Text -- 1 Peter 3:7 (NET)

3:7 Husbands, in the same way, treat your wives with consideration as the weaker partners and show them honor as fellow heirs of the grace of life. In this way nothing will hinder your prayers.

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Robertson: 1Pe 3:7

Ye husbands likewise ( hoi andres homoiōs ).

Probably "likewise"here refers to honouring all men (1Pe 2:17), not "likewise"of 1Pe 3:1.

Robertson: 1Pe 3:7

Dwell with ( sunoikountes ).

Present active participle of sunoikeō , old verb for domestic association, here only in N.T. Used as imperative here like the participle in 1Pe 2:18; 1Pe 3:1.

Robertson: 1Pe 3:7

According to knowledge ( kata gnōsin ).

"With an intelligent recognition of the nature of the marriage relation"(Vincent).

Robertson: 1Pe 3:7

Giving honour unto the woman as unto the weaker vessel ( hōs asthenesterōi skeuei tōi gunaikeiōi aponemontes timēn ).

Present active participle of aponemō , old verb, to assign, to portion out (or off), here only in N.T. Skeuos is an old and common word for vessel, furniture, utensil (Mat 12:29; 2Ti 2:20). Here both husband and wife are termed vessels or "parts of the furniture of God’ s house"(Bigg). See Paul’ s use of skeuos for ministers (2Co 4:7). Gunaikeiōi here is an adjective (female, feminine) from gunē (woman, wife). She is termed "the weaker"(tōi asthenesterōi ), not for intellectual or moral weakness, but purely for physical reasons, which the husband must recognize with due consideration for marital happiness.

Robertson: 1Pe 3:7

Joint-heirs of the grace of life ( sunklēronomoi charitos zōēs ).

Late double compound found in an Ephesian inscription and the papyri, in N.T. only here, Rom 8:17; Eph 3:6; Heb 11:9. God’ s gift of life eternal belongs to woman as well as to man. In the eyes of God the wife may be superior to the husband, not merely equal.

Robertson: 1Pe 3:7

To the end that your prayers be not hindered ( eis to mē egkoptesthai tas proseuchas humōn ).

Purpose clause with eis to and the present passive infinitive (with negative mē ) of egkoptō , to cut in, to interrupt, late verb (Polybius), as in Rom 15:22, etc. Very vivid to us now with our telephones and radios when people cut in on us. Proseuchas (prayers) is the accusative of general reference. Husbands surely have here cause to consider why their prayers are not answered.

Vincent: 1Pe 3:7

According to knowledge

With an intelligent recognition of the nature of the marriage relation.

Vincent: 1Pe 3:7

The woman ( τῷ γυναικείῳ )

Not a noun, however, as would appear from the ordinary rendering, but an adjective, agreeing with σκεύει , vessel, as does also ἀσθενεστέρῳ , weaker. Both are attributes of vessel; the female vessel as weaker. So Rev., in margin.

Vincent: 1Pe 3:7

Vessel ( σκεύει )

Compare 1Th 4:4. The primary idea of vessel, which is formed from the Latin vasellum , the diminutive of vas , a vase , is that of the receptacle which covers and contains; the case or protecting cover. Hence it is allied, etymologically, with vest, vestment, and wear. It is used in the New Testament (1) in the sense of a cup or dish (Luk 8:16; Joh 19:29; 2Ti 2:20; Rev 2:27; Rev 18:12). (2) Of the man, as containing the divine energy, or as a subject of divine mercy or wrath, and hence becoming a divine instrument. Thus Paul is a chosen vessel to bear God's name (Act 9:15). Vessels of wrath (Rom 9:22); of mercy (Rom 9:23). So of the woman, as God's instrument, along with man, for his service in the family and in society. (3) Collectively, in the plural, of all the implements of any particular economy, as a house, or a ship. Mat 12:29, goods; Act 27:17, the tackling or gear of a ship.

Vincent: 1Pe 3:7

Giving ( ἀπονέμοντες )

Only here in New Testament. The word means, literally, to portion out, and is appropriate to the husband as controlling what is to be meted out to the wife.

Vincent: 1Pe 3:7

Hindered ( ἐγκόπτεσθαι )

So A. V. and Rev., and the best texts, and the majority of commentators. The word means, literally, to knock in; make an incision into; and hence, generally, to hinder or thwart (Gal 5:7; 1Th 2:18). Some, however, read ἐκκόπτεσθαι , to cut off or destroy.

Wesley: 1Pe 3:7

Knowing they are weak, and therefore to be used with all tenderness. Yet do not despise them for this, but give them honour - Both in heart, in word, and in action; as those who are called to be joint - heirs of that eternal life which ye and they hope to receive by the free grace of God.

Wesley: 1Pe 3:7

On the one part or the other. All sin hinders prayer; particularly anger. Anything at which we are angry is never more apt to come into our mind than when we are at prayer; and those who do not forgive will find no forgiveness from God.

JFB: 1Pe 3:7

Greek, "dwelling": connected with the verb, 1Pe 2:17, "Honor all."

JFB: 1Pe 3:7

Christian knowledge: appreciating the due relation of the sexes in the design of God, and acting with tenderness and forbearance accordingly: wisely: with wise consideration.

JFB: 1Pe 3:7

Translate and punctuate the Greek rather, "dwelling according to knowledge with the female (Greek adjective, qualifying 'vessel'; not as English Version, a noun) as with the weaker vessel (see on 1Th 4:4. Both husband and wife are vessels in God's hand, and of God's making, to fulfil His gracious purposes. Both weak, the woman the weaker. The sense of his own weakness, and that she, like himself, is God's vessel and fabric, ought to lead him to act with tender and wise consideration towards her who is the weaker fabric), giving (literally, 'assigning,' 'apportioning') honor as being also (besides being man and wife) heirs together," &c.; or, as the Vatican manuscript reads, as to those who are also (besides being your wives) fellow heirs." (The reason why the man should give honor to the woman is, because God gives honor to both as fellow heirs; compare the same argument, 1Pe 3:9). He does not take into account the case of an unbelieving wife, as she might yet believe.

JFB: 1Pe 3:7

God's gracious gift of life (1Pe 1:4, 1Pe 1:13).

JFB: 1Pe 3:7

By dissensions, which prevent united prayer, on which depends the blessing.

Clarke: 1Pe 3:7

Dwell with them according to knowledge - Give your wives, by no species of unkind carriage, any excuse for delinquency. How can a man expect his wife to be faithful to him, if he be unfaithful to her? and vice versa

Clarke: 1Pe 3:7

Giving honor unto the wife - Using your superior strength and experience in her behalf, and thus honouring her by becoming her protector and support. But the word τιμη honor, signifies maintenance as well as respect; - maintain, provide for the wife

Clarke: 1Pe 3:7

As - the weaker vessel - Being more delicately, and consequently more slenderly, constructed. Roughness and strength go hand in hand; so likewise do beauty and frailty. The female has what the man wants - beauty and delicacy. The male has what the female wants - courage and strength. The one is as good in its place as the other: and by these things God has made an equality between the man and the woman, so that there is properly very little superiority on either side. See the note on 1Th 4:4

Clarke: 1Pe 3:7

Being heirs together - Both the man and woman being equally called to eternal glory: and as prayer is one great means of obtaining a meetness for it, it is necessary that they should live together in such a manner as to prevent all family contentions, that they may not be prevented, by disputes or misunderstandings, from uniting daily in this most important duty - family and social prayer.

Calvin: 1Pe 3:7

7.Likewise, ye husbands, dwell with them. From husbands he requires prudence; for dominion over their wives is not given them, except on this condition, that they exercise authority prudently. Then let husbands remember that they need prudence to do rightly their duty. And doubtless many foolish things must be endured by them, many unpleasant things must be borne with; and they must at the same time beware lest their indulgence should foster folly. Hence the admonition of Peter is not in vain, that the husbands ought to cohabit with them as with a weaker vessel. Part of the prudence which he mentions, is, that the husbands honor their wives. For nothing destroys the friendship of life more than contempt; nor can we really love any but those whom we esteem; for love must be connected with respect.

Moreover, he employs a twofold argument, in order to persuade husbands to treat their wives honourably and kindly. The first is derived from the weakness of the sex; the other, from the honor with which God favors them. These things seem indeed to be in a manner contrary, — that honor ought to be given to wives, because they are weak, and because they excel; but these things well agree together where love exists. It is evident, that God is despised in his gifts, except we honor those on whom he has conferred any excellency. But when we consider that we are members of the same body, we learn to bear with one another, and mutually to cover our infirmities. This is what Paul means when he says that greater honor is given to the weaker members, (1Co 12:23;) even because we are more careful in protecting them from shame. Then Peter does not without reason command that women should be cared for, and that they should be honored with a kind treatment, because they are weak. And then as we more easily forgive children, when they offend through inexperience of age; so the weakness of the female sex ought to make us not to be too rigid and severe towards our wives.

The word vessel, as it is well known, means in Scripture any sort of instrument.

Being heirs together (or co-heirs) of the grace of life Some copies have “of manifold grace;” others, instead of “life,” have the word “living.” Some read “co-heirs” in the dative case, which makes no difference in the sense. A conjunction is put by others between manifold grace and life; which reading is the most suitable. ³⁸ For since the Lord is pleased to bestow in common on husbands and wives the same graces, he invites them to seek an equality in them; and we know that those graces are manifold in which wives are partakers with their husbands. For some belong to the present life, and some to God’s spiritual kingdom. He afterwards adds, that they are co-heirs also of life, which is the chief thing. And though some are strangers to the hope of salvation, yet as it is offered by the Lord to them no less than to their husbands, it is a sufficient honor to the sex.

That your prayers be not hindered For God cannot be rightly called upon, unless our minds be calm and peaceable. Among strifes and contentions there is no place for prayer. Peter indeed addresses the husband and the wife, when he bids them to be at peace one with another, so that they might with one mind pray to God. But we may hence gather a general doctrine — that no one ought to come to God except he is united to his brethren. Then as this reason ought to restrain all domestic quarrels and strifes, in order that each one of the family may pray to God; so in common life it ought to be as it were a bridle to check all contentions. For we are more than insane, if we knowingly and wilfully close up the way to God’s presence by prayer, since this is the only asylum of our salvation.

Some give this explanation, that an intercourse with the wife ought to be sparing and temperate, lest too much indulgence in this respect should prevent attention to prayer, according to that saying of Paul,

“Defraud not one another, unless by consent for a time, that ye may give yourselves to fasting and prayer.” (1Co 7:5.)

But the doctrine of Peter extends wider: and then Paul does not mean that prayers are interrupted by mutual cohabitation. Therefore the explanation which I have given ought to be retained.

Defender: 1Pe 3:7

See Col 3:19; Pro 31:11, Pro 31:28.

Defender: 1Pe 3:7

Although the husband and wife have been created for very specific roles in the family, the church, and society in general, and although neither will find real fulfillment in life if they rebel against those roles, they must always remember that spiritually they are equals before God. Both were created "in the image of God" (Gen 1:27) and are "heirs together" of God's grace.

Defender: 1Pe 3:7

It is noteworthy that one important reason for unanswered prayer may be poor home relationships."

TSK: 1Pe 3:7

ye : Gen 2:23, Gen 2:24; Pro 5:15-19; Mal 2:14-16; Mat 19:3-9; 1Co 7:3; Col 3:19; Eph 5:25-28, Eph 5:33

giving : 1Co 12:22-24; 1Th 4:4

heirs : Eph 3:6; Tit 3:7; Heb 1:14

that : Job 42:8; Mat 5:23, Mat 5:24, Mat 18:19; Rom 8:26, Rom 8:27; Eph 4:30, Eph 6:18

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: 1Pe 3:7

Likewise, ye husbands - On the general duty of husbands, see the notes at Eph 5:25 ff.

Dwell with them - That is, "Let your manner of living with them be that which is immediately specified."

According to knowledge - In accordance with an intelligent view of the nature of the relation; or, as becomes those who have been instructed in the duties of this relation according to the gospel. The meaning evidently is, that they should seek to obtain just views of what Christianity enjoins in regard to this relation, and that they should allow those intelligent views to control them in all their contact with their wives.

Giving honor unto the wife - It was an important advance made in society when the Christian religion gave such a direction as this, for everywhere among the pagan, and under all false systems of religion, woman has been regarded as worthy of little honor or respect. She has been considered as a slave, or as a mere instrument to gratify the passions of man. It is one of the elementary doctrines of Christianity, however, that woman is to be treated with respect; and one of the first and most marked effects of religion on society is to elevate the wife to a condition in which she will be worthy of esteem. The particular reasons for the honor which husbands are directed to show to their wives, here specified, are two: she is to be treated with special kindness as being more feeble than man, and as having a claim therefore to delicate attention; and she is to be honored as the equal heir of the grace of life. Doddridge, Clarke, and some others, suppose that the word honor here refers to maintenance or support; and that the command is, that the husband is to provide for his wife so that she may not want. But it seems to me that the word is to be understood here in its more usual signification, and that it inculcates a higher duty than that of merely providing for the temporal needs of the wife, and strikes at a deeper evil than a mere neglect of meeting her temporal necessities. The reasons assigned for doing this seem to imply it.

As unto the weaker vessel - It is not uncommon in the Scriptures to compare the body to a vessel, (Compare the notes at 1Th 4:4), and thence the comparison is extended to the whole person. This is done either because the body is frail and feeble, like an earthen vessel easily broken; or because it is that in which the soul is lodged; or because, in accordance with a frequent use of the word, (see below,) the body is the instrument by which the soul accomplishes its purposes, or is the helper of the soul. Compare Act 9:15; Rom 9:22-23; 2Co 4:7. In the later Hebrew usage it was common to apply the term vessel (Hebrew כלי k^e liy , Greek σκεύος skeuos ) to a wife, as is done here. See Schoettgen, Hor. Heb. p. 827. Expressions similar to this, in regard to the comparative feebleness of woman, occur frequently in the classic writers. See Wetstein in loc. The reasons why the term vessel was given to a wife, are not very apparent.

A not unfrequent sense of the word used here ( σκεύος skeuos ) in the Greek classics was that of an instrument; a helper; one who was employed by another to accomplish anything, or to aid him (Passow), and it seems probable that this was the reason why the term was given to the wife. Compare Gen 2:18. The reason here assigned for the honor that was to be shown to the wife is, that she is "the weaker vessel."By this it is not necessarily meant that she is of feebler capacity, or inferior mental endowments, but that she is more tender and delicate; more subject to infirmities and weaknesses; less capable of enduring fatigue and toil; less adapted to the rough and stormy scenes of life. As such, she should be regarded and treated with special kindness and attention. This is a reason, the force of which all can see and appreciate. So we feel toward a sister; so we feel toward a beloved child, if he is of feeble frame and delicate constitution; and so every man should feel in relation to his wife. She may have mental endowments equal to his own; she may have moral qualities in every way superior to his; but the God of nature has made her with a more delicate frame, a more fragile structure, and with a body subject to many infirmities to which the more hardy frame of man is a stranger.

And as being heirs together of the grace of life - The grace that is connected with eternal life; that is, as fellow-Christians. They were equal heirs of the everlasting inheritance, called in the Scripture "life;"and the same "grace"connected with that inheritance had been conferred on both. This passage contains a very important truth in regard to the female sex. Under every other system of religion but the Christian system, woman has been regarded as in every way inferior to man. Christianity teaches that, in respect to her higher interests, the interests of religion, she is every way his equal. She is entitled to all the hopes and promises which religion imparts. She is redeemed as he is. She is addressed in the same language of tender invitation. She has the same privileges and comforts which religion imparts here, and she will be elevated to the same rank and privileges in heaven. This single truth would raise the female sex everywhere from degradation, and check at once half the social evils of the race. Make her the equal of man in the hope of heaven, and at once she rises to her appropriate place. Home is made what it should be, a place of intelligence and pure friendship; and a world of suffering and sadness smiles under the benefactions of Christian woman.

That your prayers be not hindered - It is fairly implied here:

\caps1 (1) t\caps0 hat it was supposed there would be united or family prayer. The apostle is speaking of "dwelling with the wife,"and of the right manner of treating her; and it is plainly supposed that united prayer would be one thing that would characterise their living together. He does not direct that there should be prayer. He seems to take it for granted that there would be; and it may be remarked, that where there is true religion in right exercise, there is prayer as a matter of course. The head of a family does not ask whether he must establish family worship; he does it as one of the spontaneous fruits of religion - as a thing concerning which no formal command is necessary. Prayer in the family, as everywhere else, is a privilege; and the true question to be asked on the subject is not whether a man must, but whether he may pray.

\caps1 (2) i\caps0 t is implied that there might be such a way of living as effectually to hinder prayer; that is, to prevent its being offered aright, and to prevent any answer. This might occur in many ways. If the husband treated the wife unkindly; if he did not show her proper respect and affection; if there were bickerings, and jealousies, and contentions between them, there could be no hope that acceptable prayer would be offered. A spirit of strife; irritability and unevenness of temper; harsh looks and unkind words; a disposition easily to take offence, and an unwillingness to forgive, all these prevent a "return of prayers."Acceptable prayer never can be offered in the tempest of passion, and there can be no doubt that such prayer is often "hindered"by the inequalities of temper, and the bickerings and strifes that exist in families. Yet how desirable is it that husband and wife should so live together that their prayers may not be hindered! How desirable for their own peace and happiness in that relation; how desirable for the welfare of children! In view of the exposition in this verse we may remark:

(a) that Christianity has done much to elevate the female sex. It has taught that woman is an heir of the grace of life as well as man; that, while she is inferior in physical vigor, she is his equal in the most important respect; that she is a fellow-traveler with him to a higher world; and that in every way she is entitled to all the blessings which redemption confers, as much as he is. This single truth has done more than all other things combined to elevate the female sex, and is all that is needful to raise her from her degradation all over the world.

(b) They, therefore, who desire the elevation of the female sex, who see woman ignorant and degraded in the dark parts of the earth, should be the friends of all well-directed efforts to send the gospel to pagan lands. Every husband who has a pure and intelligent wife, and every father who has an accomplished daughter, and every brother who has a virtuous sister, should seek to spread the gospel abroad. To that gospel only he owes it that he has such a wife, daughter, sister; and that gospel, which has given to him such an intelligent female friend, would elevate woman everywhere to the same condition. The obligation which he owes to religion in this respect can be discharged in no better way than by aiding in diffusing that gospel which would make the wife, the daughter, the sister, everywhere what she is in his own dwelling.

© Especially is this the duty of the Christian female. She owes her elevation in society to Christianity, and what Christianity has made her, it would make the sunken and debased of her own sex all over the earth; and how can she better show her gratitude than by aiding in any and every way in making that same gospel known in the dark parts of the world?

(d) Christianity makes a happy home. Let the principles reign in any family which are here enjoined by the apostle, and that family will be one of intelligence, contentment, and peace. There is a simple and easy way of being happy in the family relation. It is to allow the spirit of Christ and his gospel to reign there. That done, though there be poverty, and disappointment, and sickness, and cares, and losses, yet there will be peace within, for there will be mutual love, and the cheerful hope of a brighter world. Where that is missing, no outward splendor, no costly furniture or viands, no gilded equipage, no long train of servants, no wine, or music, or dances, can secure happiness in a dwelling. With all these things there may be the most corroding passions; in the mansion where these things are, pale disease, disappointment, and death may come, and there shall be nothing to console and support.

Poole: 1Pe 3:7

Dwell with them perform all matrimonial duties to them; by a synecdoche, all the duties of that relation are contained under this one of cohabitation.

According to knowledge either, according to that knowledge of the Divine will, which by the gospel ye have obtained; or, prudently and wisely, and as becomes those that understand their duty.

Giving honour unto the wife not despising them because of their weakness, or using them as slaves, but respecting them, caring for them, as Mat 15:6 1Ti 5:3using them gently, covering their infirmities.

As unto the weaker vessel weaker than the husbands, and that both in body and mind, as women usually are. In Scripture any instrument is called a vessel, and the wife is here called so, as being not only an ornament, but a help to the husband and family, Gen 2:18 . This he adds as a reason why the husband should give honour to the wife, viz. her being the weaker vessel; weak vessels must be gently handled; the infirmities of children bespeak their pardon when they offend; and those members of the body which we think less honourable, on them we bestow more abundant honour, 1Co 12:23 . It is a part of that prudence according to which men should dwell with their wives, to have the more regard to them because of their infirmities, (in bearing with them and hiding them), lest they should be discouraged, if they find their weakness makes them contemptible.

And as being heirs together: another reason why husbands should give honour to their wives, viz. because though by nature they are weak and unequal to their husbands, yet they are equal to them in respect of their being called to the same grace and glory, there being neither male nor female in Christ, Gal 3:28 .

Of the grace of life i.e. eternal life, which is the gift of grace; or, is to be given out of grace.

That your prayers be not hindered either, that ye be not diverted and hindered from praying; or, that the efficacy of your prayers be not hindered, viz. by those contentions and differences which are like to arise, if you do not dwell with your own wives according to knowledge, and give them the honour that belongs to them.

PBC: 1Pe 3:7

Husbands: Submissive in the Grace of Life

For too long in our Western culture Christian husbands have insisted on their wives wearing the submission shoe, while they politely ignored the matching shoe that Scripture puts on their foot.

"Likewise"

in this verse applies every principle of Peter’s exhortation to wives equally to husbands! Further Peter adds the exhortations that follow in the verse to the husband’s exhortation. In addition to every point made to the wife Peter directs godly husbands to show special grace and consideration to their wives.

When challenged with this idea, many Christian husbands will immediately go to Eph 5:1-33 and Paul’s command for wives to submit to their husbands. However, a careful study of this lesson will affirm the same reciprocal command from Paul to husbands. Once again in that context, as we see in Peter’s instructions here, Paul adds to the husbands’ duties. To love his wife as Christ loved the church and gave himself for her imposes an incredible challenge upon a godly husband. In no instance did Paul {in Eph 5:1-33 or elsewhere} tell husbands that their assignment included constantly reminding their wives to submit. Rather he directed them to show reciprocal submission, as well as to show that special sacrificial love that we see so perfectly modeled in our Lord’s death for his beloved bride, his people. In Peter’s lesson " likewise" applies to men all the rules Peter applied to women in the prior verses. Then he adds the special exhortations that follow in this verse. Christian men would enhance their marriages-and their Christian testimony to a skeptical world-by applying these teachings to their conduct toward their wives.

Rather than establishing the typical competitive spirit in the marriage, New Testament teachings establish a godly partnership between equals. God defines their roles differently, but not unequally.

