 3:17). See prognōsin theou in 1Pe 1:2.

Robertson: 1Pe 1:20

Before the foundation of the world ( pro katabolēs kosmou ).

This precise curious phrase occurs in Joh 17:24 in the Saviour’ s mouth of his preincarnate state with the Father as here and in Eph 1:4. We have apo katabolēs kosmou in Mat 25:34 (kosmou omitted in Mat 13:35); Luk 11:50; Heb 4:3; Heb 9:26; Rev 13:8; Rev 17:8. Katabolē (from kataballō ) was originally laying the foundation of a house (Heb 6:1). The preincarnate Messiah appears in the counsels of God also in 1Co 2:7; Col 1:26.; Eph 1:9.; Eph 3:9-11; Rom 16:25; 1Ti 1:9.

Robertson: 1Pe 1:20

But was manifested ( phanerōthentos de ).

First aorist (ingressive) passive participle of phaneroō , referring to the Incarnation in contrast with the preexistence of Christ (cf. Joh 1:31; 1Jo 3:5, 1Jo 3:8).

Robertson: 1Pe 1:20

At the end of the times ( ep' eschatou tōn chronōn ).

Like ep' eschatou tōn hēmerōn (Heb 1:2). The plural chronoi , doubtless referring to successive periods in human history until the fullness of the time came (Gal 4:4).

Robertson: 1Pe 1:20

For your sake ( di' humās ).

Proof of God’ s love, not of their desert or worth (Act 17:30.; Heb 11:39.).

Vincent: 1Pe 1:20

Foreordained ( προεγνωσμένου )

Lit., and better, foreknown, as Rev.

Vincent: 1Pe 1:20

Manifested ( φανερωθέντος )

Observe the difference in tense. Foreknown is the perfect participle, has been known from all eternity down to the present " in reference to the place held and continuing to be held by Christ in the divine mind" (Salmond) . Manifested is the aorist participle, pointing to a definite act at a given time.

Vincent: 1Pe 1:20

In these last times ( ἐπ ' ἐσχάτου τῶν χρόνων )

Lit., as Rev., at the end of the times.

JFB: 1Pe 1:20

God's eternal foreordination of Christ's redeeming sacrifice, and completion of it in these last times for us, are an additional obligation on us to our maintaining a holy walk, considering how great things have been thus done for us. Peter's language in the history corresponds with this here: an undesigned coincidence and mark of genuineness. Redemption was no afterthought, or remedy of an unforeseen evil, devised at the time of its arising. God's foreordaining of the Redeemer refutes the slander that, on the Christian theory, there is a period of four thousand years of nothing but an incensed God. God chose us in Christ before the foundation of the world (Eph 1:4).

JFB: 1Pe 1:20

In His incarnation in the fulness of the time. He existed from eternity before He was manifested.

JFB: 1Pe 1:20

1Co 10:11, "the ends of the world." This last dispensation, made up of "times" marked by great changes, but still retaining a general unity, stretches from Christ's ascension to His coming to judgment.

Clarke: 1Pe 1:20

Who verily was foreordained - Προεγνωσμενου· Foreknown; appointed in the Divine purpose to be sent into the world, because infinitely approved by the Divine justice

Clarke: 1Pe 1:20

Before the foundation of the world - Before the law was given, or any sacrifice prescribed by it. Its whole sacrificial system was appointed in reference to this foreappointed Lamb, and consequently from him derived all its significance and virtue. The phrase καταβολη κοσμου, foundation of the world, occurs often in the New Testament, and is supposed by some learned men and good critics to signify the commencement of the Jewish state. Perhaps it may have this meaning in Mat 13:35; Luk 11:50; Eph 1:4; Heb 4:3; Heb 9:26. But if we take it here in its common signification, the creation of universal nature, then it shows that God, foreseeing the fall and ruin of man, appointed the remedy that was to cure the disease. It may here have a reference to the opinion of the Jewish doctors, who maintain that seven things existed before the creation of the world, one of which was the Messiah

Clarke: 1Pe 1:20

Last times - The Gospel dispensation, called the last times, as we have often seen, because never to be succeeded by any other.

Calvin: 1Pe 1:20

20.Who verily was foreordained He again by a comparison amplifies the grace of God, with which he had peculiarly favored the men of that age. For it was not a common or a small favor that God deferred the manifestation of Christ to that time, when yet he had ordained him in his eternal council for the salvation of the world. At the same time, however, he reminds us, that it was not a new or a sudden thing as to God that Christ appeared as a Savior; and this is what ought especially to be known. For, in addition to this, that novelty is always suspicious, what would be the stability of our faith, if we believed that a remedy for mankind had suddenly occurred at length to God after some thousands of years? In short, we cannot confidently recumb on Christ, except we are convinced that eternal salvation is in him, and always has been in him. Besides, Peter addressed the Jews, who had heard that he had already been long ago promised; and though they understood nothing true or clear or certain respecting his power and office, yet there remained among them a persuasion, that a Redeemer had been promised by God to the fathers.

It may yet be asked, As Adam did not fall before the creation of the world, how was it that Christ had been appointed the Redeemer? for a remedy is posterior to the disease. My reply is, that this is to be referred to God’s foreknowledge; for doubtless God, before he created man, foresaw that he would not stand long in his integrity. Hence he ordained, according to his wonderful wisdom and goodness, that Christ should be the Redeemer, to deliver the lost race of man from ruin. For herein shines forth more fully the unspeakable goodness of God, that he anticipated our disease by the remedy of his grace, and provided a restoration to life before the first man had fallen into death. If the reader wishes for more on this subject, he may find it in my Institutes.

But was manifest, or manifested. Included in these words, as I think, is not only the personal appearance of Christ, but also the proclamation of the Gospel. For, by the coming of Christ, God executed what he had decreed; and what he had obscurely indicated to the fathers is now clearly and plainly made known to us by the Gospel. He says that this was done in these last times, meaning the same as when Paul says,

“In the fullness of time,” (Gal 4:4;)

for it was the mature season and the full time which God in his counsel had appointed.

For you He does not exclude the fathers, to whom the promise had not been useless; but as God has favored us more than them, he intimates that the greater the amplitude of grace towards us, the more reverence and ardor and care are required of us.

Defender: 1Pe 1:20

"Foreordained" (Greek proginosko) is the verb form of the noun (prognosis), better translated as "foreknowledge" in 1Pe 1:2. Just as God foreknew that Christ would become the Savior because the triune God had so ordained, so He also foreknew those who would be saved by Him.

Defender: 1Pe 1:20

Before God ever created the world, in the mind of God, Christ had been sacrificed, and the names of the redeemed were known (Eph 1:4; Rev 13:8; Rev 17:8; 2Ti 1:9)."

TSK: 1Pe 1:20

verily : Gen 3:15; Pro 8:23; Mic 5:2; Rom 3:25, Rom 16:25, Rom 16:26; Eph 1:4, Eph 3:9, Eph 3:11; Col 1:26; 2Ti 1:9, 2Ti 1:10; Tit 1:2, Tit 1:3; Rev 13:8

but : Act 3:25, Act 3:26; Col 1:26; 1Jo 1:2, 1Jo 3:5, 1Jo 3:8, 1Jo 4:9, 1Jo 4:10

in : Gal 4:4; Eph 1:10; Heb 1:2, Heb 9:26

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: 1Pe 1:20

Who verily was foreordained before the foundation of the world - That is, it was foreordained, or predetermined, that he should be the great stoning Sacrifice for sin. On the meaning of the word "foreordained,"( προγινώσκω proginōskō ,) see Rom 8:29. The word is rendered which knew, Act 26:5; foreknew and foreknow, Rom 8:29; Rom 11:2; foreordained, 1Pe 1:20; and know before, 2Pe 2:17. It does not elsewhere occur in the New Testament. The sense is, that the plan was formed, and the arrangements made for the atonement, before the world was created.

Before the foundation of the world - That is, from eternity. It was before man was formed; before the earth was made; before any of the material universe was brought into being; before the angels were created. Compare the Mat 25:34 note; Joh 17:24 note; Eph 1:4 note.

But was manifest - Was revealed. See the notes at 1Ti 3:16.

In these last times - In this, the last dispensation of things on the earth. See the notes at Heb 1:2.

For you - For your benefit or advantage. See the notes at 1Pe 1:12. It follows from what is said in this verse:

(1)\caps1     t\caps0 hat the atonement was not an afterthought on the part of God. It entered into his plan when he made the world, and was revolved in his purposes from eternity.

(2)\caps1     i\caps0 t was not a device to supply a defect in the system; that is, it was not adopted because the system did not work well, or because God had been disappointed. It was arranged before man was created, and when none but God could know whether he would stand or fall.

(3)\caps1     t\caps0 he creation of the earth must have had some reference to this plan of redemption, and that plan must have been regarded as in itself so glorious, and so desirable, that it was deemed best to bring the world into existence that the plan might be developed, though it would involve the certainty that the race would fall, and that many would perish. It was, on the whole, more wise and benevolent that the race should be created with a certainty that they would apostatize, than it would be that the race should not he created, and the plan of salvation be unknown to distant worlds. See the notes at 1Pe 1:12.

Poole: 1Pe 1:20

Who verily was fore-ordained by God’ s decree appointed to the work of redemption, and to be that Lamb that should take away the sins of the world, Eph 1:9 .

Before the foundation of the world from eternity; there being nothing before the world began but what was eternal, Joh 17:24 .

But was manifested not only by his incarnation, 1Ti 3:16 , but by the preaching of the gospel. See these Scriptures: Gal 4:4 Eph 1:10 Heb 1:2 9:26 .

In these last times last, in comparison of the times of the Old Testament; the same as the fulness of time, Gal 4:4 .

For you that you, with other believers, might partake of salvation by him. The fruit of Christ’ s redemption reacheth all ages, but much more abundantly the times after his coming in the flesh. The sum of the argument is, Christ was ordained from eternity, promised to the fathers, but manifested to you: your privilege therefore being greater than theirs, Mat 13:17 Heb 11:39,40 , you should be the more holy.

Gill: 1Pe 1:20

Who verily was foreordained,.... Or "foreknown"; that is, by God; and which intends, not barely his prescience of Christ, of what he should be, do, and suffer; but such a previous knowledge of him, which is joined with love and affection to him; not merely as his own Son, and the express image of his person, but as Mediator; and whom he loved before the world was, and with a love of complacency and delight, and which will last for ever. It includes the choice of him as the head of the election, and the pre-ordination of his human nature, to the grace of union to his divine Person, and the pre-appointment of him to various things. The Syriac version adds, "to this"; that is, to be the lamb for a sacrifice, to be a propitiation for the sins of his people, to be the Saviour and Redeemer of them by his precious blood. The allusion is to the taking of the passover lamb from the sheep, or from the goats, and keeping it separate, from the tenth to the fourteenth day of the month, before it was slain; so Christ, as man, was chosen out from among the people; and as Joseph's antitype was separated from his brethren, and that

before the foundation of the world; for all God's decrees and appointments, relating either to Christ, or his people, are eternal; no new thoughts, counsels, and resolutions, are taken up by him in time. The affair of redemption by Christ is no new thing; the scheme of it was drawn in eternity; the persons to be redeemed were fixed on; the Redeemer was appointed in the council and covenant of peace; and even the very Gospel which proclaims it was ordained before the world, for our glory. A Saviour was provided before sin was committed, and the method of man's recovery was settled before his ruin took place; and which was done without any regard to the works and merits of men, but is wholly owing to the free and sovereign grace of God, and to his everlasting love, both to the Redeemer and the redeemed. The Jews ^h reckon the name of the Messiah among the seven things that were created before the world was; in proof of which they mention, Psa 72:17 but was manifest in these last times for you; he was before, he existed from everlasting; he lay in the bosom of his Father from all eternity: and was veiled and hid under the shadows of the ceremonial law, during the legal dispensation; but in the fulness of time was manifest in the flesh, and more clearly revealed in the Gospel, and to the souls of men; his manifestation in human nature is principally intended, and which was in the last times of the legal dispensation, at the end of the Jewish world or state, when a new world, or the world to come, took place. It is a rule with the Jews ⁱ, that whenever the last days or times are mentioned, the times of the Messiah are designed: and this manifestation of Christ was for the sake of some particular persons, even for all God's elect, whether among Jews or Gentiles, and who are described in the following verse. The Alexandrian copy reads, "for us"; and the Ethiopic version, "for him",

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

NET Notes: 1Pe 1:20

¹ tn Grk “who was foreknown,” describing Christ in v. 19. Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.

² tn Greek emphasizes the contrast between these two clauses more than can be easily expressed in English.

³ tn Grk “at the last of the times.”

Geneva Bible: 1Pe 1:20

^{( 12 )} Who verily was foreordained before the ^{( k )} foundation of the world, but was manifest in these last times for you,

^{( 12 )} The taking away of an objection: what was done to the world, before Christ was sent into the world? was there no holiness before, and was there no Church? The apostle answers, that Christ was ordained and appointed to redeem and deliver mankind, before mankind was: much less was there any Church without him before his coming in the flesh: yet we are happiest about the rest, to whom Christ was exhibited indeed, in this that he having suffered and overcome death for us, does now most effectually work in us by the power of his Spirit, to create in us faith, hope, and charity.

^{( k )} From everlasting.

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: 1Pe 1:1-25

1 He blesses God for his manifold spiritual graces;

10 shewing that the salvation in Christ is no news, but a thing prophesied of old;

13 and exhorts them accordingly to a godly conversation, forasmuch as they are now born anew by the word of God.

MHCC: 1Pe 1:17-25

Holy confidence in God as a Father, and awful fear of him as a Judge, agree together; and to regard God always as a Judge, makes him dear to us as a Father. If believers do evil, God will visit them with corrections. Then, let Christians not doubt God's faithfulness to his promises, nor give way to enslaving dread of his wrath, but let them reverence his holiness. The fearless professor is defenceless, and Satan takes him captive at his will; the desponding professor has no heart to avail himself of his advantages, and is easily brought to surrender. The price paid for man's redemption was the precious blood of Christ. Not only openly wicked, but unprofitable conversation is highly dangerous, though it may plead custom. It is folly to resolve, I will live and die in such a way, because my forefathers did so. God had purposes of special favour toward his people, long before he made manifest such grace unto them. But the clearness of light, the supports of faith, the power of ordinances, are all much greater since Christ came upon earth, than they were before. The comfort is, that being by faith made one with Christ, his present glory is an assurance that where he is we shall be also, Joh 14:3. The soul must be purified, before it can give up its own desires and indulgences. And the word of God planted in the heart by the Holy Ghost, is a means of spiritual life, stirring up to our duty, working a total change in the dispositions and affections of the soul, till it brings to eternal life. In contrast with the excellence of the renewed spiritual man, as born again, observe the vanity of the natural man. In his life, and in his fall, he is like grass, the flower of grass, which soon withers and dies away. We should hear, and thus receive and love, the holy, living word, and rather hazard all than lose it; and we must banish all other things from the place due to it. We should lodge it in our hearts as our only treasures here, and the certain pledge of the treasure of glory laid up for believers in heaven.

Matthew Henry: 1Pe 1:13-23

Here the apostle begins his exhortations to those whose glorious state he had before described, thereby instructing us that Christianity is a doctrine according to godliness, designed to make us not only wiser, but better.

I. He exhorts them to sobriety and holiness.

1. Wherefore gird up the loins of your mind, etc., 1Pe 1:13. As if he had said, " Wherefore, since you are so honoured and distinguished, as above, Gird up the loins of your mind. You have a journey to go, a race to run, a warfare to accomplish, and a great work to do; as the traveller, the racer, the warrior, and the labourer, gather in, and gird up, their long and loose garments, that they may be more ready, prompt, and expeditious in their business, so do you by your minds, your inner man, and affections seated there: gird them, gather them in, let them not hang loose and neglected about you; restrain their extravagances, and let the loins or strength and vigour of your minds be exerted in your duty; disengage yourselves from all that would hinder you, and go on resolutely in your obedience. Be sober, be vigilant against all your spiritual dangers and enemies, and be temperate and modest in eating, drinking, apparel, recreation, business, and in the whole of your behaviour. Be sober-mined also in opinion, as well as in practice, and humble in your judgment of yourselves." And hope to the end, for the grace that is to be brought to you at the revelation of Jesus Christ. Some refer this to the last judgment, as if the apostle directed their hope to the final revelation of Jesus Christ; but it seems more natural to take it, as it might be rendered, " Hope perfectly, or thoroughly, for the grace that is brought to you in or by the revelation of Jesus Christ; that is, by the gospel, which brings life and immortality to light. Hope perfectly, trust without doubting to that grace which is now offered to you by the gospel."Learn, (1.) The main work of a Christian lies in the right management of his heart and mind; the apostle's first direction is to gird up the loins of the mind. (2.) The best Christians have need to be exhorted to sobriety. These excellent Christians are put in mind of it; it is required of a bishop (1Ti 3:2), of aged men (Tit 2:2), the young women are to be taught it, and the young men are directed to be sober-minded, Tit 2:4, Tit 2:6. (3.) A Christian's work is not over as soon as he has got into a state of grace; he must still hope and strive for more grace. When he has entered the strait gate, he must still walk in the narrow way, and gird up the loins of his mind for that purpose. (4.) A strong and perfect trust in God's grace is very consistent with our best endeavours in our duty; we must hope perfectly, and yet gird up our loins, and address ourselves vigorously to the work we have to do, encouraging ourselves from the grace of Jesus Christ.

2. As obedient children, etc., 1Pe 1:14. These words may be taken as a rule of holy living, which is both positive - "You ought to live as obedient children, as those whom God hath adopted into his family, and regenerated by his grace;"and negative - "You must not fashion yourselves according to the former lusts, in your ignorance. "Or the words may be taken as an argument to press them to holiness from the consideration of what they now are, children of obedience, and what they were when they lived in lust and ignorance. Learn, (1.) The children of God ought to prove themselves to be such by their obedience to God, by their present, constant, universal obedience. (2.) The best of God's children have had their times of lust and ignorance; the time has been when the whole scheme of their lives, their way and fashion, was to accommodate and gratify their unlawful desires and vicious appetites, being grossly ignorant of God and themselves, of Christ and the gospel. (3.) Persons, when converted, differ exceedingly from what they were formerly. They are people of another fashion and manner from what they were before; their inward frame, behaviour, speech, and conversation, are much altered from what they were in times past. (4.) The lusts and extravagances of sinners are both the fruits and the signs of their ignorance.

3. But as he who hath called you, etc., 1Pe 1:15, 1Pe 1:16. Here is a noble rule enforced by strong arguments: Be you holy in all manner of conversation. Who is sufficient for this? And yet it is required in strong terms, and enforced by three reasons, taken from the grace of God in calling us, - from his command, it is written, - and from his example. Be you holy, for I am holy. Learn, (1.) The grace of God in calling a sinner is a powerful engagement to holiness. It is a great favour to be called effectually by divine grace out of a state of sin and misery into the possession of all the blessings of the new covenant; and great favours are strong obligations; they enable as well as oblige to be holy. (2.) Complete holiness is the desire and duty of every Christian. Here is a two-fold rule of holiness: [1.] It must, for the extent of it, be universal. We must be holy, and be so in all manner of conversation; in all civil and religious affairs, in every condition, prosperous or reverse; towards all people, friends and enemies; in all our intercourse and business still we must be holy. [2.] For the pattern of it. We must be holy, as God is holy: we must imitate him, though we can never equal him. He is perfectly, unchangeably, and eternally holy; and we should aspire after such a state. The consideration of the holiness of God should oblige as to the highest degree of holiness we can attain unto. (3.) The written word of God is the surest rule of a Christian's life, and by this rule we are commanded to be holy every way. (4.) The Old Testament commands are to be studied and obeyed in the times of the New Testament; the apostle, by virtue of a command delivered several times by Moses, requires holiness in all Christians.

4. If you call on the Father, etc., 1Pe 1:17. The apostle does not there express any doubt at all whether these Christians would call upon their heavenly Father, but supposes they would certainly do it, and from this argues with them to pass the time of their sojourning here in fear: "If you own the great God as a Father and a Judge, you ought to live the time of your sojourning here in his fear."Learn, (1.) All good Christians look upon themselves in this world as pilgrims and strangers, as strangers in a distant country, passing to another, to which they properly belong, Psa 39:12; Heb 11:13. (2.) The whole time of our sojourning here is to be passed in the fear of God. (3.) The consideration of God as a Judge is not improper for those who can truly call him Father. Holy confidence in God as a Father, an awful fear of him as a Judge, are very consistent; to regard God as a Judge is a singular means to endear him to us as a Father. (4.) The judgment of God will be without respect of persons: According to every man's work. No external relation to him will protect any; the Jew may call God Father and Abraham father, but God will not respect persons, nor favour their cause, from personal considerations, but judge them according to their work. The works of men will in the great day discover their persons; God will make all the world to know who are his by their works. We are obliged to faith, holiness, and obedience, and our works will be an evidence whether we have complied with our obligations or not.

5. The apostle having extorted them to pass the time of their sojourning in the fear of God from this consideration, that they called on the Father, he adds (1Pe 1:18) a second argument: Because or forasmuch as you were not redeemed with corruptible things, etc. Herein he puts them in mind, (1.) That they were redeemed, or bought back again, by a ransom paid to the Father. (2.) What the price paid for their redemption was: Not with corruptible things, as silver and gold, but with the precious blood of Christ. (3.) From what they were redeemed: From a vain conversation received by tradition. (4.) They knew this: Forasmuch as you know, and cannot pretend ignorance of this great affair. Learn, [1.] The consideration of our redemption ought to be a constant and powerful inducement to holiness, and the fear of God. [2.] God expects that a Christian should live answerably to what he knows, and therefore we have great need to be put in mind of what we already know, Psa 39:4. [3.] Neither silver nor gold, nor any of the corruptible things of this world, can redeem so much as one soul. They are often snares, temptations, and hindrances to man's salvation, but they can by no means purchase or procure it; they are corruptible, and therefore cannot redeem an incorruptible and immortal soul. [4.] The blood of Jesus Christ is the only price of man's redemption. The redemption of man is real, not metaphorical. We are bought with a price, and the price is equal to the purchase, for it is the precious blood of Christ; it is the blood of an innocent person, a lamb without blemish and without spot, whom the paschal lamb represented, and of an infinite person, being the Son of God, and therefore it is called the blood of God, Act 20:28. [5.] The design of Christ in shedding his most precious blood was to redeem us, not only from eternal misery hereafter, but from a vain conversation in this world. That conversation is vain which is empty, frivolous, trifling, and unserviceable to the honour of God, the credit of religion, the conviction of unbelievers, and the comfort and satisfaction of a man's own conscience. Not only the open wickedness, but the vanity and unprofitableness of our conversation are highly dangerous. [6.] A man's conversation may carry an appearance of devotion, and may plead antiquity, custom, and tradition, in its defence, and yet after all be a most vain conversation. The Jews had a deal to say from these heads, for all their formalities; and yet their conversation was so vain that only the blood of Christ could redeem them from it. Antiquity is no certain rule of verity, nor is it a wise resolution, "I will live and die in such a way, because my forefathers did so."

6. Having mentioned the price of redemption, the apostle goes on to speak of some things relating both to the Redeemer and the redeemed, 1Pe 1:20, 1Pe 1:21.

(1.) The Redeemer is further described, not only as a Lamb without spot, but as one, [1.] That was fore-ordained before the foundation of the world, fore-ordained or foreknown. When prescience is ascribed to God, it implies more than bare prospect or speculation. It imports an act of the will, a resolution that the thing shall be, Act 2:23. God did not only foreknow, but determine and decree, that his Son should die for man, and this decree was before the foundation of the world. Time and the world began together; before the commencement of time there was nothing but eternity. [2.] That was manifested in these last days for them. He was manifested or demonstrated to be that Redeemer whom God had fore-ordained. He was manifested by his birth, by his Father's testimony, and by his own works, especially by his resurrection from the dead, Rom 1:4. "This was done in these last times of the New Testament and of the gospel, for you, you Jews, you sinners, you afflicted ones; you have the comfort of the manifestation and appearance of Christ, if you believe on him."[3.] That was raised from the dead by the Father, who gave him glory. The resurrection of Christ, considered as an act of power, is common to all the three persons, but as an act of judgment it is peculiar to the Father, who as a Judge released Christ, raised him from the grave, and gave him glory, proclaimed him to all the world to be his Son by his resurrection from the dead, advanced him to heaven, crowned him with glory and honour, invested him with all power in heaven and earth, and glorified him with that glory which he had with God before the world was.