We should distinguish pretense from reality in this area. I have talked with several godly men whom I deeply respect, along with their wives whom I equally respect. Both the husband and the wife defended the more traditional view of an unequal relationship within the marriage. However, without exception as I observe the actually dynamics of their marriage, I see far more true equality in fact than their words would suggest. Several years ago I heard of a situation in which both the husband and wife verbally defended the traditional role. However, a few minutes later in private conversation with other women the wife chuckled at her success in controlling her husband while leaving him to think he was in control. This wife’s thin façade of obedience to her concept of the Biblical role dishonored both her husband and herself. She wanted to leave the impression of submission, but she had no intention of actually obeying what she perceived God to require of her. One wife offered this quip. " I wholly agree that the husband is to be the head of the family, but the wife is the neck, and the neck can turn the head any way she wishes." These observations sadly reveal the fairly typical disunion in Christian marriages between fact and the words offered by both spouses. Some live closer to the Biblical model than their words suggest, but they seem compelled to give lip-service to the traditional model of an unequal relationship. Consider these Biblical ideas that affirm an equal, though divinely defined, relationship within a godly marriage:

1. Believers are urged to avoid " unequal" relationships with unbelievers, marriage included. {2Co 6:14-18} How can we miss the obvious point? A godly marriage is a union of equals, in this case a union of equal believers.

 2. Paul introduces the lesson in Eph 5:1-33 with a specific command for all believers to submit to each other in the fear of God. {Eph 5:21} In the verses that follow he clearly defines a leadership role for the husband, but not a superiority role.

 3. In our study lesson Peter distinctly defines the godly results of a mutually submissive, respectful marriage; "... heirs together [emphasis mine] of the grace of life, that your prayers be not hindered."

 4. Lastly, I suggest that the contemporary Christian male idea that a woman should not work outside the home should be exposed to the model of the virtuous woman in Pr 31:1-31. I strongly defend that the woman, particularly this virtuous model woman, will in fact make her family’s interest first in anything that she does, something that many career-driven men could also do to their family’s vast benefit. However, the virtuous woman of Pr 31:1-31 wisely bargains in the shopping center of the culture. She even investigates and purchases real estate! Her public conduct outside the home becomes the basis for her husband’s friends to praise both him and his wife. When we attempt to recreate a Biblical culture, we must face the consistent weight of all Scripture on our cultural model, not merely select the verses that appear to fit our preconceptions.

No doubt many readers will raise a question. Didn’t Peter describe the wife as the " weaker vessel" ?I offer that Peter was referring to the wife’s physical, not to her emotional, intellectual, or spiritual stature. This distinction forms part of the divinely imposed " job descriptions" for husbands and wives. God directs godly husbands to stand between their wives and physical harm. The hormonal distinctions between a man and a woman typically make the man more muscular than the woman. A godly husband will protect his wife from exposure to physical danger in any way he can. Here is an example. A little over a year ago Sandra and I were visiting our daughter, her husband, and our infant grandson. We had walked up the street to their mailbox to get the mail. It was a warm sunny day, so we decided to walk down the street past their home. Suddenly a dog barked and started running towards us, growling, hair standing on end. My first thought was for our grandson, but immediately I jumped in front of our group to put myself between them and the dog. I doubt that I could have prevented the dog from getting by me, but I hoped that he would engage me and spare them. Sandra also took measures to protect our little Noah. What I did was not calculated; it was instinctive. Gratefully the dog’s owner ran out quickly, controlled his dog, and apologized for our fright. I believe this simple experience illustrates Peter’s point regarding the husband-wife role and the husband’s obligation to protect his wife from exposure to physical harm. To interpret this phrase so as to diminish a woman’s intellectual, moral, or spiritual stature is to pour far more into the lesson than Peter intended. Frequently in our culture we see the wife standing tall as the moral leader of the family, much to the husband’s shame? Do we see the Biblical model of moral leadership in the hypocritical standard that many families allow with their children? Where is the Biblical provision that boys may follow a double standard while girls are to live faithfully on the high moral ground? Scripture clearly imposes exactly the same moral expectations on men and women alike. I believe the false double standard between boys and girls that we typically see in families, including Christian families, grows out of the false idea that God made the man somehow superior to the woman. If we fully embrace the divine equality that I here defend, I believe the hypocritical double standard between men and women would disappear.

According to Peter, a mutually respectful and submissive marital relationship will foster a healthy spiritual growth in both husbands and wives. Husbands and wives are " heirs together" of the grace of life. They do not compete for supremacy; rather they accept God’s defined roles with mutual submission, first to God, and then to each other. They strive to fulfill God’s model for their relationship. Rather than modeling the strife of life, they become a godly model for the " grace of life."

Peter caps the lesson with a preeminently spiritual tone, " ... that your prayers be not hindered." As surely as a husband and wife are playing mind games with each other or competing with each other-as with the wife who pretended to submit, but immediately reversed her tone when her husband left the room (or the more honest wife who claimed the role of neck)-their spiritual life, including their intimate prayers to God, will suffer. God makes no distinction in the prayers of a wife or a husband. Are we willing to submit to God and serve as equals? As Christian husbands and wives, will we model honest equality and reject traditional hypocrisy? To Him be the glory!

275

Haydock: 1Pe 3:7

Husbands, &c. His advice to husbands: 1. To carry themselves towards their wives with knowledge, prudence, and discretion; 2. Not in any imperious manner, but treating their wives with respect and honour, though a wife be the weaker vessel both in body and mind; 3. Considering themselves and their wives to be joint heirs with them of God's graces and favours, both in this world and the next; 4. That their prayers and duty to God be not hindered, neither by too great a fondness and compliance, nor by disagreements and dissensions. (Witham)

Gill: 1Pe 3:7

Likewise, ye husbands, dwell with them,.... "With your wives", as the Syriac and Ethiopic versions read; which not only included dwelling together in the same house, and bedding together in the same bed, but the whole of conjugal conversation, and all the offices and duties incumbent on men in a married state:

according to knowledge; of themselves, and their wives, and the duties belonging to the conjugal state, and the laws of God and man respecting it; and according to their knowledge of the Gospel, and the Christian dispensation, which no ways breaks in upon, but strengthens and encourages to the observance of things belonging to natural religion, and civil life; and according to that superior knowledge of things, which, generally speaking, men have to women; as also wisely, prudently, becoming their characters as men and Christians:

particularly giving honour to the wife; by speaking well of her, and respectfully to her, and by deeds as well as words; not only by clothing her in a decent and becoming manner, suitable to her station; but by providing everything honest and comely for her, food and raiment, a suitable maintenance, all the necessaries, conveniences, and delights of life, that are laudable and proper; in which sense the word honour is used in 1Ti 5:3 and this was agreeably to the doctrine of the Jews ^q, who say,

"let a man always take care בכבוד אשתו, "of the glory of his wife"; for there is no blessing found in a man's house, but for the sake of his wife, as it is said, Gen 12:16 "and he entreated Abraham well for her sake": and Rabba used to say to the citizens, אוקירו לנשייכו, "honour your wives", that ye may be rich.

And indeed this is what they promised in their marriage contract, which runs thus ^r:

"be thou unto me for a wife, according to the law of Moses and Israel, and I, by the word of heaven, or God, will worship, ואוקיר, "and honour", and nourish, and take care of thee, according to the custom of the Jews, who worship, and "honour", and nourish, and take care of their wives.

As unto the weaker vessel; so in 1Th 4:4 the wife is called a vessel; see Gill on 1Th 4:4, and here "the weaker"; being so for the most part, both as to strength of body, and endowments of mind; and therefore to be used gently and tenderly, and not be treated with neglect and contempt, or with inhumanity and severity; but as, in every state and condition, the strong are to bear the infirmities of the weak; so a man should bear with, and accommodate himself to the infirmities of his wife, and hide them as much as he can, and not expose them, nor despise her on account of them. It is a saying of the Jews ^s,

"if thy wife be short of stature, bow thyself, and whisper to her.

The meaning of the proverb is, that he ought to suit himself to her capacity and weakness:

and as being heirs together of the grace of life; not of a natural life, and the good things of it; though husbands and wives partake of the same kind of life, and have a right unto, and share in the same necessaries of life; so Adam and Eve were partakers of the same life, and sharers of the same benefits; and which is a reason indeed why they ought to live lovingly together: but something more is intended; not the external gifts of the Spirit, which, unless in some few instances, are bestowed on men, and not on women; nor the Gospel, and the ordinances of it, which are the means of grace and life; though men and women, called by grace, have an equal right to them, and enjoy them; see Gal 3:28 but grace here, and glory hereafter, are here meant. Some copies, as the Alexandrian, and others, read, "heirs together of the manifold grace of life"; God's own people, without any difference as to sex, as men and women, equally share in grace, as it signifies the love and favour of God; which is the same to all the objects, as to the date of it, which is from everlasting, one not being loved before another; and as to the quality of it, which is free, sovereign, special, discriminating and unchangeable, one being loved not with one sort of love, another with another; and as to the quantity of it, it not admitting of more or less; and as to the duration, which is for ever: and so they are heirs of it, as it denotes the blessings of grace; being equally heirs of, and sharers in electing, redeeming, justifying, pardoning, and adopting grace: and as it may intend the internal graces of the Spirit, as faith, hope, and love; which as to their principles are the same in all the saints, though different as to the degree of the exercise of them: and which may be called "the grace of life"; or "living grace", as some copies and the Complutensian edition read, and so the Arabic version, because by it men and women, who were dead in trespasses and sins, are quickened; and in distinction to counterfeit grace, which differs as much from true grace, as the picture of a man from a living man; and because it lives for ever, and never dies, and gives a meetness for eternal life, which it springs up to, issues in, and is inseparably connected with. Moreover, by it may be meant eternal life and salvation, of which the saints, without any difference as to sex, are heirs of: so some copies read, "heirs of manifold grace, and life"; by the former, meaning grace here, and by the latter, glory hereafter; which is a life of vision of God, and uninterrupted communion with him; of perfection and pleasure, and which will last for ever; and may be called

the grace of life, because it is the free gift of God's grace: and agreeably the Syriac version renders it, "the gift of eternal life"; and the Ethiopic version, glorious life: and this is represented as an inheritance, being what belongs only to the children; and which they have not by their own works, as an acquisition of theirs, but by the free grace of their heavenly Father, and as his gift and bequest unto them. Now all the saints, of whatever state, condition, or sex, are equally heirs of this inheritance; for there is but one inheritance, one kingdom, one crown of glory, which all shall enjoy; and whatever disparity there may be, particularly between husband and wife, in their natural relation, there is none in the things of grace, and with regard to the kingdom of glory; and which is an argument why husbands should dwell peaceably and comfortably with their wives, and give all due honour to them, since they are upon a par in spiritual things, there being neither male nor female in Christ Jesus, and because they are now joint heirs of, and shall equally share in eternal life and happiness,

That your prayers be not hindered: as they would be were they not to dwell together; or should not the husband give honour to his wife, and take care of her as he ought to do: hence would arise strifes and quarrels, when they could not cordially, and to edification, join together in prayer; nor would such prayers, put up in wrath, be acceptable unto God, who requires that men should lift up holy hands everywhere, whether in public, or in private, in God's house, or in their own houses, without wrath and doubting. From hence we may observe, that family prayer is a duty incumbent on professors of religion, and great care should be taken that it be not neglected and hindered,

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

NET Notes: 1Pe 3:7

¹ tn Grk “living together according to knowledge, as to the weaker, female vessel.” The primary verbs of vs. 7 are participles (“living together…showing honor”) but they continue the sense of command from the previous paragraphs.

² tn Grk “so that your prayers may not be hindered.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek, this clause was translated as a separate sentence.

Geneva Bible: 1Pe 3:7

^{( 6 )} Likewise, ye husbands, ^{( c )} dwell with [them] according to ^{( d )} knowledge, ^{( 7 )} giving ^{( e )} honour unto the wife, as unto the weaker ^{( f )} vessel, ^{( 8 )} and as being heirs together of the ^{( g )} grace of life; ^{( 9 )} that your prayers be not hindered.

^{( 6 )} He also teaches husbands their duties, that is, that the more understanding and wisdom they have, the more wisely and circumspectly they behave themselves.

^{( c )} Do all the duties of wedlock.

^{( d )} The more wisdom the husband has, the more circumspectly he must behave himself in bearing those inconveniences, which through the woman's weakness often cause trouble both to the husband and the wife. ^{( 7 )} The second argument: because the wife nonetheless is weaker by nature than the man, she is an excellent instrument of the man, made for far more excellent uses: upon which it follows that she is not therefore to be neglected, because she is weak, but on the contrary she ought to be so much more cared for.

^{( e )} Having an honest care for her.

^{( f )} The woman is called a vessel after the manner of the Hebrews, because the husband uses her as his friend and helper, to live faithfully before God. ^{( 8 )} The third argument: for that they are equal in that which is the most important (that is to say, in the benefit of eternal life) who otherwise are unequal concerning the leadership and conduct at home, and therefore they are not to be despised although they are weak.

^{( g )} Of that gracious and free benefit, by which we have everlasting life given to us. ^{( 9 )} The fourth argument: All fighting and rebuking must be avoided, because they hinder prayers and the whole service of God, to which both the husband and wife are equally called.

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: 1Pe 3:1-22

1 He teaches the duty of wives and husbands to each other;

8 exhorting all men to unity and love;

14 and to suffer persecution.

19 He declares also the benefits of Christ toward the old world.

MHCC: 1Pe 3:1-7

The wife must discharge her duty to her own husband, though he obey not the word. We daily see how narrowly evil men watch the ways and lives of professors of religion. Putting on of apparel is not forbidden, but vanity and costliness in ornament. Religious people should take care that all their behaviour answers to their profession. But how few know the right measure and bounds of those two necessaries of life, food and raiment! Unless poverty is our carver, and cuts us short, there is scarcely any one who does not desire something beyond what is good for us. Far more are beholden to the lowliness of their state, than the lowliness of their mind; and many will not be so bounded, but lavish their time and money upon trifles. The apostle directs Christian females to put on something not corruptible, that beautifies the soul, even the graces of God's Holy Spirit. A true Christian's chief care lies in right ordering his own spirit. This will do more to fix the affections, and excite the esteem of a husband, than studied ornaments or fashionable apparel, attended by a froward and quarrelsome temper. Christians ought to do their duty to one another, from a willing mind, and in obedience to the command of God. Wives should be subject to their husbands, not from dread and amazement, but from desire to do well, and please God. The husband's duty to the wife implies giving due respect unto her, and maintaining her authority, protecting her, and placing trust in her. They are heirs together of all the blessings of this life and that which is to come, and should live peaceably one with another. Prayer sweetens their converse. And it is not enough that they pray with the family, but husband and wife together by themselves, and with their children. Those who are acquainted with prayer, find such unspeakable sweetness in it, that they will not be hindered therein. That you may pray much, live holily; and that you may live holily, be much in prayer.

Matthew Henry: 1Pe 3:1-7

The apostle having treated of the duties of subjects to their sovereigns, and of servants to their masters, proceeds to explain the duty of husbands and wives.

I. Lest the Christian matrons should imagine that their conversion to Christ, and their interest in all Christian privileges, exempted them from subjection to their pagan or Jewish husbands, the apostle here tells them,

1. In what the duty of wives consists.

(1.) In subjection, or an affectionate submission to the will, and obedience to the just authority, of their own husbands, which obliging conduct would be the most likely way to win those disobedient and unbelieving husbands who had rejected the word, or who attended to no other evidence of the truth of it than what they saw in the prudent, peaceable, and exemplary conversation of their wives. Learn, [1.] Every distinct relation has its particular duties, which ministers ought to preach, and the people ought to understand. [2.] A cheerful subjection, and a loving, reverential respect, are duties which Christian women owe their husbands, whether they be good or bad; these were due from Eve to Adam before the fall, and are still required, though much more difficult now than they were before, Gen 3:16; 1Ti 2:11. [3.] Though the design of the word of the gospel is to win and gain souls to Christ Jesus, yet there are many so obstinate that they will not be won by the word. [4.] There is nothing more powerful, next to the word of God, to win people, than a good conversation, and the careful discharge of relative duties. [5.] Irreligion and infidelity do not dissolve the bonds, nor dispense with the duties, of civil relations; the wife must discharge her duty to her own husband, though he obey not the word.

(2.) In fear, or reverence to their husbands, Eph 5:33.

(3.) In a chaste conversation, which their unbelieving husbands would accurately observe and attend to. [1.] Evil men are strict observers of the conversation of the professors of religion; their curiosity, envy, and jealousy, make them watch narrowly the ways and lives of good people. [2.] A chaste conversation, attended with due and proper respect to every one, is an excellent means to win them to the faith of the gospel and obedience to the word.

(4.) In preferring the ornaments of the mind to those of the body. [1.] He lays down a rule in regard to the dress of religious women, 1Pe 3:3. Here are three sorts of ornaments forbidden: plaiting of hair, which was commonly used in those times by lewd women; wearing of gold, or ornaments made of gold, was practised by Rebecca, and Esther, and other religious women, but afterwards became the attire chiefly of harlots and wicked people; putting on of apparel, which is not absolutely forbidden, but only too much nicety and costliness in it. Learn, First, Religious people should take care that all their external behaviour be answerable to their profession of Christianity: They must be holy in all manner of conversation. Secondly, The outward adorning of the body is very often sensual and excessive; for instance, when it is immoderate, and above your degree and station in the world, when you are proud of it and puffed up with it, when you dress with design to allure and tempt others, when your apparel is too rich, curious, or superfluous, when your fashions are fantastical, imitating the levity and vanity of the worst people, and when they are immodest and wanton. The attire of a harlot can never become a chaste Christian matron. [2.] Instead of the outward adorning of the body, he directs Christian wives to put on much more excellent and beautiful ornaments, v. 4. Here note, First, The part to be adorned: The hidden man of the heart; that is, the soul; the hidden, the inner man. Take care to adorn and beautify your souls rather than your bodies. Secondly, The ornament prescribed. It must, in general, be something not corruptible, that beautifies the soul, that is, the graces and virtues of God's Holy Spirit. The ornaments of the body are destroyed by the moth, and perish in the using; but the grace of God, the longer we wear it, the brighter and better it is. More especially, the finest ornament of Christian women is a meek and quiet spirit, a tractable easy temper of mind, void of passion, pride, and immoderate anger, discovering itself in a quiet obliging behaviour towards their husbands and families. If the husband be harsh, and averse to religion (which was the case of these good wives to whom the apostle gives this direction), there is no way so likely to win him as a prudent meek behaviour. At least, a quiet spirit will make a good woman easy to herself, which, being visible to others, becomes an amiable ornament to a person in the eyes of the world. Thirdly, The excellency of it. Meekness and calmness of spirit are, in the sight of God, of great price - amiable in the sight of men, and precious in the sight of God. Learn, 1. A true Christian's chief care lies in the right ordering and commanding of his own spirit. Where the hypocrite's work ends, there the true Christian's work begins. 2. The endowments of the inner man are the chief ornaments of a Christian; but especially a composed, calm, and quiet spirit, renders either man or woman beautiful and lovely.

2. The duties of Christian wives being in their nature difficult, the apostle enforces them by the example, (1.) Of the holy women of old, who trusted in God, v. 5. "You can pretend nothing of excuse from the weakness of your sex, but what they might. They lived in old time, and had less knowledge to inform them and fewer examples to encourage them; yet in all ages they practised this duty; they were holy women, and therefore their example is obligatory; they trusted in God, and yet did not neglect their duty to man: the duties imposed upon you, of a quiet spirit and of subjection to your own husbands, are not new, but what have ever been practised by the greatest and best women in the world."(2.) Of Sara, who obeyed her husband, and followed him when he went from Ur of the Chaldeans, not knowing whither he went, and called him lord, thereby showing him reverence and acknowledging his superiority over her; and all this though she was declared a princess by God from heaven, by the change of her name, " Whose daughters you are if you imitate her in faith and good works, and do not, through fear of your husbands, either quit the truth you profess or neglect your duty to them, but readily perform it, without either fear or force, out of conscience towards God and sense of duty to them."Learn, [1.] God takes exact notice, and keeps an exact record, of the actions of all men and women in the world. [2.] The subjection of wives to their husbands is a duty which has been practised universally by holy women in all ages. [3.] The greatest honour of any man or woman lies in a humble and faithful deportment of themselves in the relation or condition in which Providence has placed them. [4.] God takes notice of the good that is in his servants, to their honour and benefit, but covers a multitude of failings; Sara's infidelity and derision are overlooked, when her virtues are celebrated. [5.] Christians ought to do their duty to one another, not out of fear, nor from force, but from a willing mind, and in obedience to the command of God. Wives should be in subjection to their churlish husbands, not from dread and amazement, but from a desire to do well and to please God.

II. The husband's duty to the wife comes next to be considered.

1. The particulars are, (1.) Cohabitation, which forbids unnecessary separation, and implies a mutual communication of goods and persons one to another, with delight and concord. (2.) Dwelling with the wife according to knowledge; not according to lust, as brutes; nor according to passion, as devils; but according to knowledge, as wise and sober men, who know the word of God and their own duty. (3.) Giving honour to the wife - giving due respect to her, and maintaining her authority, protecting her person, supporting her credit, delighting in her conversation, affording her a handsome maintenance, and placing a due trust and confidence in her.

2. The reasons are, Because she is the weaker vessel by nature and constitution, and so ought to be defended: but then the wife is, in other and higher respects, equal to her husband; they are heirs together of the grace of life, of all the blessings of this life and another, and therefore should live peaceably and quietly one with another, and, if they do not, their prayers one with another and one for another will be hindered, so that often "you will not pray at all, or, if you do, you will pray with a discomposed ruffled mind, and so without success."Learn, (1.) The weakness of the female sex is no just reason either for separation or contempt, but on the contrary it is a reason for honour and respect: Giving honour to the wife as unto the weaker vessel. (2.) There is an honour due to all who are heirs of the grace of life. (3.) All married people should take care to behave themselves so lovingly and peaceably one to another that they may not by their broils hinder the success of their prayers.

Barclay: 1Pe 3:7

Short as this passage is, it has in it much of the very essence of the Christian ethic. That ethic is what may be called a reciprocal ethic. It never places all the responsibility on one side. If it speaks of the duties of slaves, it speaks also of the obligations of masters. If it speaks of the duty of children, it speaks also of the obligations of parents (compare Eph 6:1-9; Col 3:20-25; Col 4:1). Peter has just laid down the duty of wives; now he lays down the duty of husbands. A marriage must be based on reciprocal obligation. A marriage in which all the privileges are on one side and all the obligations on the other is bound to be imperfect with every chance of failure. This was a new conception in the ancient world. We have already noted the woman's total lack of rights then and quoted Cato's statement of the rights of the husband. But we did not finish that quotation and we do so now: "If you were to catch your wife in an act of infidelity, you can kill her with impunity without a trial; but, if she were to catch you, she would not venture to touch you with her finger and, indeed, she has no right." In the Roman moral code all the obligation was on the wife and all the privilege with the husband. The Christian ethic never grants a privilege without a corresponding obligation.