(2.) The redeemed are also described here by their faith and hope, the cause of which is Jesus Christ: " You do by him believe in God - by him as the author, encourager, support, and finisher of your faith; your faith and hope now may be in God, as reconciled to you by Christ the Mediator."

(3.) From all this we learn, [1.] The decree of God to send Christ to be a Mediator was from everlasting, and was a just and merciful decree, which yet does not at all excuse man's sin in crucifying him, Act 2:23. God had purposes of special favour towards his people long before he made any manifestations of such grace to them. [2.] Great is the happiness of the last times in comparison with what the former ages of the world enjoyed. The clearness of light, the supports of faith, the efficacy of ordinances, and the proportion of comforts - these are all much greater since the manifestation of Christ than they were before. Our gratitude and services should be suitable to such favours. [3.] The redemption of Christ belongs to none but true believers. A general impetration is asserted by some and denied by others, but none pretend to a general application of Christ's death for the salvation of all. Hypocrites and unbelievers will be ruined for ever, notwithstanding the death of Christ. [4.] God in Christ is the ultimate object of a Christian's faith, which is strongly supported by the resurrection of Christ, and the glory that did follow.

II. He exhorts them to brotherly love.

1. He supposes that the gospel had already had such an effect upon them as to purify their souls while they obeyed it through the Spirit, and that it had produced at least an unfeigned love of the brethren; and thence he argues with them to proceed to a higher degree of affection, to love one another with a pure heart fervently, 1Pe 1:22. Learn, (1.) It is not to be doubted but that every sincere Christian purifies his soul. The apostle takes this for granted: Seeing you have, etc. To purify the soul supposes some great uncleanness and defilement which had polluted it, and that this defilement is removed. Neither the Levitical purifications under the law, nor the hypocritical purifications of the outward man, can effect this. (2.) The word of God is the great instrument of a sinner's purification: Seeing you have purified your souls in obeying the truth. The gospel is called truth, in opposition to types and shadows, to error and falsehood. This truth is effectual to purify the soul, if it be obeyed, Joh 17:17. Many hear the truth, but are never purified by it, because they will not submit to it nor obey it. (3.) The Spirit of God is the great agent in the purification of man's soul. The Spirit convinces the soul of its impurities, furnishes those virtues and graces that both adorn and purify, such as faith (Act 15:9), hope (1Jo 3:3), the fear of God (Psa 34:9), and the love of Jesus Christ. The Spirit excites our endeavours, and makes them successful. The aid of the Spirit does not supersede our own industry; these people purified their own souls, but it was through the Spirit. (4.) The souls of Christians must be purified before they can so much as love one another unfeignedly. There are such lusts and partialities in man's nature that without divine grace we can neither love God nor one another as we ought to do; there is no charity but out of a pure heart. (5.) It is the duty of all Christians sincerely and fervently to love one another. Our affection to one another must be sincere and real, and it must be fervent, constant, and extensive.

2. He further presses upon Christians the duty of loving one another with a pure heart fervently from the consideration of their spiritual relation; they are all born again, not of corruptible seed, but incorruptible, etc. Hence we may learn, (1.) That all Christians are born again. The apostle speaks of it as what is common to all serious Christians, and by this they are brought into a new and a near relation to one another, they become brethren by their new birth. (2.) The word of God is the great means of regeneration, Jam 1:18. The grace of regeneration is conveyed by the gospel. (3.) This new and second birth is much more desirable and excellent than the first. This the apostle teaches by preferring the incorruptible to the corruptible seed. By the one we become the children of men, by the other the sons and daughters of the Most High. The word of God being compared to seed teaches us that though it is little in appearance, yet it is wonderful in operation, though it lies hid awhile, yet it grows up and produces excellent fruit at last. (4.) Those that are regenerate should love one another with a pure heart fervently. Brethren by nature are bound to love one another; but the obligation is double where there is a spiritual relation: they are under the same government, partake of the same privileges, and have embarked in the same interest. (5.) The word of God lives and abides for ever. This word is a living word, or a lively word, Heb 4:12. It is a means of spiritual life, to begin it and preserve in it, animating and exciting us in our duty, till it brings us to eternal life: and it is abiding; it remains eternally true, and abides in the hearts of the regenerate for ever.

Barclay: 1Pe 1:14-25

There are three great lines of approach in this passage and we look at them one by one.

(1) Jesus Christ Redeemer And Lord

It has great things to say about Jesus Christ as Redeemer and Lord.

(i) Jesus Christ is the emancipator, through whom men are delivered from the bondage of sin and death; he is the lamb without blemish and without spot (1Pe 1:19). When Peter spoke like that of Jesus, his mind was going back to two Old Testament pictures--to Isa 53 , with its picture of the Suffering Servant, through whose suffering the people were saved and healed and above all to the picture of the Passover Lamb (Exo 12:5). On that memorable night when they left the slavery of Egypt, the children of Israel were bidden to take a lamb and slay it and mark their doorposts with its blood; and, when the angel of death went through the land slaying the first-born sons of the Egyptians, he passed over every house so marked. In that picture of the Passover Lamb there are the twin thoughts of emancipation from slavery and deliverance from death. No matter how we interpret it, it cost the life and death of Jesus Christ to liberate men from their bondage to sin and to death.

(ii) Jesus Christ is the eternal purpose of God. It was before the creation of the world that he was predestined for the work which was given him to do (1Pe 1:20). Here is a great thought. Sometimes we tend to think of God as first Creator and then Redeemer, as having created the world and then, when things went wrong, finding a way to rescue it through Jesus Christ. But here we have the vision of a God who was Redeemer before he was Creator. His redeeming purpose was not an emergency measure to which he was compelled when things went wrong. It goes back before creation.

(iii) Peter has a connection of thought which is universal in the New Testament. Jesus Christ is not only the lamb who was slain; he is the resurrected and triumphant one to whom God gave glory. The New Testament thinkers seldom separate the Cross and the Resurrection; they seldom think of the sacrifice of Christ without thinking of his triumph. Edward Rogers, in That they might have Life, tells us that on one occasion he went carefully through the whole story of the Passion and the Resurrection in order to find a way to represent it dramatically, and goes on, "I began to feel that there was something subtly and tragically wrong in any emphasis on the agony of the Cross which dimmed the brightness of the Resurrection, any suggestion that it was endured pain rather than overcoming love which secured man's salvation." He asks where the eyes of the Christian turn at the beginning of Lent. What do we dominantly see? "Is it the darkness that covered the earth at noon, swirling round the pain and anguish of the Cross? Or is it the dazzling, mysterious early-morning brightness that shone from an empty tomb?" He continues, "There are forms of most earnest and devoted evangelical preaching and theological writing which convey the impression that somehow the Crucifixion has overshadowed the Resurrection and that the whole purpose of God in Christ was completed on Calvary. The truth, which is obscured only at grave spiritual peril, is that the Crucifixion cannot be interpreted and understood save in the light of the Resurrection."

Through his death Jesus emancipated men from their bondage to slavery and death; but through his Resurrection he gives them a life which is as glorious and indestructible as his own. Through this triumphant Resurrection we have faith and hope in God (1Pe 1:21).

In this passage we see Jesus the great emancipator at the cost of Calvary; We see Jesus the eternal redeeming purpose of God; We see Jesus the triumphant victor over death and the glorious Lord of life, the giver of life which death cannot touch and the bringer of hope which nothing can take away.

(2) The Christless Life

Peter picks out three characteristics of the Christless life.

(i) It is the life of ignorance (1Pe 1:14). The pagan world was always haunted by the unknowability of God; at best men could but grope after his mystery. "It is hard," said Plato, "to investigate and to find the framer and the father of the universe; and, if one did find him, it would be impossible to express him in terms which all could understand." Even for the philosopher, to find God is difficult; and for the ordinary man, to understand him is impossible. Aristotle spoke of God as the supreme cause, by all men dreamed of and by no man known. The ancient world did not doubt that there was a God or gods but it believed that such gods as there were were quite unknowable and totally uninterested in men and the universe. In a world without Christ God was mystery and power but never love; there was no one to whom men could raise their hands for help or their eyes for hope.

(ii) It is the life dominated by desire (1Pe 1:14). As we read the records of that world into which Christianity came we cannot but be appalled at the sheer fleshliness of life within it. There was desperate poverty at the lower end of the social scale; but at the top we read of banquets which cost thousands of pounds, where peacocks' brains and nightingales' tongues were served and where the Emperor Vitellius set on the table at one banquet two thousand fish and seven thousand birds. Chastity was forgotten. Martial speaks of a woman who had reached her tenth husband; Juvenal of a woman who had eight husbands in five years; and Jerome tells us that in Rome there was one woman who was married to her twenty-third husband, she herself being his twenty-first wife. Both in Greece and in Rome homosexual practices were so common that they had come to be looked on as natural. It was a world mastered by desire, whose aim was to find newer and wilder ways of gratifying its lusts.

(iii) It was a life characterized by futility. Its basic trouble was that it was not going anywhere. Catullus writes to his Lesbia pleading for the delights of love. He pleads with her to seize the moment with its fleeting joys. "Suns can rise and set again; but once our brief light is dead, there is nothing left but one long night from which we never shall awake." If a man was to die like a dog, why should he not live like a dog? Life was a futile business with a few brief years in the light of the sun and then an eternal nothingness. There was nothing for which to live and nothing for which to die. Life must always be futile when there is nothing on the other side of death.

(3) The Christ-filled Life

Peter finds three characteristics of the Christ-filled life and for each he finds compelling reasons.

(i) The Christ-filled life is the life of obedience and of holiness (1Pe 1:14-16). To be chosen by God is to enter, not only into great privilege, but also into great responsibility. Peter remembers the ancient command at the very heart of all Hebrew religion. It was God's insistence to his people that they must be holy because he was holy (Lev 11:44; Lev 19:2; Lev 20:7; Lev 20:26). The word for holy is hagios (40) whose root meaning is different. The Temple is hagios (40) because it is different from other buildings; the Sabbath is hagios (40) because it is different from other days; the Christian is hagios (40) because he is different from other men. The Christian is God's man by God's choice. He is chosen for a task in the world and for a destiny in eternity. He is chosen to live for God in time and with him in eternity. In the world he must obey his law and reproduce his life. There is laid on the Christian the task of being different.

(ii) The Christ-filled life is the life of reverence (1Pe 1:17-21). Reverence is the attitude of mind of the man who is always aware that he is in the presence of God. In these five verses Peter picks out three reasons for this Christian reverence. (a) The Christian is a sojourner in this world. Life for him is lived in the shadow of eternity; he thinks all the time, not only of where he is but also of where he is going. (b) He is going to God; true, he can call God Father, but that very God whom he calls Father is also he who judges every man with strict impartiality. The Christian is a man for whom there is a day of reckoning. He is a man with a destiny to win or to lose. Life in this world becomes of tremendous importance because it is leading to the life beyond. © The Christian must live life in reverence, because it cost so much, nothing less than the life and death of Jesus Christ. Since, then, life is of such surpassing value, it cannot be wasted or thrown away. No honourable man squanders what is of infinite human worth.

(iii) The Christ-filled life is the life of brotherly love. It must issue in a love for the brethren which is sincere and hearty and steadfast. The Christian is a man who is reborn, not of mortal, but of immortal seed. That may mean either of two things. It may mean that the remaking of the Christian is due to no human agency but to the agency of God, another way of saying what John said when he spoke of those "who were born, not of blood, nor of the will of man, but of God" (Joh 1:13). More probably it means that the Christian is remade by the entry into him of the seed of the word; and the picture is that of the Parable of the Sower (Mat 13:1-9). The quotation which Peter makes is from Isa 40:6-8and the second interpretation fits that better. However we take it, the meaning is that the Christian is remade. Because he is reborn, the life of God is in him. The great characteristic of the life of God is love, and so the Christian must show that divine love for men.

The Christian is the man who lives the Christ-filled life, the life that is different, never forgets the infinity of its obligation, and is made beautiful by the love of the God who gave it birth.

Constable: 1Pe 1:3--2:11

II. The Identity of Christians 1:3--2:10

The recurrence of the direct address, "Beloved," in 2:11 and 4:12 divides this letter into three main parts.

"The theme of the first part is the identity of the people of God established on the basis of the great salvation Christ has accomplished (and is accomplishing) on their behalf. Their identity as a chosen' people is affirmed programmatically in the address (1:1-2) and confirmed in the concluding pronouncements of 2:9-10 so as to form an inclusio. More broadly, there is an inclusion between the emphasis on the identity of Christians in the first section (1:1-12) and last section (2:1-10) of part one. In the first section, they are chosen' as heirs of divine salvation, while in the last their election is confirmed by the metaphor of priesthood."²⁵

Peter began the body of this epistle by reminding his readers of their identity as Christians. He did this to enable them to rejoice in the midst of present suffering. They could do this since they would ultimately experience glorification. The tone of this entire epistle is warm, pastoral, and full of encouragement.

Constable: 1Pe 1:13-25

B. Our New Way of Life 1:13-25

Peter wanted his readers to live joyfully in the midst of sufferings. Consequently he outlined his readers' major responsibilities to enable them to see their duty clearly so they could carry it out. These responsibilities were their duties to God, to other believers, and to the world.

The first sub-section of this epistle (vv. 3-12) stressed walking in hope. The second sub-section (vv. 13-25) emphasizes walking in holiness, reverence, and love. Peter held out several incentives to encourage his readers to walk appropriately: God's glory (v. 13), God's holiness (vv. 14-15), God's Word (v. 16), God's judgment (v. 17), and God's love (vv. 18-21).⁴² Peter presented the believer's duty to God as consisting of three things: a correct perspective, correct behavior, and correct attitude.

Constable: 1Pe 1:17-21

2. A life of reverence 1:17-21

Peter continued the exposition of Leviticus 19 that he began in verse 16.⁴⁸

"Peter's point is that if he and his readers have a special relationship to God by virtue of their calling and their new birth, then it is all the more urgent that they remember who he is in himself, and display the reverence that God deserves."⁴⁹

1:17 "If" means "since" here (a first class condition in Greek). We do call on God as our Father because He is our Father (Matt. 6:4, 6, 9; Luke 11:2; Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Nevertheless He is also the Judge of all, and He judges impartially, not on the basis of externals but on the basis of reality. Since we must all stand before God for an evaluation of our works, we should live now accordingly (Rom. 14:10-12; 2 Cor. 5:10).

"Each of us will give an account of his works, and each will receive the appropriate reward. This is a family judgment,' the Father dealing with His beloved children. The Greek word translated judgeth carries the meaning to judge in order to find something good.'"⁵⁰

It is good for us to maintain respect (fear) for God as our Judge since He has this power over us. Again Peter reminded us that our earthly life of trials and suffering is only a brief sojourn.

1:18-19 The Greek word for "redeemed" (elytrothete) means to ransom, to free by paying a ransom price (cf. Mark 10:45; Luke 24:21; Tit. 2:14).

"He [Peter] has some of the most noteworthy statements in the New Testament about the atoning value of Christ's suffering."⁵¹

"Any representative first-century church would have three kinds of members: slaves, freemen, and freed men. People became slaves in various ways--through war, bankruptcy, sale by themselves, sale by parents, or by birth. Slaves normally could look forward to freedom after a certain period of service and often after the payment of a price. Money to buy his freedom could be earned by the slave in his spare time or by doing more than his owner required. Often the price could be provided by someone else. By the payment of a price (lytron, antilytron), a person could be set free from his bondage or servitude. A freed man was a person who formerly had been a slave but was now redeemed."⁵²

As the death of the Passover lamb liberated the Israelites from bondage in Egypt, so the death of Jesus Christ frees us from the bondage of sin (cf. Exod. 12:5). In speaking of redemption Peter always emphasized our freedom from a previously sinful lifestyle to live a changed life here and now.⁵³ Jesus Christ's life, represented by the blood, is of infinitely greater value than any mere metal, as precious as that metal may be (cf. Acts 3:6; 8:20). "Futile" means vain or powerless, and it suggests that many of Peter's readers were indeed Gentiles. We would normally expect this in view of where they lived (v. 1). This word better describes the lifestyle of an unsaved Gentile than that of an unsaved Jew (cf. v. 14).

1:20-21 The Fall did not take God by surprise. He already knew what He would do in view of it and Who would do it. We have two good reasons why we can come to God: what Christ did for us, and what God did for Christ for what Christ did for us. Our attitude toward God, therefore, can and should be both reverential (v. 17) and confident.

So far ". . . the ethical impact of the epistle barely begins to make itself felt. The call to action and to a holy and reverent life is general rather than specific. The imperatives of hope and of godly fear have more to do with eschatological expectations than with ethics, and more to do with the readers' relationship to God than with their relationships to each other or to their pagan neighbors."⁵⁴

College: 1Pe 1:1-25

1 PETER 1

I. THE GREETING (1:1-2)

¹ Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ,

To God's elect, strangers in the world, scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia, ² who have been chosen according to the foreknowledge of God the Father, through the sanctifying work of the Spirit, for obedience to Jesus Christ and sprinkling by his blood:

Grace and peace be yours in abundance.

Peter begins his letter with a Christian adaptation of the common style of Greek letters in his day. Most letters began with "X (the sender) to Y (the recipient), greeting." Peter adds Christian descriptions of himself and his recipients, and he replaces the word "greeting" with a Christian adaptation. Similar Christian adaptations of the opening of letters are well-known through the writings of the apostle Paul. Compare also the openings of 2 Peter, 2-3 John, and Jude.

The descriptive phrases that make up most of this greeting are not just ornamental. They introduce themes that will be important for the letter as a whole. By the end of the first two verses Peter has established his authority, reminded his readers of their election and sanctification, framed his readers' lives with the metaphor of living as strangers in this world, and summoned them to obedience.

1:1 Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ,

Peter is the Greek translation of the Aramaic word Cephas, a name given to Simon by Jesus (Matt 16:18). Peter, like Cephas, means "rock." We have no evidence that it was used as a personal name before Jesus used it for Simon.

Peter's identification of himself as "an apostle" is similar to the opening words of nine of Paul's letters. Second Peter also opens with a reference to Peter's apostleship. In many of Paul's letters and in 2 Peter, this opening claim seems to have a defensive nuance in light of the letter's subsequent indications that the author's authority was disputed by some. First Peter shows no signs of Peter's needing to defend himself to his audience. Nevertheless, the term apostle is no doubt used to highlight his apostolic authority.

To God's elect,

The Greek text does not include the word "God's," but the translation is a fair one since the clear implication is that God did the choosing. The word Peter uses has a rich biblical heritage. The Jews found their identity and the basis of their lives in the fact that they were God's chosen people (see, e.g., Deut 7:6-8). The New Testament frequently identifies Christians as elect or chosen. In 1 Peter 2:9 Peter will identify Christians as "a chosen people," using the same word ejklektov" ( eklektos ) here translated "elect." The same word is also used of Christ in 2:4 and 6 (where it is translated "chosen"). Christians are chosen or elect through the chosen or elect One, Jesus Christ. The idea that Christians are God's chosen people is fundamental to Peter's thinking, as is apparent in 1:13-2:10. Peter is already laying the foundation for his appeals to these Christians to live up to their holy calling.

strangers in the world,

This phrase translates parepivdhmo" (parepidçmos), the second word Peter uses to describe his audience. Although this word is not a common description of Christians like the word "elect," it is found outside of 1 Peter in Hebrews 11:13. Peter uses it again in 1 Peter 2:11. Translated "exiles" by the NRSV, it refers to people who live outside of their homeland, whether by force or by preference. The translation "strangers in the world" rightly indicates that Peter is not thinking of his audience as literally aliens whose homeland is outside of Asia Minor, but rather is using the term metaphorically. The writer of Hebrews explains the idea: "They [the Old Testament patriarchs] confessed they were strangers and foreigners on the earth . . . they desire a better country, that is, a heavenly one" (Heb 11:13-16, NRSV). Paul uses the same basic idea in Philippians 3:20: "But our citizenship is in heaven." The idea that Christians are citizens of heaven and live as foreigners on the earth is an important concept that Peter will build upon.

scattered

By using "exiles" for the previous word, the NRSV is able to translate this term more precisely as "Dispersion." Peter's addressees are "exiles of the Dispersion." The term "Dispersion" or "Diaspora" was a technical term with a long heritage among the Jews. It referred to the Jews who were scattered or dispersed from their homeland Israel into the various countries of the world. It is used in this literal sense in John 7:35. However, 1 Peter 1:1 and James 1:1 use it metaphorically for Christians. In 1 Peter it is closely related to the term translated "strangers in the world." Christians are part of a metaphorical "Diaspora." They live away from their true homeland, heaven.

As discussed in the Introduction to this commentary, some interpreters, especially in the past, have taken this term to mean that Peter specifically addresses Jewish Christians, since only Jews would be part of the literal Diaspora. However, several verses (e.g., 4:3-4) indicate that Peter's audience includes Gentile Christians. Most contemporary interpreters rightly take this term in a metaphorical sense. It is important for modern readers to understand this and to see that we, too, are "exiles of the Dispersion."

throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia,

These five regions cover the majority of ancient Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Three of them - Pontus, Cappadocia, and Asia - are listed in Acts 2:9 as the homelands of some of those who heard Peter preach on the day of Pentecost. This may provide a clue to how these churches originated. We have no knowledge of Peter traveling in these regions, and it is in any event unlikely that he had covered much of this area of some 300,000 square miles.

The most popular hypothesis concerning the order of these provinces is the suggestion of Hort that it was determined by the probable route of a letter carrier, who began at a port on the Black Sea and circled clockwise through the regions.

1:2 who have been chosen according to the foreknowledge of God the Father,

"Who have been chosen" is a second translation of the very same word previously translated "God's elect." Although the Greek word appears only in verse 1, the NIV repeats it in verse 2 to preserve its link to the phrase "according to the foreknowledge of God."

The idea is not only that God knew in advance that there would be a chosen people, but more specifically that he purposed in advance to bring them into being. This is suggested by the parallel in 1 Peter 1:20, which uses the verb form of the word "foreknowledge" to speak of Christ as "chosen (= foreknown) before the creation of the world." God did not only fore-see that he would send Christ, but he fore-planned it. That very plan entailed a plan to create a people around Christ. His "fore-knowledge" involved "fore-planning" or "fore-purposing." The predestination spoken of here is a corporate predestining of a people called into being by their response to Christ. God foreknew that he would send Christ and save those who accepted him.

The term Father will be especially important later (see verse 17).

through the sanctifying work of the Spirit,

This phrase indicates the means by which the election of Christians occurs: they are set apart by the Spirit. The idea that the Holy Spirit sanctifies or sets people apart as God's people is a common New Testament idea. Second Thessalonians 2:13 provides a nice parallel to Peter's combination of election and sanctification: "from the beginning God chose you to be saved through the sanctifying work of the Spirit . . ."

The concept of sanctification can be understood by comparing the sanctification of people to the sanctification of the temple or its utensils. A sanctified building, lampstand, or pot is designated to be used only in service to God. A sanctified person has also been set apart for service. The Holy Spirit both marks us for God's service and empowers us to render that service.

for obedience to Jesus Christ and sprinkling by his blood:

The key phrases in verse 2 relate back to the word "chosen" (or "elect"): Christians are chosen according to the foreknowledge of God, chosen through the sanctifying work of the Spirit, chosen to be obedient, and chosen to be sprinkled with the blood of Jesus.

The people whom God chose and set apart are to be obedient. This will be a major theme of Peter's letter, which repeatedly reminds the readers of what God has done for them and then summons obedience on that basis.

The phrase "sprinkling by his blood" reflects the language and ideas of Exodus 24:7-8: "Then he [Moses] took the Book of the Covenant and read it to the people. They responded, 'We will do everything the LORD has said; we will obey.' Moses then took the blood, sprinkled it on the people and said, 'This is the blood of the covenant that the LORD has made with you in accordance with all these words.'" In this text, which portrays the ratification of God's covenant with Israel, the people declare their commitment to obedience and then Moses sprinkles sacrificial blood on them to ratify their covenant. Peter also refers to obedience and the sprinkling of blood. He probably chose this unusual language to remind them that they are God's covenant people. Their covenant is ratified by the sprinkling of blood more precious than that of bulls and goats, the blood of Christ (compare the use of Exodus 24 in Heb 9:13-22).

Grace and peace be yours in abundance.

At this point in the typical Greek letter the sender used the word "greeting" - in Greek caivrein ( chairein ). Paul and Peter substituted the word "grace" - in Greek cavri" ( charis - note the similarity to chairein ). "Grace and peace be yours in abundance" is an adaptation of the usual style, similar to various Christian substitutions for the word "sincerely" near the end of modern letters. Peter's version, using the verb translated "be yours in abundance" (see also 2 Pet 1:2 and Jude 2), is slightly different from Paul's.

Adaptations of common letter forms tend to have more meaning than simple repetition. The content of the letter will show that Peter believes his readers truly need God's grace and peace.

II. A CALL TO BE HOLY (1:3-2:10)

A. THE HOPE OF SALVATION (1:3-9)

³ Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ! In his great mercy he has given us new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, ⁴ and into an inheritance that can never perish, spoil or fade - kept in heaven for you, ⁵ who through faith are shielded by God's power until the coming of the salvation that is ready to be revealed in the last time. ⁶ In this you greatly rejoice, though now for a little while you may have had to suffer grief in all kinds of trials. ⁷ These have come so that your faith - of greater worth than gold, which perishes even though refined by fire - may be proved genuine and may result in praise, glory and honor when Jesus Christ is revealed. ⁸ Though you have not seen him, you love him; and even though you do not see him now, you believe in him and are filled with an inexpressible and glorious joy, ⁹ for you are receiving the goal of your faith, the salvation of your souls.

In some Greek letters the next item following the greeting is a sentence referring to the writer's prayer to a god (or the gods) on behalf of the health or welfare of the recipient. Paul adapted this part of the letter form into a significant item in most of his letters. He describes his thanksgiving to God and his petitions to God in ways that often introduce major themes of the rest of the letter. Similarly, Peter's opening praise to God is such a basic part of the letter that most interpreters even consider it to be the beginning of the body of the letter. First Peter 1:3-12 reminds the readers of the great hope of salvation that they have received and thus lays the foundation for the appeals that begin in verse 13.

1:3 Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ!

Verses 3-5 are the heart of the section encompassing verses 3-12. They describe the great hope of salvation that God has provided. Verses 6-9 then encourage the readers to persevere in trials by keeping this hope in mind. And verses 10-12 reemphasize its great value.

As Peter begins to describe the hope of salvation he bursts forth in praise. The exact statement "Praise be to [or blessed be] the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ" is also found in 2 Corinthians 1:3 and Ephesians 1:3. In all three cases it introduces a recounting of God's blessings.

In his great mercy he has given us new birth into a living hope

God's great mercy has been demonstrated by our new birth into a living hope. Peter's use of the new birth imagery is illuminated by 1 Peter 1:23 and 2:2. The seed which begets us to a new birth is the word of God (1:23; cf. 1:25). The result is that we become like newborn infants (2:2). The image of a new birth is also found elsewhere in the New Testament as a metaphor for what happens when one becomes a Christian (John 3:5; Titus 3:5).

The focus of the sentence found in verses 3-5 is the "living hope," which is further described in verse 4 as an inheritance and in verse 5 as the coming salvation. It is the hope of eternal salvation. By describing it as "living" Peter means that it is not vain or foolish, an idle wish. Like the "living and enduring word of God" the Christian's hope is based on something that "stands forever" (cf. vv. 23-25) and will not fade away (cf. v. 4). It is a foundation on which one can build a life.

through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead,

God gave us new birth to this living hope through the resurrection of Jesus from the dead. As Paul put it, "If Christ has not been raised, our preaching is useless and so is your faith. . . . But Christ has indeed been raised from the dead, the first fruits of those who have fallen asleep. . . . Thanks be to God! He gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ" (1 Cor 15:14,20,57). Christ's resurrection assures our eventual victory over death. It is the basis of our living hope.

1:4 and into an inheritance that can never perish, spoil or fade - kept in heaven for you,

The living hope of Christians is further defined as an inheritance. Christians, as children of God, receive an inheritance from him. The comparison of salvation to an inheritance is also found in Acts 20:32; Galatians 3:18; Colossians 3:24; Ephesians 1:14,18. Even in the Old Testament, the concept of an inheritance is (on rare occasion) used for one's eternal reward (e.g., Dan 12:13: "at the end of the days you will rise to receive your allotted inheritance"). The New Testament picks up on this usage.

Our inheritance is "imperishable, undefiled, and unfading" (NRSV translation). In Greek these three adjectives have a high degree of alliteration. They emphasize that the inheritance Christians await is not subject to doubt. It is eternal. It is being kept in heaven by God himself.

Peter is prone to contrast the perishable with the imperishable. In verse 18 perishable things like gold and silver are set in contrast to the precious blood of Christ. In verses 23-25 he observes that all men perish, but the word of God is imperishable. In 3:3-4 he says women should not adorn themselves with fine clothing, braided hair, and jewels (things that perish), but with the imperishable beauty of a gentle and quiet spirit.

1:5 who through faith are shielded by God's power

The inheritance is not the only thing God is watching over. While he "keeps" our inheritance, he "shields" or "protects" (NRSV) us until we receive it. The word translated "shield" has military overtones. The idea of God "shielding" his people is common in the Old Testament (e.g., Gen 15:1; Ps 115:9-11). God is using his power to guard Christians until they receive their inheritance. Christians appropriate that protection through faith.

until the coming of the salvation that is ready to be revealed in the last time.

The "salvation that is ready to be revealed in the last time" is a more literal way of speaking of the "inheritance . . . kept in heaven." It is being kept in heaven now, but it will be revealed at the end of time. This salvation is the object of the Christian's living hope. Peter wants to focus his readers' attention on it in order to encourage them to persevere in their present circumstances.

1:6 In this you greatly rejoice,

The antecedent of "this" is not clear. In the Greek text the word "this" is either masculine or neuter, whereas the possible antecedents "hope," "inheritance," and "salvation" are all feminine. One could translate "in whom," treating God as the antecedent. The most common approach is to see the antecedent as the general content of the preceding two verses: that is, "in this" means in view of what has been said about the Christian's hope, inheritance, and salvation.

In view of what they have to look forward to, Christians rejoice even when suffering. The verb "rejoice" (ajgallia'sqe, agalliasthe ) may be an imperative, as in the NRSV footnote, "Rejoice in this." Most translations and commentators treat it as an indicative, but in either case the sense of what is being said is not simply to describe Christian behavior, but to summon Christians to a certain behavior. Peter is providing a basis on which Christians can learn to deal with trials and even face them with rejoicing.

though now for a little while you may have had to suffer grief in all kinds of trials.

At this point we begin to learn about why Peter wrote. The Christians of Asia Minor had suffered, and Peter wrote to encourage them to steadfastness (cf. 5:12). As the letter progresses we will learn that in this particular case the various trials of these Christians are not from things like natural catastrophes or plagues, but were persecutions inflicted by their pagan neighbors. These Christians are specifically suffering for their faith and are under constant pressure to be unfaithful.

Peter has described the salvation they await as imperishable and unfading. By contrast their trials are "for a little while." The idea is not that they only last a few days, months, or even years. "A little while" is in contrast to eternity. See 5:10, Romans 8:18, and especially 2 Corinthians 4:17 ("For our light and momentary troubles are achieving for us an eternal glory that far outweighs them all").

The trials that these Christians have endured have a notion of necessity: they "have had to suffer." Verse 7 seems to indicate that they "had" to suffer in order to prove their faith genuine. These sufferings, brought about by evil people, were allowed by God for a purpose.

1:7 These have come so that your faith - of greater worth than gold, which perishes even though refined by fire - may be proved genuine and may result in praise, glory and honor when Jesus Christ is revealed.

The persecutors intend these trials for evil, but God intends them for good (cf. Gen 50:20). The potential results of such trials are analogous to the process of refining gold. Gold ore is smelted in order to remove the impurities and expose the precious metal. Trials serve to refine the Christian and test his or her faithfulness. This analogy is common in the Old Testament: e.g., Psalm 66:10 ("For you, O God, tested us; you refined us like silver") and Zechariah 13:9 ("I [God] will refine them like silver and test them like gold").

Peter's use of the smelting analogy adds an emphasis on the importance of faithfulness. Gold, however valuable it may be, is a perishable commodity, doomed to perish with the earth. By contrast, genuine faith endures for eternity and results in praise, glory, and honor.

1:8 Though you have not seen him, you love him; and even though you do not see him now, you believe in him and are filled with an inexpressible and glorious joy,

This verse continues the themes of faith and joy in the face of suffering. Peter has just referred (v. 7) to the coming time of praise and glory and honor when they will see Jesus revealed. But at the present his readers have not seen and do not now see Jesus, and their current experience is one of suffering. Peter reminds them that even without sight Christians love and believe in Jesus and thus may be filled with joy. Peter would agree with Paul's comment that "We live by faith, not by sight" (2 Cor 5:7). He would also agree with Paul's statement before and after that one that nevertheless "we are always confident" (2 Cor 5:6,8). Although they had not seen him, the Christians of Asia Minor believed in and loved Jesus. They therefore could rejoice even now in the midst of their plight.

1:9 for you are receiving the goal of your faith, the salvation of your souls.

The context of verses 3-8 suggests strongly that the salvation here envisioned is the same as the inheritance kept in heaven (v. 4), the salvation ready to be revealed at the last time (v. 5), that which will happen when Jesus is revealed (v. 7). Nevertheless the verb "receive" (komizovmenoi, komizomenoi ) is in the present tense. They are receiving this salvation now. How can this be true? Verse 8 provides an answer: they believe in what they do not see. Achtemeier rightly explains, "The sense is that Christians now obtain by faith what they will only fully enter into at the end . . ." By faith they can rejoice even now.

The phrase "of your souls" is commonly misunderstood. The ancient Greeks and many modern Christians thought of the soul as a spiritual component separate from the body, which leaves the body at death. The ancient Jews and first century Christians thought more holistically about human beings and thought in terms of a resurrection of the whole person, including the body, which will then be transformed into a spiritual body (cf. 1 Cor 15). Peter's use of the word "soul" refers to the person, not a part of the person separable from the body. See, for example, 1 Peter 3:20 where Peter says that in the ark eight "souls" were saved.

B. THE GLORY OF THIS SALVATION (1:10-12)

¹⁰ Concerning this salvation, the prophets, who spoke of the grace that was to come to you, searched intently and with the greatest care, ¹¹ trying to find out the time and circumstances to which the Spirit of Christ in them was pointing when he predicted the sufferings of Christ and the glories that would follow. ¹² It was revealed to them that they were not serving themselves but you, when they spoke of the things that have now been told you by those who have preached the gospel to you by the Holy Spirit sent from heaven. Even angels long to look into these things.

In verses 3-9 Peter called his readers' attention to the great hope of salvation which they had received and emphasized how this salvation was a cause for rejoicing even in the midst of suffering. In this next paragraph, verses 10-12, Peter continues to emphasize the hope of salvation. His primary goal in these verses is to highlight its greatness by observing that the ancient prophets and even angels longed to hear about this salvation which is now known to his readers.

1:10 Concerning this salvation, the prophets, who spoke of the grace that was to come to you, searched intently and with the greatest care,

According to Peter the living hope, the inheritance kept in heaven, the salvation which will be revealed when Jesus Christ is revealed - this salvation was of great interest to the ancient prophets of the Old Testament. It is commonplace in the New Testament to argue that the prophets spoke about the grace that would be revealed in Christ. Peter adds that they longed to know more.

Grace is a key concept in 1 Peter (as in all of the Bible). It first appears in the greeting "Grace and peace be yours in abundance" (v. 2). Most of its occurrences are to remind Peter's audience of what God has done for them through the gospel (1:10,13; 3:7; 5:10,12). At the end of the book, in his statement of purpose, he says he wants to encourage them to stand fast in "the true grace of God" (5:12).

1:11 trying to find out the time and circumstances to which the Spirit of Christ in them was pointing

There is some disagreement about how to render the Greek words here translated "the time and circumstances." The NRSV translates "the person or time." The arguments are technical and the distinction is not of great importance. They wanted to know more details than they were given.

The phrase "Spirit of Christ" occurs here and in Romans 8:9. A similar phrase "Spirit of Jesus Christ" occurs in Philippians 1:19. In Romans 8:9 the Spirit of Christ seems to be equivalent to the Spirit of God and the Holy Spirit. This is probably Peter's intent, although it is possible to understand it to mean "the Spirit, namely, Christ." In this latter case Peter would be referring to Christ himself inspiring the prophets.

when he predicted the sufferings of Christ and the glories that would follow.

What the Spirit led the prophets to speak of was the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glories. That the prophets spoke of the coming Messiah's suffering and death was unheard of in pre-Christian Judaism, but a common understanding in early Christianity (see, e.g., Luke 24:25-26,44-45). Luke 24:26 also says the prophets spoke about how the Messiah would "then enter his glory." Peter's use of the plural "glories" may refer to different phases of Jesus' being glorified: resurrection, ascension, enthronement with God, second coming. The prophets wanted to know more details about these things.

This is the first reference in 1 Peter to the sufferings of Christ. There will be several more. As Peter seeks to encourage these Christians to be faithful in the face of suffering, he repeatedly reminds them of Christ's sufferings (1:18-19; 2:4,6-8; 2:21-25; 3:18; 4:1,13; 5:1).

1:12 It was revealed to them that they were not serving themselves but you,

The Spirit did not grant all the prophets' requests, revealing to them that these prophecies were not primarily for their benefit but for those to come. Peter's readers are among the privileged people whom the prophets served and who know what the prophets longed to know.

when they spoke of the things that have now been told you by those who have preached the gospel to you by the Holy Spirit sent from heaven.

The things the prophets longed to know more about are now made known in the preaching of the gospel. They include the whole story of the sufferings, death, and subsequent glories of Christ. "By the Holy Spirit" underscores the divine origin of the message of the gospel. The same Spirit that inspired the prophets to predict these things now lies behind the contemporary proclamation that they have happened. The divine origin of the message is highlighted by the divine origin of the Spirit who empowers it. He has been sent from heaven.

Even angels long to look into these things.

Peter's primary point here is clear: the salvation that Christians have heard about is so great that not only did the prophets long to hear more about it, but the angels also have an intense interest. Nevertheless, Peter's statement is tantalizingly brief. His choice of the present tense seems unexpected. Do the angels even now not know what human beings know? Does the present tense here actually refer to the angels' former longings? Does the translation "long to look" wrongly imply an unfulfilled longing? Selwyn is perhaps correct in suggesting that Peter speaks of the angels' intense interest, not their lack of knowledge. He cites Charles Wesley's lines: "Angels in fix'd amazement /Around our altars hover, /With eager gaze /Adore the grace /Of our Eternal Lover."

C. BE HOLY IN ALL YOU DO (1:13-16)

¹³ Therefore, prepare your minds for action; be self-controlled; set your hope fully on the grace to be given you when Jesus Christ is revealed. ¹⁴ As obedient children, do not conform to the evil desires you had when you lived in ignorance. ¹⁵ But just as he who called you is holy, so be holy in all you do; ¹⁶ for it is written: "Be holy, because I am holy." ^a

^a 16 Lev. 11:44,45; 19:2; 20:7

Peter has focused his readers' attention on the hope of salvation which God has graciously provided through Christ. He has implicitly summoned them to face their trials with rejoicing. Now he turns to explicit imperatives. "Therefore" (diov, dio , v. 13), because they have such a great hope of salvation, they must live holy lives.

1:13 Therefore, prepare your minds for action;

"Prepare your minds for action" is literally, as in the NRSV footnote, "Gird up the loins of your mind." It is based upon the fact that in Peter's time the common attire was a garment that reached the ankle or knees and had to be tucked into the belt at the waist when engaged in physical labor. In modern terms we might say "Roll up the shirt sleeves of your mind." In light of what God has done for us, we need to get serious about getting down to work for him.

be self-controlled;

This exhortation is repeated in 4:7 and 5:8. The verb nhvfw (nçphô) is similar to the English "be sober." Literally it means to refrain from drunkenness, but it was often (perhaps always in the New Testament) used in a figurative sense to refer to being "free from every form of mental and spiritual 'drunkenness', from excess, passion, rashness, confusion, etc.," that is, to be "well-balanced, self-controlled." As verse 14 indicates, these Christians had once lived pagan lives following evil desires. Peter will later say they "have spent enough time in the past doing what pagans choose to do - living in debauchery, lust, drunkenness, orgies, carousing and detestable idolatry" (4:3). They now need self-control.

set your hope fully on the grace to be given you when Jesus Christ is revealed.

Verses 3-12 have elaborated on "the grace to be given you when Jesus Christ is revealed." They await a glorious inheritance kept in heaven for them. They need to make that hope central to their lives and let it provide incentive for holy living. This is the second of three times Peter refers to "when Jesus Christ is revealed" (1:7,13; 4:13).

1:14 As obedient children, do not conform to the evil desires you had when you lived in ignorance.

This verse is the first of several verses that indicate Peter is addressing former pagans. The Bible frequently refers to Gentiles as those who are ignorant of God and his will (e.g., Gal 4:8-9; Eph 4:18). A later verse will specify some of the desires they used to guide their lives: lust, drunkenness, orgies, carousing, etc. (4:13). Now they must no longer live by their desires. They must live like obedient children. Peter has already twice spoken of God as our Father (1:2-3) and has observed that he "has given us a new birth." Christians must live as God's children and be obedient to their Father.

1:15 But just as he who called you is holy, so be holy in all you do; 1:16 for it is written: "Be holy, because I am holy."

These two verses crown Peter's exhortation with a familiar Old Testament theme. The verse cited in verse 16 could be any of several thematic verses in Leviticus (11:44-45; 19:2; 20:7,26), although Leviticus 19:2, part of the "Holiness Code" of Leviticus 17-26, is the most exact equivalent. Like obedient children, Christians are to imitate their Father. The preceding verse, which defines the opposite of being holy as conforming to evil desires, indicates that Peter is focusing on the moral or spiritual aspects of being holy. Some aspects of God's holiness, for example, qualities of deity such as his omnipotence, cannot be imitated by human beings. But his absolute purity of thought and action may and must be imitated, however pitiful our attempts may be. In a sense, every thought and behavior recommended by 1 Peter is a part of what it means to be holy (a{gio", hagios ).

The call to holiness is a basic concept of 1 Peter, which has already surfaced in verse 2 ("the sanctifying [from the same Greek root] work of the Spirit"). It is prominent in the descriptions of Christians as a holy temple, a holy priesthood, and a holy people in 2:4-10. Christians are to live as persons dedicated to God's service.

The phrase "in all you do" paraphrases an expression that might be more literally translated "in all your way of life." The term "way of life" appears here for the first of several occurrences in Peter's writings: 1 Peter 1:18; 2:12; 3:1,2,16; 2 Peter 2:7; 3:11. Peter is particularly fond of this word, which occurs only five times in the rest of the New Testament. The Christian's "way of life" should be characterized by holiness (1:15; 2 Pet 3:11). Their former "way of life" was characterized by futility (1:18).

D. LIVE IN REVERENT FEAR AS THOSE REDEEMED

BY CHRIST'S BLOOD (1:17-21)

¹⁷ Since you call on a Father who judges each man's work impartially, live your lives as strangers here in reverent fear. ¹⁸ For you know that it was not with perishable things such a silver or gold that you were redeemed from the empty way of life handed down to you from your forefathers, ¹⁹ but with the precious blood of Christ, a lamb without blemish or defect. ²⁰ He was chosen before the creation of the world, but was revealed in these last times for your sake. ²¹ Through him you believe in God, who raised him from the dead and glorified him, and so your faith and hope are in God.

Peter continues his appeal for a holy lifestyle. In 1:22-2:3 he will provide more specifics of what that entails. In the present paragraph he continues to motivate. He uses several motivations. Christians need to be holy because God will sit in judgment (v. 17). They need to remember their homeland in heaven and treat their current situation as a temporary sojourn in a foreign land (v. 17). They need to recognize that their inherited lifestyle was futile (v. 18). God is worthy of their trust, having raised Jesus from the dead (v. 21). And the key motivator of these verses is that they need to remember that they were redeemed from their empty way of life at tremendous cost, the death of Christ.

1:17 Since you call on a Father who judges each man's work impartially,

The God whom Christians call upon and turn to as their Father will sit in judgment over all the earth. His judgment will be based upon each person's actions and it will be impartial. The fact that Christians are God's children (cf. v. 14) is not an excuse for unfaithfulness.

The idea that God will judge each one according to his actions is a repeated biblical theme (e.g., Ps 62:12; Prov 24:12; Rom 2:6; Rev 22:12). By speaking of judgment based on each man's work, Peter does not intend to nullify grace, which he has already introduced and will turn back to almost immediately. His perspective may be understood by extending Peter's analogy of father and child. Obedient children are not perfect children, but they may expect grace for what they do wrong. Rebellious, disobedient children are another matter. Certain partial and biased fathers may tolerate rebellion, but the impartial father will not treat a rebellious child in the same way as an obedient one.

live your lives as strangers here in reverent fear.

Peter does not hesitate to use the motivation of fear of God's wrath (cf. 2:17; 3:2,15). It is difficult to describe the precise nuance the word for "fear" (fovbo", phobos ) ought to have when one speaks of the fear of God that is appropriate for the Christian. We do not want to overlook 1 John 4:18 "one who fears is not made perfect in love." But neither should we overlook the many passages which use the same Greek noun or verb to speak of appropriate Christian responses to God (e.g., Acts 9:31; 2 Cor 7:1; Phil 2:12). The NIV struggles with this issue in 1 Peter, translating the same word "reverent fear" here, "reverence" in 3:2, and "respect" in 3:15. Again the analogy of a parent-child relationship may be helpful. There are appropriate and inappropriate senses in which a child may fear a parent. The Christian should not live in fear of condemnation, but should have confidence before God. Nevertheless, we should live in what the NIV calls "reverent fear." Furthermore, we should realize that if we were to turn back to the world, we would return to "a fearful expectation of judgment and of raging fire" (Heb 10:27).

The term for "stranger" which Peter introduces here differs from the term translated "strangers in the world" in verse 1. It is, however, a similar term and both are juxtaposed in 2:11. As we shall see at that point, Peter's juxtaposition may reflect Genesis 23:4 in which the Septuagint translation has Abraham use both terms to describe himself as an alien among the Hittites: "I am an alien and a stranger among you." To some extent the two terms were used with somewhat different nuances. The term used in 1:1 could be used for "sojourner," with connotations of a temporary stay. The juxtaposition of both terms in 1 Peter 2:11 and the use of the overlapping concept of the Dispersion in 1:1 suggest that Peter was not interested in such distinctions, but simply wanted to express the idea that Christians live upon the earth as foreigners whose true citizenship is in heaven. Later Christian adaptations of this idea have often used the term "pilgrim."

1:18 For you know that it was not with perishable things such as silver or gold that you were redeemed

Of the various motivational themes introduced in this paragraph, the most central is the theme of redemption by the blood of Christ. The New Testament frequently portrays Jesus' death as a redemption, a practice Jesus himself began (Mark 10:45). In our context Peter contrasts the redemption bought with Christ's blood with common practices of redeeming persons or things by payment of money. Ransoms were paid to purchase freedom for prisoners of war. A purchase price could be paid to free a slave. The Septuagint uses the verb Peter uses to describe many redemptive purchases, including the redemption of property (e.g., Lev 25), redemption for a firstborn animal or child (Exod 13:12-13), and payment of the atonement price of one-half shekel per person (Exod 30:12-13). Michaels and others think a particular background that may have come to mind for Peter's audience is a practice of slave manumission in which the slave paid the ransom price to a local temple and when he was free from his master he was nevertheless enslaved to the god or goddess to whose temple he had given the ransom money.

from the empty way of life handed down to you from your forefathers,

Here is another indication of the pagan background of Peter's addressees. Some of these futile ways are listed in 4:3: "debauchery, lust, drunkenness, orgies, carousing and detestable idolatry."

1:19 but with the precious blood of Christ, a lamb without blemish or defect.

Christians are redeemed by something much more valuable than gold or silver, the precious blood of Christ. Peter has already mentioned the importance of Jesus' blood (v. 2). The New Testament emphasis on the blood of Jesus is rooted in the Old Testament emphasis on blood as the seat of life and on the importance of blood in sacrificial rites. That Peter has in mind the notion of sacrifice is further indicated by his description of Jesus as "a lamb without blemish or defect."

The reference to Jesus as a lamb causes some to think of the Passover. Since the Passover event was a redemptive event for Israel this may be correct, but the Passover slaughter of the lambs was not in itself redemptive. We should probably think more generally of lambs used in the sacrificial system.

The word a[mwmo" (amômos) translated "without blemish" is used on many occasions in the Septuagint (e.g., Num 28:3,9) to indicate that God did not accept the sacrifice of an imperfect animal. The second term ("without defect") does not occur in the Septuagint, but simply reinforces the first term.