What are the obligations of the husband?

(i) He must be understanding. He must be considerate and sensitive to the feelings of his wife. Somerset Maugham's mother was a very beautiful woman with the world at her feet but his father was unhandsome. Someone once asked her: "Why do you remain faithful to that ugly little man you married?" Her answer was: "Because he never hurts me." Understanding and considerateness had forged an unbreakable bond. The cruelty which is hardest to bear is often not deliberate but the product of sheer thoughtlessness.

(ii) He must be chivalrous. He must remember that women are the weaker sex and treat them with courtesy. In the ancient world chivalry to women was well-nigh unknown. It was, and still is, no uncommon sight in the East to see the man riding on a donkey while the woman trudged by his side. It was Christianity which introduced chivalry into the relationship between men and women.

(iii) He must remember that the woman has equal spiritual rights. She is a fellow-heir of the grace of life. Women did not share in the worship of the Greeks and the Romans. Even in the Jewish synagogue they had no share in the service, and in the orthodox synagogue still have none. When they were admitted to the synagogue at all, they were segregated from the men and hidden behind a screen. Here in Christianity emerged the revolutionary principle that women had equal spiritual rights and with that the relationship between the sexes was changed.

(iv) Unless a man fulfils these obligations, there is a barrier between his prayers and God. As Bigg puts it: "The sighs of the injured wife come between the husband's prayers and God's hearing." Here is a great truth. Our relationships with God can never be right, if our relationships with our fellow-men are wrong. It is when we are at one with each other that we are at one with him.

Constable: 1Pe 2:11--4:12

III. The responsibilities of the christian individually 2:11--4:11

Since Christians have a particular vocation in the world certain conduct was essential for Peter's readers.

"The address, Dear friends, I appeal to you,' in 2:11 marks a shift from the identity of God's people to their consequent responsibility in a hostile world. If 1:3-2:10 expanded on their identity as chosen people' (cf. 1:2), the reference to them as aliens and strangers' in 2:11 serves as a reminder that they are at the same time living as strangers' (again cf. 1:2) in contemporary society."⁸²

Constable: 1Pe 2:13--3:13

B. Respect for Others 2:13-3:12

This section of the letter clarifies what it means to function obediently as God's people in a hostile world. It contains one of the tables of household duties in the New Testament (2:13-3:7; cf. Eph. 5:21-6:9; Col. 3:18-4:1). Luther referred to these sections as Haustafeln, and some scholars still use this technical term when referring to these lists. However this one begins with instructions regarding the Christian's relationship to the state, which is similar to Romans 13:1-7. It is particularly our duties in view of suffering for our faith that concerned Peter, as is clear from his choice of material.

Constable: 1Pe 3:7

4. Husbands' respect for their wives 3:7

Why did Peter write more about the conduct of women (vv. 1-6) than of men (v. 7)? He evidently did so because his concern was for Christian wives who were married to pagan husbands. A Christian wife married to a pagan husband was in a more vulnerable position than a Christian husband who was married to a pagan wife in that culture. Normally pagan women married to Christian husbands would adopt their husbands' faith. In Roman society a wife would normally adopt her husband's religion.¹²²

"His emphasis throughout is on those points at which the Christian community faces outward to confront Roman society. Probably for this reason he omits children and parents altogether; the parent-child relationship (at least in regard to younger children) is not normally one in which belief and unbelief confront each other . . ."¹²³

The Roman author Cato wrote, "If you were to catch your wife in an act of infidelity, you can kill her with impunity without a trial; but, if she were to catch you, she would not venture to touch you with her finger, and, indeed, she has no right."¹²⁴

The Christian wife's new freedom in Christ created new problems and challenges for her. Perhaps Peter also wanted to communicate more encouragement (vv. 5-6) and tenderness to the women, not because he felt they were greater sinners than their husbands. What follows in verse 7 is just as challenging as what we have read in verses 1-6.

"It is clear that Peter does not think about the possibility of a husband with a non-Christian wife, for if a family head in that culture changed his religion it would be normal that his wife, servants, and children also changed."¹²⁵

"In 1 Peter 3:1-6 Christian wives are instructed to behave with deference as they encounter the difficulties of living with an unbelieving husband. Similarly in verse 7 Christian husbands are told to honor their wives in unfair circumstances brought about by the wife's being the weaker vessel."¹²⁶

As with his instructions to wives, Peter began his counsel to the husbands with a command to think right first (cf. 3:1-2). He said men should cultivate understanding. This brief charge carries profound implications. It requires active listening to the wife as well as study of her temperament, emotions, personality, and thought patterns. It is a tall order to know one's wife, to understand her, even to be understanding with her. However the knowledge in view is probably primarily knowledge of God's Word concerning the proper treatment of one's wife.¹²⁷

By comparing a wife to a weaker vessel Peter was not implying that wives or women are inferior to husbands or males nor that they are weaker in every way or most ways. Obviously, in many marriages the wife is the stronger person emotionally, mentally, spiritually, morally, socially, and or physically. Nevertheless physically the wife is usually weaker than her husband. Men tend to choose as their wives women who are not as strong as they are. Furthermore generally men are stronger than women physically. In view of this, husbands need to treat their wives with special consideration. Both the husband and the wife are vessels, but husbands are more typically similar to iron skillets whereas wives resemble china vases, being more delicate. They are equally important but different.

Peter banished any implication of essential inferiority with his reminder that the wife is a fellow-heir of God's grace just as much as the husband. God deals with both types of people the same when it comes to bestowing grace on them. He shows no favoritism or partiality because of their genders. Wives may normally be more delicate in some respects than their husbands, but spiritually they are equal. "Life" probably refers to both physical life and spiritual life since husbands and wives share both equally.

The husband who does not treat his wife with honor will not get answers to his prayers the way he could if he did treat her with honor (cf. Matt. 6:14-15). In other words, disobedience to the will of God regarding how a man treats his wife hinders the husband's fellowship with God.

"Egkoptesthai [be hindered'], to have an obstacle thrown in the way, does not restrict the thought to preventing the prayers from reaching their destination at God's throne of grace. The thought includes all manner of hindering. A husband who treats his wife in the wrong way will himself be unfit to pray, will scarcely pray at all. There will be no family altar, no life of prayer. His worship in the congregation will be affected."¹²⁸

A man's selfishness and egotism in his marriage will hurt his relationship with God as well as his relationship with his wife.

"As the closest human relationship, the relationship to one's spouse must be most carefully cherished if one wishes a close relationship with God."¹²⁹

One of a husband's primary responsibilities in a marriage is caring for his wife. Caring requires understanding. If you are married, what are your wife's greatest needs? Ask her. What are her greatest concerns? Ask her. What are her hopes and dreams? Ask her. What new vistas would she like to explore? Ask her, and keep on asking her over the years! Her answers will enable you to understand and to care for her more effectively.

"In order to be able to love deeply, we must know each other profoundly. If we are to lovingly respond to the needs of another, we must know what they are."¹³⁰

"In my premarital counseling as a pastor, I often gave the couple pads of paper and asked them to write down the three things each one thinks the other enjoys doing the most. Usually, the prospective bride made her list immediately; the man would sit and ponder. And usually the girl was right but the man wrong! . . .

"To say, I never knew you felt that way!' is to confess that, at some point, one mate excommunicated the other."¹³¹

College: 1Pe 3:1-22

1 PETER 3

D. WIVES, SUBMIT TO YOUR HUSBANDS (3:1-6)

¹ Wives, in the same way be submissive to your husbands so that, if any of them do not believe the word, they may be won over without words by the behavior of their wives, ² when they see the purity and reverence of your lives. ³ Your beauty should not come from outward adornment, such as braided hair and the wearing of gold jewelry and fine clothes. ⁴ Instead, it should be that of your inner self, the unfading beauty of a gentle and quiet spirit, which is of great worth in God's sight. ⁵ For this is the way the holy women of the past who put their hope in God used to make themselves beautiful. They were submissive to their own husbands, ⁶ like Sarah, who obeyed Abraham and called him her master. You are her daughters if you do what is right and do not give way to fear.

The changes in modern society have given new prominence to every text of Scripture that touches on relationships between men and women. A growing percentage of our society has adopted the egalitarian view that in every aspect of life, including the church and home, there should be no differences in the roles of men and women except those that are mandated by biology (e.g., men cannot bear children). With respect to marriage, egalitarians want to eliminate every trace of the notion that husbands should have a role of authority or leadership in the home.

Peter's comments in 1 Peter 3:1-6 create an obvious problem for this point of view. Although verse 7 indicates that Peter would not agree with the way many husbands misuse their role, he does clearly encourage Christian wives to be submissive to the leadership role of the husband.

Egalitarians usually adopt one of two views regarding Peter's comments. Some simply disagree with the author of 1 Peter (most of them would argue the author was not the apostle Peter). But those who believe Peter wrote this book and have a high view of inspiration recognize that it is not acceptable simply to disagree with Peter. They argue that Peter's advice to wives was appropriate for his culture and times, but does not necessarily apply to us. They argue that in this respect Peter's instructing wives to submit to husbands is analogous to his instructing slaves to submit to masters.

The most important objection to this "evangelical egalitarian" view is based on the writings of Paul. Paul's comments about the relationships of men and women in the church and home differ in a crucial respect from his comments about masters and slaves. In 1 Corinthians 11 and 1 Timothy 2 Paul grounds his notion of male headship in the Genesis 2 account of the creation of Adam and Eve. Paul believed that when Genesis says that God created woman for the sake of man (1 Cor 11:8-9) it implies that "the head of the woman is man" (1 Cor 11:3). Peter does not comment on this "creation ordinance" view, but those of us who think Paul held it do not believe Peter would disagree.

The view that the headship role of the husband in the home is a transcultural norm of God's will does not imply that there cannot be cultural and individual differences in how this norm is put into practice. For example, in America the wearing of veils no longer has the same symbolic meanings that it had for Paul in 1 Corinthians 11. Peter's comment that Sarah showed her submission to Abraham by calling him "lord" does not imply that every woman in Peter's day or even in Sarah's day would necessarily demonstrate their submission in the same fashion. There can be differences from one culture to another and from one marriage to another in how such a norm is carried out with respect to a myriad of details.

Peter's comments to wives are his third example of Christian submission (after submission to government and slaves' submission to masters). They constitute a second aspect of the common household structure (slaves and masters, wives and husbands, children and parents).

3:1 Wives, in the same way be submissive to your husbands

"In the same way" probably refers back to 2:13 and 18. As all Christians should submit to the governing authorities (2:13) and slaves should submit to their masters (2:18), "in the same way" wives should submit to their husbands. Michaels suggests that "in the same way" is perhaps too strong, since it suggests that Peter sees no differences in the manner in which citizens, slaves, and wives submit in their various spheres. He suggests "'likewise' in the sense of 'also' or 'too.'"

As in 2:18, the NIV's "be submissive" follows the common view that the participle used here ("being submissive") should be translated as an imperative.

Peter does not encourage wives in general to be submissive to husbands in general. He encourages each wife to submit to her own husband.

so that, if any of them do not believe the word, they may be won over without words by the behavior of their wives,

Peter's focus from the beginning of this section has been on making an impact on non-Christians: "Live such good lives among the pagans that . . . they may see your good deeds and glorify God" (2:12). Wives married to non-Christian husbands exemplify this concern.

Any wife who denied her husband's gods was apparently already violating social norms. Plutarch (a pagan writer who lived c. A.D. 50 to 120) is well known for his comment that "it is becoming for a wife to worship and know only the gods that her husband believes in, and to shut the front door tight upon all queer rituals and outlandish superstitions."

Of course for Peter a wife's submission does not involve denial of Jesus Christ. But by demonstrating their submission in other areas wives may hope even to convert their non-Christian husbands.

The first use of "word" here clearly refers to the Christian gospel. The second use of "word" may involve a word play on the first. It is not used in the plural as the NIV suggests and may have a sort of double sense: "without verbal reference (a word) to the gospel (the word)."

3:2 when they see the purity and reverence of your lives.

The husbands who will not listen to the gospel may yet be won over by the behavior of their wives. That behavior should be characterized by purity and reverence. The phrase translated "reverence" is literally "in fear." It is the same as the phrase translated "in reverent fear" in 1:17. Peter is not speaking of fear of the husband (cf. 1 Pet 3:6), but of fear of God. On the importance of this concept in 1 Peter see the comments on 1:17. Peter's observation that a Christian woman's behavior may sometimes win her husband to Christ has been proven true repeatedly throughout the centuries.

3:3 Your beauty should not come from outward adornment, such as braided hair and the wearing of gold jewelry and fine clothes.

Peter's criticism of emphasizing outward adornment is similar to Isaiah 3:16-24 and especially 1 Timothy 2:9-10. Similar views may also be found in a variety of Greco-Roman authors who argue "that the proper attire for the woman is modesty rather than expensive garments, fancy coiffures, and jewelry."

It is often and correctly stated that many contemporary Christian women (and men) do not listen to Peter or Paul on this point. Of course we should. But it is important not to misunderstand them. It is doubtful that Isaiah, Peter, or Paul meant strictly to forbid every adornment they mention. In fact in Peter's case the last item on his list is literally "clothes," not "fine clothes." Just as the context implies he means "fine" clothes, so it should be understood that he means "ostentatious" braiding and gold.

3:4 Instead, it should be that of your inner self, the unfading beauty of a gentle and quiet spirit, which is of great worth in God's sight.

The adornment of the Christian wife should be the inner self, literally "the secret person of the heart." That is where true and lasting beauty can be seen. The beauty Christian wives should have is the beauty of a gentle (or meek) and quiet spirit. In this context this spirit is a part of the concept of submission, as is seen by the explanation in verse 5 that the holy women of the past made themselves beautiful by being submissive to their husbands. Despite its lack of popularity in modern society, Peter says such a submissive, gentle, quiet spirit is very precious to God.

3:5 For this is the way the holy women of the past who put their hope in God used to make themselves beautiful. They were submissive to their own husbands,

The NRSV is preferable in showing the relationship between the parts of this verse: "the holy women who hoped in God used to adorn themselves by accepting the authority of their husbands." Throughout these verses Peter's emphasis is on the idea of submission. He encourages the Christian wives of Asia Minor to consider the example of faithful women from the Old Testament past. Verse 6 uses the specific example of Sarah, wife of Abraham.

3:6 like Sarah, who obeyed Abraham and called him her master.

Sarah, matriarch of the Jews, was held in high regard (cf. Heb 11:11). Peter uses her obedience to Abraham, exemplified by the way she addressed him, as an illustration of how the holy women of the past adorned themselves by submitting to their husbands. He has reference to Genesis 18:12: "So Sarah laughed to herself as she thought, 'After I am worn out and my master is old, will I now have this pleasure?'" There is little evidence to suggest that addressing a husband as "lord" or "master" was common in the time of Sarah or Peter. Peter is not prescribing a particular practice, but simply providing an illustration of Sarah's submissiveness.

You are her daughters if you do what is right and do not give way to fear.

The daughters of Sarah are those who follow her example in submitting to their husbands as she did to Abraham. They remain her daughters as long as they continue to "do what is right," a concept often repeated by Peter (cf. 2:15,20; 3:10-12,13-14,17; 4:18-19). Those who do what is right have to refuse to listen to their fears of other people (cf. 3:14), including non-Christian husbands' attempts to intimidate them.

E. HUSBANDS, BE CONSIDERATE (3:7)

⁷ Husbands, in the same way be considerate as you live with your wives, and treat them with respect as the weaker partner and as heirs with you of the gracious gift of life, so that nothing will hinder your prayers.

Peter's emphasis in the section beginning with 2:11 is on the submissive half of the three relationships: everyone as submissive to governing authorities, slaves as submissive to masters, and wives as submissive to husbands. With respect to household relationships, he gives no advice to masters (that there were Christian masters is clear from the writings of Paul) and only brief advice to husbands.

3:7 Husbands, in the same way be considerate as you live with your wives,

As in 1:13, 2:18, and 3:1 the imperative verb (in this case "be considerate") is actually a participle, but may be translated as an imperative.

The NIV "be considerate as you live with [your wives]" translates a prepositional phrase and a verb that could be literally translated "live with [your wives] according to knowledge." "According to knowledge" may simply mean "considerately," but in the context of 1 Peter it might have a fuller connotation, such as "according to a knowledge of what God requires."

and treat them with respect as the weaker partner

Christian husbands should not take wrongful advantage of their wives being "the weaker partner," but rather should show them honor.

"Weaker partner" translates a difficult phrase. "Partner" translates the word skeu'o" ( skeuos ) used literally to mean "thing, object used for any purpose at all" or more particularly "vessel, jar, dish, etc." In the New Testament it is used figuratively for Paul as a chosen instrument of God (Acts 9:15) and for the human body (2 Cor 4:7; 1 Thess 4:4). A literal translation would be "weaker vessel" (NRSV footnote; see also most older versions). Less literal translations striving to express the metaphorical meaning include the NIV's "weaker partner," the NRSV's "weaker sex," and Michaels's "somebody weaker."

More significant is the meaning of "weaker." What did Peter mean by this description? Various authors from roughly his time period can be cited to show that many believed women were weaker than men not only physically, but also intellectually and morally. But in connection with his discussion of how Christian wives can convert their non-Christian husbands, Peter is unlikely to have intended to call wives weaker intellectually or morally. Most recent interpreters believe he had in mind the fact that women are generally physically weaker than men and perhaps the concomitant fact that they are therefore more vulnerable to mistreatment.

and as heirs with you of the gracious gift of life,

Christian husbands are to live considerately with and show honor to their wives not only in light of their weakness, but in light of the fact that they share equally in the grace of God. Peter believed in the now often denied notion that husbands and wives were equal with respect to their relationship with God, but at the same time had different and complementary roles in the home. He would agree with Paul both that "the husband is the head of the wife as Christ is the head of the church" (Eph 5:22; cf. 1 Pet 3:1-6) and that "there is no longer male and female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus" (Gal 3:28, NRSV; cf. 1 Pet 3:7). Although spiritual equality does not negate all social differences, it does have social implications. Husbands who recognize their wives as equal partners in the grace of God must not misuse their headship of the home, but must be considerate of their wives and show them honor.

so that nothing will hinder your prayers.

There is quite a difference of opinion as to whether "your" refers only to hindering the prayers of the men directly addressed in verse 7 or also to their wives. I am inclined to agree with Achtemeier once again. He argues effectively that "The notion that God would ignore the prayers of women who are not treated in a Christian way would be to punish the weak who are abused, an idea hardly in accord with Christian tradition about the relation of God to the downtrodden." The idea that one's relationship to God may be hindered by one's relationship to others is a repeated theme of Scripture (cf. Matt 5:23-24; 6:12,14; Mark 11:25). Compare also 1 Peter 4:7: "be clear minded and self-controlled so that you can pray."

F. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR ALL (3:8-12)

⁸ Finally, all of you, live in harmony with one another; be sympathetic, love as brothers, be compassionate and humble. ⁹ Do not repay evil with evil or insult with insult, but with blessing, because to this you were called so that you may inherit a blessing. ¹⁰ For,

"Whoever would love life

and see good days

must keep his tongue from evil

and his lips from deceitful speech.

¹¹ He must turn from evil and do good;

he must seek peace and pursue it.

¹² For the eyes of the Lord are on the righteous

and his ears are attentive to their prayer.

But the face of the Lord is against those who do evil." ^a

^a 12 Psalm 34:12-16

This is the concluding (note the word "finally") subsection of the major section that began with 2:11-12. Having addressed slaves, wives, and husbands, Peter now addresses "all."

3:8 Finally, all of you, live in harmony with one another; be sympathetic, love as brothers, be compassionate and humble.

Peter has already encouraged the Christians of Asia Minor to love each other and get rid of malice, envy, and other attitudes that might undermine their relationships (1:22-2:1). In a situation in which they face a constant struggle with outsiders, it is especially important for them to band together in love and compassion for each other.

The qualities encouraged in this verse are common features of New Testament teaching. Furthermore, although Peter does not repeat his theme verb for this section, "be submissive" (2:13,18; 3:1,5), these qualities all involve a submissive attitude.

3:9 Do not repay evil with evil or insult with insult, but with blessing,

The qualities urged in verse 8 seem to focus primarily on Christians' relationships with each other. Verse 9 can apply to how a Christian deals with other Christians, but Peter probably means to include how one deals with outsiders. Certainly that is the case in the teachings of Jesus that this advice echoes (Matt 5:38-42; Luke 6:27-28). Peter here also echoes language he has just used to describe Jesus' behavior: "When they hurled their insults at him, he did not retaliate" (2:23). This is difficult advice in the circumstances Peter addresses. He has already pointed to Jesus as the ultimate example of such behavior.

because to this you were called so that you may inherit a blessing.

There is some question whether "this" refers backward to the exhortation to repay evil with blessing, or forward to "that you may inherit a blessing." The second alternative is represented by the NRSV: "It is for this that you were called - that you might inherit a blessing." The context of verses 10-12 suggests that it points backwards. Of course Peter does not mean that by repaying evil with blessing one earns this inheritance. But he does indicate what behavior those who have been blessed by God are called upon to exhibit toward others, and he implies that one may lose the inheritance by stubbornly refusing to do right.

3:10 For, "Whoever would love life and see good days must keep his tongue from evil and his lips from deceitful speech. 3:11 He must turn from evil and do good; he must seek peace and pursue it. 3:12 For the eyes of the Lord are on the righteous and his ears are open to their prayer. But the face of the Lord is against those who do evil."

Peter supports verse 9 with a citation of the Septuagint version of Psalm 34:12-16. This section of Scripture is appropriate for Peter's use in several ways. Psalm 34 as a whole is appropriate because it encourages the persecuted righteous, reminding them that "the LORD hears them; he delivers them from all their troubles" (v. 17). The references to doing good and being righteous resonate with a repeated theme in 1 Peter (see the comments at 2:14). The exhortations to control the tongue fit the immediate context and Peter's exhortation not to repay insult with insult. The opening statement concerning "Whoever would love life and see good days," while originally referring to the present life, can in the context of verse 9 emphasize the future life and good days to be inherited by those who repay evil with blessing. The final remarks that God listens to the prayers of the righteous, but is set against those who do evil, resonates with Peter's remarks about behavior and its influence on prayer in 3:7 and 4:7.

This citation brings the section 2:11-3:12 to an appropriate end.