Peter's audience should leave their old empty way of life and live in reverent fear because they have been redeemed by the sacrifice of Christ.

1:20 He was chosen before the creation of the world, but was revealed in these last times for your sake.

The sacrifice of Christ was God's plan from the beginning. Before he created the world, God foreknew that he would send Christ. Peter's emphasis here perhaps falls on "for your sake." He wants to encourage these Christians and remind them that what the prophets and angels longed to see (vv. 10-12) has been brought to fruition for their sake. They should show their appreciation by their lives.

1:21 Through him you believe in God, who raised him from the dead and glorified him, and so your faith and hope are in God.

Peter's overall goal is to help his audience to maintain their faith and hope. God's resurrection and glorification (= exaltation?) of Jesus are a firm basis for both. Note that the paragraph comes full circle beginning with calling upon God as Father and ending with faith and hope in God.

E. LOVE ONE ANOTHER AS THOSE BORN AGAIN THROUGH THE WORD OF GOD (1:22-25)

²² Now that you have purified yourselves by obeying the truth so that you have sincere love for your brothers, love one another deeply, from the heart. ^{a 23} For you have been born again, not of perishable seed, but of imperishable, through the living and enduring word of God. ²⁴ For,

"All men are like grass,

and all their glory is like the flowers of the field;

the grass withers and the flowers fail,

²⁵ but the word of the Lord stands forever." ^b

And this is the word that was preached to you.

^a 22 Some early manuscripts from a pure heart ^b 25 Isaiah 40:6-8

Peter does not address these Christians as isolated individuals, but as a community of believers. This section marks the beginning of a repeated emphasis on relationships within the church. As they face persecution and distress from without, it is vital that they maintain mutual support from within. The majority of this paragraph, however, is not given to the imperative to love, but to the rationale behind it. They should love one another because they have purified their souls by obeying the truth and have been born again through the word of God.

1:22 Now that you have purified yourselves by obeying the truth so that you have sincere love for your brothers,

The words used for purification have the same root as those used for sanctification and have a similar meaning. They are usually used for ritual purification in connection with Old Testament rites. Here the word "purify" has a moral overtone. What we need to be purified from is sin. (The NIV's "yourselves" is a legitimate translation of "your souls," since Peter is not thinking of a part of the human being, but uses "soul" in a more holistic sense [cf. v. 9].) Obedience to the truth brings about this purification. Verses 23-25 indicate that by "the truth" Peter means the gospel message.

The result of being purified by obedience is a sincere love of the brothers. An explanation of this point may be found in 2:1. Purification involves getting rid of those things that interfere with sincere love: deceit, hypocrisy, envy, and slander. Those who purify themselves of these things can have a sincere love for each other.

love one another deeply, from the heart.

Peter's words about their obedience resulting in sincere love is not simply a description of what has happened, but a basis for appealing for a deep mutual love. They need to be who they are. They need to put their faith into practice with each other. The rest of the letter will often emphasize the importance of relationships within the community of faith. The adverb ejktenw'" (ektenôs) translated "deeply" might also be translated, as in the NRSV footnote, "constantly."

1:23 For you have been born again, not of perishable seed, but of imperishable, through the living and enduring word of God.

On the metaphor of new birth see the comments on verse 3. The use of this metaphor here in verse 23 is closely tied to 2:1-2: you have been born again, so get rid of the evil ways of the past and, like newborn babies, crave the pure spiritual milk.

The new spiritual birth was not conceived like the first physical birth. The seed from which the new birth is conceived is not perishable (like a father's seed) but imperishable. Like the Christian's imperishable inheritance (1:4) and like the value of Christ's precious blood (contrasted in vv. 18-19 with perishable silver and gold), the word of God will stand forever. That word is identified in verse 25 as the gospel that was preached to Peter's audience.

1:24 For, "All men are like grass, and all their glory is like the flowers of the field; the grass withers and the flowers fall, 1:25 but the word of the Lord stands forever."

The citation of Isaiah 40:6-8 helps Peter underscore the imperishable nature of God's word. The primary point Peter wants to take from the quotation is that "the word of the Lord stands forever." The Christians of Asia Minor were right to be obedient to it.

And this is the word that was preached to you.

Peter identifies the word he has in mind as the gospel they had heard.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

Introduction / Outline

Robertson: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

THE FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER

ABOUT a.d. 65

By Way of Introduction

The Author

The Epistle is not anonymous, but claims to be written by " Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ" (1Pe_1:1), that is Cephas (Simon Peter). If this is not true, then the book is pseudonymous by a late writer who assumed Peter’s name, as in the so-called Gospel of Peter, Apocalypse of Peter, etc. " There is no book in the New Testament which has earlier, better, or stronger attestation, though Irenaeus is the first to quote it by name" (Bigg). Eusebius ( H.E . iii. 25.2) places it among the acknowledged books, those accepted with no doubt at all. We here assume that Simon Peter wrote this Epistle or at any rate dictated it by an amanuensis, as Paul did in Romans (Rom_16:22). Bigg suggests Silvanus (Silas) as the amanuensis or interpreter (1Pe_5:12), the obvious meaning of the language ( dia , through). He may also have been the bearer of the Epistle. It happens that we know more of Peter’s life than of any of the twelve apostles because of his prominence in the Gospels and in the first fifteen chapters of the Acts. In the Student’s Chronological New Testament I have given a full list of the passages in the Gospels where Peter appears with any clearness and the material is rich and abundant. The account in Acts is briefer, though Peter is the outstanding man in the first five chapters during his career in Jerusalem. After the conversion of Saul he begins to work outside of Jerusalem and after escaping death at the hands of Herod Agrippa I (Act_12:3.) he left for a while, but is back in Jerusalem at the Conference called by Paul and Barnabas (Act_15:6-14; Gal_2:1-10). After that we have no more about him in Acts, though he reappears in Antioch and is rebuked by Paul for cowardice because of the Judaizers (Gal_2:11-21). He travelled for the Gospel among the Jews of the Dispersion (Gal_2:9) with his wife (1Co_9:5), and went to Asia Minor (1Pe_1:1) and as far as Babylon or Rome (1Pe_5:13). Besides Silvanus he had John Mark with him also (1Pe_5:13), who was said by the early Christian writers to have been Peter’s " interpreter" in his preaching, since Peter was not expert in the Greek (Act_4:13), and who also wrote his Gospel under the inspiration of Peter’s preaching. We are not able to follow clearly the close of his life or to tell precisely the time of his death. He was apparently put to death in a.d. 67 or 68, but some think that he was executed in Rome in a.d. 64.

The Date

This question is tied up with that of the genuineness of the Epistle, the time of Peter’s death, the use of Paul’s Epistles, the persecution referred to in the Epistle. Assuming the genuineness of the Epistle and the death of Peter about a.d. 67 or 68 and the persecution to be not that under Domitian or Trajan, but under Nero, the date can be assumed to be about a.d. 65.

The Use of Paul’s Epistles

There are two extremes about the relation of Peter to Paul. One is that of violent antithesis, with Peter and Paul opposing one another by exaggerating and prolonging Paul’s denunciation of Peter’s cowardice in Antioch (Gal_2:11-21) and making Peter also the exponent of a Jewish type of Christianity (practically a Judaizing type). This view of Baur once had quite a following, but it has nearly disappeared. Under its influence Acts and Peter’s Epistles were considered not genuine, but documents designed to patch up the disagreement between Peter and Paul. The other extreme is to deny any Pauline influence on Peter or of Peter on Paul. Paul was friendly to Peter (Gal_1:18), but was independent of his ecclesiastical authority (Gal_2:1-10) and Peter championed Paul’s cause in the Jerusalem Conference (Act_15:7-13). Peter was certainly not a Judaizer (Acts 11:1-18), in spite of his temporary defection in Antioch. Undoubtedly Peter was won back to cordial relations with Paul if any confidence can be placed in 2Pe_3:15. There is no reason for doubting that Peter was familiar with some of Paul’s Epistles as there indicated. There is some indication of Peter’s use of Romans and Ephesians in this Epistle. It is not always conclusive to find the same words and even ideas which are not formally quoted, because there was a Christian vocabulary and a body of doctrinal ideas in common though with personal variations in expression. Peter may have read James, but not the Pastoral Epistles. There are points of contact with Hebrews which Von Soden considers sufficiently accounted for by the fact that Peter and the author of Hebrews were contemporaries.

The Persecution Pictured in the Epistle

Peter himself knew what persecution was at the hands of the Sanhedrin and of Herod Agrippa I (both church and state). If First Peter was written a.d. 65, there was time enough for the persecution of Nero in Rome in a.d. 64 to spread to Asia Minor. The province easily imitated the capital city. Paul’s life in the Acts and his Epistles abundantly show how early persecution arose in Asia Minor. The Apocalypse, written during the reign of Domitian, shows that persecution from the state had been on hand long before and was an old burden. We know too little of the history of Christianity in Asia Minor from a.d. 60 to 70 to deny that the fiery trials and suffering as a Christian (1Pe_4:16) can be true of this period. So we locate the persecution at this time as an echo from Rome.

The Place of Writing

Peter states that he is in Babylon (1Pe_5:13), apparently with his wife (1Co_9:5). It is not certain whether he means actual Babylon, where Jews had been numerous, or mystical Babylon (Rome) as in the Apocalypse. We do not know when Rome began to be called Babylon. It may have started as a result of Nero’s persecution of the Christians after the burning of Rome. The Christians were called " evil-doers" (1Pe_2:12) in the time of Nero (Tacitus, Ann . XV. 44). So we can think of Rome as the place of writing and that Peter uses " Babylon" to hide his actual location from Nero. Whether Peter came to Rome while Paul was still there we do not know, though John Mark was there with Paul (Col_4:10). " At the time when it was written Babylon had not yet unmasked all its terrors, and the ordinary Christian was not in immediate danger of the tunica ardens , or the red-hot iron chair, or the wild beasts, or the stake" (Bigg).

The Readers

Peter writes " to the elect who are sojourners of the Dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia" (1Pe_1:1). These five Roman provinces are naturally given from the standpoint of Babylon. In Galatia and Asia Paul had labored, though not all over these provinces. At any rate, there is no reason to wonder that Peter should himself work in the same regions where Paul had been. In a general way Paul and Peter had agreed on separate spheres of activity, Paul to the Gentiles and Peter to the Jews (Gal_2:7.), though the distinction was not absolute, for Paul usually began his work in the Jewish synagogue. Probably the readers are mainly Jewish Christians. but not to the exclusion of Gentiles. Peter has clearly Paul’s idea that Christianity is the true Judaism of God’s promise (1Pe_2:4-10).

The Purpose

Evidently Peter’s object is to cheer and strengthen the Christians in these five provinces who are undergoing fiery trials (1Pe_1:7.). There is every reason why Peter, as the leading apostle to the circumcision, should write to these believers in the provinces, especially since Paul’s long imprisonment in Caesarea and Rome had removed him from his accustomed activities and travel.

The Style and Vocabulary

Like Peter’s discourses in the Acts, the Epistle is mainly hortatory, with a minimum of argument and little of the closely knit reasoning seen in Romans. There is frequent use of the lxx and the Greek is decent Koiné with little of the uncouth Aramaic of the Galilean (Mat_26:73), or of the vernacular Koiné as seen in the papyri or in 2 Peter (Act_4:13). This fact may be accounted for by the help of Silvanus as amanuensis. There are sixty-two words in the Greek of the Epistle not occurring elsewhere in the N.T. There is verbal iteration as in 2 Peter. " One idea haunts the whole Epistle; to the author, as to the patriarch Jacob, life is a pilgrimage; it is essentially an old man’s view" (Bigg). But it is an old man who has lived long with Christ. Peter has learned the lesson of humility and patience from Jesus his Lord.

JFB: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

ITS GENUINENESS is attested by 2Pe 3:1. On the authority of Second Peter, see the Introduction. Also by POLYCARP (in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 4.14]), who, in writing to the Philippians, quotes many passages: in the second chapter he quotes 1Pe 1:13, 1Pe 1:21; 1Pe 3:9; in the fifth chapter, 1Pe 2:11. EUSEBIUS says of PAPIAS [Ecclesiastical History, 3.39] that he, too, quotes Peter's First Epistle. IRENÆUS [Against Heresies, 4.9.2] expressly mentions it; and in [4.16.5], 1Pe 2:16. CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA [Miscellanies, 1.3, p. 544], quotes 1Pe 2:11-12, 1Pe 2:15-16; and [p. 562], 1Pe 1:21-22; and [4, p. 584], 1Pe 3:14-17; and [p. 585], 1Pe 4:12-14. ORIGEN (in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 6.25]) mentions this Epistle; in [Homily 7, on Joshua, vol. 2, p. 63], he mentions both Epistles; and [Commentary on Psalm 3 and on John], he mentions 1Pe 3:18-21. TERTULLIAN [Antidote to the Scorpion's Sting, 12], quotes expressly 1Pe 2:20-21; and [Antidote to the Scorpion's Sting, 14], 1Pe 2:13, 1Pe 2:17. EUSEBIUS states it as the opinion of those before him that this was among the universally acknowledged Epistles. The Peschito Syriac Version contains it. The fragment of the canon called MURATORI'S omits it. Excepting this, and the Paulician heretics, who rejected it, all ancient testimony is on its side. The internal evidence is equally strong. The author calls himself the apostle Peter, 1Pe 1:1, and "a witness of Christ's sufferings," and an "elder," 1Pe 5:1. The energy of the style harmonizes with the warmth of Peter's character; and, as ERASMUS says, this Epistle is full of apostolic dignity and authority and is worthy of the leader among the apostles.

PETER'S PERSONAL HISTORY.--Simon, Or Simeon, was a native of Bethsaida on the Sea of Galilee, son of Jonas or John. With his father and his brother Andrew he carried on trade as a fisherman at Capernaum, his subsequent place of abode. He was a married man, and tradition represents his wife's name as Concordia or Perpetua. CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA says that she suffered martyrdom, her husband encouraging her to be faithful unto death, "Remember, dear, our Lord." His wife's mother was restored from a fever by Christ. He was brought to Jesus by his brother Andrew, who had been a disciple of John the Baptist, but was pointed to the Saviour as "the Lamb of God" by his master (Joh 1:29). Jesus, on first beholding him, gave him the name by which chiefly he is known, indicative of his subsequent character and work in the Church, "Peter" (Greek) or "Cephas" (Aramaic), a stone (Mat 4:18). He did not join our Lord finally until a subsequent period. The leading incidents in his apostolic life are well known: his walking on the troubled waters to meet Jesus, but sinking through doubting (Mat 14:30); his bold and clear acknowledgment of the divine person and office of Jesus (Mat 16:16; Mar 8:29; Joh 11:27), notwithstanding the difficulties in the way of such belief, whence he was then also designated as the stone, or rock (Mat 16:18); but his rebuke of his Lord when announcing what was so unpalatable to carnal prejudices, Christ's coming passion and death (Mat 16:22); his passing from one extreme to the opposite, in reference to Christ's offer to wash his feet (Joh 13:8-9); his self-confident assertion that he would never forsake his Lord, whatever others might do (Mat 26:33), followed by his base denial of Christ thrice with curses (Mat 26:75); his deep penitence; Christ's full forgiveness and prophecy of his faithfulness unto death, after he had received from him a profession of "love" as often repeated as his previous denial (Joh 21:15-17). These incidents illustrate his character as zealous, pious, and ardently attached to the Lord, but at the same time impulsive in feeling, rather than calmly and continuously steadfast. Prompt in action and ready to avow his convictions boldly, he was hasty in judgment, precipitate, and too self-confident in the assertion of his own steadfastness; the result was that, though he abounded in animal courage, his moral courage was too easily overcome by fear of man's opinion. A wonderful change was wrought in him by his restoration after his fall, through the grace of his risen Lord. His zeal and ardor became sanctified, being chastened by a spirit of unaffected humility. His love to the Lord was, if possible, increased, while his mode of manifesting it now was in doing and suffering for His name, rather than in loud protestations. Thus, when imprisoned and tried before the Sanhedrim for preaching Christ, he boldly avowed his determination to continue to do so. He is well called "the mouth of the apostles." His faithfulness led to his apprehension by Herod Agrippa, with a view to his execution, from which, however, he was delivered by the angel of the Lord.

After the ascension he took the lead in the Church; and on the descent of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, he exercised the designed power of "the keys" of Christ's kingdom, by opening the door of the Church, in preaching, for the admission of thousands of Israelites; and still more so in opening (in obedience to a special revelation) an entrance to the "devout" (that is, Jewish proselyte from heathendom) Gentile, Cornelius: the forerunner of the harvest gathered in from idolatrous Gentiles at Antioch. This explains in what sense Christ used as to him the words, "Upon this rock I will build my Church" (Mat 16:18), namely, on the preaching of Christ, the true "Rock," by connection with whom only he was given the designation: a title shared in common on the same grounds by the rest of the apostles, as the first founders of the Church on Christ, "the chief corner-stone" (Eph 2:20). A name is often given in Hebrew, not that the person is actually the thing itself, but has some special relation to it; as Elijah means Mighty Jehovah, so Simon is called Peter "the rock," not that he is so, save by connection with Jesus, the only true Rock (Isa 28:16; 1Co 3:11). As subsequently he identified himself with "Satan," and is therefore called so (Mat 16:23), in the same way, by his clear confession of Christ, the Rock, he became identified with Him, and is accordingly so called (Mat 16:18). It is certain that there is no instance on record of Peter's having ever claimed or exercised supremacy; on the contrary, he is represented as sent by the apostles at Jerusalem to confirm the Samaritans baptized by Philip the deacon; again at the council of Jerusalem, not he, but James the president, or leading bishop in the Church of that city, pronounced the authoritative decision: Act 15:19, "My sentence is," &c. A kind of primacy, doubtless (though certainly not supremacy), was given him on the ground of his age, and prominent earnestness, and boldness in taking the lead on many important occasions. Hence he is called "first" in enumerating the apostles. Hence, too, arise the phrases, "Peter and the Eleven," "Peter and the rest of the apostles"; and Paul, in going up to Jerusalem after his conversion, went to see Peter in particular.

Once only he again betrayed the same spirit of vacillation through fear of man's reproach which had caused his denial of his Lord. Though at the Jerusalem council he advocated the exemption of Gentile converts from the ceremonial observances of the law, yet he, after having associated in closest intercourse with the Gentiles at Antioch, withdrew from them, through dread of the prejudices of his Jewish brethren who came from James, and timidly dissembled his conviction of the religious equality of Jew and Gentile; for this Paul openly withstood and rebuked him: a plain refutation of his alleged supremacy and infallibility (except where specially inspired, as in writing his Epistles). In all other cases he showed himself to be, indeed, as Paul calls him, "a pillar" (Gal 2:9). Subsequently we find him in "Babylon," whence he wrote this First Epistle to the Israelite believers of the dispersion, and the Gentile Christians united in Christ, in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia.

JEROME [On Illustrious Men, 1] states that "Peter, after having been bishop of Antioch, and after having preached to the believers of the circumcision in Pontus, &c. [plainly inferred from 1Pe 1:1], in the second year of Claudius went to Rome to refute Simon Magus, and for twenty-five years there held the episcopal chair, down to the last year of Nero, that is, the fourteenth, by whom he was crucified with his head downwards, declaring himself unworthy to be crucified as his Lord, and was buried in the Vatican, near the triumphal way." EUSEBIUS [Chronicles, Anno 3], also asserts his episcopate at Antioch; his assertion that Peter founded that Church contradicts Act 11:19-22. His journey to Rome to oppose Simon Magus arose from JUSTIN'S story of the statue found at Rome (really the statue of the Sabine god, Semo Sanctus, or Hercules, mistaken as if Simon Magus were worshipped by that name, "Simoni Deo Sancto"; found in the Tiber in 1574, or on an island in the Tiber in 1662), combined with the account in Acts 8:9-24. The twenty-five years' bishopric is chronologically impossible, as it would make Peter, at the interview with Paul at Antioch, to have been then for some years bishop of Rome! His crucifixion is certain from Christ's prophecy, Joh 21:18-19. DIONYSIUS OF CORINTH (in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 2.25]) asserted in an epistle to the Romans, that Paul and Peter planted both the Roman and Corinthian churches, and endured martyrdom in Italy at the same time. So TERTULLIAN [Against Marcion, 4.5, and The Prescription Against Heretics, 36, 38]. Also Caius, the presbyter of Rome, in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 2.25] asserts that some memorials of their martyrdom were to be seen at Rome on the road to Ostia. So EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 2.25, and Demonstration of the Gospel, 3.116]. So LACTANTIUS [Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died, 2]. Many of the details are palpably false; whether the whole be so or not is dubious, considering the tendency to concentrate at Rome events of interest [ALFORD]. What is certain is, that Peter was not there before the writing of the Epistle to the Romans (A.D. 58), otherwise he would have been mentioned in it; nor during Paul's first imprisonment at Rome, otherwise he would have been mentioned in some one of Paul's many other Epistles written from Rome; nor during Paul's second imprisonment, at least when he was writing the Second Epistle to Timothy, just before his martyrdom. He may have gone to Rome after Paul's death, and, as common tradition represents, been imprisoned in the Mamertine dungeon, and crucified on the Janiculum, on the eminence of St. Pietro in Montorio, and his remains deposited under the great altar in the center of the famous basilica of St. Peter. AMBROSE [Epistles, 33 (Edition Paris, 1586), p. 1022] relates that St. Peter, not long before his death, being overcome by the solicitations of his fellow Christians to save himself, was fleeing from Rome when he was met by our Lord, and on asking, "Lord, whither goest Thou?" received the answer, "I go to be crucified afresh." On this he returned and joyfully went to martyrdom. The church called "Domine quo vadis" on the Appian Way, commemorates the legend. It is not unlikely that the whole tradition is built on the connection which existed between Paul and Peter. As Paul, "the apostle of the uncircumcision," wrote Epistles to Galatia, Ephesus, and Colosse, and to Philemon at Colosse, making the Gentile Christians the persons prominently addressed, and the Jewish Christians subordinately so; so, vice versa, Peter, "the apostle of the circumcision," addressed the same churches, the Jewish Christians in them primarily, and the Gentile Christians also, secondarily.

TO WHOM HE ADDRESSES THIS EPISTLE.--The heading, 1Pe 1:1, "to the elect strangers (spiritually pilgrims) of the dispersion" (Greek), clearly marks the Christians of the Jewish dispersion as prominently addressed, but still including also Gentile Christians as grafted into the Christian Jewish stock by adoption and faith, and so being part of the true Israel. 1Pe 1:14; 1Pe 2:9-10; 1Pe 3:6; 1Pe 4:3 clearly prove this. Thus he, the apostle of the circumcision, sought to unite in one Christ Jew and Gentile, promoting thereby the same work and doctrine as Paul the apostle of the uncircumcision. The provinces are named by Peter in the heading in the order proceeding from northeast to south and west. Pontus was the country of the Christian Jew Aquila. To Galatia Paul paid two visits, founding and confirming churches. Crescens, his companion, went there about the time of Paul's last imprisonment, just before his martyrdom. Ancyra was subsequently its ecclesiastical metropolis. Men of Cappadocia, as well as of "Pontus" and "Asia," were among the hearers of Peter's effective sermon on the Pentecost whereon the Spirit decended on the Church; these probably brought home to their native land the first tidings of the Gospel. Proconsular "Asia" included Mysia, Lydia, Caria, Phrygia, Pisidia, and Lyaconia. In Lycaonia were the churches of Iconium, founded by Paul and Barnabas; of Lystra, Timothy's birthplace, where Paul was stoned at the instigation of the Jews; and of Derbe, the birthplace of Gaius, or Caius. In Pisidia was Antioch, where Paul was the instrument of converting many, but was driven out by the Jews. In Caria was Miletus, containing doubtless a Christian Church. In Phrygia, Paul preached both times when visiting Galatia in its neighborhood, and in it were the churches of Laodicea, Hierapolis, and Colosse, of which last Church Philemon and Onesimus were members, and Archippus and Epaphras leaders. In Lydia was the Philadelphian Church, favorably noticed in Rev 3:7, &c.; that of Sardis, the capital, and of Thyatira, and of Ephesus, founded by Paul, and a scene of the labors of Aquila and Priscilla and Apollos, and subsequently of more than two whole years' labor of Paul again, and subsequently censured for falling from its first love in Rev 2:4. Smyrna of Ionia was in the same quarter, and as one of the seven churches receives unqualified praise. In Mysia was Pergamos. Troas, too, is known as the scene of Paul's preaching and raising Eutychus to life (Act 20:6-10), and of his subsequently staying for a time with Carpus (2Ti 4:13). Of "Bithynia," no Church is expressly named in Scripture elsewhere. When Paul at an earlier period "assayed to go into Bithynia" (Act 16:7), the Spirit suffered him not. But afterwards, we infer from 1Pe 1:1, the Spirit did impart the Gospel to that country, possibly by Peter's ministry, In government, these several churches, it appears from this Epistle (1Pe 5:1-2, "Feed," &c.), were much in the same states as when Paul addressed the Ephesian "elders" at Miletus (Act 20:17, Act 20:28, "feed") in very similar language; elders or presbyter-bishops ruled, while the apostles exercised the general superintendence. They were exposed to persecutions, though apparently not systematic, but rather annoyances and reproach arising from their not joining their heathen neighbors in riotous living, into which, however, some of them were in danger of falling. The evils which existed among themselves, and which are therefore reproved, were ambition and lucre-seeking on the part of the presbyters (1Pe 5:2-3), evil thoughts and words among the members in general, and a want of sympathy and generosity towards one another.

HIS OBJECT seems to be, by the prospect of their heavenly portion and by Christ's example, to afford consolation to the persecuted, and prepare them for a greater approaching ordeal, and to exhort all, husbands, wives, servants, presbyters, and people, to a due discharge of relative duties, so as to give no handle to the enemy to reproach Christianity, but rather to win them to it, and so to establish them in "the true grace of God wherein they stand" (1Pe 5:12). However, see on 1Pe 5:12, on the oldest reading. ALFORD rightly argues that "exhorting and testifying" there, refer to Peter's exhortations throughout the Epistle grounded on testimony which he bears to the Gospel truth, already well known to his readers by the teaching of Paul in those churches. They were already introduced "into" (so the Greek, 1Pe 5:12) this grace of God as their safe standing-ground. Compare 1Co 15:1, "I declare unto you the Gospel wherein ye stand." Therefore he does not, in this Epistle, set forth a complete statement of this Gospel doctrine of grace, but falls back on it as already known. Compare 1Pe 1:8, 1Pe 1:18, "ye know"; 1Pe 3:15; 2Pe 3:1. Not that Peter servilely copies the style and mode of teaching of Paul, but as an independent witness in his own style attests the same truths. We may divide the Epistle into: (I) The inscription (1Pe 1:1-2). (II) The stirring-up of a pure feeling in believers as born again of God. By the motive of hope to which God has regenerated us (1Pe 1:3-12); bringing forth the fruit of faith, considering the costly price paid for our redemption from sin (1Pe 1:14-21). Being purified by the Spirit unto love of the brethren as begotten of God's eternal word, as spiritual priest-kings, to whom alone Christ is precious (1Pe 1:22; 1Pe 2:10); after Christ's example in suffering, maintaining a good conversation in every relation (1Pe 2:10; 1Pe 3:14), and a good profession of faith as having in view Christ's once-offered sacrifice, and His future coming to judgment (1Pe 3:15; 1Pe 4:11); and exhibiting patience in adversity, as looking for future glorification with Christ, (1) in general as Christians, 1Pe 4:12-19; (2) each in his own sphere, 1Pe 5:1-11. "The title "Beloved" marks the separation of the second part from the first, 1Pe 2:11; and of the third part from the second, 1Pe 4:12" [BENGEL]. (III). The conclusion.

TIME AND PLACE OF WRITING.--It was plainly before the open and systematic persecution of the later years of Nero had begun. That this Epistle was written after Paul's Epistles, even those written during his imprisonment at Rome, ending in A.D. 63, appears from the acquaintance which Peter in this Epistle shows he has with them. Compare 1Pe 2:13 with 1Ti 2:2-4; 1Pe 2:18 with Eph 6:5; 1Pe 1:2 with Eph 1:4-7; 1Pe 1:3 with Eph 1:3; 1Pe 1:14 with Rom 12:2; 1Pe 2:6-10 with Rom 9:32-33; 1Pe 2:13 with Rom 13:1-4; 1Pe 2:16 with Gal 5:13; 1Pe 2:18 with Eph 6:5; 1Pe 3:1 with Eph 5:22; 1Pe 3:9 with Rom 12:17; 1Pe 4:9 with Phi 2:14; Rom 12:13 and Heb 13:2; 1Pe 4:10 with Rom 12:6-8; 1Pe 5:1 with Rom 8:18; 1Pe 5:5 with Eph 5:21; Phi 2:3, Phi 2:5-8; 1Pe 5:8 with 1Th 5:6; 1Pe 5:14 with 1Co 16:20. Moreover, in 1Pe 5:13, Mark is mentioned as with Peter in Babylon. This must have been after Col 4:10 (A.D. 61-63), when Mark was with Paul at Rome, but intending to go to Asia Minor. Again, in 2Ti 4:11 (A.D. 67 or 68), Mark was in or near Ephesus, in Asia Minor, and Timothy is told to bring him to Rome. So that it is likely it was after this, namely, after Paul's martyrdom, that Mark joined Peter, and consequently that this Epistle was written. It is not likely that Peter would have entrenched on Paul's field of labor, the churches of Asia Minor, during Paul's lifetime. The death of the apostle of the uncircumcision, and the consequent need of someone to follow up his teachings, probably gave occasion to the testimony given by Peter to the same churches, collectively addressed, in behalf of the same truth. The relation in which the Pauline Gentile churches stood towards the apostles at Jerusalem favors this view. Even the Gentile Christians would naturally look to the spiritual fathers of the Church at Jerusalem, the center whence the Gospel had emanated to them, for counsel wherewith to meet the pretensions of Judaizing Christians and heretics; and Peter, always prominent among the apostles in Jerusalem, would even when elsewhere feel a deep interest in them, especially when they were by death bereft of Paul's guidance. BIRKS [Horæ Evangelicæ] suggests that false teachers may have appealed from Paul's doctrine to that of James and Peter. Peter then would naturally write to confirm the doctrines of grace and tacitly show there was no difference between his teaching and Paul's. BIRKS prefers dating the Epistle A.D. 58, after Paul's second visit to Galatia, when Silvanus was with him, and so could not have been with Peter (A.D. 54), and before his imprisonment at Rome, when Mark was with him, and so could not have been with Peter (A.D. 62); perhaps when Paul was detained at Cæsarea, and so debarred from personal intercourse with those churches. I prefer the view previously stated. This sets aside the tradition that Paul and Peter suffered martyrdom together at Rome. ORIGEN'S and EUSEBIUS' statement that Peter visited the churches of Asia in person seems very probable.

The PLACE OF WRITING was doubtless Babylon on the Euphrates (1Pe 5:13). It is most improbable that in the midst of writing matter-of-fact communications and salutations in a remarkably plain Epistle, the symbolical language of prophecy (namely, "Babylon" for Rome) should be used. JOSEPHUS [Antiquities, 15.2.2; 3.1] states that there was a great multitude of Jews in the Chaldean Babylon; it is therefore likely that "the apostle of the circumcision" (Gal 2:7-8) would at some time or other visit them. Some have maintained that the Babylon meant was in Egypt because Mark preached in and around Alexandria after Peter's death, and therefore it is likely he did so along with that apostle in the same region previously. But no mention elsewhere in Scripture is made of this Egyptian Babylon, but only of the Chaldean one. And though towards the close of Caligula's reign a persecution drove the Jews thence to Seleucia, and a plague five years after still further thinned their numbers, yet this does not preclude their return and multiplication during the twenty years that elapsed between the plague and the writing of the Epistle. Moreover, the order in which the countries are enumerated, from northeast to south and west, is such as would be adopted by one writing from the Oriental Babylon on the Euphrates, not from Egypt or Rome. Indeed, COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES, in the sixth century, understood the Babylon meant to be outside the Roman empire. Silvanus, Paul's companion, became subsequently Peter's, and was the carrier of this Epistle.

STYLE.--Fervor and practical truth, rather than logical reasoning, are the characteristics, of this Epistle, as they were of its energetic, warm-hearted writer. His familiarity with Paul's Epistles shown in the language accords with what we should expect from the fact of Paul's having "communicated the Gospel which he preached among the Gentiles" (as revealed specially to him) to Peter among others "of reputation" (Gal 2:2). Individualities occur, such as baptism, "the answer of a good conscience toward God" (1Pe 3:21); "consciousness of God" (Greek), 1Pe 2:19, as a motive for enduring sufferings; "living hope" (1Pe 1:3); "an inheritance incorruptible, undefiled, and that fadeth not away" (1Pe 1:4); "kiss of charity" (1Pe 5:14). Christ is viewed less in relation to His past sufferings than as at present exalted and hereafter to be manifested in all His majesty. Glory and hope are prominent features in this Epistle (1Pe 1:8), so much so that WEISS entitles him "the apostle of hope." The realization of future bliss as near causes him to regard believers as but "strangers" and "sojourners" here. Chastened fervor, deep humility, and ardent love appear, just as we should expect from one who had been so graciously restored after his grievous fall. "Being converted," he truly does "strengthen his brethren." His fervor shows itself in often repeating the same thought in similar words.

In some passages he shows familiarity with the Epistle of James, the apostle of special weight with the Jewish legalizing party, whose inspiration he thus confirms (compare 1Pe 1:6-7 with Jam 1:2-3; 1Pe 1:24 with Jam 1:10; 1Pe 2:1 with Jam 1:21; 1Pe 4:8 with Jam 5:20, both quoting Pro 10:12; Pro 5:5 with Jam 4:6, both quoting Pro 3:34). In most of these cases Old Testament quotations are the common ground of both. "Strong susceptibility to outward impressions, liveliness of feeling, dexterity in handling subjects, dispose natures like that of Peter to repeat afresh the thoughts of others" [STEIGER].

The diction of this Epistle and of his speeches in Acts is very similar: an undesigned coincidence, and so a mark of genuineness (compare 1Pe 2:7 with Act 4:11; 1Pe 1:12 with Act 5:32; 1Pe 2:24 with Act 5:30; Act 10:39; 1Pe 5:1 with Act 2:32; Act 3:15; 1Pe 1:10 with Act 3:18; Act 10:43; 1Pe 1:21 with Act 3:15; Act 10:40; 1Pe 4:5 with Act 10:42; 1Pe 2:24 with Act 3:19, Act 3:26).

There is, too, a recurrence to the language of the Lord at the last interview after His resurrection, recorded in Joh 21:15-23. Compare "the Shepherd . . . of . . . souls," 1Pe 2:25; "Feed the flock of God," "the chief Shepherd," 1Pe 5:2, 1Pe 5:4, with Joh 21:15-17; "Feed My lambs . . . sheep"; also "Whom . . . ye love," 1Pe 1:8; 1Pe 2:7, with Joh 21:15-17; "lovest thou Me?" and 2Pe 1:14, with Joh 21:18-19. WIESINGER well says, "He who in loving impatience cast himself into the sea to meet the Lord, is also the man who most earnestly testifies to the hope of His return; he who dated his own faith from the sufferings of his Master, is never weary in holding up the suffering form of the Lord before his readers to comfort and stimulate them; he before whom the death of a martyr is in assured expectation, is the man who, in the greatest variety of aspects, sets forth the duty, as well as the consolation, of suffering for Christ; as a rock of the Church he grounds his readers against the storm of present tribulation on the true Rock of ages."

JFB: 1 Peter (Outline)

• ADDRESS TO THE ELECTED OF THE GODHEAD: THANKSGIVING FOR THE LIVING HOPE TO WHICH WE ARE BEGOTTEN, PRODUCING JOY AMIDST SUFFERINGS: THIS SALVATION AN OBJECT OF DEEPEST INTEREST TO PROPHETS AND TO ANGELS: ITS COSTLY PRICE A MOTIVE TO HOLINESS AND LOVE, AS WE ARE BORN AGAIN OF THE EVER-ABIDING WORD OF GOD. (1Pe. 1:1-25)
• EXHORTATIONS. (1Pe. 2:1-25)
• RELATIVE DUTIES OF HUSBANDS AND WIVES: EXHORTATIONS TO LOVE AND FORBEARANCE: RIGHT CONDUCT UNDER PERSECUTIONS FOR RIGHTEOUSNESS' SAKE, AFTER CHRIST'S EXAMPLE, WHOSE DEATH RESULTED IN QUICKENING TO US THROUGH HIS BEING QUICKENED AGAIN, OF WHICH BAPTISM IS THE SACRAMENTAL SEAL. (1Pe. 3:1-22)
• LIKE THE RISEN CHRIST, BELIEVERS HENCEFORTH OUGHT TO HAVE NO MORE TO DO WITH SIN. (1Pe. 4:1-19)
• EXHORTATIONS TO ELDERS, JUNIORS, AND ALL IN GENERAL. PARTING PRAYER. CONCLUSION. (1Pe 5:1-14)

TSK: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

As the design of this Epistle is excellent, remarks Dr. Macknight, so is its execution, in the judgment of the best critics, does not fall short of its design. Ostervald says of the first Epistle of Peter, " it is one of the finest books in the New Testament." Erasmus pronounces it to be " worthy of the prince of the Apostles, and full of apostolical dignity and authority;" and adds, " it is sparing in words, but full of sense - verbis pauca, sententiis differta ." " As the true church of Christ," says Dr. Clarke, " has generally been in a state of suffering, the Epistles of St. Peter have ever been most highly prized by all believers. That which we have just finished is an admirable letter, containing some of the most important maxims and consolations for the Church in the wilderness. No Christian can read it without deriving from it both light and life. Ministers especially should study it well, that they may know how to comfort their flocks when in persecution and adversity. He never speaks to good in any spiritual case who is not furnished out of the Divine treasury. God’s words invite, solicit, and command assent. on them a man may confidently rely. The words of man may be true, but they are not infallible; this is the character of God’s word alone." To these valuable remarks on the varied excellences and uses of this inimitable Epistle, it may be only necessary to add, that it is not only important in these respects, but is a rich treasury of Christian doctrines and duties from which the mind may be enriched and the heart improved, with the most ennobling sentiments.

TSK: 1 Peter 1 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

1Pe 1:1, He blesses God for his manifold spiritual graces; 1Pe 1:10, shewing that the salvation in Christ is no news, but a thing prophesied of old; 1Pe 1:13, and exhorts them accordingly to a godly conversation, forasmuch as they are now born anew by the word of God.

Poole: 1 Peter 1 (Chapter Introduction)

ARGUMENT

Of the penman of this Epistle there is no doubt; and of the time of his writing it, no certainty, whether about the year of our Lord 45, or rather 65. The occasion of it may (not improbably) be thought to be the same that was of James’ s writing his, viz. the folly and perverseness of some in those times, and among the Jewish Christians to whom he wrote, in separating faith from holiness, and their doubting whether Peter and Paul taught the same doctrine. His scope therefore is, partly to confirm these saints in the belief of the gospel, and to testify that the doctrine of the grace of God through Jesus Christ, which they had embraced and did profess, was indeed infallibly true, 1Pe 5:12 , being the same that had been preached by the prophets to the fathers of the Old Testament, 1Pe 1:10-12 ; fairly implying it to be the same that Paul preached, by his sending this Epistle to them that were of the circumcision, by Silvanus, a minister of the uncircumcision, and Paul’ s ordinary companion in the work of the gospel; as likewise he doth by that ample testimony he gives to Paul and his writings, 2Pe 3:15,16 . And partly to exhort them to the practice of godliness, and a conversation suitable to the gospel: and that he doth, both as to the general duties incumbent on all believers, 1Pe 1:13-2:12 ; and as to the particular duties which concerned them in their several relations, subjects to magistrates, servants to masters, husbands and wives mutually to each other, ministers to people, younger people to their elders, and especially sufferers towards their oppressors and persecutors; but withal intermixing several general duties, and of concernment to all, and concluding all with prayer and salutation.

1 PETER CHAPTER 1

1Pe 1:1,2 The apostle’ s address to the strangers elect in Christ,

dispersed throughout the Lesser Asia.

1Pe 1:3-9 He blesseth God for having raised them to the hope of a

blessed immortality.

1Pe 1:10-12 He showeth that their salvation in Christ had

been foretold by the prophets of old,

1Pe 1:13-21 and exhorteth them to a vigilant and holy conversation,

suitable to their calling and redemption by the blood of

Christ,

1Pe 1:22-25 and to mutual love.

To the strangers not only metaphorically strangers, as all believers are in the world, 1Pe 2:11 ; but properly, as being out of their own land, and so really strangers in the places here mentioned.

Scattered so Jam 1:1 .

Throughout Pontus a country of the Lesser Asia, bordering upon the Euxine sea, and reaching as far as Colchis.

Galatia which borders upon Pontus, and lies southward of it. To the Gentile churches inhabiting here, Paul wrote his Epistle inscribed to the Galatians.

Cappadocia this likewise borders upon Pontus, and is joined with it, Act 2:9 .

Asia that part of Asia the Less, which was especially called Asia. viz. the whole country of Ionia, which contained in it Troas, Phrygia, Lydia, Carla, &c. See Act 16:6,9 19:10,31 .

And Bithynia another province of the Lesser Asia, bordering upon Pontus and Galatia, and opposite to Thracia.

Question. Who were the strangers to whom this Epistle was written?

Answer. Chiefly the Christian Jews scattered in these countries, as appears by 1Pe 2:12 , and 1Pe 1:18 , where he mentions the traditions of their fathers, of which the Jews were so fond, Mat 15:2 Gal 1:14 ; but secondarily, to the converted Gentiles. As Paul, the apostle of the uncircumcision, wrote principally to the converted Gentiles, at Rome, Corinth, Ephesus, &c., but doth not exclude those Jews that were among them, who, being converted to the faith, were of the same mystical body with them; so Peter, though he firstly wrote to the converted Jews, as being an apostle of the circumcision, yet includes the Gentiles that were mingled among them, and joined in faith and worship with them.

MHCC: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

The same great doctrines, as in St. Paul's epistles, are here applied to same practical purposes. And this epistle is remarkable for the sweetness, gentleness, and humble love, with which it is written. It gives a short, and yet a very clear summary, both of the consolations and the instructions needful for the encouragement and direction of a Christian in his journey to heaven, raising his thoughts and desires to that happiness, and strengthening him against all opposition in the way, both from corruption within, and temptations and afflictions without.

MHCC: 1 Peter 1 (Chapter Introduction)

(1Pe 1:1-9) The apostle blesses God for his special benefits through Christ.

(1Pe 1:10-12) Salvation by Christ foretold in ancient prophecy.

(1Pe 1:13-16) All are exhorted to holy conversation.

(1Pe 1:17-25) Such as is suitable to their principles, privileges, and obligations.

Matthew Henry: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The First Epistle General of Peter

Two epistles we have enrolled in the sacred canon of the scripture written by Peter, who was a most eminent apostle of Jesus Christ, and whose character shines brightly as it is described in the four Gospels and in the Acts of the Apostles, but, as it is painted by the papists and legendary writers, it represents a person of extravagant pride and ambition. It is certain from scripture that Simon Peter was one of the first of those whom our Lord called to be his disciples and followers, that he was a person of excellent endowments, both natural and gracious, of great parts and ready elocution, quick to apprehend and bold to execute whatever he knew to be his duty. When our Saviour called his apostles, and gave them their commission, he nominated him first in the list; and by his behaviour towards him he seems to have distinguished him as a special favourite among the twelve. Many instances of our Lord's affection to him, both during his life and after his resurrection, are upon record. But there are many things confidently affirmed of this holy man that are directly false: as, That he had a primacy and superior power over the rest of the apostles - that he was more than their equal - that he was their prince, monarch, and sovereign - and that he exercised a jurisdiction over the whole college of the apostles: moreover, That he as the sole and universal pastor over all the Christian world, the only vicar of Christ upon earth - that he was for above twenty years bishop of Rome - that the popes of Rome succeed to St. Peter, and derive from him a universal supremacy and jurisdiction over all churches and Christians upon earth - and that all this was by our Lord's ordering and appointment; whereas Christ never gave him any pre-eminence of this kind, but positively forbade it, and gave precepts to the contrary. The other apostles never consented to any such claim. Paul declares himself not a whit behind the very chief apostles, 2Co 11:5 and 2Co 12:11. Here is no exception of Peter's superior dignity, whom Paul took the freedom to blame, and withstood him to the face, Gal 2:11. And Peter himself never assumed any thing like it, but modestly styles himself an apostle of Jesus Christ; and, when he writes to the presbyters of the church, he humbly places himself in the same rank with them: The elders who are among you I exhort, who am also an elder, 1Pe 5:1. See Dr. Barrow on the pope's supremacy.

The design of this first epistle is, I. To explain more fully the doctrines of Christianity to these newly-converted Jews. II. To direct and persuade them to a holy conversation, in the faithful discharge of all personal and relative duties, whereby they would secure their own peace and effectually confute the slanders and reproaches of their enemies. III. To prepare them for sufferings. This seems to be his principal intention; for he has something to this purport in every chapter, and does, by a great variety of arguments, encourage them to patience and perseverance in the faith, lest the persecutions and sad calamities that were coming upon them should prevail with them to apostatize from Christ and the gospel. It is remarkable that you find not so much as one word savouring of the spirit and pride of a pope in either of these epistles.

Matthew Henry: 1 Peter 1 (Chapter Introduction)

The apostle describes the persons to whom he writes, and salutes them (1Pe 1:1, 1Pe 1:2), blesses God for their regeneration to a lively hope of eternal salvation (1Pe 1:3-5), in the hope of this salvation he shows they had great cause of rejoicing, though for a little while they were in heaviness and affliction, for the trial of their faith, which would produce joy unspeakable and full of glory (1Pe 1:6-9). This is that salvation which the ancient prophets foretold and the angels desire to look into (1Pe 1:10-12). He exhorts them to sobriety and holiness, which he presses from the consideration of the blood of Jesus, the invaluable price of man's redemption (1Pe 1:13-21), and to brotherly love, from the consideration of their regeneration, and the excellency of their spiritual state (1Pe 1:22-25).

Barclay: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO THE FIRST LETTER OF PETER

The Catholic Or General Epistles

First Peter belongs to that group of New Testament letters which are known as the Catholic or General Epistles. Two explanations of that title have been offered.

(i) It is suggested that these letters were so called because they were addressed to the Church at large, in contradistinction to the Pauline letters which were addressed to individual churches. But that is not so. James is addressed to a definite, though widely scattered, community. It is written to the twelve tribes who are scattered abroad (Jam_1:1 ). It needs no argument that Second and Third John are addressed to definite communities; and, although First John has no specific address, it is clearly written with the needs and perils of a particular community in mind. First Peter itself is written to the strangers scattered abroad through Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia (1Pe_1:1 ). It is true that these General Epistles have a wider range than the letters of Paul; at the same time, they all have a definite community in mind.

(ii) So we must turn to the second explanation--that these letters were called Catholic or General because they were accepted as Scripture by the whole Church in contradistinction to that large number of letters which enjoyed a local and temporary authority but never universally ranked as Scripture. At the time when these letters were being written there was an outbreak of letter-writing in the Church. We still possess many of the letters which were then written--the letter of Clement of Rome to Corinth, the letter of Barnabas, the letters of Ignatius and the letters of Polycarp. All were regarded as very precious in the Churches to which they were written but were never regarded as having authority throughout the Church; on the other hand the Catholic or General Epistles gradually won a place in Scripture and were accepted by the whole Church. Here is the true explanation of their title.

The Lovely Letter

Of all the General Epistles it is probably true that First Peter is the best known and loved, and the most read. No one has ever been in any doubt about its charm. Moffatt writes of it: "The beautiful spirit of the pastoral shines through any translation of the Greek text. ¯fectionate, loving, lowly, humble, re lzaak Waltonquaternion of adjectives for the Epistles of James, John and Peter, but it is First Peter which deserves them preeminently." It is written out of the love of a pastorheart to help people who were going through it and on whom worse things were still to come. "The key-note," says Moffatt, "is steady encouragement to endurance in conduct and innocence in character." It has been said that its distinctive characteristic is warmth. E. J. Goodspeed wrote: "First Peter is one of the most moving pieces of persecution literature." To this day it is one of the easiest letters in the New Testament to read, for it has never lost its winsome appeal to the human heart.