IV. ENCOURAGEMENT TO THOSE WHO SUFFER FOR DOING GOOD (3:13-4:11)

A. DO NOT BE FRIGHTENED (3:13-17)

¹³ Who is going to harm you if you are eager to do good? ¹⁴ But even if you should suffer for what is right, you are blessed. "Do not fear what they fear ^a ; do not be frightened." ^{b 15} But in your hearts set apart Christ as Lord. Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have. But do this with gentleness and respect, ¹⁶ keeping a clear conscience, so that those who speak maliciously against your good behavior in Christ may be ashamed of their slander. ¹⁷ It is better, if it is God's will, to suffer for doing good than for doing evil.

^a 14 Or not fear their threats ^b 14 Isaiah 8:12

This paragraph and 4:12-19 are similar in their sustained focus on the persecution Peter's readers were enduring for following Christ and doing good. Both sections exhort the readers to set their course firmly on doing good and to be prepared to suffer. They are key paragraphs in the letter.

3:13 Who is going to harm you if you are eager to do good?

This is a rhetorical question with the implied answer, "no one." But how can Peter say "No one is going to harm you for doing good"? He is writing precisely because someone is harming Christians for doing good. He will later say that suffering for doing good is not to be considered strange or unusual (4:12) and that it is the experience of Christians throughout the world (5:9).

Some respond that in 3:13 Peter is speaking proverbially. According to this view, Peter intends to say that it is generally true that people will not harm others for doing good - but of course he is aware of exceptions.

I am inclined to another view which holds that Peter is drawing a conclusion from the citation of Psalm 34 in verses 10-12: the Lord sees and rewards the righteous and thus no ultimate harm can come to them. This is mildly supported by the conjunction kaiv ( kai ) at the beginning of this verse. It is left untranslated by the NIV, but may be translated "then" or "and so." This would indicate that verse 13 is a conclusion drawn from verses 10-12. Peter's point would be that no one can separate the Christian from God or take away his or her inheritance.

3:14 But even if you should suffer for what is right, you are blessed.

The statement "if you should suffer" does not call into question whether some of Peter's addressees are suffering, which is assumed throughout the book. However, the suffering envisioned by Peter is sporadic and affects different individuals in different ways and at different times. He has just said that no one can ultimately harm them for doing right. In harmony with that he now adds that in fact when they do suffer for doing right, they should consider themselves blessed. 1 Peter 4:14 makes the similar statement, "If you are insulted because of the name of Christ, you are blessed." Both echo and perhaps consciously allude to statements in the Beatitudes: "Blessed are those who are persecuted because of righteousness. . . . Blessed are you when people insult you . . . because of me" (Matt 5:10-11).

"Do not fear what they fear; do not be frightened."

These clauses are adapted from the Septuagint version of Isaiah 8:12. In the first clause Peter says literally "Do not fear their fear." His unusual phraseology reflects the influence of the Isaiah passage. What he intended is probably best represented by the NIV footnote: "Do not fear their threats" (that is, "their fear" means "the fear they try to produce in you"). Peter exhorts his audience not to fear people (cf. 3:6 "do what is right and do not give way to fear"). The One whom they should fear is God (see the comments at 1:17).

3:15 But in your hearts set apart Christ as Lord.

At the end of verse 14 Peter cited Isaiah 8:12. The very next statement in the Septuagint version of Isaiah 8:13 says - in contrast to fearing men (v. 12) - to sanctify the Lord and fear him. Peter adapts this statement to his context, calling upon his readers to sanctify (aJgiavzw, hagiazô, "set apart") Christ as Lord. They must not be deterred by fear of those who cause them to suffer for doing right. The one to be revered is Christ.

Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have.

In the Greek text this sentence is not a sentence, but a clause that is dependent on the exhortation to sanctify Christ as Lord. The way in which they should do that is by always being prepared to stand firm for him. They must be ready to give a defense of their actions and beliefs as followers of Christ.

It is possible that the language here suggests formal legal proceedings. This possibility is more easily seen in the NRSV rendering "make your defense to anyone who demands from you an accounting." But the language can be used, as the NIV suggests, in settings that have nothing to do with legal proceedings (e.g., 1 Cor 9:3). In either case the Christian should sanctify Christ as Lord by being ready to defend their hope in him. Peter uses the word "hope" in a way that is nearly synonymous with "faith" (cf. 1:3,13,21).

Although studying Christian apologetics is a good thing, Peter is not using "be prepared to give an answer" in the sense of "study so that you will know how to defend your beliefs." A better translation might be "be ready to give an answer." Peter uses the same word that appears in 1:5, where he speaks of a salvation "ready" to be revealed.

But do this with gentleness and respect,

Are these qualities mentioned in relationship to those who call Christians to account or in relationship to God? The word translated "respect" is the same word ( phobos ) used in verse 14 and elsewhere for "fear." It is clear in verse 14 that Christians are not to fear men. The NRSV translation "reverence" is preferable. The second word, then, seems to refer to our attitude toward God. The word prau?th" (praütçs) translated "gentleness" may do the same. In some passages (e.g., Jas 3:13) the NIV translates it as "humility." However, responding to others with humility and reverence toward God would result in gentleness toward the questioner - in refusing to repay insult for insult (cf. 3:9).

3:16 keeping a clear conscience, so that those who speak maliciously against your good behavior in Christ may be ashamed of their slander.

The clause "keeping a clear conscience" gives further credence to the idea that the previous qualifications, humility and reverence, refer primarily to one's characteristics before God. There are several ways in which Christians might respond to their opponents and in so doing compromise their conscience. The immediate context suggests that they might return insult for insult (cf. 3:9) or allow themselves to be intimidated into compromising their faith (cf. 3:6,14).

If Christians stand firmly for their beliefs and respond to their opponents with humility and reverence, maintaining a good conscience, some of their opponents will recognize this and be ashamed of slandering them. This hope repeats a theme found also in 2:12 (cf. 3:1-2).

3:17 It is better, if it is God's will, to suffer for doing good than for doing evil.

This verse echoes 2:19-20 (cf. 4:15-16) where Peter tells slaves that there is no merit to bearing up well under a deserved beating. What is commendable before God is suffering for doing good. The idea that such unjust suffering could be God's will is repeated in 4:19. There is a sense, of course, in which such suffering is not what God wants, but rather the will of evil men and of their master, Satan. However, as the book of Job and other sections of Scripture indicate, God ultimately controls men and Satan. Everything he allows to happen is in some sense his will. First Peter contains several suggestions as to why God might permit unjust suffering in the lives of Christians. It proves the genuineness of their faith and purifies it like fire purifies gold (1:7). And it provides an opportunity for leading nonbelievers to faith (2:12; 3:1-2; 4:16).

B. CHRIST ALSO SUFFERED - AND WAS EXALTED (3:18-22)

¹⁸ For Christ died for sins once for all, the righteous for the unrighteous, to bring you to God. He was put to death in the body but made alive by the Spirit, ¹⁹ through whom ^a also he went and preached to the spirits in prison ²⁰ who disobeyed long ago when God waited patiently in the days of Noah while the ark was being built. In it only a few people, eight in all, were saved through water, ²¹ and this water symbolizes baptism that now saves you also - not the removal of dirt from the body but the pledge ^b of a good conscience toward God. It saves you by the resurrection of Jesus Christ, ²² who has gone into heaven and is at God's right hand - with angels, authorities and powers in submission to him.

^a 18,19 Or alive in the spirit, ¹⁹ through which ^b 21 Or response

This paragraph encourages us to be willing to endure unjust suffering for doing good by pointing to the example of Jesus who endured unjust suffering on our behalf. We are reminded not only that he suffered for us, but that he triumphed over death, proclaimed victory over his enemies, and was exalted to the right hand of God. We are also reminded of the commitment we made to him in baptism. Although several aspects of these verses are difficult and subject to diverse interpretations, these main thrusts of the paragraph are clear.

3:18 For Christ died for sins once for all, the righteous for the unrighteous, to bring you to God.

There is a complicated textual variant involving the words "died for sins." The preferable choice is probably the one represented by the NRSV text: "Christ also suffered for sins."

To a limited extent the use of the word "also" may point to Peter's use of the idea of imitating Christ's example: Christians should be willing to suffer for doing good (3:17) in imitation of Christ who "also" suffered even thought he was righteous. However, in pointing out the atoning value of Christ's suffering and saying that he suffered "once for all" Peter emphasizes unique aspects of Christ's suffering. The motivation provided here is less like that in 2:21-23 (that Christ left us an example to follow in his steps) and more like that in 2:24 (that he bore our sins so that we might die to sin and live for righteousness). Christ, the righteous one, made a once for all atonement for us, who were once unrighteous, for the purpose of bringing us to God.

He was put to death in the body but made alive by the Spirit,

The interpretation and therefore translation of this part of the verse is a matter of ongoing debate. The NIV translation of the last phrase, "by the Spirit," is probably incorrect. It overrides the parallelism in the Greek text between the two halves of an "on the one hand (mevn, men ). . . on the other (dev, de )" construction (the NIV does not translate the two conjunctions). The first half says "on the one hand he was put to death in the body." In this case nearly all interpreters agree that "in the body" means something like "in the sphere of the body." This makes it likely that the second clause should be understood in a parallel sense, "on the other hand he was made alive in the sphere of the spirit." The NRSV translation is probably correct: "He was put to death in the flesh, but made alive in the spirit."

There is no reason to believe that "made alive in the spirit" refers to an intermediate state between Jesus' death and resurrection. "Put to death in the flesh" unquestionably refers to Jesus' death on the cross. "Made alive in the spirit" most naturally refers to his resurrection in which he rises to life in a new plane. Compare Paul's statement concerning the resurrection of Christians: "he who raised Christ from the dead will also give life (the same verb translated 'made alive' in 1 Peter 3:18) to your mortal bodies" (Rom 8:11).

3:19 through whom also

If the NIV translation of verse 18 "by the Spirit" is incorrect, then "through whom" is also incorrect. The NRSV is probably correct in translating "in which," that is, in the sphere of the spirit. Whatever verse 19 refers to is done after Jesus' resurrection, his being made alive in the sphere of the spirit.

he went and preached to the spirits in prison 3:20 who disobeyed long ago when God waited patiently in the days of Noah while the ark was being built.

The words of Luther concerning this text have been cited many times: "This is a strange text and certainly a more obscure passage than any other passage in the New Testament. I still do not know for sure what the apostle means." I do not know for sure what the apostle means either, but I will give my opinion.

There are three major interpretations (and numerous variations which will not be described here).

One view holds that Jesus went to Hades and preached to the spirits of those who had been disobedient in the days of Noah. Most of those who hold this view believe that Jesus did this while his body was in the tomb. There is extensive debate about whether he offered them any opportunity for salvation.

The interpretation I have defended for the last part of verse 18 and the first few words of verse 19 suggests that Jesus' going and preaching happened after the resurrection, not during the three days in the tomb. Furthermore, Peter says that Jesus preached "to the spirits who disobeyed," not "to the spirits of the men who disobeyed." According to this first view, when they disobeyed they were not spirits, but men. One might expect Peter to use a construction parallel to Hebrews 12:23, in which the writer speaks of the spirits of those who had died as "the spirits of righteous men."

A second view holds that by means of the Spirit Jesus preached through Noah (that is, he inspired Noah to preach) to Noah's contemporaries. These men were disobedient and thus their spirits (or souls) were imprisoned after their deaths. But according to this view Jesus is said to have preached to them through Noah while they were alive.

The arguments I have used against the first view also apply to the second. Furthermore, for this view one must add not only "to the spirits of the men who disobeyed," but "to the spirits now in prison." According to this second view these spirits were neither disembodied nor in prison when Jesus preached to them through Noah.

This brings us to the third view, which is that after his resurrection Jesus preached to certain supernatural beings who had been disobedient during the times of Noah. The New Testament frequently uses the word "spirits" to refer to supernatural beings (e.g., Heb 1:14: Rev 1:4), usually evil ones (e.g., Matt 8:16; 12:45). Those who hold this view usually argue specifically that he proclaimed victory over the fallen angels of Genesis 6:1-4. This story immediately precedes the story of Noah and is easily associated with it.

This is, of course, to explain one obscure passage by another. The identity of the "sons of God" in Genesis 6:1-4 is itself a matter for debate. What is not debatable is that the "fallen angels" view is a plausible interpretation of Genesis 6 and that many Jews of Peter's day and before knew about this view. Furthermore, a good case can be made that Jude 6 and 2 Peter 2:4 reflect this view of Genesis 6. Both New Testament texts refer to these fallen angels as kept in eternal chains in deepest darkness until the judgment. This resonates with 1 Peter's description of them as "in prison."

Several clearly pre-Christian (found among the Dead Sea Scrolls) portions of the apocryphal Jewish document 1 Enoch are especially important for this view. 1 Enoch specifically describes the fallen angels as "spirits" (e.g., 15:4,6,8) and discusses their imprisonment in some detail. It is not, of course, necessary to believe Peter reflects the influence of 1 Enoch itself (although Jude 14-15 indicates Jude was aware of it). But 1 Enoch makes it clear that at least some Jews would use language similar to Peter's to speak about the fallen angels.

If the fallen angels view is correct, what did Jesus "preach" to these spirits? The word Peter uses (khruvssw, kçryssô) is usually used of preaching the gospel, but not necessarily so. In Revelation 5:2 it is used simply to mean "proclaim" and in the Septuagint it is sometimes used of bringing bad news (e.g., Jonah 1:2). The context of 1 Peter suggests a proclamation of victory over these evil spirits: this would certainly be more encouraging to the readers and fits with the declaration in verse 22 that all spiritual powers have been made subject to Christ.

To summarize the view presented here I quote France's paraphrase of this section of 1 Peter with his parenthetical insertions identifying the possible relevance of these points for Peter's audience:

He was put to death (as you may well be), but that was only in the earthly sphere: he has been raised to new spiritual life (as you will be too, if you die for him). (So death was, for Jesus, the way of achievement and victory; do not fear those who can only kill the body.) In the triumph of his resurrection he went to the fallen angels awaiting judgment in their place of confinement, and proclaimed to them the victory won by his redeeming death. (Even the most wicked of spiritual powers have had to recognize the authority of the risen Jesus; whatever the forces against you, they are not his equal). These were those spirits who rebelled against God in the days of Noah . . .

In it only a few people, eight in all, were saved through water,

As France observes, "the Flood, once mentioned, becomes the basis for more teaching relevant to the encouragement of persecuted Christians. Two facts are isolated from the story: (1) that few were saved; (2) that they were saved 'through water'." Peter points out that only a few were saved (Noah, his three sons, and their wives) in order to encourage the Christians of Asia Minor, who were an extreme minority in their culture.

The sense of "through water" is uncertain. The analogy of Christian baptism in verse 21 suggests "through" in the sense of "by means of." But since water was the means of destruction in the flood it seems odd to refer to Noah and his family as being saved "by means of water" (as opposed to "by means of the ark"). It may be preferable to view "through" in a local sense: Noah was saved by passing through the waters of the flood into a renewed world. The analogy with Christian baptism would then be that Christians pass through the waters of baptism into a renewed life.

3:21 and this water symbolizes baptism that now saves you also

The grammar of this clause is notoriously difficult, although the ultimate meanings of most of the proposed solutions are similar. Peter draws an analogy between Noah and his family being saved through water and Christians being saved through the water of baptism.

France observes that some are concerned that Peter's affirmation "baptism saves you" might be taken to imply a magical view of how baptism works. His response is correct and worth citing:

Two points may be made in this connection. Firstly, such 'realist' language concerning the effect of baptism is by no means unparalleled in the New Testament; any view of baptism which finds it a rather embarrassing ceremonial extra, irrelevant to Christian salvation, is not doing justice to New Testament teaching. But, secondly, Peter is very careful to qualify his statement immediately by pointing out the true nature of baptism, involving two aspects, one negative and one positive, which between them effectively allay fears of a 'magical' view . . .

The two aspects France has in mind occupy the remainder of verse 21.

- not the removal of dirt from the body

Peter's first clarifying remark indicates something he does not intend within the scope of "baptism saves you." Peter is presumably not addressing an ancient misconception of baptism: it is unlikely anyone would have thought of Christian baptism as dealing with washing dirt off of the body. Rather, in conjunction with the next remark, Peter's point is that the outward act of baptism does not bring salvation in and of itself; it must be combined with the right inward attitude. Baptism does not operate in a magical fashion.

but the pledge of a good conscience toward God.

This is another difficult clause. The NRSV provides the main alternative: "but as an appeal to God for a good conscience." The main questions are whether the first of the two key words (ejperwvthma, eperôtçma) should be translated "pledge" or "appeal" and how the word "conscience" relates to "pledge" or "appeal." Grammatically "a good conscience" may be the object or the subject of the verbal idea contained in either "pledge" or "appeal." France and Achtemeier provide detailed discussions of the complex issues involved. I am mildly inclined to agree with them that Peter intends to say baptism involves pledging a good conscience to God; that is, in baptism one makes a pledge to God to maintain a good conscience, to live a life of service to God. This understanding fits well with the overall thrust of the letter.

It saves you by the resurrection of Jesus Christ,

The power behind baptism is the power of Jesus' resurrection, symbolized in our lives as we rise from the water. Compare the similar statement in 1:3 where Peter says God "has given us new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ."

3:22 who has gone into heaven and is at God's right hand

The reference to the resurrection brings Peter back to the subject matter of verses 18-19: the exaltation of Christ. Having been resurrected from the dead, he has proclaimed victory over his enemies and has ascended into heaven to the right hand of God. The reference to Christ being at God's right hand alludes to Psalm 110:1. The image of sitting at the right hand of a king implies honor, authority, and power.

- with angels, authorities and powers in submission to him.

The three terms used here do not in themselves refer to good or bad spiritual powers. If the spirits of verse 19 are fallen angels, then the context may indicate evil powers. "In submission" is a passive participle, which may also be translated "made subject," perhaps indicating that the angels, authorities and powers envisioned here had to be brought into submission. Peter thus reminds his readers that Christ has conquered every enemy.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

Introduction / Outline

Robertson: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

THE FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER

ABOUT a.d. 65

By Way of Introduction

The Author

The Epistle is not anonymous, but claims to be written by " Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ" (1Pe_1:1), that is Cephas (Simon Peter). If this is not true, then the book is pseudonymous by a late writer who assumed Peter’s name, as in the so-called Gospel of Peter, Apocalypse of Peter, etc. " There is no book in the New Testament which has earlier, better, or stronger attestation, though Irenaeus is the first to quote it by name" (Bigg). Eusebius ( H.E . iii. 25.2) places it among the acknowledged books, those accepted with no doubt at all. We here assume that Simon Peter wrote this Epistle or at any rate dictated it by an amanuensis, as Paul did in Romans (Rom_16:22). Bigg suggests Silvanus (Silas) as the amanuensis or interpreter (1Pe_5:12), the obvious meaning of the language ( dia , through). He may also have been the bearer of the Epistle. It happens that we know more of Peter’s life than of any of the twelve apostles because of his prominence in the Gospels and in the first fifteen chapters of the Acts. In the Student’s Chronological New Testament I have given a full list of the passages in the Gospels where Peter appears with any clearness and the material is rich and abundant. The account in Acts is briefer, though Peter is the outstanding man in the first five chapters during his career in Jerusalem. After the conversion of Saul he begins to work outside of Jerusalem and after escaping death at the hands of Herod Agrippa I (Act_12:3.) he left for a while, but is back in Jerusalem at the Conference called by Paul and Barnabas (Act_15:6-14; Gal_2:1-10). After that we have no more about him in Acts, though he reappears in Antioch and is rebuked by Paul for cowardice because of the Judaizers (Gal_2:11-21). He travelled for the Gospel among the Jews of the Dispersion (Gal_2:9) with his wife (1Co_9:5), and went to Asia Minor (1Pe_1:1) and as far as Babylon or Rome (1Pe_5:13). Besides Silvanus he had John Mark with him also (1Pe_5:13), who was said by the early Christian writers to have been Peter’s " interpreter" in his preaching, since Peter was not expert in the Greek (Act_4:13), and who also wrote his Gospel under the inspiration of Peter’s preaching. We are not able to follow clearly the close of his life or to tell precisely the time of his death. He was apparently put to death in a.d. 67 or 68, but some think that he was executed in Rome in a.d. 64.

The Date

This question is tied up with that of the genuineness of the Epistle, the time of Peter’s death, the use of Paul’s Epistles, the persecution referred to in the Epistle. Assuming the genuineness of the Epistle and the death of Peter about a.d. 67 or 68 and the persecution to be not that under Domitian or Trajan, but under Nero, the date can be assumed to be about a.d. 65.

The Use of Paul’s Epistles

There are two extremes about the relation of Peter to Paul. One is that of violent antithesis, with Peter and Paul opposing one another by exaggerating and prolonging Paul’s denunciation of Peter’s cowardice in Antioch (Gal_2:11-21) and making Peter also the exponent of a Jewish type of Christianity (practically a Judaizing type). This view of Baur once had quite a following, but it has nearly disappeared. Under its influence Acts and Peter’s Epistles were considered not genuine, but documents designed to patch up the disagreement between Peter and Paul. The other extreme is to deny any Pauline influence on Peter or of Peter on Paul. Paul was friendly to Peter (Gal_1:18), but was independent of his ecclesiastical authority (Gal_2:1-10) and Peter championed Paul’s cause in the Jerusalem Conference (Act_15:7-13). Peter was certainly not a Judaizer (Acts 11:1-18), in spite of his temporary defection in Antioch. Undoubtedly Peter was won back to cordial relations with Paul if any confidence can be placed in 2Pe_3:15. There is no reason for doubting that Peter was familiar with some of Paul’s Epistles as there indicated. There is some indication of Peter’s use of Romans and Ephesians in this Epistle. It is not always conclusive to find the same words and even ideas which are not formally quoted, because there was a Christian vocabulary and a body of doctrinal ideas in common though with personal variations in expression. Peter may have read James, but not the Pastoral Epistles. There are points of contact with Hebrews which Von Soden considers sufficiently accounted for by the fact that Peter and the author of Hebrews were contemporaries.

The Persecution Pictured in the Epistle

Peter himself knew what persecution was at the hands of the Sanhedrin and of Herod Agrippa I (both church and state). If First Peter was written a.d. 65, there was time enough for the persecution of Nero in Rome in a.d. 64 to spread to Asia Minor. The province easily imitated the capital city. Paul’s life in the Acts and his Epistles abundantly show how early persecution arose in Asia Minor. The Apocalypse, written during the reign of Domitian, shows that persecution from the state had been on hand long before and was an old burden. We know too little of the history of Christianity in Asia Minor from a.d. 60 to 70 to deny that the fiery trials and suffering as a Christian (1Pe_4:16) can be true of this period. So we locate the persecution at this time as an echo from Rome.

The Place of Writing

Peter states that he is in Babylon (1Pe_5:13), apparently with his wife (1Co_9:5). It is not certain whether he means actual Babylon, where Jews had been numerous, or mystical Babylon (Rome) as in the Apocalypse. We do not know when Rome began to be called Babylon. It may have started as a result of Nero’s persecution of the Christians after the burning of Rome. The Christians were called " evil-doers" (1Pe_2:12) in the time of Nero (Tacitus, Ann . XV. 44). So we can think of Rome as the place of writing and that Peter uses " Babylon" to hide his actual location from Nero. Whether Peter came to Rome while Paul was still there we do not know, though John Mark was there with Paul (Col_4:10). " At the time when it was written Babylon had not yet unmasked all its terrors, and the ordinary Christian was not in immediate danger of the tunica ardens , or the red-hot iron chair, or the wild beasts, or the stake" (Bigg).

The Readers

Peter writes " to the elect who are sojourners of the Dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia" (1Pe_1:1). These five Roman provinces are naturally given from the standpoint of Babylon. In Galatia and Asia Paul had labored, though not all over these provinces. At any rate, there is no reason to wonder that Peter should himself work in the same regions where Paul had been. In a general way Paul and Peter had agreed on separate spheres of activity, Paul to the Gentiles and Peter to the Jews (Gal_2:7.), though the distinction was not absolute, for Paul usually began his work in the Jewish synagogue. Probably the readers are mainly Jewish Christians. but not to the exclusion of Gentiles. Peter has clearly Paul’s idea that Christianity is the true Judaism of God’s promise (1Pe_2:4-10).

The Purpose

Evidently Peter’s object is to cheer and strengthen the Christians in these five provinces who are undergoing fiery trials (1Pe_1:7.). There is every reason why Peter, as the leading apostle to the circumcision, should write to these believers in the provinces, especially since Paul’s long imprisonment in Caesarea and Rome had removed him from his accustomed activities and travel.

The Style and Vocabulary

Like Peter’s discourses in the Acts, the Epistle is mainly hortatory, with a minimum of argument and little of the closely knit reasoning seen in Romans. There is frequent use of the lxx and the Greek is decent Koiné with little of the uncouth Aramaic of the Galilean (Mat_26:73), or of the vernacular Koiné as seen in the papyri or in 2 Peter (Act_4:13). This fact may be accounted for by the help of Silvanus as amanuensis. There are sixty-two words in the Greek of the Epistle not occurring elsewhere in the N.T. There is verbal iteration as in 2 Peter. " One idea haunts the whole Epistle; to the author, as to the patriarch Jacob, life is a pilgrimage; it is essentially an old man’s view" (Bigg). But it is an old man who has lived long with Christ. Peter has learned the lesson of humility and patience from Jesus his Lord.

JFB: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

ITS GENUINENESS is attested by 2Pe 3:1. On the authority of Second Peter, see the Introduction. Also by POLYCARP (in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 4.14]), who, in writing to the Philippians, quotes many passages: in the second chapter he quotes 1Pe 1:13, 1Pe 1:21; 1Pe 3:9; in the fifth chapter, 1Pe 2:11. EUSEBIUS says of PAPIAS [Ecclesiastical History, 3.39] that he, too, quotes Peter's First Epistle. IRENÆUS [Against Heresies, 4.9.2] expressly mentions it; and in [4.16.5], 1Pe 2:16. CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA [Miscellanies, 1.3, p. 544], quotes 1Pe 2:11-12, 1Pe 2:15-16; and [p. 562], 1Pe 1:21-22; and [4, p. 584], 1Pe 3:14-17; and [p. 585], 1Pe 4:12-14. ORIGEN (in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 6.25]) mentions this Epistle; in [Homily 7, on Joshua, vol. 2, p. 63], he mentions both Epistles; and [Commentary on Psalm 3 and on John], he mentions 1Pe 3:18-21. TERTULLIAN [Antidote to the Scorpion's Sting, 12], quotes expressly 1Pe 2:20-21; and [Antidote to the Scorpion's Sting, 14], 1Pe 2:13, 1Pe 2:17. EUSEBIUS states it as the opinion of those before him that this was among the universally acknowledged Epistles. The Peschito Syriac Version contains it. The fragment of the canon called MURATORI'S omits it. Excepting this, and the Paulician heretics, who rejected it, all ancient testimony is on its side. The internal evidence is equally strong. The author calls himself the apostle Peter, 1Pe 1:1, and "a witness of Christ's sufferings," and an "elder," 1Pe 5:1. The energy of the style harmonizes with the warmth of Peter's character; and, as ERASMUS says, this Epistle is full of apostolic dignity and authority and is worthy of the leader among the apostles.

PETER'S PERSONAL HISTORY.--Simon, Or Simeon, was a native of Bethsaida on the Sea of Galilee, son of Jonas or John. With his father and his brother Andrew he carried on trade as a fisherman at Capernaum, his subsequent place of abode. He was a married man, and tradition represents his wife's name as Concordia or Perpetua. CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA says that she suffered martyrdom, her husband encouraging her to be faithful unto death, "Remember, dear, our Lord." His wife's mother was restored from a fever by Christ. He was brought to Jesus by his brother Andrew, who had been a disciple of John the Baptist, but was pointed to the Saviour as "the Lamb of God" by his master (Joh 1:29). Jesus, on first beholding him, gave him the name by which chiefly he is known, indicative of his subsequent character and work in the Church, "Peter" (Greek) or "Cephas" (Aramaic), a stone (Mat 4:18). He did not join our Lord finally until a subsequent period. The leading incidents in his apostolic life are well known: his walking on the troubled waters to meet Jesus, but sinking through doubting (Mat 14:30); his bold and clear acknowledgment of the divine person and office of Jesus (Mat 16:16; Mar 8:29; Joh 11:27), notwithstanding the difficulties in the way of such belief, whence he was then also designated as the stone, or rock (Mat 16:18); but his rebuke of his Lord when announcing what was so unpalatable to carnal prejudices, Christ's coming passion and death (Mat 16:22); his passing from one extreme to the opposite, in reference to Christ's offer to wash his feet (Joh 13:8-9); his self-confident assertion that he would never forsake his Lord, whatever others might do (Mat 26:33), followed by his base denial of Christ thrice with curses (Mat 26:75); his deep penitence; Christ's full forgiveness and prophecy of his faithfulness unto death, after he had received from him a profession of "love" as often repeated as his previous denial (Joh 21:15-17). These incidents illustrate his character as zealous, pious, and ardently attached to the Lord, but at the same time impulsive in feeling, rather than calmly and continuously steadfast. Prompt in action and ready to avow his convictions boldly, he was hasty in judgment, precipitate, and too self-confident in the assertion of his own steadfastness; the result was that, though he abounded in animal courage, his moral courage was too easily overcome by fear of man's opinion. A wonderful change was wrought in him by his restoration after his fall, through the grace of his risen Lord. His zeal and ardor became sanctified, being chastened by a spirit of unaffected humility. His love to the Lord was, if possible, increased, while his mode of manifesting it now was in doing and suffering for His name, rather than in loud protestations. Thus, when imprisoned and tried before the Sanhedrim for preaching Christ, he boldly avowed his determination to continue to do so. He is well called "the mouth of the apostles." His faithfulness led to his apprehension by Herod Agrippa, with a view to his execution, from which, however, he was delivered by the angel of the Lord.

After the ascension he took the lead in the Church; and on the descent of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, he exercised the designed power of "the keys" of Christ's kingdom, by opening the door of the Church, in preaching, for the admission of thousands of Israelites; and still more so in opening (in obedience to a special revelation) an entrance to the "devout" (that is, Jewish proselyte from heathendom) Gentile, Cornelius: the forerunner of the harvest gathered in from idolatrous Gentiles at Antioch. This explains in what sense Christ used as to him the words, "Upon this rock I will build my Church" (Mat 16:18), namely, on the preaching of Christ, the true "Rock," by connection with whom only he was given the designation: a title shared in common on the same grounds by the rest of the apostles, as the first founders of the Church on Christ, "the chief corner-stone" (Eph 2:20). A name is often given in Hebrew, not that the person is actually the thing itself, but has some special relation to it; as Elijah means Mighty Jehovah, so Simon is called Peter "the rock," not that he is so, save by connection with Jesus, the only true Rock (Isa 28:16; 1Co 3:11). As subsequently he identified himself with "Satan," and is therefore called so (Mat 16:23), in the same way, by his clear confession of Christ, the Rock, he became identified with Him, and is accordingly so called (Mat 16:18). It is certain that there is no instance on record of Peter's having ever claimed or exercised supremacy; on the contrary, he is represented as sent by the apostles at Jerusalem to confirm the Samaritans baptized by Philip the deacon; again at the council of Jerusalem, not he, but James the president, or leading bishop in the Church of that city, pronounced the authoritative decision: Act 15:19, "My sentence is," &c. A kind of primacy, doubtless (though certainly not supremacy), was given him on the ground of his age, and prominent earnestness, and boldness in taking the lead on many important occasions. Hence he is called "first" in enumerating the apostles. Hence, too, arise the phrases, "Peter and the Eleven," "Peter and the rest of the apostles"; and Paul, in going up to Jerusalem after his conversion, went to see Peter in particular.

Once only he again betrayed the same spirit of vacillation through fear of man's reproach which had caused his denial of his Lord. Though at the Jerusalem council he advocated the exemption of Gentile converts from the ceremonial observances of the law, yet he, after having associated in closest intercourse with the Gentiles at Antioch, withdrew from them, through dread of the prejudices of his Jewish brethren who came from James, and timidly dissembled his conviction of the religious equality of Jew and Gentile; for this Paul openly withstood and rebuked him: a plain refutation of his alleged supremacy and infallibility (except where specially inspired, as in writing his Epistles). In all other cases he showed himself to be, indeed, as Paul calls him, "a pillar" (Gal 2:9). Subsequently we find him in "Babylon," whence he wrote this First Epistle to the Israelite believers of the dispersion, and the Gentile Christians united in Christ, in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia.

JEROME [On Illustrious Men, 1] states that "Peter, after having been bishop of Antioch, and after having preached to the believers of the circumcision in Pontus, &c. [plainly inferred from 1Pe 1:1], in the second year of Claudius went to Rome to refute Simon Magus, and for twenty-five years there held the episcopal chair, down to the last year of Nero, that is, the fourteenth, by whom he was crucified with his head downwards, declaring himself unworthy to be crucified as his Lord, and was buried in the Vatican, near the triumphal way." EUSEBIUS [Chronicles, Anno 3], also asserts his episcopate at Antioch; his assertion that Peter founded that Church contradicts Act 11:19-22. His journey to Rome to oppose Simon Magus arose from JUSTIN'S story of the statue found at Rome (really the statue of the Sabine god, Semo Sanctus, or Hercules, mistaken as if Simon Magus were worshipped by that name, "Simoni Deo Sancto"; found in the Tiber in 1574, or on an island in the Tiber in 1662), combined with the account in Acts 8:9-24. The twenty-five years' bishopric is chronologically impossible, as it would make Peter, at the interview with Paul at Antioch, to have been then for some years bishop of Rome! His crucifixion is certain from Christ's prophecy, Joh 21:18-19. DIONYSIUS OF CORINTH (in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 2.25]) asserted in an epistle to the Romans, that Paul and Peter planted both the Roman and Corinthian churches, and endured martyrdom in Italy at the same time. So TERTULLIAN [Against Marcion, 4.5, and The Prescription Against Heretics, 36, 38]. Also Caius, the presbyter of Rome, in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 2.25] asserts that some memorials of their martyrdom were to be seen at Rome on the road to Ostia. So EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 2.25, and Demonstration of the Gospel, 3.116]. So LACTANTIUS [Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died, 2]. Many of the details are palpably false; whether the whole be so or not is dubious, considering the tendency to concentrate at Rome events of interest [ALFORD]. What is certain is, that Peter was not there before the writing of the Epistle to the Romans (A.D. 58), otherwise he would have been mentioned in it; nor during Paul's first imprisonment at Rome, otherwise he would have been mentioned in some one of Paul's many other Epistles written from Rome; nor during Paul's second imprisonment, at least when he was writing the Second Epistle to Timothy, just before his martyrdom. He may have gone to Rome after Paul's death, and, as common tradition represents, been imprisoned in the Mamertine dungeon, and crucified on the Janiculum, on the eminence of St. Pietro in Montorio, and his remains deposited under the great altar in the center of the famous basilica of St. Peter. AMBROSE [Epistles, 33 (Edition Paris, 1586), p. 1022] relates that St. Peter, not long before his death, being overcome by the solicitations of his fellow Christians to save himself, was fleeing from Rome when he was met by our Lord, and on asking, "Lord, whither goest Thou?" received the answer, "I go to be crucified afresh." On this he returned and joyfully went to martyrdom. The church called "Domine quo vadis" on the Appian Way, commemorates the legend. It is not unlikely that the whole tradition is built on the connection which existed between Paul and Peter. As Paul, "the apostle of the uncircumcision," wrote Epistles to Galatia, Ephesus, and Colosse, and to Philemon at Colosse, making the Gentile Christians the persons prominently addressed, and the Jewish Christians subordinately so; so, vice versa, Peter, "the apostle of the circumcision," addressed the same churches, the Jewish Christians in them primarily, and the Gentile Christians also, secondarily.

TO WHOM HE ADDRESSES THIS EPISTLE.--The heading, 1Pe 1:1, "to the elect strangers (spiritually pilgrims) of the dispersion" (Greek), clearly marks the Christians of the Jewish dispersion as prominently addressed, but still including also Gentile Christians as grafted into the Christian Jewish stock by adoption and faith, and so being part of the true Israel. 1Pe 1:14; 1Pe 2:9-10; 1Pe 3:6; 1Pe 4:3 clearly prove this. Thus he, the apostle of the circumcision, sought to unite in one Christ Jew and Gentile, promoting thereby the same work and doctrine as Paul the apostle of the uncircumcision. The provinces are named by Peter in the heading in the order proceeding from northeast to south and west. Pontus was the country of the Christian Jew Aquila. To Galatia Paul paid two visits, founding and confirming churches. Crescens, his companion, went there about the time of Paul's last imprisonment, just before his martyrdom. Ancyra was subsequently its ecclesiastical metropolis. Men of Cappadocia, as well as of "Pontus" and "Asia," were among the hearers of Peter's effective sermon on the Pentecost whereon the Spirit decended on the Church; these probably brought home to their native land the first tidings of the Gospel. Proconsular "Asia" included Mysia, Lydia, Caria, Phrygia, Pisidia, and Lyaconia. In Lycaonia were the churches of Iconium, founded by Paul and Barnabas; of Lystra, Timothy's birthplace, where Paul was stoned at the instigation of the Jews; and of Derbe, the birthplace of Gaius, or Caius. In Pisidia was Antioch, where Paul was the instrument of converting many, but was driven out by the Jews. In Caria was Miletus, containing doubtless a Christian Church. In Phrygia, Paul preached both times when visiting Galatia in its neighborhood, and in it were the churches of Laodicea, Hierapolis, and Colosse, of which last Church Philemon and Onesimus were members, and Archippus and Epaphras leaders. In Lydia was the Philadelphian Church, favorably noticed in Rev 3:7, &c.; that of Sardis, the capital, and of Thyatira, and of Ephesus, founded by Paul, and a scene of the labors of Aquila and Priscilla and Apollos, and subsequently of more than two whole years' labor of Paul again, and subsequently censured for falling from its first love in Rev 2:4. Smyrna of Ionia was in the same quarter, and as one of the seven churches receives unqualified praise. In Mysia was Pergamos. Troas, too, is known as the scene of Paul's preaching and raising Eutychus to life (Act 20:6-10), and of his subsequently staying for a time with Carpus (2Ti 4:13). Of "Bithynia," no Church is expressly named in Scripture elsewhere. When Paul at an earlier period "assayed to go into Bithynia" (Act 16:7), the Spirit suffered him not. But afterwards, we infer from 1Pe 1:1, the Spirit did impart the Gospel to that country, possibly by Peter's ministry, In government, these several churches, it appears from this Epistle (1Pe 5:1-2, "Feed," &c.), were much in the same states as when Paul addressed the Ephesian "elders" at Miletus (Act 20:17, Act 20:28, "feed") in very similar language; elders or presbyter-bishops ruled, while the apostles exercised the general superintendence. They were exposed to persecutions, though apparently not systematic, but rather annoyances and reproach arising from their not joining their heathen neighbors in riotous living, into which, however, some of them were in danger of falling. The evils which existed among themselves, and which are therefore reproved, were ambition and lucre-seeking on the part of the presbyters (1Pe 5:2-3), evil thoughts and words among the members in general, and a want of sympathy and generosity towards one another.

HIS OBJECT seems to be, by the prospect of their heavenly portion and by Christ's example, to afford consolation to the persecuted, and prepare them for a greater approaching ordeal, and to exhort all, husbands, wives, servants, presbyters, and people, to a due discharge of relative duties, so as to give no handle to the enemy to reproach Christianity, but rather to win them to it, and so to establish them in "the true grace of God wherein they stand" (1Pe 5:12). However, see on 1Pe 5:12, on the oldest reading. ALFORD rightly argues that "exhorting and testifying" there, refer to Peter's exhortations throughout the Epistle grounded on testimony which he bears to the Gospel truth, already well known to his readers by the teaching of Paul in those churches. They were already introduced "into" (so the Greek, 1Pe 5:12) this grace of God as their safe standing-ground. Compare 1Co 15:1, "I declare unto you the Gospel wherein ye stand." Therefore he does not, in this Epistle, set forth a complete statement of this Gospel doctrine of grace, but falls back on it as already known. Compare 1Pe 1:8, 1Pe 1:18, "ye know"; 1Pe 3:15; 2Pe 3:1. Not that Peter servilely copies the style and mode of teaching of Paul, but as an independent witness in his own style attests the same truths. We may divide the Epistle into: (I) The inscription (1Pe 1:1-2). (II) The stirring-up of a pure feeling in believers as born again of God. By the motive of hope to which God has regenerated us (1Pe 1:3-12); bringing forth the fruit of faith, considering the costly price paid for our redemption from sin (1Pe 1:14-21). Being purified by the Spirit unto love of the brethren as begotten of God's eternal word, as spiritual priest-kings, to whom alone Christ is precious (1Pe 1:22; 1Pe 2:10); after Christ's example in suffering, maintaining a good conversation in every relation (1Pe 2:10; 1Pe 3:14), and a good profession of faith as having in view Christ's once-offered sacrifice, and His future coming to judgment (1Pe 3:15; 1Pe 4:11); and exhibiting patience in adversity, as looking for future glorification with Christ, (1) in general as Christians, 1Pe 4:12-19; (2) each in his own sphere, 1Pe 5:1-11. "The title "Beloved" marks the separation of the second part from the first, 1Pe 2:11; and of the third part from the second, 1Pe 4:12" [BENGEL]. (III). The conclusion.

TIME AND PLACE OF WRITING.--It was plainly before the open and systematic persecution of the later years of Nero had begun. That this Epistle was written after Paul's Epistles, even those written during his imprisonment at Rome, ending in A.D. 63, appears from the acquaintance which Peter in this Epistle shows he has with them. Compare 1Pe 2:13 with 1Ti 2:2-4; 1Pe 2:18 with Eph 6:5; 1Pe 1:2 with Eph 1:4-7; 1Pe 1:3 with Eph 1:3; 1Pe 1:14 with Rom 12:2; 1Pe 2:6-10 with Rom 9:32-33; 1Pe 2:13 with Rom 13:1-4; 1Pe 2:16 with Gal 5:13; 1Pe 2:18 with Eph 6:5; 1Pe 3:1 with Eph 5:22; 1Pe 3:9 with Rom 12:17; 1Pe 4:9 with Phi 2:14; Rom 12:13 and Heb 13:2; 1Pe 4:10 with Rom 12:6-8; 1Pe 5:1 with Rom 8:18; 1Pe 5:5 with Eph 5:21; Phi 2:3, Phi 2:5-8; 1Pe 5:8 with 1Th 5:6; 1Pe 5:14 with 1Co 16:20. Moreover, in 1Pe 5:13, Mark is mentioned as with Peter in Babylon. This must have been after Col 4:10 (A.D. 61-63), when Mark was with Paul at Rome, but intending to go to Asia Minor. Again, in 2Ti 4:11 (A.D. 67 or 68), Mark was in or near Ephesus, in Asia Minor, and Timothy is told to bring him to Rome. So that it is likely it was after this, namely, after Paul's martyrdom, that Mark joined Peter, and consequently that this Epistle was written. It is not likely that Peter would have entrenched on Paul's field of labor, the churches of Asia Minor, during Paul's lifetime. The death of the apostle of the uncircumcision, and the consequent need of someone to follow up his teachings, probably gave occasion to the testimony given by Peter to the same churches, collectively addressed, in behalf of the same truth. The relation in which the Pauline Gentile churches stood towards the apostles at Jerusalem favors this view. Even the Gentile Christians would naturally look to the spiritual fathers of the Church at Jerusalem, the center whence the Gospel had emanated to them, for counsel wherewith to meet the pretensions of Judaizing Christians and heretics; and Peter, always prominent among the apostles in Jerusalem, would even when elsewhere feel a deep interest in them, especially when they were by death bereft of Paul's guidance. BIRKS [Horæ Evangelicæ] suggests that false teachers may have appealed from Paul's doctrine to that of James and Peter. Peter then would naturally write to confirm the doctrines of grace and tacitly show there was no difference between his teaching and Paul's. BIRKS prefers dating the Epistle A.D. 58, after Paul's second visit to Galatia, when Silvanus was with him, and so could not have been with Peter (A.D. 54), and before his imprisonment at Rome, when Mark was with him, and so could not have been with Peter (A.D. 62); perhaps when Paul was detained at Cæsarea, and so debarred from personal intercourse with those churches. I prefer the view previously stated. This sets aside the tradition that Paul and Peter suffered martyrdom together at Rome. ORIGEN'S and EUSEBIUS' statement that Peter visited the churches of Asia in person seems very probable.

The PLACE OF WRITING was doubtless Babylon on the Euphrates (1Pe 5:13). It is most improbable that in the midst of writing matter-of-fact communications and salutations in a remarkably plain Epistle, the symbolical language of prophecy (namely, "Babylon" for Rome) should be used. JOSEPHUS [Antiquities, 15.2.2; 3.1] states that there was a great multitude of Jews in the Chaldean Babylon; it is therefore likely that "the apostle of the circumcision" (Gal 2:7-8) would at some time or other visit them. Some have maintained that the Babylon meant was in Egypt because Mark preached in and around Alexandria after Peter's death, and therefore it is likely he did so along with that apostle in the same region previously. But no mention elsewhere in Scripture is made of this Egyptian Babylon, but only of the Chaldean one. And though towards the close of Caligula's reign a persecution drove the Jews thence to Seleucia, and a plague five years after still further thinned their numbers, yet this does not preclude their return and multiplication during the twenty years that elapsed between the plague and the writing of the Epistle. Moreover, the order in which the countries are enumerated, from northeast to south and west, is such as would be adopted by one writing from the Oriental Babylon on the Euphrates, not from Egypt or Rome. Indeed, COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES, in the sixth century, understood the Babylon meant to be outside the Roman empire. Silvanus, Paul's companion, became subsequently Peter's, and was the carrier of this Epistle.