The Modern Doubt

Until a comparatively short time ago few would have raised any doubts about the authenticity of First Peter. Renan, who was by no means a conservative critic, wrote of it: "The First Epistle is one of the writings of the New Testament which are most anciently and most unanimously cited as genuine." But in recent times the Petrine authorship of the letter has been widely questioned. The commentary by F. W. Beare, published in 1947, goes the length of saying, "There can be no possible doubt that ters a pseudonym." That is to say, Beare has no doubt that someone else wrote this letter under the name of Peter. We shall go on in fairness to investigate that view; but first we shall set out the traditional view--which we ourselves unhesitatingly accept--of the date and authorship of this letter. This is that First Peter was written from Rome by Peter himself, about the year A.D. 67, in the days immediately following the first persecution of the Christians by Nero, to the Christians in those parts of Asia Minor named in the address. What is the evidence for this early date and, therefore, for the Petrine authorship?

The Second Coming

When we go to the letter we find that expectation of the second coming of Christ is in the very forefront of its thought. Christians are being kept for the salvation which is to be revealed at the last time (1Pe_1:5 ). Those who keep the faith will be saved from the coming judgment (1Pe_1:7 ). Christians are to hope for the grace which will come at the revelation of Jesus Christ (1Pe_1:13 ). The day of visitation is expected (1Pe_2:12 ). The end of all things is at hand (1Pe_4:7 ). Those who suffer with Christ will also rejoice with Christ when his glory is revealed (1Pe_4:13 ). Judgment is to begin at the house of God (1Pe_4:17 ). The writer himself is sure that he will be a sharer in the glory to come (1Pe_5:1 ). When the Chief Shepherd shall appear the faithful Christian will receive a crown of glory (1Pe_5:4 ).

From beginning to end of the letter the second coming is in the forefront of the writermind. It is the motive for steadfastness in the faith, for the loyal living of the Christian life and for gallant endurance amidst the sufferings which have come and will come upon them.

It would be untrue to say that the second coming ever dropped out of Christian belief, but it did recede from the forefront of Christian belief as the years passed on and Christ did not return. It is, for instance, significant that in Ephesians, one of Paullatest letters, there is no mention of it. On this ground it is reasonable to suppose that First Peter is early and comes from the days when the Christians vividly expected the return of their Lord at any moment.

Simplicity Of Organization

It is clear that First Peter comes from a time when the organization of the Church is very simple. There is no mention of deacons; nor of the episkopos (G1985), the bishop, who begins to emerge in the Pastoral Epistles and becomes prominent in Ignatiusetters in the first half of the second century. The only Church officials mentioned are the elders. "I exhort the elders among you as a fellow-elder" (1Pe_5:1 ). On this ground, also, it is reasonable to suppose that First Peter comes from an early date.

The Theology Of The Early Church

What is most significant of all is that the theology of First Peter is the theology of the very early church. E. G. Selwyn has made a detailed study of this; and he has proved beyond all question that the theological ideas of First Peter are exactly the same as those we meet in the recorded sermons of Peter in the early chapters of Acts.

The preaching of the early church was based on five main ideas. One of the greatest contributions of C. H. Dodd to New Testament scholarship was his formulation of these. They form the framework of all the sermons of the early church, as recorded in Acts; and they are the foundation of the thought of all the New Testament writers. The summary of these basic ideas has been given the name Kerugma (G2782), which means the announcement or the proclamation of a herald.

These are the fundamental ideas which the Church in its first days heralded forth. We shall take them one by one and shall set down after each, first, the references in the early chapters of Acts and, second, the references in First Peter; and we will make the significant discovery that the basic ideas of the sermons of the early church and the theology of First Peter are precisely the same. We are not claiming, of course, that the sermons in Acts are verbatim reports of what was actually preached, but we believe that they give correctly the substance of the message of the first preachers.

(i) The age of fulfilment has dawned; the Messianic age has begun. This is Godlast word. A new order is being inaugurated and the elect are summoned to join the new community. Act_2:14-16 ; Act_3:12-26 ; Act_4:8-12 ; Act_10:34-43 ; 1Pe_1:3 ; 1Pe_1:10-12 ; 1Pe_4:7 .

(ii) This new age has come through the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, all of which are in direct fulfilment of the prophecies of the Old Testament and are, therefore, the result of the definite plan and foreknowledge of God. Act_2:20-31 ; Act_3:13-14 ; Act_10:43 ; 1Pe_1:20-21 .

(iii) By virtue of the resurrection Jesus has been exalted to the right hand of God and is the Messianic head of the new Israel. Act_2:22-26 ; Act_3:13 ; Act_4:11 ; Act_5:30-31 ; Act_10:39-42 ; 1Pe_1:21 ; 1Pe_2:7 ; 1Pe_2:24 ; 1Pe_3:22 .

(iv) These Messianic events will shortly reach their consummation in the return of Christ in glory and the judgment of the living and the dead. Act_3:19-23 ; Act_10:42 ; 1Pe_1:5 , 1Pe_1:7 , 1Pe_1:13 ; 1Pe_4:5 , 1Pe_4:13 ; 1Pet 17-18; 1Pe_5:1 , 1Pe_5:4 .

(v) These facts are made the grounds for an appeal for repentance, and the offer of forgiveness and of the Holy Spirit, and the promise of eternal life. Act_2:38-39 ; Act_3:19 ; Act_5:31 ; Act_10:43 ; 1Pe_1:13-25 ; 1Pe_2:1-3 ; 1Pe_4:1-5 .

These declarations are the five main planks in the edifice of early Christian preaching, as recorded for us in the sermons of Peter in the early chapters of Acts. They are also the dominant ideas in First Peter. The correspondence is so close and so consistent that we almost certainly with entire probability see the same hand and mind in both.

Quotations From The Fathers

We may add another point to our evidence that First Peter is early; very early the fathers and preachers of the Church begin to quote it. The first person to quote First Peter by name is Irenaeus, who lived from A.D. 130 until well into the next century. He twice quotes 1Pe_1:8 : "Without having seen him you love him; though you do not now see him you believe in him and rejoice with unutterable and exalted joy." And he once quotes 1Pe_2:16 , with its command not to use liberty as a cloak for maliciousness. But even before this the fathers of the Church are quoting Peter without mentioning his name. Clement of Rome, writing about A.D. 95, speaks of "the precious blood of Christ," an unusual phrase which may well come from Peterstatement that we are redeemed by the precious blood of Christ (1Pe_1:19 ). Polycarp, who was martyred in A.D. 155, continuously quotes Peter without using his name. We may select three passages to show how closely he gives Peterwords.

Wherefore, girding up your loins, serve God in fear ... believing on him who raised up our Lord Jesus Christ from the dead, and gave him glory (Polycarp, To the Philippians chapter 2: 1).

Therefore, gird up your minds...through him you have confidence in God, who raised him from the dead and gave him glory (1Pe_1:13 , 1Pe_1:21 ).

Christ Jesus who bare our sins in his own body on the tree, who did no sin, neither was guile found in his mouth (Polycarp 8: 1).

He committed no sin; no guile was found on his life... He himself bore our sins in his body on the tree (1Pe_2:22 , 1Pe_2:24 ).

Having your conversation blameless among the Gentiles (Polycarp 10: 2).

Maintain good conduct among the Gentiles (1Pe_2:12 ).

There can be no doubt that Polycarp is quoting Peter, although he does not name him. It takes some time for a book to acquire such an authority and familiarity that it can be quoted almost unconsciously, its language woven into the language of the Church. Once again we see that First Peter must be a very early book.

The Excellence Of The Greek

If, however, we are defending the Petrine authorship of this letter, there is one problem we must face--and that is the excellence of the Greek. It seems impossible that it should be the work of a Galilaean fisherman. New Testament scholars are at one in praising the Greek of this letter. F. W. Beare writes: "The epistle is quite obviously the work of a man of letters, skilled in all the devices of rhetoric, and able to draw on an extensive, and even learned, vocabulary. He is a stylist of no ordinary capacity, and he writes some of the best Greek in the whole New Testament, far smoother and more literary than that of the highly-trained Paul." Moffatt speaks of this letter"plastic language and love of metaphor." Mayor says that First Peter has no equal in the New Testament for "sustained stateliness of rhythm." Bigg has likened certain of First Peter.s phrases to the writing of Thucydides. Selwyn has spoken of First Peter"Euripidean tenderness" and of its ability to coin compound words as Aeschylus might have done. The Greek of First Peter is not entirely unworthy to be set beside that of the masters of the language. It is difficult, if not impossible, to imagine Peter using the Greek language like that.

The letter itself supplies the solution to this problem. In the concluding short section Peter himself says, "By Silvanus...I have written briefly" (1Pe_5:12 ). By Silvanus--dia (G1223) Silouanou (G4610)--is an unusual phrase. The Greek means that Silvanus was Peteragent in the writing of the letter; it means that he was more than merely Peterstenographer.

Let us approach this from two angles. First, let us enquire what we know about Silvanus. (The evidence is set out more fully in our study section on 1Pe_5:12 ). In all probability he is the same person as the Silvanus of Paulletters and the Silas of Acts, Silas being a shortened and more familiar form of Silvanus. When we examine these passages, we find that Silas or Silvanus was no ordinary person but a leading figure in the life and counsels of the early church.

He was a prophet (Act_15:32 ); he was one of the "chief among the brethren" at the council of Jerusalem and one of the two chosen to deliver the decisions of the council to the Church at Antioch (Act_15:22 , Act_15:27 ). He was Paulchosen companion in the second missionary journey, and was with Paul both in Philippi and in Corinth (Act_15:37-40 ; Act_16:19 , Act_16:25 , Act_16:29 ; Act_18:5 ; 2Co_1:19 ). He was associated with Paul in the initial greetings of 1 and 2 Thessalonians (1Th_1:1 ; 2Th_1:1 ). He was a Roman citizen (Act_16:37 ).

Silvanus, then, was a notable man in the early church; he was not so much the assistant as the colleague of Paul; and, since he was a Roman citizen, there is at least a possibility that he was a man of an education and culture such as Peter could never have enjoyed.

Now let us add our second line of thought. In a missionary situation, when a missionary can speak a language well enough but cannot write it very well, it is quite common for him to do one of two things in order to send a message to his people. He either writes it out in as good a style as he can, and then gets a native speaker of the language to correct his mistakes and to polish his style; or, if he has a native colleague whom he can fully trust, he tells him what he wishes said, leaves him to put the message into written form and then vets the result.

We can well imagine that this was the part Silvanus played in the writing of First Peter. Either he corrected and polished Peternecessarily inadequate Greek; or he wrote in his own words what Peter wanted said, with Peter setting the final product and adding the last personal paragraph to it.

The thought is that of Peter; but the style is that of Silvanus. And so, although the Greek is so excellent, there is no necessity to deny that the letter comes from Peter himself.

The Recipients Of The Letter

The recipients of the letter are the exiles (a Christian is always a sojourner on the earth) scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia.

Almost all of these words had a double significance. They stood for ancient kingdoms and they stood for Roman provinces to which the ancient names had been given; and the ancient kingdoms and the new provinces did not always cover the same territory. Pontus was never a province. It had originally been the kingdom of Mithradates and part of it was incorporated in Bithynia and part of it in Galatia. Galatia had originally been the kingdom of the Gauls in the area of the three cities Ancyra, Pessinus, and Tavium, but the Romans had expanded it into a much larger unit of administration, including sections of Phrygia, Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Isauria. The kingdom of Cappadocia had become a Roman province in A.D. 17 in practically its original form. Asia was not the continent of Asia as we use the term. It had been an independent kingdom, whose last king, Attalus the Third, had bequeathed it as a gift to Rome in 133 B.C. It embraced the centre of Asia minor and was bounded on the north by Bithynia, on the south by Lycia, and on the east by Phrygia and Galatia. In popular language it was that part of Asia Minor which lay along the shores of the Aegean Sea.

We do not know why these particular districts were picked out; but this much is certain--they embraced a large area with a very large population; and the fact that they are all mentioned is one of the greatest proofs of the immense missionary activity of the early church, apart altogether from the missionary activities of Paul.

All these districts lie in the north-east corner of Asia Minor. Why they are named as a group and why they are named in this particular order, we do not know. But a glance at the map will show that, if the bearer of this letter--who may well have been Silvanus--sailed from Italy and landed at Sinope in north-east Asia Minor, a journey through these provinces would be a circular tour which would take him back to Sinope. From Sinope in Bithynia he would go south to Galatia, further south to Cappadocia, west to Asia, north again to Bithynia, and then east to arrive back in Sinope.

It is clear from the letter itself that its recipients were mainly Gentiles. There is no mention of any question of the law, a question which always arose when there was a Jewish background. Their previous condition had been one of fleshly passion (1Pe_1:14 ; 1Pe_4:3-4 ) which fits gentiles far better than Jews. Previously they had been no people--Gentiles outside the covenant--but now they are the people of God (1Pe_2:9-10 ).

The form of his name which Peter uses also shows that this letter was intended for Gentiles for Peter is a Greek name. Paul calls him Cephas (1Co_1:12 ; 1Co_3:22 ; 1Co_9:5 ; 1Co_15:5 ; Gal_1:18 ; Gal_2:9 , Gal_2:11 , Gal_2:14 ); among his fellow Jews, he was known as Simeon (Act_15:14 ), which is the name by which he is called in Second Peter (2Pe_1:1 ). Since he uses his Greek name here, it is likely that he was writing to Greek people.

The Circumstances Behind The Letter

That this letter was written in a time when persecution threatened, is abundantly clear. They are in the midst of various trials (1Pe_1:6 ). They are likely to be falsely accused as evil-doers (1Pe_3:16 ). A fiery ordeal is going to try them (1Pe_4:12 ). When they suffer, they are to commit themselves to God (1Pe_4:19 ). They may well have to suffer for righteousnessake (1Pe_3:14 ). They are sharing in the afflictions which the Christian brotherhood throughout the world is called upon to endure (1Pe_5:9 ). At the back of this letter there are fiery trial, a campaign of slander and suffering for the sake of Christ. Can we identify this situation?

There was a time when the Christians had little to fear from the Roman government. In Acts it is repeatedly the Roman magistrates and the Roman soldiers and officials who save Paul from the fury of Jews and pagans alike. As Gibbon had it, the tribunal of the pagan magistrate proved the most assured refuge against the fury of the synagogue. The reason was that in the early days the Roman government was not able to distinguish between Jews and Christians. Within the empire Judaism was what was called a religio licita, a permitted religion, and Jews had full liberty to worship in their own way. It was not that the Jews did not try to enlighten the Romans to the true facts of the situation; they did so in Corinth, for example (Act_18:12-17 ). But for some time the Romans simply regarded the Christians as a Jewish sect and, therefore, did not molest them.

The change came in the days of Nero and we can trace almost every detail of the story. On 19th July, A.D. 64, the great fire of Rome broke out. Rome, a city of narrow streets and high wooden tenements, was in real danger of being wiped out. The fire burned for three days and three nights, was checked, and then broke out again with redoubled violence. The Roman populace had no doubt who was responsible and put the blame on the Emperor. Nero had a passion for building; and they believed so that he had deliberately taken steps to obliterate Rome that he might build it again. Neroresponsibility must remain for ever in doubt; but it is certain that he watched the raging inferno from the tower of Maecenas and expressed himself as charmed with the flower and loveliness of the flames. It was freely said that those who tried to extinguish the fire were deliberately hindered and that men were seen to rekindle it again, when it was likely to subside. The people were overwhelmed. The ancient landmarks and the ancestral shrines had vanished; the Temple of Luna, the Ara Maxima, the great altar, the Temple of Jupiter Stator, the shrine of Vesta, their very household gods were gone. They were homeless and, in Farrarphrase, there was "a hopeless brotherhood of wretchedness."

The resentment of the people was bitter. Nero had to divert suspicion from himself; a scapegoat had to be found. The Christians were made the scapegoat. Tacitus, the Roman historian, tells the story (Annals 15.44):

Neither human assistance in the shape of imperial gifts, nor

attempts to appease the gods, could remove the sinister report

that the fire was due to Neroown orders. And, so, in the hope

of dissipating the rumour, he falsely diverted the charge on to a

set of people to whom the vulgar gave the name of Chrestians, and

who were detested for the abominations they perpetrated. The

founder of the sect, one Christus by name, had been executed

by Pontius Pilate in the reign of Tiberius; and the dangerous

superstition, though put down for the moment, broke out again, not

only in Judaea, the original home of the pest, but even in Rome,

where everything shameful and horrible collects and is practised.

Clearly Tacitus had no doubt that the Christians were not to blame for the fire and that Nero was simply choosing them to be the scapegoats for his own crime.

Why did Nero pick on the Christians and how was it possible even to suggest that they were responsible for the fire of Rome? There are two possible answers.

(i) The Christians were already the victims of certain slanders.

(a) They were in the popular mind connected with the Jews. Antisemitism is no new thing and it was easy for the Roman mob to attach any crime to the Jews and, therefore, to the Christians.

(b) The LordSupper was secret, at least in a sense. It was open only to the members of the Church. And certain phrases connected with it were fruitful sources of pagan slanders, phrases about eating someonebody and drinking someoneblood. That was enough to produce a rumour that the Christians were cannibals. In time the rumour grew until it became a story that the Christians killed and ate a Gentile, or a newly born child. At the LordTable the Christians gave each other the kiss of peace (1Pe_5:14 ). Their meeting was called the Agape (G26), the Love Feast. That was enough for stories to spread that the Christian meetings were orgies of vice.

(c) It was always a charge against the Christians that they "tampered with family relationships." There was this much truth in such a charge that Christianity did indeed become a sword to split families, when some members of a family became Christian and some did not. A religion which split homes was bound to be unpopular.

(d) It was the case that the Christians spoke of a coming day when the world would dissolve in flames. Many a Christian preacher must have been heard preaching of the second coming and the fiery dissolution of all things (Act_2:19-20 ). It would not be difficult to put the blame for the fire on to people who spoke like that.

There was abundant material which could be perverted into false charges against the Christians by anyone maliciously disposed to victimise them.

(ii) The Jewish faith had always appealed especially to women because of its moral standards in a world where chastity did not exist. There were, therefore, many well-born women who had embraced the Jewish faith. The Jews did not hesitate to work upon these women to influence their husbands against the Christians. We get a definite example of that in what happened to Paul and his company in Antioch of Pisidia. There it was through such women that the Jews stirred up action against Paul (Act_13:50 ). Two of Nerocourt favourites were Jewish proselytes. There was Aliturus, his favourite actor; and there was Poppaea, his mistress. It is very likely that the Jews through them influenced Nero to take action against the Christians.

In any event, the blame for the fire was attached to the Christians and a savage outbreak of persecution occurred. Nor was it simply persecution by legal means. What Tacitus called an ingens multitudo, a huge multitude, of Christians perished in the most sadistic ways. Nero rolled the Christians in pitch, set light to them and used them as living torches to light his gardens. He sewed them up in the skins of wild animals and set his hunting-dogs upon them, to tear them limb from limb while they still lived.

Tacitus writes:

Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the

skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were

nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burned, to

serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. Nero

offered his gardens for the spectacle and was exhibiting a show

in the circus, while he mingled with the people in the dress of a

charioteer or stood aloft on a car. Hence, even for criminals who

deserve extreme and exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of

compassion; for, it was not, as it seemed, for the public good,

but to glut one mancruelty that they were being destroyed

(Tacitus, Annals 15: 44).

The same terrible story is told by the later Christian historian, Sulipicius Severus, in his Chronicle:

In the meantime, the number of Christians being now very large,

it happened that Rome was destroyed by fire, while Nero was

stationed at Antium. But the opinion of all cast the odium of

causing the fire upon the emperor, and he was believed in this way

to have sought for the glory of building a new city. And, in fact,

Nero could not, by any means he tried, escape from the charge that

the fire had been caused by his orders. He, therefore, turned the

accusation against the Christians and the most cruel tortures were

accordingly inflicted upon the innocent. Nay, even new kinds of

death were invented so that, being covered in the skins of wild

beasts, they perished by being devoured by dogs, while many were

crucified, or slain by fire, and not a few were set apart for this

purpose, that, when the day came to a close, they should be

consumed to serve for light during the night. In this way, cruelty

first began to be manifested against the Christians. Afterwards,

too, their religion was prohibited by laws which were enacted; and

by edicts openly set forth it was proclaimed unlawful to be a

Christian.

It is true that this persecution was confined originally to Rome; but the gateway to persecution had been opened and in every place they were ready victims for the mob.

Moffatt writes:

After the Neronic wave had passed over the capital, the wash of it

was felt on the far shores of the provinces; the dramatic publicity

of the punishment must have spread the name of Christian urbi et

orbi, far and wide, over the entire empire; the provincials would

soon hear of it, and when they desired a similar outburst at the

expense of the loyal Christians, all that they needed was a

proconsul to gratify their wishes and some outstanding disciple to

serve as a victim.

For ever after the Christians were to live under threat. The mobs of the Roman cities knew what had happened in Rome and there were always these slanderous stories against the Christians. There were times when the mob loved blood and there were many governors ready to pander to their blood-lust. It was not Roman law but lynch law which threatened the Christians.

From now on the Christian was in peril of his life. For years nothing might happen; then some spark might set off the explosion; and the terror would break out. That is the situation at the back of First Peter; and it is in face of it that Peter calls his people to hope and to courage and to that lovely Christian living which alone can give the lie to the slanders with which they are attacked and which are the grounds for taking measures against them. First Peter was written to meet no theological heresy; it was written to strengthen men and women in jeopardy of their lives.

The Doubts

We have set out in full the arguments which go to prove that Peter is really the author of the first letter which bears his name. But, as we have said, not a few first-class scholars have felt that it cannot have been his work. We ourselves accept the view that Peter is the author of the letter; but in fairness we set out the other side, largely as it is presented in the chapter on First Peter in The Primitive Church by B. H. Streeter

Strange Silences

Bigg writes in his introduction: "There is no book in the New Testament which has earlier, better, or stronger attestation (than First Peter). It is true that Eusebius, the great fourth century scholar and historian of the Church, classes First Peter among the books universally accepted in the early church as part of scripture" (Eusebius: Ecclesiastical History 3.25.2). But certain things are to be noted.

(a) Eusebius adduces certain quotations from earlier writers to prove his contention that First Peter was universally accepted. This he never does in connection with the gospels or the letters of Paul; and the very fact that he feels called upon to produce his evidence in the case of First Peter might be held to indicate that in it he felt some necessity to prove his point, a necessity which did not exist in connection with the other books. Was there a doubt in Eusebiuswn mind? Or, were there people who had to be convinced? Was the universal acceptance of First Peter not so unanimous after all?

(b) In his book, The Canon of the New Testament, Westcott noted that, although no one in the early church questions the right of First Peter to be part of the New Testament, surprisingly few of the early fathers quote it and, still more surprising, very few of the early fathers in the west and in Rome quote it. Tertullian is an immense quoter of scripture. In his writings there are 7,258 quotations from the New Testament, but only 2 of them are from First Peter. If Peter wrote this letter and wrote it in Rome, we would expect it to be well known and largely used in the Church of the west.

(c) The earliest known official list of New Testament books is the Muratorian Canon, so called after Cardinal Muratori who discovered it. It is the official list of New Testament books as accepted in the Church at Rome about the year A.D. 170. It is an extraordinary fact that First Peter does not appear at all. It can be fairly argued that the Muratorian Canon, as we possess it, is defective and that it may originally have contained a reference to First Peter. But that argument is seriously weakened by the next consideration.

(d) It is a fact that First Peter was still not in the New Testament of the Syrian Church as late as A.D. 373. It did not get in until the Syriac version of the New Testament known as the Peshitto was made about A.D. 400. We know that it was Tatian who brought the New Testament books to the Syriac-speaking Church; and he brought them to Syria from Rome when he went to Edessa and founded the Church there in A.D. 172. It could, therefore, be argued that the Muratorian Canon is correct as we possess it and that First Peter was not part of the Roman ChurchNew Testament as late as A.D. 170. This would be a very surprising fact if Peter wrote it--and actually wrote it at Rome.

When all these facts are put together, it does seem that there are some strange silences in regard to First Peter and that its attestation may not be as strong as is usually assumed.

First Peter And Ephesians

Further, there is definitely some connection between First Peter and Ephesians. There are many close parallels of thought and expression between the two and we select the following specimens of this similarity.

Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. By his

great mercy we have been born anew to a living hope through the

resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead (1Pe_1:3 ).

Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who

has blessed us in Christ with every spiritual blessing in the

heavenly places (Eph_1:3 ).

Therefore, gird up your minds, be sober, set your hope fully upon

the grace that is coming to you at the revelation of Jesus Christ

(1Pe_1:13 ).

Stand, therefore, having girded your loins with truth (Eph_6:14 ).

Jesus Christ, was destined before the foundation of the world, but

was made manifest at the end of the times for your sake

(1Pe_1:20 ).

Even as he chose us in him, before the foundation of the world

(Eph_1:4 ).

Jesus Christ, who has gone into heaven, and is at the right hand

of God, with angels and authorities and powers subject to him

(1Pe_3:22 ).

God made him sit at his right hand in the heavenly places, far

above all rule and authority, and power and dominion (Eph_1:20-21 ).

In addition, the injunctions to slaves, husbands and wives in First Peter and Ephesians are very similar.

The argument is put forward that First Peter is quoting Ephesians. Although Ephesians must have been written somewhere about A.D. 64, Paulletters were not collected and edited until about A.D. 90. If, then, Peter was also writing in A.D. 64, how could he know Ephesians?

This is an argument to which there is more than one reply. (a) The injunctions to slaves, husbands and wives are part of the standardized ethical teaching given to all converts in all churches. Peter was not borrowing from Paul; both were using common stock. (b) All the similarities quoted can well be explained from the fact that certain phrases and lines of thought were universal in the early church. For instance, "Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ," was part of the universal devotional language of the early church, which both Peter and Paul would know and use without any borrowing from each other. (c) Even if there was mutual borrowing, it is by no means certain that First Peter borrowed from Ephesians; the borrowing might well have been the other way round and probably was, for First Peter is much simpler than Ephesians. (d) Lastly, even if First Peter borrowed from Ephesians, if Peter and Paul were in Rome at the same time, it is perfectly possible that Peter could have seen a copy of Ephesians before it was sent to Asia Minor, and he might well have discussed its ideas with Paul.

The argument that First Peter must be late because it quotes from Ephesians seems to us very uncertain and insecure, and probably mistaken.

Your Fellow-elder

It is objected that Peter could not well have written the sentence: "The elders among you I exhort, as a fellow-elder" (1Pe_5:1 ). It is maintained that Peter could not have called himself an elder. He was an apostle whose function was quite different from that of an elder. The apostle was characteristically a man whose work and authority were not confined to any one congregation, but whose writ ran throughout the Church at large; whereas the elder was the governing official of the local congregation.

That is perfectly true. But it must be remembered that amongst the Jews there was no office more universally honoured than that of elder. The elder had the respect of the whole community and to him the community looked for guidance in its problems and justice in its disputes. Peter, as a Jew, would feel nothing out of place in calling himself an elder; and in so doing he would avoid the conscious claim of authority that the title of apostle might have implied, and graciously and courteously identify himself with the people to whom he spoke.

A Witness Of The Sufferings Of Christ

It is objected that Peter could not honestly have called himself a witness of Christsufferings, for after the arrest in the garden all the disciples forsook Jesus and fled (Mat_26:56 ) and, apart from the beloved disciple, none was a witness of the Cross (Joh_19:26-27 ). A witness of the resurrection Peter could call himself, and indeed to be such was the function of an apostle (Act_1:22 ), but a witness of the Cross he was not. In a sense that is undeniable. And yet Peter is not here claiming to be a witness of the crucifixion, but to be a witness of the sufferings of Christ. He did see Christ suffer, in his continual rejection by men, in the poignant moments of the Last Supper, in the agony in the garden and in that moment when, after he had denied him, Jesus turned and looked on him (Luk_22:61 ). It is an insensitive and pedestrian criticism which denies to Peter the right to say that he had been a witness of the sufferings of Christ.

Persecution For The Name

The main argument for a late date for First Peter is drawn from its references to persecution. It is argued that First Peter implies that it was already a crime to be a Christian and that Christians were brought before the courts, not for any crime but for the bare fact of their faith. First Peter speaks about being reproached for the name of Christ (1Pe_4:14 ); it speaks of suffering as a Christian (1Pe_4:16 ). It is argued that this stage of persecution was not reached until after A.D. 100, and that prior to that date their persecution was on the score of alleged evil-doing, as in the time of Nero.

There is no doubt that this was the law by A.D. 112. At that time Pliny was governor of Bithynia. He was a personal friend of the Emperor Trajan and he had a way of referring all his difficulties to Trajan for solution. He wrote to the Emperor to tell how he dealt with the Christians. Pliny was well aware that they were law-abiding citizens to whose practices no crimes were attached. They told him that "they had been accustomed to assemble on a fixed day before daylight, and sing by turns a hymn to Christ as God; that they had bound themselves with an oath, not for any crime, but to commit neither theft, nor robbery, nor adultery, nor to break their word, and not to deny a deposit when demanded." Pliny accepted all this; but, when they were brought before him, he asked only one question. "I have asked them whether they were Christians. Those who confessed I asked a second and a third time, threatening punishment. Those who persisted I ordered to be led away to execution." Their sole crime was that of being a Christian.

Trajan replied that this was the correct proceeding and that anyone who denied being a Christian and proved it by sacrificing to the gods was immediately to be set free. From the letters it is clear that there was a good deal of information being laid against the Christians; and Trajan laid it down that no anonymous letters of information were to be accepted or acted upon (Pliny: Letters 96 and 97).

It is argued that this stage of persecution did not emerge until the time of Trajan; and that First Peter, therefore, implies a situation which must be as late as Trojantime.

The only way in which we can settle this is to sketch the progress of persecution and the reason for it in the Roman Empire. We may do so by setting out one basic fact and three developments from it.

(i) Under the Roman system, religions were divided into two kinds. There were those which were religiones licitae, permitted religions; these were recognized by the state and it was open to any man to practise them. There were religiones illicitae; these were forbidden by the state and it was illegal for any man to practise them on pain of automatic prosecution as a criminal. It is to be noted that Roman toleration was very wide; and that any religion which did not affect public morality and civil order was certain to be permitted.

(ii) Judaism was a religio licita; and in the very early days the Romans, not unnaturally, did not know the difference between Judaism and Christianity. Christianity, as far as they were concerned, was merely a sect of Judaism and any tension and hostility between the two was a private quarrel which was no concern of the Roman government. Because of that in the very early days Christianity was under no danger of persecution. It enjoyed the same freedom of worship as Judaism enjoyed because it was assumed to be a religio licita.

(iii) The action of Nero changed the situation. However it came about, and most likely it was by the deliberate action of the Jews, the Roman government discovered that Judaism and Christianity were different. It is true that Nero first persecuted the Christians, not for being Christians, but for burning Rome. But the fact remains that Christianity had been discovered by the government to be a separate religion.

(iv) The consequence was immediate and inevitable. Christianity was at once a prohibited religion and immediately, ipso facto, every Christian became an outlaw. In the Roman historian, Suetonius, we have direct evidence that this was precisely what happened. He gives a kind of list of the legislative reforms initiated by Nero:

During his reign many abuses were severely punished and put

down, and not a few new laws were made; a limit was set to

expenditures; the public banquets were confined to a distribution

of food; the sale of any kind of cooked viands in the taverns was

forbidden, with the exception of pulse and vegetables, whereas,

before, every kind of dainty was exposed for sale. Punishment was

inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and

mischievous superstition. He put an end to the diversions of the

chariot-drivers, who from immunity of long standing claimed the

right of ranging at large and amusing themselves by cheating

and robbing the people. The pantomimic actors and their

partisans were banished from the city.

We have quoted that passage in full because it is proof that by the time of Nero the punishment of Christians had become an ordinary police affair. It is abundantly clear that we do not need to wait until the time of Trajan for the mere fact of being a Christian to be a crime. Any time after Nero a Christian was liable to punishment and death simply for the name he bore,

This does not mean that persecution was constant and consistent; but it does mean that any Christian was liable to execution at any time, purely as a police matter. In one area a Christian might live a whole lifetime at peace; in another there might be outbreaks of persecution every few months. It depended very largely on two things. It depended on the governor himself who might either leave the Christians unmolested or equally set the processes of the law in action against them. It depended on informers. The governor might not wish to act against the Christians, but if information was laid against a Christian he had to; and there were times when the mob were out for blood, information was laid and Christians were butchered to make a Roman holiday.

To compare small things with great, the legal position of the Christians and the attitude of the Roman law can be parallelled in Britain today. There are certain actions which are illegal--to take a very small example, parking a car partly on the pavement--but which for long enough may be permitted. But if the police authorities decide to institute a drive against such an action, or if it develops into too blatant a breaking of the law, or if someone lays a complaint and information, the law will go into action and due penalty and punishment will be exacted. That was the position of the Christians in the empire all of whom were technically outlaws. In actual fact no action might be taken against them; but a kind of sword of Damocles was for ever suspended over them. None knew when information would be laid against him; none knew when a governor would take action; none knew when he might have to die. And that situation obtained consistently after the action of Nero. Up to that time the Roman authorities had not realized that Christianity was a new religion; but from then on the Christian was automatically an outlaw.

Let us, then, look at the situation as depicted in First Peter. Peterpeople are undergoing various trials (1Pe_1:6 ). Their faith is liable to be tried as metal is tested with fire (1Pe_1:7 ). Clearly they are undergoing a campaign of slander in which ignorant and baseless charges are being maliciously directed against them (1Pe_2:12 ; 1Pe_2:15 ; 1Pe_3:16 ; 1Pe_4:4 ). At this very moment they are in the midst of an outbreak of persecution because they are Christians (1Pe_4:12 , 1Pe_4:14 , 1Pe_4:16 ; 1Pe_5:9 ). Such suffering is only to be expected and they must not be surprised at it (1Pe_4:12 ). In any event it gives them the happiness of suffering for righteousnessake (1Pe_3:14 , 1Pe_3:17 ), and of being sharers in the sufferings of Christ (1Pe_4:13 ). There is no need to come down to the time of Trajan for this situation. It is one in which Christians daily found themselves in every part of the empire at any time after their true status had been disclosed by the action of Nero. The persecution situation in First Peter does not in any way compel us to date it after the lifetime of Peter.

Honour The King

But we must proceed with the arguments of those who cannot hold the Petrine authorship. It is argued that in the situation which obtained in the time of Nero, Peter could never have written: "Be subject for the Lordsake to every human institution, whether it be to the emperor as supreme, or to governors as sent by him to punish those who do wrong and to praise those who do right.... Fear God. Honour the emperor." (1Pe_2:13-17 ). The fact is, however, that this is precisely the point of view expressed in Rom_13:1-7 . The whole teaching of the New Testament, except only in the Revelation in which Rome is damned, is that the Christian must be a loyal citizen and must demonstrate the falsity of the charges made against him by the excellence of his behaviour as such. (1Pe_2:15 ). Even in times of persecution the Christian fully acknowledged his obligation to be a good citizen; and his only defence against persecution was to show by the excellence of his citizenship that he did not deserve such treatment. It is by no means impossible that Peter should have written like that.

A Sermon And A Pastoral

What is the view of those who cannot believe that First Peter is the work of Peter himself?

First of all, it is suggested that the initial address (1Pe_1:1-2 ), and the closing greetings and salutations (1Pe_5:12-14 ) are later additions and no part of the original letter.

It is then suggested that First Peter as it stands is composed of two separate and quite different works. In 1Pe_4:11 we find a doxology. The natural place for a doxology is at the end; and it is suggested that 1Pe_1:3-25 ; 1Pet 2-3; 1Pe_4:1-11 is the first of the two works of which the letter is composed. It is further suggested that this part of First Peter was originally a baptismal sermon. There is indeed in it a reference to the baptism which saves us (1Pe_3:21 ); and the advice to slaves, wives and husbands (1Pe_2:18-25 ; 1Pe_3:1-7 ) would be entirely relevant to those who were entering the Christian Church from paganism and setting out on the newness of the Christian life.

It is suggested that the second part of the letter, 1Pe_4:12-19 ; 1Pe_5:1-11 , contains the substance of a pastoral letter, written to strengthen and comfort during a time of persecution (1Pe_4:12-19 ). At such a time the elders were very important; on them the resistance power of the Church depended. The writer of this pastoral fears that greed and arrogance are creeping in (1Pe_5:1-3 ), and he urges them faithfully to perform their high task (1Pe_5:4 ).

On this view First Peter is composed of two separate works--a baptismal sermon, and a pastoral letter written in time of persecution and neither has anything to do with Peter.

Asia Minor, Not Rome

If First Peter is a baptismal sermon and a pastoral letter in time of persecution, where is its place of origin? If the letter is not Peter there is no necessity to connect it with Rome; and, in any event, it appears that the Roman Church did not know or use First Peter. Let us put together certain facts.

(a) Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia (1Pe_1:1 ) are all in Asia Minor and all centred in Sinope.

(b) The first extensive quoter of First Peter is Polycarp bishop of Smyrna, and Smyrna is in Asia Minor.

(c) Certain phrases in First Peter immediately turn our thoughts to parallel phrases in other parts of the New Testament. In 1Pe_5:13 the Church is called "she that is elect," and in 2Jo_1:13 the Church is also described as an "elect sister." 1Pe_1:8 speaks of Jesus Christ, "without having seen him you love him; though you do not now see him you believe in him and rejoice with unutterable and exalted joy." This turns our thoughts very naturally to Jesusaying to Thomas in the Fourth Gospel: "Blessed are those who have not seen, and believe" (Joh_20:29 ). First Peter urges the elders to tend, that is, to shepherd, the flock of God (1Pe_5:2 ). That turns our thoughts to Jesusnjunction to Peter to feed his lambs and his sheep (Joh_21:15-17 ), and to Paulfarewell injunction to the elders of Ephesus to take heed to the flock over which the Holy Spirit has made them guardians (Act_20:28 ). All this is to say that the memories First Peter awakens are of the Fourth Gospel, the Letters of John and of Paul at Ephesus. The Fourth Gospel and the Letters of John were most probably written at Ephesus, and Ephesus is in Asia Minor.

It seems that in the case of First Peter all roads lead to Asia Minor.

The Occasion Of The Publication Of First Peter

Assuming that First Peter has its origin in Asia Minor, can we suggest an occasion for its writing? It was written at a time of persecution. We know from Plinyletters that in Bithynia about A.D. 112 there was a serious persecution of the Christians and Bithynia is one of the provinces named in the address. We may well conjecture that it was to give courage to the Christians then that First Peter was issued. It may be that at that time someone in a church in Asia Minor came upon these two documents and sent them out under the name of Peter. This would not be looked upon as forgery. Both in Jewish and in Greek practice it was the regular custom to attach books to the name of the great writers of the past.

The Author Of First Peter

If Peter did not write First Peter, is it possible to guess at the author? Let us reconstruct some of his essential qualifications. On our previous assumption, he must come from Asia Minor. On the basis of First Peter itself, he must be an elder and an eye-witness of the sufferings of Christ (1Pe_5:1 ). Is there anyone who fits these requirements? Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis about A.D. 170, who spent his life collecting all the information he could about the early days of the Church, tells of his methods and his sources: "Nor shall I hesitate, along with my own interpretations, to set down for thee whatsoever I learned with care and remembered with care from the elders, guaranteeing its truth.... Furthermore, if anyone chanced to arrive who had been really a follower of the elders, I would enquire as to the sayings of the elders--as to what Andrew or Peter said, or Philip, or Thomas or James, or John or Matthew, or any other of the Lorddisciples, also as to what Aristion or the Presbyter John, the Lorddisciples say. For I supposed that things out of books would not be of such use to me as the utterances of a living voice which was still with us." Here we have an elder called Aristion who was a disciple of the Lord and, therefore, a witness of his sufferings. Is there anything to connect him with First Peter?

Aristion Of Smyrna

When we turn to the Apostolic Constitutions we find that one of the first bishops of Smyrna was called Ariston--which is the same name as Aristion. Now who is the great quoter of First Peter? None other than Polycarp, a later Bishop of Smyrna. What more natural than that Polycarp should quote what might well have been the devotional classic of his own Church?

Let us turn to the letters to the Seven Churches in the Revelation and read the letter to Smyrna: "Do not fear what you are about to suffer. Behold, the devil is about to throw some of you into prison, that you may be tested, and for ten days you will have tribulation. Be faithful unto death, and I will give you the crown of life" (Rev_2:10 ). Can this be the very same persecution as that which originally lay behind First Peter? And was it for this persecution that Aristion, the Bishop of Smyrna, first wrote the pastoral letter which was afterwards to become a part of First Peter?

Such is the suggestion of B. H. Streeter. He thinks that First Peter is composed of a baptismal sermon and a pastoral letter written by Aristion, Bishop of Smyrna. Originally the pastoral letter was written to comfort and strengthen the people of Smyrna in A.D. 90 when the persecution mentioned in the Revelation threatened the Church. These writings of Aristion became the devotional classics and the cherished possessions of the Church at Smyrna. Rather more than twenty years later a much wider and more far-reaching persecution broke out in Bithynia and spread throughout northern Asia Minor. Someone remembered the letter and the sermon of Aristion, felt that they were the very thing the Church needed in her time of trial, and sent them out under the name of Peter, the great apostle.

An ApostleLetter

We have stated in full both views of the origin, date and authorship of First Peter. There is no doubt of the ingenuity of the theory which B. H. Streeter has produced nor that those who favour a later date have produced arguments which have to be considered. For our own part, however, we see no reason to doubt that the letter is the work of Peter himself, and that it was written not long after the great fire of Rome and the first persecution of the Christians with the object of encouraging the Christians of Asia Minor to stand fast when the onrushing tide of persecution sought to engulf them and take their faith away.

FURTHER READING

1 Peter

F. W. Beare, The First Epistle of Peter (G)

E. Best, 1 Peter (NCB; E)

C. Bigg, St. Peter and St. Jude (ICC; G)

C. E. B. Cranfield, 1 and 2 Peter and Jude (Tch; E)

E. G. Selwyn, The First Epistle of St. Peter (MmC; G)

Abbreviations

ICC: International Critical Commentary

MC: Moffatt Commentary

MmC: Macmillan Commentary

NCB: New Century Bible

Tch: Torch Commentary

E: English Text

G: Greek Text

Barclay: 1 Peter 1 (Chapter Introduction)

The Great Inheritance (1Pe_1:1-2)

The Chosen Of God And The Exiles Of Eternity (1Pe_1:1-2 Continued)

The Three Great Facts Of The Christian Life (1Pe_1:1-2 Continued)

The Rebirth Of The Christian (1Pe_1:3-5)

The Great Inheritance (1Pe_1:3-5 Continued)

Protected In Time And Safe In Eternity (1Pe_1:3-5 Continued)

The Secret Of Endurance (1Pe_1:6-7)

Unseen But Not Unknown (1Pe_1:8-9)

The Foretelling Of The Glory (1Pe_1:10-12)

The Message Of The Preacher (1Pe_1:10-12 Continued)

The Necessary Virility Of The Christian Faith (1Pe_1:13)

The Christless Life And The Christ-Filled Life (1Pe_1:14-25)

Constable: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Historical background

This epistle claims that the Apostle Peter wrote it (1:1). Since there is only one Peter who was an apostle we may be confident of the identity of the writer. There is only one Peter that the entire New Testament mentioned. Scholars did not question Peter's authorship until the nineteenth century when destructive biblical criticism became popular.

"The epistle has been well known and consistently acknowledged as Petrine from the second century well into modern times. . . .

"Aside from the four Gospels and the letters of Paul, the external attestation for 1 Peter is as strong, or stronger, than that for any NT book. There is no evidence anywhere of controversy over its authorship or authority"¹

Peter first sent this letter to believers living in the northern regions of Asia Minor (1:1). The locations of these Christians as well as allusions in the epistle indicate that they were mainly Gentiles but also Jews (e.g., 1:14; 2:10).

Peter stated his reason for writing, namely, to encourage his readers who were facing persecution for their faith to stand firm (5:12). Evidently this persecution was widespread among his readers. Local enemies of the gospel were not the only people responsible for it. When Paul travelled around the Roman Empire preaching the gospel, some churches he planted experienced persecution from the unsaved in their communities, but others did not. However 1 Peter reflects persecution of the Christians throughout northern Asia Minor. This condition prevailed after Nero blamed the Christians for burning Rome in A.D. 64. While persecution seems to have been widespread, it may not have been official yet.

Peter died in the mid 60s and spent the last decade of his life in Rome according to reliable tradition.² Many interpreters have regarded his reference to Babylon (5:13) as a reference to Rome that Peter described as Babylon to highlight its paganism. In view of all this information it seems likely that Peter wrote this epistle from Rome about A.D. 64.³

Theologically this epistle is apocalyptic (dealing with the end times). Along with its eschatological focus there is much emphasis on holiness (personal, social, and communal), hope, salvation, community, relationship to the world, the Trinity, and especially suffering.⁴

". . . much of the material in 1 Peter is the stuff of basic Christian teaching rather than advanced instruction that assumes the mastery (and perhaps the perversion) of the basics, as in the Pauline letters."⁵

"In many . . . respects, 1 Peter and James form a matched pair within the NT canon. They are Christian diaspora letters roughly similar in length, one directed (probably from Jerusalem) to scattered messianic Jews (i.e., Christians) who are real Jews, and the other directed from Babylon' to scattered Jews' who are in fact Gentile Christians."⁶

Message⁷

One writer has identified five major motifs in 1 Peter. These are the believer's behavior, the believer's unfair circumstances, the believer's deference, the believer's motivation by Christ's example, and the believer's anticipation of future glory. These are certainly important emphases in this epistle.

Putting these together he has stated the message of 1 Peter as follows. "The behavior of believers when they encounter unfair circumstances reflects a spirit of deference in all relationships as they follow Christ's example and anticipate future glory."⁸

This is a very fine statement of what the Holy Spirit has said to us through Peter in this epistle. However, I would add one more important motif. It is the believer's resource of God's grace. This is not an incidental motif but one that underlies all of what Peter called on his readers to do. We must understand and apply what he wrote about God's grace as our resource to follow his exhortations.

It seems to me that Peter stated the message of this epistle clearly: stand firm in the true grace of God (5:12).

The subject of the letter therefore is the true grace of God. Grace is the key word in the argument of this epistle. In each case the word "grace" occurs in the practical rather than in the doctrinal part of each section of the letter. Throughout 1 Peter the fact of God's grace was in Peter's mind as crucial to the believer's practice. How does one explain God's grace? Grace means both undeserved favor and divine enablement.

The main purpose of this epistle was to strengthen the readers so they would persevere through their persecution with the right attitude. Peter did this by showing that God's grace provided all they needed for strength. In a larger sense, the purpose is to help Christians know how to live as aliens in the world.

This epistle reveals above all else that God's grace is sufficient for all our needs. We could write over this whole book: 2 Corinthians 12:9. Notice five things Peter reminds us about God's grace. Let's trace the references to grace though 1 Peter.

1. Grace proceeds from God. God in His grace has chosen us (1:1). Now we need to realize God's grace in its fullest measure in our experience (1:2).

2. Grace produces confidence. The prophets foretold God's grace (1:10). The advents of Jesus Christ supplied God's grace (1:13). It came into the world at His first advent through His sufferings and death. It will come into the world again at His second advent through His glorification. This pattern gives us confidence. God has united us with Christ. As He suffered once, we suffer now. As certainly as He will receive glory in the future, we too will experience glorification in the future. We need to remember our hope.

3. What proclaims God's grace is our conduct (2:19-20). The Christian's conduct in trying and difficult circumstances manifests God's grace in a human life. The submissive conduct of servants whose masters are persecuting them manifests God's grace. The submissive conduct of wives whose antagonistic husbands are persecuting them manifests grace. The submissive conduct of husbands whom unbelievers are persecuting manifests grace. The husband demonstrates his submission to God by treating his wife as a fellow heir of God's grace (3:7). Our patient endurance of trials displays our submission to God's will. Thus our conduct manifests God's grace. Sometimes we marvel at the ability God gives his persecuted saints to endure. We say, "How can he (or she) do it?"

4. Grace perfects character. Grace is the source of service (4:10). Grace is also the source of humility (5:5). An attitude of humility manifests itself in service of others. God's grace is the secret of both the attitude and the activity. Jesus established "the order of the towel" by washing the disciples' feet (John 13).

5. Grace promotes courage (5:10). We need courage to resist the devil (5:8-9). God's grace gives us strength to defend ourselves against his attacks.

The epistle exhorts us to stand firm in this grace. This is Peter's appeal to us.

When God tries our faith, we need to remember that we have an adequate source of strength in God's grace.

When our faith is trembling, we need to remember that we have an adequate source of confidence in God's grace.

When our circumstances are difficult we need to remember that we have an adequate source of conduct in God's grace.

When we suffer for conscience's sake we need to remember that we have an adequate source of character in God's grace.