STYLE.--Fervor and practical truth, rather than logical reasoning, are the characteristics, of this Epistle, as they were of its energetic, warm-hearted writer. His familiarity with Paul's Epistles shown in the language accords with what we should expect from the fact of Paul's having "communicated the Gospel which he preached among the Gentiles" (as revealed specially to him) to Peter among others "of reputation" (Gal 2:2). Individualities occur, such as baptism, "the answer of a good conscience toward God" (1Pe 3:21); "consciousness of God" (Greek), 1Pe 2:19, as a motive for enduring sufferings; "living hope" (1Pe 1:3); "an inheritance incorruptible, undefiled, and that fadeth not away" (1Pe 1:4); "kiss of charity" (1Pe 5:14). Christ is viewed less in relation to His past sufferings than as at present exalted and hereafter to be manifested in all His majesty. Glory and hope are prominent features in this Epistle (1Pe 1:8), so much so that WEISS entitles him "the apostle of hope." The realization of future bliss as near causes him to regard believers as but "strangers" and "sojourners" here. Chastened fervor, deep humility, and ardent love appear, just as we should expect from one who had been so graciously restored after his grievous fall. "Being converted," he truly does "strengthen his brethren." His fervor shows itself in often repeating the same thought in similar words.

In some passages he shows familiarity with the Epistle of James, the apostle of special weight with the Jewish legalizing party, whose inspiration he thus confirms (compare 1Pe 1:6-7 with Jam 1:2-3; 1Pe 1:24 with Jam 1:10; 1Pe 2:1 with Jam 1:21; 1Pe 4:8 with Jam 5:20, both quoting Pro 10:12; Pro 5:5 with Jam 4:6, both quoting Pro 3:34). In most of these cases Old Testament quotations are the common ground of both. "Strong susceptibility to outward impressions, liveliness of feeling, dexterity in handling subjects, dispose natures like that of Peter to repeat afresh the thoughts of others" [STEIGER].

The diction of this Epistle and of his speeches in Acts is very similar: an undesigned coincidence, and so a mark of genuineness (compare 1Pe 2:7 with Act 4:11; 1Pe 1:12 with Act 5:32; 1Pe 2:24 with Act 5:30; Act 10:39; 1Pe 5:1 with Act 2:32; Act 3:15; 1Pe 1:10 with Act 3:18; Act 10:43; 1Pe 1:21 with Act 3:15; Act 10:40; 1Pe 4:5 with Act 10:42; 1Pe 2:24 with Act 3:19, Act 3:26).

There is, too, a recurrence to the language of the Lord at the last interview after His resurrection, recorded in Joh 21:15-23. Compare "the Shepherd . . . of . . . souls," 1Pe 2:25; "Feed the flock of God," "the chief Shepherd," 1Pe 5:2, 1Pe 5:4, with Joh 21:15-17; "Feed My lambs . . . sheep"; also "Whom . . . ye love," 1Pe 1:8; 1Pe 2:7, with Joh 21:15-17; "lovest thou Me?" and 2Pe 1:14, with Joh 21:18-19. WIESINGER well says, "He who in loving impatience cast himself into the sea to meet the Lord, is also the man who most earnestly testifies to the hope of His return; he who dated his own faith from the sufferings of his Master, is never weary in holding up the suffering form of the Lord before his readers to comfort and stimulate them; he before whom the death of a martyr is in assured expectation, is the man who, in the greatest variety of aspects, sets forth the duty, as well as the consolation, of suffering for Christ; as a rock of the Church he grounds his readers against the storm of present tribulation on the true Rock of ages."

JFB: 1 Peter (Outline)

• ADDRESS TO THE ELECTED OF THE GODHEAD: THANKSGIVING FOR THE LIVING HOPE TO WHICH WE ARE BEGOTTEN, PRODUCING JOY AMIDST SUFFERINGS: THIS SALVATION AN OBJECT OF DEEPEST INTEREST TO PROPHETS AND TO ANGELS: ITS COSTLY PRICE A MOTIVE TO HOLINESS AND LOVE, AS WE ARE BORN AGAIN OF THE EVER-ABIDING WORD OF GOD. (1Pe. 1:1-25)
• EXHORTATIONS. (1Pe. 2:1-25)
• RELATIVE DUTIES OF HUSBANDS AND WIVES: EXHORTATIONS TO LOVE AND FORBEARANCE: RIGHT CONDUCT UNDER PERSECUTIONS FOR RIGHTEOUSNESS' SAKE, AFTER CHRIST'S EXAMPLE, WHOSE DEATH RESULTED IN QUICKENING TO US THROUGH HIS BEING QUICKENED AGAIN, OF WHICH BAPTISM IS THE SACRAMENTAL SEAL. (1Pe. 3:1-22)
• LIKE THE RISEN CHRIST, BELIEVERS HENCEFORTH OUGHT TO HAVE NO MORE TO DO WITH SIN. (1Pe. 4:1-19)
• EXHORTATIONS TO ELDERS, JUNIORS, AND ALL IN GENERAL. PARTING PRAYER. CONCLUSION. (1Pe 5:1-14)

TSK: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

As the design of this Epistle is excellent, remarks Dr. Macknight, so is its execution, in the judgment of the best critics, does not fall short of its design. Ostervald says of the first Epistle of Peter, " it is one of the finest books in the New Testament." Erasmus pronounces it to be " worthy of the prince of the Apostles, and full of apostolical dignity and authority;" and adds, " it is sparing in words, but full of sense - verbis pauca, sententiis differta ." " As the true church of Christ," says Dr. Clarke, " has generally been in a state of suffering, the Epistles of St. Peter have ever been most highly prized by all believers. That which we have just finished is an admirable letter, containing some of the most important maxims and consolations for the Church in the wilderness. No Christian can read it without deriving from it both light and life. Ministers especially should study it well, that they may know how to comfort their flocks when in persecution and adversity. He never speaks to good in any spiritual case who is not furnished out of the Divine treasury. God’s words invite, solicit, and command assent. on them a man may confidently rely. The words of man may be true, but they are not infallible; this is the character of God’s word alone." To these valuable remarks on the varied excellences and uses of this inimitable Epistle, it may be only necessary to add, that it is not only important in these respects, but is a rich treasury of Christian doctrines and duties from which the mind may be enriched and the heart improved, with the most ennobling sentiments.

TSK: 1 Peter 3 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

1Pe 3:1, He teaches the duty of wives and husbands to each other; 1Pe 3:8, exhorting all men to unity and love; 1Pe 3:14, and to suffer persecution; 1Pe 3:19, He declares also the benefits of Christ toward the old world.

Poole: 1 Peter 3 (Chapter Introduction)

PETER CHAPTER 3

MHCC: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

The same great doctrines, as in St. Paul's epistles, are here applied to same practical purposes. And this epistle is remarkable for the sweetness, gentleness, and humble love, with which it is written. It gives a short, and yet a very clear summary, both of the consolations and the instructions needful for the encouragement and direction of a Christian in his journey to heaven, raising his thoughts and desires to that happiness, and strengthening him against all opposition in the way, both from corruption within, and temptations and afflictions without.

MHCC: 1 Peter 3 (Chapter Introduction)

(1Pe 3:1-7) The duties of wives and husbands.

(1Pe 3:8-13) Christians exhorted to agree.

(1Pe 3:14-22) And encouraged to patience under persecutions for righteousness' sake, considering that Christ suffered patiently.

Matthew Henry: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The First Epistle General of Peter

Two epistles we have enrolled in the sacred canon of the scripture written by Peter, who was a most eminent apostle of Jesus Christ, and whose character shines brightly as it is described in the four Gospels and in the Acts of the Apostles, but, as it is painted by the papists and legendary writers, it represents a person of extravagant pride and ambition. It is certain from scripture that Simon Peter was one of the first of those whom our Lord called to be his disciples and followers, that he was a person of excellent endowments, both natural and gracious, of great parts and ready elocution, quick to apprehend and bold to execute whatever he knew to be his duty. When our Saviour called his apostles, and gave them their commission, he nominated him first in the list; and by his behaviour towards him he seems to have distinguished him as a special favourite among the twelve. Many instances of our Lord's affection to him, both during his life and after his resurrection, are upon record. But there are many things confidently affirmed of this holy man that are directly false: as, That he had a primacy and superior power over the rest of the apostles - that he was more than their equal - that he was their prince, monarch, and sovereign - and that he exercised a jurisdiction over the whole college of the apostles: moreover, That he as the sole and universal pastor over all the Christian world, the only vicar of Christ upon earth - that he was for above twenty years bishop of Rome - that the popes of Rome succeed to St. Peter, and derive from him a universal supremacy and jurisdiction over all churches and Christians upon earth - and that all this was by our Lord's ordering and appointment; whereas Christ never gave him any pre-eminence of this kind, but positively forbade it, and gave precepts to the contrary. The other apostles never consented to any such claim. Paul declares himself not a whit behind the very chief apostles, 2Co 11:5 and 2Co 12:11. Here is no exception of Peter's superior dignity, whom Paul took the freedom to blame, and withstood him to the face, Gal 2:11. And Peter himself never assumed any thing like it, but modestly styles himself an apostle of Jesus Christ; and, when he writes to the presbyters of the church, he humbly places himself in the same rank with them: The elders who are among you I exhort, who am also an elder, 1Pe 5:1. See Dr. Barrow on the pope's supremacy.

The design of this first epistle is, I. To explain more fully the doctrines of Christianity to these newly-converted Jews. II. To direct and persuade them to a holy conversation, in the faithful discharge of all personal and relative duties, whereby they would secure their own peace and effectually confute the slanders and reproaches of their enemies. III. To prepare them for sufferings. This seems to be his principal intention; for he has something to this purport in every chapter, and does, by a great variety of arguments, encourage them to patience and perseverance in the faith, lest the persecutions and sad calamities that were coming upon them should prevail with them to apostatize from Christ and the gospel. It is remarkable that you find not so much as one word savouring of the spirit and pride of a pope in either of these epistles.

Matthew Henry: 1 Peter 3 (Chapter Introduction)

Wherein the apostle describes the duties of husbands and wives one to another, beginning with the duty of the wife (1Pe 3:1-7). He exhorts Christians to unity, love, compassion, peace, and patience under sufferings; to oppose the slanders of their enemies, not by returning evil for evil, or railing for railing, but by blessing; by a ready account of their faith and hope, and by keeping a good conscience (1Pe 3:8-17). To encourage them to this, he proposes the example of Christ, who suffered, the just for the unjust, but yet punished the old world for their disobedience, and saved the few who were faithful in the days of Noah (1Pe 3:18 to the end).

Barclay: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO THE FIRST LETTER OF PETER

The Catholic Or General Epistles

First Peter belongs to that group of New Testament letters which are known as the Catholic or General Epistles. Two explanations of that title have been offered.

(i) It is suggested that these letters were so called because they were addressed to the Church at large, in contradistinction to the Pauline letters which were addressed to individual churches. But that is not so. James is addressed to a definite, though widely scattered, community. It is written to the twelve tribes who are scattered abroad (Jam_1:1 ). It needs no argument that Second and Third John are addressed to definite communities; and, although First John has no specific address, it is clearly written with the needs and perils of a particular community in mind. First Peter itself is written to the strangers scattered abroad through Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia (1Pe_1:1 ). It is true that these General Epistles have a wider range than the letters of Paul; at the same time, they all have a definite community in mind.

(ii) So we must turn to the second explanation--that these letters were called Catholic or General because they were accepted as Scripture by the whole Church in contradistinction to that large number of letters which enjoyed a local and temporary authority but never universally ranked as Scripture. At the time when these letters were being written there was an outbreak of letter-writing in the Church. We still possess many of the letters which were then written--the letter of Clement of Rome to Corinth, the letter of Barnabas, the letters of Ignatius and the letters of Polycarp. All were regarded as very precious in the Churches to which they were written but were never regarded as having authority throughout the Church; on the other hand the Catholic or General Epistles gradually won a place in Scripture and were accepted by the whole Church. Here is the true explanation of their title.

The Lovely Letter

Of all the General Epistles it is probably true that First Peter is the best known and loved, and the most read. No one has ever been in any doubt about its charm. Moffatt writes of it: "The beautiful spirit of the pastoral shines through any translation of the Greek text. ¯fectionate, loving, lowly, humble, re lzaak Waltonquaternion of adjectives for the Epistles of James, John and Peter, but it is First Peter which deserves them preeminently." It is written out of the love of a pastorheart to help people who were going through it and on whom worse things were still to come. "The key-note," says Moffatt, "is steady encouragement to endurance in conduct and innocence in character." It has been said that its distinctive characteristic is warmth. E. J. Goodspeed wrote: "First Peter is one of the most moving pieces of persecution literature." To this day it is one of the easiest letters in the New Testament to read, for it has never lost its winsome appeal to the human heart.

The Modern Doubt

Until a comparatively short time ago few would have raised any doubts about the authenticity of First Peter. Renan, who was by no means a conservative critic, wrote of it: "The First Epistle is one of the writings of the New Testament which are most anciently and most unanimously cited as genuine." But in recent times the Petrine authorship of the letter has been widely questioned. The commentary by F. W. Beare, published in 1947, goes the length of saying, "There can be no possible doubt that ters a pseudonym." That is to say, Beare has no doubt that someone else wrote this letter under the name of Peter. We shall go on in fairness to investigate that view; but first we shall set out the traditional view--which we ourselves unhesitatingly accept--of the date and authorship of this letter. This is that First Peter was written from Rome by Peter himself, about the year A.D. 67, in the days immediately following the first persecution of the Christians by Nero, to the Christians in those parts of Asia Minor named in the address. What is the evidence for this early date and, therefore, for the Petrine authorship?

The Second Coming

When we go to the letter we find that expectation of the second coming of Christ is in the very forefront of its thought. Christians are being kept for the salvation which is to be revealed at the last time (1Pe_1:5 ). Those who keep the faith will be saved from the coming judgment (1Pe_1:7 ). Christians are to hope for the grace which will come at the revelation of Jesus Christ (1Pe_1:13 ). The day of visitation is expected (1Pe_2:12 ). The end of all things is at hand (1Pe_4:7 ). Those who suffer with Christ will also rejoice with Christ when his glory is revealed (1Pe_4:13 ). Judgment is to begin at the house of God (1Pe_4:17 ). The writer himself is sure that he will be a sharer in the glory to come (1Pe_5:1 ). When the Chief Shepherd shall appear the faithful Christian will receive a crown of glory (1Pe_5:4 ).

From beginning to end of the letter the second coming is in the forefront of the writermind. It is the motive for steadfastness in the faith, for the loyal living of the Christian life and for gallant endurance amidst the sufferings which have come and will come upon them.

It would be untrue to say that the second coming ever dropped out of Christian belief, but it did recede from the forefront of Christian belief as the years passed on and Christ did not return. It is, for instance, significant that in Ephesians, one of Paullatest letters, there is no mention of it. On this ground it is reasonable to suppose that First Peter is early and comes from the days when the Christians vividly expected the return of their Lord at any moment.

Simplicity Of Organization

It is clear that First Peter comes from a time when the organization of the Church is very simple. There is no mention of deacons; nor of the episkopos (G1985), the bishop, who begins to emerge in the Pastoral Epistles and becomes prominent in Ignatiusetters in the first half of the second century. The only Church officials mentioned are the elders. "I exhort the elders among you as a fellow-elder" (1Pe_5:1 ). On this ground, also, it is reasonable to suppose that First Peter comes from an early date.

The Theology Of The Early Church

What is most significant of all is that the theology of First Peter is the theology of the very early church. E. G. Selwyn has made a detailed study of this; and he has proved beyond all question that the theological ideas of First Peter are exactly the same as those we meet in the recorded sermons of Peter in the early chapters of Acts.

The preaching of the early church was based on five main ideas. One of the greatest contributions of C. H. Dodd to New Testament scholarship was his formulation of these. They form the framework of all the sermons of the early church, as recorded in Acts; and they are the foundation of the thought of all the New Testament writers. The summary of these basic ideas has been given the name Kerugma (G2782), which means the announcement or the proclamation of a herald.

These are the fundamental ideas which the Church in its first days heralded forth. We shall take them one by one and shall set down after each, first, the references in the early chapters of Acts and, second, the references in First Peter; and we will make the significant discovery that the basic ideas of the sermons of the early church and the theology of First Peter are precisely the same. We are not claiming, of course, that the sermons in Acts are verbatim reports of what was actually preached, but we believe that they give correctly the substance of the message of the first preachers.

(i) The age of fulfilment has dawned; the Messianic age has begun. This is Godlast word. A new order is being inaugurated and the elect are summoned to join the new community. Act_2:14-16 ; Act_3:12-26 ; Act_4:8-12 ; Act_10:34-43 ; 1Pe_1:3 ; 1Pe_1:10-12 ; 1Pe_4:7 .

(ii) This new age has come through the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, all of which are in direct fulfilment of the prophecies of the Old Testament and are, therefore, the result of the definite plan and foreknowledge of God. Act_2:20-31 ; Act_3:13-14 ; Act_10:43 ; 1Pe_1:20-21 .

(iii) By virtue of the resurrection Jesus has been exalted to the right hand of God and is the Messianic head of the new Israel. Act_2:22-26 ; Act_3:13 ; Act_4:11 ; Act_5:30-31 ; Act_10:39-42 ; 1Pe_1:21 ; 1Pe_2:7 ; 1Pe_2:24 ; 1Pe_3:22 .

(iv) These Messianic events will shortly reach their consummation in the return of Christ in glory and the judgment of the living and the dead. Act_3:19-23 ; Act_10:42 ; 1Pe_1:5 , 1Pe_1:7 , 1Pe_1:13 ; 1Pe_4:5 , 1Pe_4:13 ; 1Pet 17-18; 1Pe_5:1 , 1Pe_5:4 .

(v) These facts are made the grounds for an appeal for repentance, and the offer of forgiveness and of the Holy Spirit, and the promise of eternal life. Act_2:38-39 ; Act_3:19 ; Act_5:31 ; Act_10:43 ; 1Pe_1:13-25 ; 1Pe_2:1-3 ; 1Pe_4:1-5 .

These declarations are the five main planks in the edifice of early Christian preaching, as recorded for us in the sermons of Peter in the early chapters of Acts. They are also the dominant ideas in First Peter. The correspondence is so close and so consistent that we almost certainly with entire probability see the same hand and mind in both.

Quotations From The Fathers

We may add another point to our evidence that First Peter is early; very early the fathers and preachers of the Church begin to quote it. The first person to quote First Peter by name is Irenaeus, who lived from A.D. 130 until well into the next century. He twice quotes 1Pe_1:8 : "Without having seen him you love him; though you do not now see him you believe in him and rejoice with unutterable and exalted joy." And he once quotes 1Pe_2:16 , with its command not to use liberty as a cloak for maliciousness. But even before this the fathers of the Church are quoting Peter without mentioning his name. Clement of Rome, writing about A.D. 95, speaks of "the precious blood of Christ," an unusual phrase which may well come from Peterstatement that we are redeemed by the precious blood of Christ (1Pe_1:19 ). Polycarp, who was martyred in A.D. 155, continuously quotes Peter without using his name. We may select three passages to show how closely he gives Peterwords.

Wherefore, girding up your loins, serve God in fear ... believing on him who raised up our Lord Jesus Christ from the dead, and gave him glory (Polycarp, To the Philippians chapter 2: 1).

Therefore, gird up your minds...through him you have confidence in God, who raised him from the dead and gave him glory (1Pe_1:13 , 1Pe_1:21 ).

Christ Jesus who bare our sins in his own body on the tree, who did no sin, neither was guile found in his mouth (Polycarp 8: 1).

He committed no sin; no guile was found on his life... He himself bore our sins in his body on the tree (1Pe_2:22 , 1Pe_2:24 ).

Having your conversation blameless among the Gentiles (Polycarp 10: 2).

Maintain good conduct among the Gentiles (1Pe_2:12 ).

There can be no doubt that Polycarp is quoting Peter, although he does not name him. It takes some time for a book to acquire such an authority and familiarity that it can be quoted almost unconsciously, its language woven into the language of the Church. Once again we see that First Peter must be a very early book.

The Excellence Of The Greek

If, however, we are defending the Petrine authorship of this letter, there is one problem we must face--and that is the excellence of the Greek. It seems impossible that it should be the work of a Galilaean fisherman. New Testament scholars are at one in praising the Greek of this letter. F. W. Beare writes: "The epistle is quite obviously the work of a man of letters, skilled in all the devices of rhetoric, and able to draw on an extensive, and even learned, vocabulary. He is a stylist of no ordinary capacity, and he writes some of the best Greek in the whole New Testament, far smoother and more literary than that of the highly-trained Paul." Moffatt speaks of this letter"plastic language and love of metaphor." Mayor says that First Peter has no equal in the New Testament for "sustained stateliness of rhythm." Bigg has likened certain of First Peter.s phrases to the writing of Thucydides. Selwyn has spoken of First Peter"Euripidean tenderness" and of its ability to coin compound words as Aeschylus might have done. The Greek of First Peter is not entirely unworthy to be set beside that of the masters of the language. It is difficult, if not impossible, to imagine Peter using the Greek language like that.

The letter itself supplies the solution to this problem. In the concluding short section Peter himself says, "By Silvanus...I have written briefly" (1Pe_5:12 ). By Silvanus--dia (G1223) Silouanou (G4610)--is an unusual phrase. The Greek means that Silvanus was Peteragent in the writing of the letter; it means that he was more than merely Peterstenographer.

Let us approach this from two angles. First, let us enquire what we know about Silvanus. (The evidence is set out more fully in our study section on 1Pe_5:12 ). In all probability he is the same person as the Silvanus of Paulletters and the Silas of Acts, Silas being a shortened and more familiar form of Silvanus. When we examine these passages, we find that Silas or Silvanus was no ordinary person but a leading figure in the life and counsels of the early church.

He was a prophet (Act_15:32 ); he was one of the "chief among the brethren" at the council of Jerusalem and one of the two chosen to deliver the decisions of the council to the Church at Antioch (Act_15:22 , Act_15:27 ). He was Paulchosen companion in the second missionary journey, and was with Paul both in Philippi and in Corinth (Act_15:37-40 ; Act_16:19 , Act_16:25 , Act_16:29 ; Act_18:5 ; 2Co_1:19 ). He was associated with Paul in the initial greetings of 1 and 2 Thessalonians (1Th_1:1 ; 2Th_1:1 ). He was a Roman citizen (Act_16:37 ).

Silvanus, then, was a notable man in the early church; he was not so much the assistant as the colleague of Paul; and, since he was a Roman citizen, there is at least a possibility that he was a man of an education and culture such as Peter could never have enjoyed.

Now let us add our second line of thought. In a missionary situation, when a missionary can speak a language well enough but cannot write it very well, it is quite common for him to do one of two things in order to send a message to his people. He either writes it out in as good a style as he can, and then gets a native speaker of the language to correct his mistakes and to polish his style; or, if he has a native colleague whom he can fully trust, he tells him what he wishes said, leaves him to put the message into written form and then vets the result.

We can well imagine that this was the part Silvanus played in the writing of First Peter. Either he corrected and polished Peternecessarily inadequate Greek; or he wrote in his own words what Peter wanted said, with Peter setting the final product and adding the last personal paragraph to it.

The thought is that of Peter; but the style is that of Silvanus. And so, although the Greek is so excellent, there is no necessity to deny that the letter comes from Peter himself.

The Recipients Of The Letter

The recipients of the letter are the exiles (a Christian is always a sojourner on the earth) scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia.

Almost all of these words had a double significance. They stood for ancient kingdoms and they stood for Roman provinces to which the ancient names had been given; and the ancient kingdoms and the new provinces did not always cover the same territory. Pontus was never a province. It had originally been the kingdom of Mithradates and part of it was incorporated in Bithynia and part of it in Galatia. Galatia had originally been the kingdom of the Gauls in the area of the three cities Ancyra, Pessinus, and Tavium, but the Romans had expanded it into a much larger unit of administration, including sections of Phrygia, Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Isauria. The kingdom of Cappadocia had become a Roman province in A.D. 17 in practically its original form. Asia was not the continent of Asia as we use the term. It had been an independent kingdom, whose last king, Attalus the Third, had bequeathed it as a gift to Rome in 133 B.C. It embraced the centre of Asia minor and was bounded on the north by Bithynia, on the south by Lycia, and on the east by Phrygia and Galatia. In popular language it was that part of Asia Minor which lay along the shores of the Aegean Sea.

We do not know why these particular districts were picked out; but this much is certain--they embraced a large area with a very large population; and the fact that they are all mentioned is one of the greatest proofs of the immense missionary activity of the early church, apart altogether from the missionary activities of Paul.

All these districts lie in the north-east corner of Asia Minor. Why they are named as a group and why they are named in this particular order, we do not know. But a glance at the map will show that, if the bearer of this letter--who may well have been Silvanus--sailed from Italy and landed at Sinope in north-east Asia Minor, a journey through these provinces would be a circular tour which would take him back to Sinope. From Sinope in Bithynia he would go south to Galatia, further south to Cappadocia, west to Asia, north again to Bithynia, and then east to arrive back in Sinope.

It is clear from the letter itself that its recipients were mainly Gentiles. There is no mention of any question of the law, a question which always arose when there was a Jewish background. Their previous condition had been one of fleshly passion (1Pe_1:14 ; 1Pe_4:3-4 ) which fits gentiles far better than Jews. Previously they had been no people--Gentiles outside the covenant--but now they are the people of God (1Pe_2:9-10 ).

The form of his name which Peter uses also shows that this letter was intended for Gentiles for Peter is a Greek name. Paul calls him Cephas (1Co_1:12 ; 1Co_3:22 ; 1Co_9:5 ; 1Co_15:5 ; Gal_1:18 ; Gal_2:9 , Gal_2:11 , Gal_2:14 ); among his fellow Jews, he was known as Simeon (Act_15:14 ), which is the name by which he is called in Second Peter (2Pe_1:1 ). Since he uses his Greek name here, it is likely that he was writing to Greek people.

The Circumstances Behind The Letter

That this letter was written in a time when persecution threatened, is abundantly clear. They are in the midst of various trials (1Pe_1:6 ). They are likely to be falsely accused as evil-doers (1Pe_3:16 ). A fiery ordeal is going to try them (1Pe_4:12 ). When they suffer, they are to commit themselves to God (1Pe_4:19 ). They may well have to suffer for righteousnessake (1Pe_3:14 ). They are sharing in the afflictions which the Christian brotherhood throughout the world is called upon to endure (1Pe_5:9 ). At the back of this letter there are fiery trial, a campaign of slander and suffering for the sake of Christ. Can we identify this situation?

There was a time when the Christians had little to fear from the Roman government. In Acts it is repeatedly the Roman magistrates and the Roman soldiers and officials who save Paul from the fury of Jews and pagans alike. As Gibbon had it, the tribunal of the pagan magistrate proved the most assured refuge against the fury of the synagogue. The reason was that in the early days the Roman government was not able to distinguish between Jews and Christians. Within the empire Judaism was what was called a religio licita, a permitted religion, and Jews had full liberty to worship in their own way. It was not that the Jews did not try to enlighten the Romans to the true facts of the situation; they did so in Corinth, for example (Act_18:12-17 ). But for some time the Romans simply regarded the Christians as a Jewish sect and, therefore, did not molest them.

The change came in the days of Nero and we can trace almost every detail of the story. On 19th July, A.D. 64, the great fire of Rome broke out. Rome, a city of narrow streets and high wooden tenements, was in real danger of being wiped out. The fire burned for three days and three nights, was checked, and then broke out again with redoubled violence. The Roman populace had no doubt who was responsible and put the blame on the Emperor. Nero had a passion for building; and they believed so that he had deliberately taken steps to obliterate Rome that he might build it again. Neroresponsibility must remain for ever in doubt; but it is certain that he watched the raging inferno from the tower of Maecenas and expressed himself as charmed with the flower and loveliness of the flames. It was freely said that those who tried to extinguish the fire were deliberately hindered and that men were seen to rekindle it again, when it was likely to subside. The people were overwhelmed. The ancient landmarks and the ancestral shrines had vanished; the Temple of Luna, the Ara Maxima, the great altar, the Temple of Jupiter Stator, the shrine of Vesta, their very household gods were gone. They were homeless and, in Farrarphrase, there was "a hopeless brotherhood of wretchedness."

The resentment of the people was bitter. Nero had to divert suspicion from himself; a scapegoat had to be found. The Christians were made the scapegoat. Tacitus, the Roman historian, tells the story (Annals 15.44):

Neither human assistance in the shape of imperial gifts, nor

attempts to appease the gods, could remove the sinister report

that the fire was due to Neroown orders. And, so, in the hope

of dissipating the rumour, he falsely diverted the charge on to a

set of people to whom the vulgar gave the name of Chrestians, and

who were detested for the abominations they perpetrated. The

founder of the sect, one Christus by name, had been executed

by Pontius Pilate in the reign of Tiberius; and the dangerous

superstition, though put down for the moment, broke out again, not

only in Judaea, the original home of the pest, but even in Rome,

where everything shameful and horrible collects and is practised.

Clearly Tacitus had no doubt that the Christians were not to blame for the fire and that Nero was simply choosing them to be the scapegoats for his own crime.

Why did Nero pick on the Christians and how was it possible even to suggest that they were responsible for the fire of Rome? There are two possible answers.

(i) The Christians were already the victims of certain slanders.

(a) They were in the popular mind connected with the Jews. Antisemitism is no new thing and it was easy for the Roman mob to attach any crime to the Jews and, therefore, to the Christians.

(b) The LordSupper was secret, at least in a sense. It was open only to the members of the Church. And certain phrases connected with it were fruitful sources of pagan slanders, phrases about eating someonebody and drinking someoneblood. That was enough to produce a rumour that the Christians were cannibals. In time the rumour grew until it became a story that the Christians killed and ate a Gentile, or a newly born child. At the LordTable the Christians gave each other the kiss of peace (1Pe_5:14 ). Their meeting was called the Agape (G26), the Love Feast. That was enough for stories to spread that the Christian meetings were orgies of vice.

(c) It was always a charge against the Christians that they "tampered with family relationships." There was this much truth in such a charge that Christianity did indeed become a sword to split families, when some members of a family became Christian and some did not. A religion which split homes was bound to be unpopular.

(d) It was the case that the Christians spoke of a coming day when the world would dissolve in flames. Many a Christian preacher must have been heard preaching of the second coming and the fiery dissolution of all things (Act_2:19-20 ). It would not be difficult to put the blame for the fire on to people who spoke like that.

There was abundant material which could be perverted into false charges against the Christians by anyone maliciously disposed to victimise them.

(ii) The Jewish faith had always appealed especially to women because of its moral standards in a world where chastity did not exist. There were, therefore, many well-born women who had embraced the Jewish faith. The Jews did not hesitate to work upon these women to influence their husbands against the Christians. We get a definite example of that in what happened to Paul and his company in Antioch of Pisidia. There it was through such women that the Jews stirred up action against Paul (Act_13:50 ). Two of Nerocourt favourites were Jewish proselytes. There was Aliturus, his favourite actor; and there was Poppaea, his mistress. It is very likely that the Jews through them influenced Nero to take action against the Christians.

In any event, the blame for the fire was attached to the Christians and a savage outbreak of persecution occurred. Nor was it simply persecution by legal means. What Tacitus called an ingens multitudo, a huge multitude, of Christians perished in the most sadistic ways. Nero rolled the Christians in pitch, set light to them and used them as living torches to light his gardens. He sewed them up in the skins of wild animals and set his hunting-dogs upon them, to tear them limb from limb while they still lived.

Tacitus writes:

Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the

skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were

nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burned, to

serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. Nero

offered his gardens for the spectacle and was exhibiting a show

in the circus, while he mingled with the people in the dress of a

charioteer or stood aloft on a car. Hence, even for criminals who

deserve extreme and exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of

compassion; for, it was not, as it seemed, for the public good,

but to glut one mancruelty that they were being destroyed

(Tacitus, Annals 15: 44).

The same terrible story is told by the later Christian historian, Sulipicius Severus, in his Chronicle:

In the meantime, the number of Christians being now very large,

it happened that Rome was destroyed by fire, while Nero was

stationed at Antium. But the opinion of all cast the odium of

causing the fire upon the emperor, and he was believed in this way

to have sought for the glory of building a new city. And, in fact,

Nero could not, by any means he tried, escape from the charge that

the fire had been caused by his orders. He, therefore, turned the

accusation against the Christians and the most cruel tortures were

accordingly inflicted upon the innocent. Nay, even new kinds of

death were invented so that, being covered in the skins of wild

beasts, they perished by being devoured by dogs, while many were

crucified, or slain by fire, and not a few were set apart for this

purpose, that, when the day came to a close, they should be

consumed to serve for light during the night. In this way, cruelty

first began to be manifested against the Christians. Afterwards,

too, their religion was prohibited by laws which were enacted; and

by edicts openly set forth it was proclaimed unlawful to be a

Christian.

It is true that this persecution was confined originally to Rome; but the gateway to persecution had been opened and in every place they were ready victims for the mob.

Moffatt writes:

After the Neronic wave had passed over the capital, the wash of it

was felt on the far shores of the provinces; the dramatic publicity

of the punishment must have spread the name of Christian urbi et

orbi, far and wide, over the entire empire; the provincials would

soon hear of it, and when they desired a similar outburst at the

expense of the loyal Christians, all that they needed was a

proconsul to gratify their wishes and some outstanding disciple to

serve as a victim.

For ever after the Christians were to live under threat. The mobs of the Roman cities knew what had happened in Rome and there were always these slanderous stories against the Christians. There were times when the mob loved blood and there were many governors ready to pander to their blood-lust. It was not Roman law but lynch law which threatened the Christians.

From now on the Christian was in peril of his life. For years nothing might happen; then some spark might set off the explosion; and the terror would break out. That is the situation at the back of First Peter; and it is in face of it that Peter calls his people to hope and to courage and to that lovely Christian living which alone can give the lie to the slanders with which they are attacked and which are the grounds for taking measures against them. First Peter was written to meet no theological heresy; it was written to strengthen men and women in jeopardy of their lives.

The Doubts

We have set out in full the arguments which go to prove that Peter is really the author of the first letter which bears his name. But, as we have said, not a few first-class scholars have felt that it cannot have been his work. We ourselves accept the view that Peter is the author of the letter; but in fairness we set out the other side, largely as it is presented in the chapter on First Peter in The Primitive Church by B. H. Streeter

Strange Silences

Bigg writes in his introduction: "There is no book in the New Testament which has earlier, better, or stronger attestation (than First Peter). It is true that Eusebius, the great fourth century scholar and historian of the Church, classes First Peter among the books universally accepted in the early church as part of scripture" (Eusebius: Ecclesiastical History 3.25.2). But certain things are to be noted.

(a) Eusebius adduces certain quotations from earlier writers to prove his contention that First Peter was universally accepted. This he never does in connection with the gospels or the letters of Paul; and the very fact that he feels called upon to produce his evidence in the case of First Peter might be held to indicate that in it he felt some necessity to prove his point, a necessity which did not exist in connection with the other books. Was there a doubt in Eusebiuswn mind? Or, were there people who had to be convinced? Was the universal acceptance of First Peter not so unanimous after all?

(b) In his book, The Canon of the New Testament, Westcott noted that, although no one in the early church questions the right of First Peter to be part of the New Testament, surprisingly few of the early fathers quote it and, still more surprising, very few of the early fathers in the west and in Rome quote it. Tertullian is an immense quoter of scripture. In his writings there are 7,258 quotations from the New Testament, but only 2 of them are from First Peter. If Peter wrote this letter and wrote it in Rome, we would expect it to be well known and largely used in the Church of the west.

(c) The earliest known official list of New Testament books is the Muratorian Canon, so called after Cardinal Muratori who discovered it. It is the official list of New Testament books as accepted in the Church at Rome about the year A.D. 170. It is an extraordinary fact that First Peter does not appear at all. It can be fairly argued that the Muratorian Canon, as we possess it, is defective and that it may originally have contained a reference to First Peter. But that argument is seriously weakened by the next consideration.

(d) It is a fact that First Peter was still not in the New Testament of the Syrian Church as late as A.D. 373. It did not get in until the Syriac version of the New Testament known as the Peshitto was made about A.D. 400. We know that it was Tatian who brought the New Testament books to the Syriac-speaking Church; and he brought them to Syria from Rome when he went to Edessa and founded the Church there in A.D. 172. It could, therefore, be argued that the Muratorian Canon is correct as we possess it and that First Peter was not part of the Roman ChurchNew Testament as late as A.D. 170. This would be a very surprising fact if Peter wrote it--and actually wrote it at Rome.

When all these facts are put together, it does seem that there are some strange silences in regard to First Peter and that its attestation may not be as strong as is usually assumed.

First Peter And Ephesians

Further, there is definitely some connection between First Peter and Ephesians. There are many close parallels of thought and expression between the two and we select the following specimens of this similarity.

Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. By his

great mercy we have been born anew to a living hope through the

resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead (1Pe_1:3 ).

Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who

has blessed us in Christ with every spiritual blessing in the

heavenly places (Eph_1:3 ).

Therefore, gird up your minds, be sober, set your hope fully upon

the grace that is coming to you at the revelation of Jesus Christ

(1Pe_1:13 ).

Stand, therefore, having girded your loins with truth (Eph_6:14 ).

Jesus Christ, was destined before the foundation of the world, but

was made manifest at the end of the times for your sake

(1Pe_1:20 ).

Even as he chose us in him, before the foundation of the world

(Eph_1:4 ).

Jesus Christ, who has gone into heaven, and is at the right hand

of God, with angels and authorities and powers subject to him

(1Pe_3:22 ).

God made him sit at his right hand in the heavenly places, far

above all rule and authority, and power and dominion (Eph_1:20-21 ).

In addition, the injunctions to slaves, husbands and wives in First Peter and Ephesians are very similar.

The argument is put forward that First Peter is quoting Ephesians. Although Ephesians must have been written somewhere about A.D. 64, Paulletters were not collected and edited until about A.D. 90. If, then, Peter was also writing in A.D. 64, how could he know Ephesians?

This is an argument to which there is more than one reply. (a) The injunctions to slaves, husbands and wives are part of the standardized ethical teaching given to all converts in all churches. Peter was not borrowing from Paul; both were using common stock. (b) All the similarities quoted can well be explained from the fact that certain phrases and lines of thought were universal in the early church. For instance, "Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ," was part of the universal devotional language of the early church, which both Peter and Paul would know and use without any borrowing from each other. (c) Even if there was mutual borrowing, it is by no means certain that First Peter borrowed from Ephesians; the borrowing might well have been the other way round and probably was, for First Peter is much simpler than Ephesians. (d) Lastly, even if First Peter borrowed from Ephesians, if Peter and Paul were in Rome at the same time, it is perfectly possible that Peter could have seen a copy of Ephesians before it was sent to Asia Minor, and he might well have discussed its ideas with Paul.

The argument that First Peter must be late because it quotes from Ephesians seems to us very uncertain and insecure, and probably mistaken.

Your Fellow-elder

It is objected that Peter could not well have written the sentence: "The elders among you I exhort, as a fellow-elder" (1Pe_5:1 ). It is maintained that Peter could not have called himself an elder. He was an apostle whose function was quite different from that of an elder. The apostle was characteristically a man whose work and authority were not confined to any one congregation, but whose writ ran throughout the Church at large; whereas the elder was the governing official of the local congregation.

That is perfectly true. But it must be remembered that amongst the Jews there was no office more universally honoured than that of elder. The elder had the respect of the whole community and to him the community looked for guidance in its problems and justice in its disputes. Peter, as a Jew, would feel nothing out of place in calling himself an elder; and in so doing he would avoid the conscious claim of authority that the title of apostle might have implied, and graciously and courteously identify himself with the people to whom he spoke.

A Witness Of The Sufferings Of Christ

It is objected that Peter could not honestly have called himself a witness of Christsufferings, for after the arrest in the garden all the disciples forsook Jesus and fled (Mat_26:56 ) and, apart from the beloved disciple, none was a witness of the Cross (Joh_19:26-27 ). A witness of the resurrection Peter could call himself, and indeed to be such was the function of an apostle (Act_1:22 ), but a witness of the Cross he was not. In a sense that is undeniable. And yet Peter is not here claiming to be a witness of the crucifixion, but to be a witness of the sufferings of Christ. He did see Christ suffer, in his continual rejection by men, in the poignant moments of the Last Supper, in the agony in the garden and in that moment when, after he had denied him, Jesus turned and looked on him (Luk_22:61 ). It is an insensitive and pedestrian criticism which denies to Peter the right to say that he had been a witness of the sufferings of Christ.

Persecution For The Name

The main argument for a late date for First Peter is drawn from its references to persecution. It is argued that First Peter implies that it was already a crime to be a Christian and that Christians were brought before the courts, not for any crime but for the bare fact of their faith. First Peter speaks about being reproached for the name of Christ (1Pe_4:14 ); it speaks of suffering as a Christian (1Pe_4:16 ). It is argued that this stage of persecution was not reached until after A.D. 100, and that prior to that date their persecution was on the score of alleged evil-doing, as in the time of Nero.

There is no doubt that this was the law by A.D. 112. At that time Pliny was governor of Bithynia. He was a personal friend of the Emperor Trajan and he had a way of referring all his difficulties to Trajan for solution. He wrote to the Emperor to tell how he dealt with the Christians. Pliny was well aware that they were law-abiding citizens to whose practices no crimes were attached. They told him that "they had been accustomed to assemble on a fixed day before daylight, and sing by turns a hymn to Christ as God; that they had bound themselves with an oath, not for any crime, but to commit neither theft, nor robbery, nor adultery, nor to break their word, and not to deny a deposit when demanded." Pliny accepted all this; but, when they were brought before him, he asked only one question. "I have asked them whether they were Christians. Those who confessed I asked a second and a third time, threatening punishment. Those who persisted I ordered to be led away to execution." Their sole crime was that of being a Christian.

Trajan replied that this was the correct proceeding and that anyone who denied being a Christian and proved it by sacrificing to the gods was immediately to be set free. From the letters it is clear that there was a good deal of information being laid against the Christians; and Trajan laid it down that no anonymous letters of information were to be accepted or acted upon (Pliny: Letters 96 and 97).

It is argued that this stage of persecution did not emerge until the time of Trajan; and that First Peter, therefore, implies a situation which must be as late as Trojantime.

The only way in which we can settle this is to sketch the progress of persecution and the reason for it in the Roman Empire. We may do so by setting out one basic fact and three developments from it.

(i) Under the Roman system, religions were divided into two kinds. There were those which were religiones licitae, permitted religions; these were recognized by the state and it was open to any man to practise them. There were religiones illicitae; these were forbidden by the state and it was illegal for any man to practise them on pain of automatic prosecution as a criminal. It is to be noted that Roman toleration was very wide; and that any religion which did not affect public morality and civil order was certain to be permitted.

(ii) Judaism was a religio licita; and in the very early days the Romans, not unnaturally, did not know the difference between Judaism and Christianity. Christianity, as far as they were concerned, was merely a sect of Judaism and any tension and hostility between the two was a private quarrel which was no concern of the Roman government. Because of that in the very early days Christianity was under no danger of persecution. It enjoyed the same freedom of worship as Judaism enjoyed because it was assumed to be a religio licita.

(iii) The action of Nero changed the situation. However it came about, and most likely it was by the deliberate action of the Jews, the Roman government discovered that Judaism and Christianity were different. It is true that Nero first persecuted the Christians, not for being Christians, but for burning Rome. But the fact remains that Christianity had been discovered by the government to be a separate religion.

(iv) The consequence was immediate and inevitable. Christianity was at once a prohibited religion and immediately, ipso facto, every Christian became an outlaw. In the Roman historian, Suetonius, we have direct evidence that this was precisely what happened. He gives a kind of list of the legislative reforms initiated by Nero:

During his reign many abuses were severely punished and put

down, and not a few new laws were made; a limit was set to

expenditures; the public banquets were confined to a distribution

of food; the sale of any kind of cooked viands in the taverns was

forbidden, with the exception of pulse and vegetables, whereas,

before, every kind of dainty was exposed for sale. Punishment was

inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and

mischievous superstition. He put an end to the diversions of the

chariot-drivers, who from immunity of long standing claimed the

right of ranging at large and amusing themselves by cheating

and robbing the people. The pantomimic actors and their

partisans were banished from the city.

We have quoted that passage in full because it is proof that by the time of Nero the punishment of Christians had become an ordinary police affair. It is abundantly clear that we do not need to wait until the time of Trajan for the mere fact of being a Christian to be a crime. Any time after Nero a Christian was liable to punishment and death simply for the name he bore,

This does not mean that persecution was constant and consistent; but it does mean that any Christian was liable to execution at any time, purely as a police matter. In one area a Christian might live a whole lifetime at peace; in another there might be outbreaks of persecution every few months. It depended very largely on two things. It depended on the governor himself who might either leave the Christians unmolested or equally set the processes of the law in action against them. It depended on informers. The governor might not wish to act against the Christians, but if information was laid against a Christian he had to; and there were times when the mob were out for blood, information was laid and Christians were butchered to make a Roman holiday.

To compare small things with great, the legal position of the Christians and the attitude of the Roman law can be parallelled in Britain today. There are certain actions which are illegal--to take a very small example, parking a car partly on the pavement--but which for long enough may be permitted. But if the police authorities decide to institute a drive against such an action, or if it develops into too blatant a breaking of the law, or if someone lays a complaint and information, the law will go into action and due penalty and punishment will be exacted. That was the position of the Christians in the empire all of whom were technically outlaws. In actual fact no action might be taken against them; but a kind of sword of Damocles was for ever suspended over them. None knew when information would be laid against him; none knew when a governor would take action; none knew when he might have to die. And that situation obtained consistently after the action of Nero. Up to that time the Roman authorities had not realized that Christianity was a new religion; but from then on the Christian was automatically an outlaw.

Let us, then, look at the situation as depicted in First Peter. Peterpeople are undergoing various trials (1Pe_1:6 ). Their faith is liable to be tried as metal is tested with fire (1Pe_1:7 ). Clearly they are undergoing a campaign of slander in which ignorant and baseless charges are being maliciously directed against them (1Pe_2:12 ; 1Pe_2:15 ; 1Pe_3:16 ; 1Pe_4:4 ). At this very moment they are in the midst of an outbreak of persecution because they are Christians (1Pe_4:12 , 1Pe_4:14 , 1Pe_4:16 ; 1Pe_5:9 ). Such suffering is only to be expected and they must not be surprised at it (1Pe_4:12 ). In any event it gives them the happiness of suffering for righteousnessake (1Pe_3:14 , 1Pe_3:17 ), and of being sharers in the sufferings of Christ (1Pe_4:13 ). There is no need to come down to the time of Trajan for this situation. It is one in which Christians daily found themselves in every part of the empire at any time after their true status had been disclosed by the action of Nero. The persecution situation in First Peter does not in any way compel us to date it after the lifetime of Peter.

Honour The King

But we must proceed with the arguments of those who cannot hold the Petrine authorship. It is argued that in the situation which obtained in the time of Nero, Peter could never have written: "Be subject for the Lordsake to every human institution, whether it be to the emperor as supreme, or to governors as sent by him to punish those who do wrong and to praise those who do right.... Fear God. Honour the emperor." (1Pe_2:13-17 ). The fact is, however, that this is precisely the point of view expressed in Rom_13:1-7 . The whole teaching of the New Testament, except only in the Revelation in which Rome is damned, is that the Christian must be a loyal citizen and must demonstrate the falsity of the charges made against him by the excellence of his behaviour as such. (1Pe_2:15 ). Even in times of persecution the Christian fully acknowledged his obligation to be a good citizen; and his only defence against persecution was to show by the excellence of his citizenship that he did not deserve such treatment. It is by no means impossible that Peter should have written like that.

A Sermon And A Pastoral

What is the view of those who cannot believe that First Peter is the work of Peter himself?

First of all, it is suggested that the initial address (1Pe_1:1-2 ), and the closing greetings and salutations (1Pe_5:12-14 ) are later additions and no part of the original letter.

It is then suggested that First Peter as it stands is composed of two separate and quite different works. In 1Pe_4:11 we find a doxology. The natural place for a doxology is at the end; and it is suggested that 1Pe_1:3-25 ; 1Pet 2-3; 1Pe_4:1-11 is the first of the two works of which the letter is composed. It is further suggested that this part of First Peter was originally a baptismal sermon. There is indeed in it a reference to the baptism which saves us (1Pe_3:21 ); and the advice to slaves, wives and husbands (1Pe_2:18-25 ; 1Pe_3:1-7 ) would be entirely relevant to those who were entering the Christian Church from paganism and setting out on the newness of the Christian life.

It is suggested that the second part of the letter, 1Pe_4:12-19 ; 1Pe_5:1-11 , contains the substance of a pastoral letter, written to strengthen and comfort during a time of persecution (1Pe_4:12-19 ). At such a time the elders were very important; on them the resistance power of the Church depended. The writer of this pastoral fears that greed and arrogance are creeping in (1Pe_5:1-3 ), and he urges them faithfully to perform their high task (1Pe_5:4 ).

On this view First Peter is composed of two separate works--a baptismal sermon, and a pastoral letter written in time of persecution and neither has anything to do with Peter.

Asia Minor, Not Rome

If First Peter is a baptismal sermon and a pastoral letter in time of persecution, where is its place of origin? If the letter is not Peter there is no necessity to connect it with Rome; and, in any event, it appears that the Roman Church did not know or use First Peter. Let us put together certain facts.

(a) Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia (1Pe_1:1 ) are all in Asia Minor and all centred in Sinope.

(b) The first extensive quoter of First Peter is Polycarp bishop of Smyrna, and Smyrna is in Asia Minor.

(c) Certain phrases in First Peter immediately turn our thoughts to parallel phrases in other parts of the New Testament. In 1Pe_5:13 the Church is called "she that is elect," and in 2Jo_1:13 the Church is also described as an "elect sister." 1Pe_1:8 speaks of Jesus Christ, "without having seen him you love him; though you do not now see him you believe in him and rejoice with unutterable and exalted joy." This turns our thoughts very naturally to Jesusaying to Thomas in the Fourth Gospel: "Blessed are those who have not seen, and believe" (Joh_20:29 ). First Peter urges the elders to tend, that is, to shepherd, the flock of God (1Pe_5:2 ). That turns our thoughts to Jesusnjunction to Peter to feed his lambs and his sheep (Joh_21:15-17 ), and to Paulfarewell injunction to the elders of Ephesus to take heed to the flock over which the Holy Spirit has made them guardians (Act_20:28 ). All this is to say that the memories First Peter awakens are of the Fourth Gospel, the Letters of John and of Paul at Ephesus. The Fourth Gospel and the Letters of John were most probably written at Ephesus, and Ephesus is in Asia Minor.

It seems that in the case of First Peter all roads lead to Asia Minor.

The Occasion Of The Publication Of First Peter

Assuming that First Peter has its origin in Asia Minor, can we suggest an occasion for its writing? It was written at a time of persecution. We know from Plinyletters that in Bithynia about A.D. 112 there was a serious persecution of the Christians and Bithynia is one of the provinces named in the address. We may well conjecture that it was to give courage to the Christians then that First Peter was issued. It may be that at that time someone in a church in Asia Minor came upon these two documents and sent them out under the name of Peter. This would not be looked upon as forgery. Both in Jewish and in Greek practice it was the regular custom to attach books to the name of the great writers of the past.

The Author Of First Peter

If Peter did not write First Peter, is it possible to guess at the author? Let us reconstruct some of his essential qualifications. On our previous assumption, he must come from Asia Minor. On the basis of First Peter itself, he must be an elder and an eye-witness of the sufferings of Christ (1Pe_5:1 ). Is there anyone who fits these requirements? Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis about A.D. 170, who spent his life collecting all the information he could about the early days of the Church, tells of his methods and his sources: "Nor shall I hesitate, along with my own interpretations, to set down for thee whatsoever I learned with care and remembered with care from the elders, guaranteeing its truth.... Furthermore, if anyone chanced to arrive who had been really a follower of the elders, I would enquire as to the sayings of the elders--as to what Andrew or Peter said, or Philip, or Thomas or James, or John or Matthew, or any other of the Lorddisciples, also as to what Aristion or the Presbyter John, the Lorddisciples say. For I supposed that things out of books would not be of such use to me as the utterances of a living voice which was still with us." Here we have an elder called Aristion who was a disciple of the Lord and, therefore, a witness of his sufferings. Is there anything to connect him with First Peter?

Aristion Of Smyrna

When we turn to the Apostolic Constitutions we find that one of the first bishops of Smyrna was called Ariston--which is the same name as Aristion. Now who is the great quoter of First Peter? None other than Polycarp, a later Bishop of Smyrna. What more natural than that Polycarp should quote what might well have been the devotional classic of his own Church?

Let us turn to the letters to the Seven Churches in the Revelation and read the letter to Smyrna: "Do not fear what you are about to suffer. Behold, the devil is about to throw some of you into prison, that you may be tested, and for ten days you will have tribulation. Be faithful unto death, and I will give you the crown of life" (Rev_2:10 ). Can this be the very same persecution as that which originally lay behind First Peter? And was it for this persecution that Aristion, the Bishop of Smyrna, first wrote the pastoral letter which was afterwards to become a part of First Peter?

Such is the suggestion of B. H. Streeter. He thinks that First Peter is composed of a baptismal sermon and a pastoral letter written by Aristion, Bishop of Smyrna. Originally the pastoral letter was written to comfort and strengthen the people of Smyrna in A.D. 90 when the persecution mentioned in the Revelation threatened the Church. These writings of Aristion became the devotional classics and the cherished possessions of the Church at Smyrna. Rather more than twenty years later a much wider and more far-reaching persecution broke out in Bithynia and spread throughout northern Asia Minor. Someone remembered the letter and the sermon of Aristion, felt that they were the very thing the Church needed in her time of trial, and sent them out under the name of Peter, the great apostle.

An ApostleLetter

We have stated in full both views of the origin, date and authorship of First Peter. There is no doubt of the ingenuity of the theory which B. H. Streeter has produced nor that those who favour a later date have produced arguments which have to be considered. For our own part, however, we see no reason to doubt that the letter is the work of Peter himself, and that it was written not long after the great fire of Rome and the first persecution of the Christians with the object of encouraging the Christians of Asia Minor to stand fast when the onrushing tide of persecution sought to engulf them and take their faith away.

FURTHER READING

1 Peter

F. W. Beare, The First Epistle of Peter (G)

E. Best, 1 Peter (NCB; E)

C. Bigg, St. Peter and St. Jude (ICC; G)

C. E. B. Cranfield, 1 and 2 Peter and Jude (Tch; E)

E. G. Selwyn, The First Epistle of St. Peter (MmC; G)

Abbreviations

ICC: International Critical Commentary

MC: Moffatt Commentary

MmC: Macmillan Commentary

NCB: New Century Bible

Tch: Torch Commentary

E: English Text

G: Greek Text

Barclay: 1 Peter 3 (Chapter Introduction)

The Silent Preaching Of A Lovely Life (1Pe_3:1-2)

The True Adornment (1Pe_3:3-6)

The Husband's Obligation (1Pe_3:7)

(1) The Marks Of The Christian Life (1Pe_3:8-12)

(2)The Marks Of The Christian Life (1Pe_3:8-12 Continued)

The Christian's Security In A Threatening World (1Pe_3:13-15)

The Christian Argument For Christ (1Pe_3:15-16)

The Saving Work Of Christ (1Pe_3:17-22; 1Pe_4:1-6)

The Example Of The Work Of Christ (1Pe_3:17-18)

(1) The Descent Into Hell (1Pe_3:18-20; 1Pe_4:6)

(2) The Descent Into Hell (1Pe_3:18-20; 1Pe_4:6 Continued)

(3) The Descent Into Hell (1Pe_3:18-20; 1Pe_4:6 Continued)

(4) The Descent Into Hell (1Pe_3:18-20; 1Pe_4:6 Continued)

The Baptism Of The Christian (1Pe_3:18-22)

Constable: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Historical background

This epistle claims that the Apostle Peter wrote it (1:1). Since there is only one Peter who was an apostle we may be confident of the identity of the writer. There is only one Peter that the entire New Testament mentioned. Scholars did not question Peter's authorship until the nineteenth century when destructive biblical criticism became popular.

"The epistle has been well known and consistently acknowledged as Petrine from the second century well into modern times. . . .

"Aside from the four Gospels and the letters of Paul, the external attestation for 1 Peter is as strong, or stronger, than that for any NT book. There is no evidence anywhere of controversy over its authorship or authority"¹

Peter first sent this letter to believers living in the northern regions of Asia Minor (1:1). The locations of these Christians as well as allusions in the epistle indicate that they were mainly Gentiles but also Jews (e.g., 1:14; 2:10).

Peter stated his reason for writing, namely, to encourage his readers who were facing persecution for their faith to stand firm (5:12). Evidently this persecution was widespread among his readers. Local enemies of the gospel were not the only people responsible for it. When Paul travelled around the Roman Empire preaching the gospel, some churches he planted experienced persecution from the unsaved in their communities, but others did not. However 1 Peter reflects persecution of the Christians throughout northern Asia Minor. This condition prevailed after Nero blamed the Christians for burning Rome in A.D. 64. While persecution seems to have been widespread, it may not have been official yet.

Peter died in the mid 60s and spent the last decade of his life in Rome according to reliable tradition.² Many interpreters have regarded his reference to Babylon (5:13) as a reference to Rome that Peter described as Babylon to highlight its paganism. In view of all this information it seems likely that Peter wrote this epistle from Rome about A.D. 64.³

Theologically this epistle is apocalyptic (dealing with the end times). Along with its eschatological focus there is much emphasis on holiness (personal, social, and communal), hope, salvation, community, relationship to the world, the Trinity, and especially suffering.⁴

". . . much of the material in 1 Peter is the stuff of basic Christian teaching rather than advanced instruction that assumes the mastery (and perhaps the perversion) of the basics, as in the Pauline letters."⁵

"In many . . . respects, 1 Peter and James form a matched pair within the NT canon. They are Christian diaspora letters roughly similar in length, one directed (probably from Jerusalem) to scattered messianic Jews (i.e., Christians) who are real Jews, and the other directed from Babylon' to scattered Jews' who are in fact Gentile Christians."⁶

Message⁷

One writer has identified five major motifs in 1 Peter. These are the believer's behavior, the believer's unfair circumstances, the believer's deference, the believer's motivation by Christ's example, and the believer's anticipation of future glory. These are certainly important emphases in this epistle.

Putting these together he has stated the message of 1 Peter as follows. "The behavior of believers when they encounter unfair circumstances reflects a spirit of deference in all relationships as they follow Christ's example and anticipate future glory."⁸

This is a very fine statement of what the Holy Spirit has said to us through Peter in this epistle. However, I would add one more important motif. It is the believer's resource of God's grace. This is not an incidental motif but one that underlies all of what Peter called on his readers to do. We must understand and apply what he wrote about God's grace as our resource to follow his exhortations.

It seems to me that Peter stated the message of this epistle clearly: stand firm in the true grace of God (5:12).

The subject of the letter therefore is the true grace of God. Grace is the key word in the argument of this epistle. In each case the word "grace" occurs in the practical rather than in the doctrinal part of each section of the letter. Throughout 1 Peter the fact of God's grace was in Peter's mind as crucial to the believer's practice. How does one explain God's grace? Grace means both undeserved favor and divine enablement.

The main purpose of this epistle was to strengthen the readers so they would persevere through their persecution with the right attitude. Peter did this by showing that God's grace provided all they needed for strength. In a larger sense, the purpose is to help Christians know how to live as aliens in the world.

This epistle reveals above all else that God's grace is sufficient for all our needs. We could write over this whole book: 2 Corinthians 12:9. Notice five things Peter reminds us about God's grace. Let's trace the references to grace though 1 Peter.

1. Grace proceeds from God. God in His grace has chosen us (1:1). Now we need to realize God's grace in its fullest measure in our experience (1:2).

2. Grace produces confidence. The prophets foretold God's grace (1:10). The advents of Jesus Christ supplied God's grace (1:13). It came into the world at His first advent through His sufferings and death. It will come into the world again at His second advent through His glorification. This pattern gives us confidence. God has united us with Christ. As He suffered once, we suffer now. As certainly as He will receive glory in the future, we too will experience glorification in the future. We need to remember our hope.

3. What proclaims God's grace is our conduct (2:19-20). The Christian's conduct in trying and difficult circumstances manifests God's grace in a human life. The submissive conduct of servants whose masters are persecuting them manifests God's grace. The submissive conduct of wives whose antagonistic husbands are persecuting them manifests grace. The submissive conduct of husbands whom unbelievers are persecuting manifests grace. The husband demonstrates his submission to God by treating his wife as a fellow heir of God's grace (3:7). Our patient endurance of trials displays our submission to God's will. Thus our conduct manifests God's grace. Sometimes we marvel at the ability God gives his persecuted saints to endure. We say, "How can he (or she) do it?"

4. Grace perfects character. Grace is the source of service (4:10). Grace is also the source of humility (5:5). An attitude of humility manifests itself in service of others. God's grace is the secret of both the attitude and the activity. Jesus established "the order of the towel" by washing the disciples' feet (John 13).

5. Grace promotes courage (5:10). We need courage to resist the devil (5:8-9). God's grace gives us strength to defend ourselves against his attacks.

The epistle exhorts us to stand firm in this grace. This is Peter's appeal to us.

When God tries our faith, we need to remember that we have an adequate source of strength in God's grace.

When our faith is trembling, we need to remember that we have an adequate source of confidence in God's grace.

When our circumstances are difficult we need to remember that we have an adequate source of conduct in God's grace.

When we suffer for conscience's sake we need to remember that we have an adequate source of character in God's grace.

When assaulted by the adversary we need to remember that we have an adequate source of courage in God's grace.

We stand firm in the true grace of God when we respond to suffering for Christ's sake as Peter directed us. God's grace is what we need to rely on as we commit ourselves to continue to walk in the will of God. Trust and obey!

Constable: 1 Peter (Outline)

Outline

I. Introduction 1:1-2

II. The identity of Christians 1:3-2:10

A. Our great salvation 1:3-12

1. The hope of our salvation 1:3-5

2. The joy of our salvation 1:6-9

3. The witnesses of our salvation 1:10-12

B. Our new way of life 1:13-25

1. A life of holiness 1:13-16

2. A life of reverence 1:17-21

3. A life of love 1:22-25

C. Our priestly calling 2:1-10

1. Listening to God 2:1-3

2. Growing in God 2:4-5

3. Building on Christ 2:6-8

4. Summary affirmation of our identity 2:9-10

III. The responsibilities of Christians individually 2:11-4:11

A. Our mission in the world 2:11-12

B. Respect for others 2:13-3:12

1. Respect for everyone 2:13-17

2. Slaves' respect for their masters 2:18-25

3. Wives' respect for their husbands 3:1-6

4. Husbands' respect for their wives 3:7

5. The importance of loving enemies 3:8-12

C. Eventual vindication 3:13-4:6

1. Suffering for doing good 3:13-17

2. The vindication of Christ 3:18-22

3. Living with the promise in view 4:1-6

D. The importance of mutual love in end-times living 4:7-11

IV. The responsibilities of Christians corporately 4:12-5:11

A. The fiery trial 4:12-19

1. Suffering and glory 4:12-14

2. Suffering as Christians 4:15-19

B. The church under trial 5:1-11

1. The responsibilities of the elders 5:1-4

2. The responsibilities of the others 5:5

3. The importance of humility and trust in God 5:6-7

4. The importance of resisting the devil 5:8-11

VII. Conclusion 5:12-14

Note the essentially chiastic structure of thought in the letter, excluding the introduction and conclusion.

Constable: 1 Peter

1 Peter

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Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

THE

FIRST EPISTLE OF ST. PETER,

THE APOSTLE.

INTRODUCTION.

This first Epistle of St. Peter, though brief, contains much doctrine concerning faith, hope, and charity, with divers instructions to all persons of every state and condition. The apostle commands submission to rulers and superiors, and exhorts all to the practice of a virtuous life, in imitation of Christ. This epistle was written with such apostolical dignity, as to manifest the supreme authority with which its writer, the prince of the apostles, had been invested by his Lord and Master, Jesus Christ. He wrote it at Rome, which figuratively he calls Babylon, about fifteen years after our Lord's ascension. (Challoner) --- St. Peter, otherwise called Simon, son of John or Jonas, was from Bethsaida, a city of Galilee. He was married, and lived at Capharnaum, and was employed with his brother Andrew, as fishermen, when our Lord called them. St. Peter on every occasion testified a more than usual zeal for his Master, and hence our Lord shewed him a very particular and very marked attention. He would have Peter present at his transfiguration; (Luke ix. 28.) and at another time declared that he [Peter] was a rock, upon which he [Jesus Christ] would build his Church, against which the gates of hell should never prevail. (Matthew xvi. 18.) Although St. Peter had the misfortune or weakness to deny Jesus Christ in his passion, our Lord, after his resurrection, gave him fresh proofs of his regard. (Matthew xvi. 7.) He continued him in his primacy over all, and appointed him in the most explicit manner visible head of his Church, when thrice asking Peter: "lovest thou me more than these?" and St. Peter as often answering, Christ said to him: "feed my lambs, feed my sheep." (John xxi. 15.) --- This epistle was always received in the Church as canonical, and as written by St. Peter, prince of the apostles. It is commonly agreed that it was written from Rome, which St. Peter calls Babylon, (Chap. v. 13.) and directed to those in the provinces of Pontus, Galatia, &c. (ver. 1.) who were before Jews or Gentiles, and had been converted to the Christian faith. It is certain this letter was not written till after the true believers had the name of Christians. (Chap. iv. 16.) Many think it was written before the year 49; but this is not certain. Others judge not till after the year 60, and some not till a short time before he wrote his second epistle. See Tillemont, t. i. Art. 31. on S. Pet. and tom. ii. on S. Mark, p. 89.) The main design is to confirm the new converts in the faith of Christ, with divers instructions to a virtuous life. (Witham) --- Grotius, Erasmus, and Estius, discover in this epistle, a strength and majesty worthy the prince of the apostles. Est autem epistola profecto digna Apostolorum Principe, plena authoritatis et majestatis Apostolicæ: verbis parca, sententiis referta.

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Gill: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 1 PETER

That Simon, called Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, was the writer of this epistle, is not questioned by any; nor was the genuineness and authenticity of it ever made a doubt of. Eusebius says ^a, that it had been confessed by all, and received without controversy; and that the ancients, without any scruple, had made use of it in their writings. It is called his "general", or catholic epistle, because it was not written to any particular person, or to any particular church, but in general, to a number of Christians dispersed in several places. The time when this epistle was written is not certain; some place it in the year of Christ 44 or 45, and so make it to be the most ancient of all the epistles, and which is the more commonly received opinion; but Dr. Lightfoot ^b places it in the year 65, because in it the apostle speaks of the end of all things being at hand, and of the fiery trial just coming on them, and of judgment beginning at the house of God, 1Pe 4:7 all which he applies to the destruction of Jerusalem; though others fix it to 61, in the seventh year of Nero ^c. The place from whence it seems to be written was Babylon, 