When assaulted by the adversary we need to remember that we have an adequate source of courage in God's grace.

We stand firm in the true grace of God when we respond to suffering for Christ's sake as Peter directed us. God's grace is what we need to rely on as we commit ourselves to continue to walk in the will of God. Trust and obey!

Constable: 1 Peter (Outline)

Outline

I. Introduction 1:1-2

II. The identity of Christians 1:3-2:10

A. Our great salvation 1:3-12

1. The hope of our salvation 1:3-5

2. The joy of our salvation 1:6-9

3. The witnesses of our salvation 1:10-12

B. Our new way of life 1:13-25

1. A life of holiness 1:13-16

2. A life of reverence 1:17-21

3. A life of love 1:22-25

C. Our priestly calling 2:1-10

1. Listening to God 2:1-3

2. Growing in God 2:4-5

3. Building on Christ 2:6-8

4. Summary affirmation of our identity 2:9-10

III. The responsibilities of Christians individually 2:11-4:11

A. Our mission in the world 2:11-12

B. Respect for others 2:13-3:12

1. Respect for everyone 2:13-17

2. Slaves' respect for their masters 2:18-25

3. Wives' respect for their husbands 3:1-6

4. Husbands' respect for their wives 3:7

5. The importance of loving enemies 3:8-12

C. Eventual vindication 3:13-4:6

1. Suffering for doing good 3:13-17

2. The vindication of Christ 3:18-22

3. Living with the promise in view 4:1-6

D. The importance of mutual love in end-times living 4:7-11

IV. The responsibilities of Christians corporately 4:12-5:11

A. The fiery trial 4:12-19

1. Suffering and glory 4:12-14

2. Suffering as Christians 4:15-19

B. The church under trial 5:1-11

1. The responsibilities of the elders 5:1-4

2. The responsibilities of the others 5:5

3. The importance of humility and trust in God 5:6-7

4. The importance of resisting the devil 5:8-11

VII. Conclusion 5:12-14

Note the essentially chiastic structure of thought in the letter, excluding the introduction and conclusion.

Constable: 1 Peter

1 Peter

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Tuni, Jose Oriol. "Jesus of Nazareth in the Christology of 1 Peter." Haythrop Journal 28:3 (July 1987):292-304.

Vaughn, Marilyn. "When Should a Wife Not Submit?" Moody Monthly, October 1977, pp. 104-107.

Vos, Geerhardus. "A Sermon on I Peter 1:3-5." Kerux 1:2 (September 1986):4-17.

Wall, Joe L. Going for the Gold. Chicago: Moody Press, 1991.

Wand, J. W. C. The General Epistles of St. Peter and St. Jude. Westminster Commentaries. London: Methuen & Co., 1934.

Wiersbe, Warren W. The Bible Exposition Commentary. 2 vols. Wheaton: Scripture Press Publications, Victor Books, 1989.

Wilkin, Robert N. "Election and the Gospel." Grace Evangelical Society News 4:7 (July 1989):1, 3.

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Wolston, W. T. P. Simon Peter: His Life and Letters. 2nd ed. London: James Nisbet and Co., 1896.

Zuck, Roy B. "The Doctrine of Conscience." Bibliotheca Sacra 126:504 (October-December 1969):329-40.

Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

THE

FIRST EPISTLE OF ST. PETER,

THE APOSTLE.

INTRODUCTION.

This first Epistle of St. Peter, though brief, contains much doctrine concerning faith, hope, and charity, with divers instructions to all persons of every state and condition. The apostle commands submission to rulers and superiors, and exhorts all to the practice of a virtuous life, in imitation of Christ. This epistle was written with such apostolical dignity, as to manifest the supreme authority with which its writer, the prince of the apostles, had been invested by his Lord and Master, Jesus Christ. He wrote it at Rome, which figuratively he calls Babylon, about fifteen years after our Lord's ascension. (Challoner) --- St. Peter, otherwise called Simon, son of John or Jonas, was from Bethsaida, a city of Galilee. He was married, and lived at Capharnaum, and was employed with his brother Andrew, as fishermen, when our Lord called them. St. Peter on every occasion testified a more than usual zeal for his Master, and hence our Lord shewed him a very particular and very marked attention. He would have Peter present at his transfiguration; (Luke ix. 28.) and at another time declared that he [Peter] was a rock, upon which he [Jesus Christ] would build his Church, against which the gates of hell should never prevail. (Matthew xvi. 18.) Although St. Peter had the misfortune or weakness to deny Jesus Christ in his passion, our Lord, after his resurrection, gave him fresh proofs of his regard. (Matthew xvi. 7.) He continued him in his primacy over all, and appointed him in the most explicit manner visible head of his Church, when thrice asking Peter: "lovest thou me more than these?" and St. Peter as often answering, Christ said to him: "feed my lambs, feed my sheep." (John xxi. 15.) --- This epistle was always received in the Church as canonical, and as written by St. Peter, prince of the apostles. It is commonly agreed that it was written from Rome, which St. Peter calls Babylon, (Chap. v. 13.) and directed to those in the provinces of Pontus, Galatia, &c. (ver. 1.) who were before Jews or Gentiles, and had been converted to the Christian faith. It is certain this letter was not written till after the true believers had the name of Christians. (Chap. iv. 16.) Many think it was written before the year 49; but this is not certain. Others judge not till after the year 60, and some not till a short time before he wrote his second epistle. See Tillemont, t. i. Art. 31. on S. Pet. and tom. ii. on S. Mark, p. 89.) The main design is to confirm the new converts in the faith of Christ, with divers instructions to a virtuous life. (Witham) --- Grotius, Erasmus, and Estius, discover in this epistle, a strength and majesty worthy the prince of the apostles. Est autem epistola profecto digna Apostolorum Principe, plena authoritatis et majestatis Apostolicæ: verbis parca, sententiis referta.

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Gill: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 1 PETER

That Simon, called Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, was the writer of this epistle, is not questioned by any; nor was the genuineness and authenticity of it ever made a doubt of. Eusebius says ^a, that it had been confessed by all, and received without controversy; and that the ancients, without any scruple, had made use of it in their writings. It is called his "general", or catholic epistle, because it was not written to any particular person, or to any particular church, but in general, to a number of Christians dispersed in several places. The time when this epistle was written is not certain; some place it in the year of Christ 44 or 45, and so make it to be the most ancient of all the epistles, and which is the more commonly received opinion; but Dr. Lightfoot ^b places it in the year 65, because in it the apostle speaks of the end of all things being at hand, and of the fiery trial just coming on them, and of judgment beginning at the house of God, 1Pe 4:7 all which he applies to the destruction of Jerusalem; though others fix it to 61, in the seventh year of Nero ^c. The place from whence it seems to be written was Babylon, 1Pe 5:13 which is to be understood not figuratively, either of Rome or Jerusalem, but properly of Babylon, the metropolis of Chaldea, or Assyria. The persons to whom it is written were Jews, at least chiefly; for there might be some Gentiles among them, who may be taken notice of in some parts of the epistle; but the principal part were Jews, as appears from their being called the strangers of the dispersion, or, as James calls them, "the twelve tribes scattered abroad"; from the mention of the tradition of their fathers; from their having their conversation honest among the Gentiles, and their past life among them; from urging subjection to the civil magistrates among the Heathens, and the right use of their Christian liberty as to the ceremonies of the law; and from the near destruction of Jerusalem, which could only affect them; and from the use made of the writings of the Old Testament, and the authority of the prophets; see 1Pe 1:1 as well as from the second epistle, which was written to the same; see 2Pe 1:19 in which he seems to refer to the epistle to the Hebrews, written by Paul, as to these. And besides, Peter was the minister of the circumcision, or of the circumcised Jews, as Paul was of the Gentiles; and even those passages in this epistle, which seem most likely to concern the Gentiles, may be understood of the Jews, as which speak of their ignorance, idolatry, and having not been a people, 1Pe 1:14 which were true of them before conversion, and as living among Gentiles. The occasion of writing it was this; Peter meeting with Sylvanus, a faithful brother, and who had been a companion of the Apostle Paul, he takes this opportunity of sending a letter by him to the converted Jews, dispersed among the Gentile countries, where he, with Paul, and others, travelled: the design of which is to testify of the true doctrine of grace, in which they were agreed; see 1Pe 5:12. And accordingly in it he does treat of the doctrine of electing grace, of redeeming grace, of regenerating and sanctifying grace, and of persevering grace; and exhorts believers to the exercise of grace, of faith, hope, and love, and to the discharge of such duties becoming their several stations, whereby they might evidence to others the truth of grace in themselves, and adorn the doctrine of the grace of God, and recommend it to others: and particularly he exhorts them patiently to bear all afflictions and persecutions they should meet with, for their profession of the true grace of God, in which he encourages them to stand steadfast: and this is the general scope and design of the epistle.

Gill: 1 Peter 1 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 1 PETER 1 In this chapter, after the inscription and salutation, the apostle gives thanks to God for various blessings of grace bestowed, or to be bestowed upon the persons he writes to; and then, with the best of arguments and motives, urges them to the performance of several duties of religion. In the inscription, the person who is the writer of the epistle is described, both by his name, and by his office; and also the persons to whom it is sent, by their outward condition, strangers dispersed through several countries particularly mentioned, and by their spiritual estate, elect men; the source and spring of which election is the foreknowledge of God the Father; the means, the sanctification of the Spirit; and the end, obedience, and sprinkling of the blood of Christ; and to these the apostle wishes a multiplication of grace and peace, 1Pe 1:1 and then he gives thanks to God for the regeneration of them; the efficient cause of which is God the Father; the moving cause, his abundant mercy; the means, the resurrection of Christ from the dead; the end, a lively hope of a glorious inheritance, 1Pe 1:3 and next follows a description of regenerate ones; they are such who are kept by the power of God through faith, unto salvation; who rejoice in hope of that salvation, though now for a little while are sorrowful, by reason of afflictions, which are for the trial of their faith; they are believers in Christ, lovers of him, and rejoice in him, and shall at last receive the end of their faith, the salvation of their souls, 1Pe 1:5 the excellency of which salvation is set forth from the concern the prophets had in it, the scrutiny they made into it, and the revelation of it made to them; from the concern the apostles had in it, and their report of it, and from the desire of angels to look into it, 1Pe 1:10 upon which the apostle exhorts to the exercise of various graces and duties, to attention of mind, to sobriety, to a constant hope of eternal glory, and to holiness of life and conversation, 1Pe 1:13 the arguments engaging to which are taken from the nature of God, who had called them by his grace, 1Pe 1:15 from their concern with him, as a Father and a judge; from their state and condition, as sojourners in this world, and from their redemption by the blood of Christ from a vain conversation, 1Pe 1:17 and of Christ, the Redeemer of them, many things are said, as that he was ordained before the foundation of the world to be the Redeemer; was manifested in human nature in these last days, for the sake of such that believe; was raised from the dead, and glorified, that there might be a sufficient foundation for the exercise of faith and hope in God, 1Pe 1:20 and next the apostle exhorts to brotherly love, in purity, and with fervency; from the consideration of the internal purification of them by the Spirit, through obedience to the truth; and from their regeneration, the cause of which was not corruptible, but incorruptible seed; and the means, the living and abiding word of God, 1Pe 1:22 which is illustrated by a passage out of Isa 40:6 setting forth the frailty and mortality of men, and the transitoriness of all outward enjoyments; to which is opposed the duration of the everlasting Gospel, the means of regeneration, 1Pe 1:24.

College: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION

This commentary is written for the general reader with a serious interest in Scripture. Its purpose is to provide a historical interpretation of 1 Peter; that is, an interpretation of what Peter meant to say to his ancient audience. I write with the conviction that modern readers can only determine God's message to us after and on the basis of a determination of Peter's message to his ancient contemporaries. Because I believe God worked through Peter and inspired his work, I believe it has great relevance to every reader in every age. But we can only determine what it means to us if we have first determined what it meant when Peter wrote it. It is this latter task that is the focus of most commentaries, including this one. I will occasionally make comments about what a given passage means today, but not consistently. I will consistently comment on what Peter meant to say to his original readers. I hope and pray that my readers will recognize the contemporary relevance of Peter's letter, even though it will not be my purpose to point it out or illustrate it. My purpose is to provide a base to build on for contemporary application.

I have been especially influenced by the commentaries by Paul Achtemeier and Ramsey Michaels. I have also frequently consulted the commentaries by Leonard Goppelt and Peter Davids. I often refer the reader to these works for further information, and even where I do not, the reader would be well advised to consult them for a scholar's depth of treatment.

I have commented on the NIV text. In some places where it seems deficient, I have provided an alternative translation, usually from the NRSV. The commentary makes note of the most significant textual variants and my opinions concerning them, but does not provide a list of manuscripts, versions, or church fathers. Interested readers should use the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament .

AUTHOR

Peter identifies himself in the opening words of the letter: "Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ." The book clearly claims to have been written by the well-known apostle, a leading figure in the Gospels and in the first half of the book of Acts.

This claim is well supported by second century evidence. Some even argue that 1 Clement, written near the end of the first century, reflects use of 1 Peter. It is certainly true that Polycarp of Smyrna knew and used 1 Peter. This is repeatedly reflected in his letter to the Philippians, written in the first half of the second century. It is all the more significant since Smyrna was in one of the regions Peter addressed.

This is also true of Hierapolis, the home of Papias, who also wrote in the first half of the second century. According to Eusebius, Papias used quotations from the first epistle of Peter.

In the latter part of the second century Irenaeus cited 1 Peter and explicitly mentioned Peter as the author. All subsequent ancient Christian authors agree.

The only evidence that some believe might indicate another opinion is that the Muratorian Canon (late second century) does not list 1 Peter. Others believe that 1 Peter was originally listed and is omitted because of the corrupt state of our copy of this list. In any case it would be a questionable argument from silence to use the omission as evidence that the author of the Canon knew 1 Peter and considered it to be falsely ascribed. He was quite capable of identifying works which he considered to be falsely ascribed.

Until modern times Peter's authorship of 1 Peter was universally accepted among Christians. However, many modern scholars, including Goppelt and Achtemeier, consider the book pseudepigraphical. Their arguments are not compelling.

One argument against Petrine authorship is the good quality of the Greek in 1 Peter. However, in recent decades there has been a growing awareness that Greek was widely used as a second language in Palestine. It is not improbable that, even without a special gift from the Spirit, Peter would have known Greek. Furthermore, 1 Peter 5:12 may indicate that Silvanus assisted Peter as his secretary. This is a debated point which is discussed in the comments on that verse. But if Silvanus did secretarial work for Peter, then he may have influenced the Greek style.

A second argument used against Peter having written 1 Peter is the similarity of the content of parts of 1 Peter to the letters of Paul. However, such similarities are not surprising. The incident Paul recounts in Galatians 2 does not indicate that he and Peter remained at odds with each other or that they did not share many common emphases.

A third argument is that the references to persecution indicate a late date, perhaps during the reign of Domitian (A.D. 81-96) or Trajan (A.D. 98-117) - after the death of Peter during the reign of Nero (A.D. 54-68). However, there are no clear indications of state-ordered persecution in 1 Peter. Fortunately, this argument has lost much of its force because most contemporary scholars agree that the persecution reflected in 1 Peter does not presuppose a government-sponsored persecution.

In the light of the weakness of arguments to the contrary and the strength of the second century support for Peter as the author, the claim made in 1 Peter 1:1 should be accepted. The author is Peter the apostle.

PLACE OF COMPOSITION

First Peter 5:13 says "She who is in Babylon, chosen together with you, sends you her greetings, and so does my son Mark." Peter was in "Babylon." There are three possible referents: Mesopotamian Babylon, a Roman military settlement named Babylon (located near modern Cairo, Egypt), and the city of Rome. The most likely choice is Rome. Rome is symbolically designated "Babylon" in the book of Revelation and several Jewish works (including 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch). One weakness of this approach is that 1 Peter appears to be the earliest such reference.

But there is reasonably good evidence that Peter went to Rome. Clement of Rome, writing in the mid-90s, implies that Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome during the Neronian persecution brought on by the fire in Rome in July of A.D. 64. In the early second century Ignatius's letter to the Romans seems to assume that Peter had been in Rome. Beginning in the second half of the second century there is a steady stream of references to Peter in Rome (although many of them are mixed in with dubious assertions about Peter founding the Roman church).

In addition to Peter, 1 Peter 5:13 places Mark in "Babylon" as well. If Colossians and Philemon were written from Rome, they place Mark there with Paul (Col 4:10; Phlm 24).

DATE

The previous paragraph points out that 1 Clement 5-6 suggests that Peter died in the Neronian persecution. As in the case of Peter's presence in Rome, sources from the late second century and beyond provide a steady stream of references to Peter's martyrdom under Nero (mixed with various dubious claims). The vast majority of scholars accept the idea that Peter was martyred by order of Nero between A.D. 64 and 68. Since Peter is the author, 1 Peter must have been written no later than A.D. 68.

Few, if any, would suggest a date earlier than the 60s. Earlier dates might not allow adequate time for Peter to come to Rome or for Christianity to spread through most of Asia Minor.

RECIPIENTS

Concerning the five provinces listed in 1 Peter 1:1 see the commentary for details. They encompass most of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Peter addressed Christians who were scattered throughout these areas.

The fact that Peter addressed his readers with the term "Diaspora" or "Dispersion" (1:1) misled many in the past to maintain that his readers were primarily Jewish Christians. The term "Diaspora," meaning "scattered," was used frequently by the Jews to refer to those who had been scattered throughout the world, away from their Palestinian homeland. However, there is a consensus among modern interpreters that Peter used it metaphorically to include Gentile Christians. All Christians live away from their homeland with God.

Besides the likelihood that many Gentiles had become Christians in these predominantly Gentile regions, several verses in 1 Peter indicate that many of the readers came out of a pagan past. See, for example, 1:14, "do not conform to the evil desires you had when you lived in ignorance"; 1:18, "you were redeemed from the evil way of life handed down to you from your forefathers"; and 4:3, "you have spent enough time in the past doing what pagans choose to do."

ENCOURAGING THE PERSECUTED

First Peter 5:12 sums up Peter's purpose: "I have written to you briefly, encouraging you and testifying that this is the true grace of God. Stand fast in it." Peter's letter was a word of encouragement to Christians who were facing persecution and needed encouragement to stand firm in their faith.

Earlier interpreters often thought of these persecutions as state-sponsored persecutions leading to imprisonment and death. More recent interpreters have noticed that the nature and extent of the persecutions is not very specific. The only specific reference to physical persecution is the reference in 2:20 to Christian slaves being beaten. There is no reference to state-sponsored persecution.

But that the persecutions were severe is clear from such references as 1:6, "You may have had to suffer grief in all kinds of trials" and 4:12, "do not be surprised at the painful trial you are suffering."

We are familiar with the antagonistic environment the early Christians lived in from reading Acts and Paul's letters. In the early second century several pagan writers provide further evidence of how Christians were perceived by others. In writing about Nero's persecution of Christians Tacitus describes them as "a class hated for their abominations" and calls Christianity "a deadly superstition . . . hideous and shameful." In describing the same event Suetonius describes Christians as "a class of men given to a new and wicked superstition." During roughly the same period of time Pliny, the Roman governor of Bithynia (one of the five regions Peter addressed), wrote to the emperor Trajan and described Christianity as "a perverse and extravagant superstition." These are the kinds of criticisms Peter presumably had in mind when he made comments like "they accuse you of doing wrong" (2:12) and they "speak maliciously against your good behavior in Christ" (3:16).

Peter wrote to remind these readers of what God had done for them in Christ (e.g., 1:1-12; 2:4-10) and to encourage them to stand firm (e.g., 1:13-25; 2:11-25). We can benefit from overhearing what he said.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Achtemeier, Paul J. 1 Peter . Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996.

Aland, Barbara, Kurt Aland, et al., eds. The Greek New Testament . 4th Rev. Ed. United Bible Societies, 1993.

Bauer, Walter. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 2d Ed. Rev. William F. Arndt, F. Wilbur Gingrich, and Frederick W. Danker. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979.

Bigg, Charles. Epistles of St. Peter and St. Jude . International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1901.

Bruce, F.F. The Canon of Scripture. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1988.

Carson, D.A., D.J. Moo, and L. Morris. An Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992.

Dalton, W.J. Christ's Proclamation to the Spirits: A Study of 1 Peter 3:18-4:6. 2nd Ed. Analecta Biblica 23. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1989.

Davids, Peter H. The First Epistle of Peter. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990.

Elliott, J.H. The Elect and the Holy: An Exegetical Examination of 1 Peter 2:4-10 and the Phrase basivleion iJeravteuma. Novum Testamentum. Supplement 12. Leiden: Brill, 1966.

Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. 2nd Ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993.

Finegan, Jack. Handbook of Biblical Chronology . Rev. ed. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998.

France, R.T. "Exegesis in Practice: Two Samples." In New Testament Exegesis. Ed. I. Howard Marshall. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977.

Goppelt, Leonard. A Commentary on 1 Peter . Ed. Ferdinand Hahn. Trans. and Aug. John E. Alsup. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993.

Grudem, Wayne. The First Epistle of Peter. Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988.

Hemer, Colin. "The Address of 1 Peter." Expository Times 89 (1977-78): 239-243.

Hort, F.J.A. The First Epistle of St. Peter 1:1-2:17. London: Macmillan, 1898.

Jones, R.B. "Christian Behavior under Fire (First Epistle of Peter)." Review and Expositor 46 (1949): 56-66.

Kelly, J.N.D. A Commentary on the Epistles of Peter and of Jude. Harper New Testament Commentary. New York: Harper and Row, 1969.

Marshall, I. Howard. 1 Peter . IVP New Testament Commentary Series. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1991.

Metzger, Bruce M. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament . 2nd Ed. United Bible Societies, 1994.

Michaels, J. Ramsey. 1 Peter. Word Biblical Commentary. Vol. 49. Waco, TX: Word, 1988.

Moffatt, James. The General Epistles. The Moffatt New Testament Commentary. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1940.

O'Brien, P.T. "Letters, Letter Forms." In Dictionary of Paul and His Letters . Eds. G.F. Hawthorne, R.P. Martin, and D.G. Reid. 550-553. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1993.

Osburn, Carroll D., ed. Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity . 2 Vols. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1993, 1995.

Piper, John and Wayne Grudem, eds. Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood: A Response to Evangelical Feminism. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 1991.

Selwyn, E.G. The First Epistle of St. Peter. London: Macmillan, 1946.

Wallace, Daniel B. Greek Grammar beyond the Basics. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

ABBREVIATIONS

BAGD A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament by Bauer, Arndt, Gingrich, and Danker

KJV King James Version

NASB New American Standard Bible

NIV New International Version

NRSV New Revised Standard Version

UBS ⁴ United Bible Society Greek New Testament, 4th Edition

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

College: 1 Peter (Outline)

OUTLINE

I. THE GREETING - 1:1-2

II. A CALL TO BE HOLY - 1:3-2:10

A. The Hope of Salvation - 1:3-9

B. The Glory of This Salvation - 1:10-12

C. Be Holy in All You Do - 1:13-16

D. Live in Reverent Fear as Those Redeemed by Christ's Blood - 1:17-21

E. Love One Another as Those Born Again through the Word of God - 1:22-25

F. Crave Pure Spiritual Milk - 2:1-3

G. God's Chosen People through Jesus - 2:4-10

III. INSTRUCTIONS FOR EXEMPLARY LIVING IN SOCIETY'S STRUCTURES - 2:11-3:12

A. Live Good Lives among the Pagans - 2:11-12

B. Submit to the Governing Authorities - 2:13-17

C. Slaves, Submit to Your Masters - 2:18-25

1. Submit Even to Harsh Masters - 2:18-20

2. Follow the Example of Christ - 2:21-25

D. Wives, Submit to Your Husbands - 3:1-6

E. Husbands, Be Considerate - 3:7

F. General Instructions for All - 3:8-12

IV. ENCOURAGEMENT TO THOSE WHO SUFFER FOR DOING GOOD - 3:13-4:11

A. Do Not Be Frightened - 3:13-17

B. Christ Also Suffered - And Was Exalted - 3:18-22

C. Live for the Will of God - 4:1-6

D. Love and Serve Each Other - 4:7-11

V. MORE EXHORTATIONS TO BE STEADFAST IN THE FACE OF SUFFERING - 4:12-5:11

A. Rejoice When You Suffer for Christ - 4:12-19

B. Show Humility in Your Relationships, Especially You Who Shepherd - 5:1-5

C. A Summarizing Call to Suffer for Christ - 5:6-11

VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS - 5:12-14

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV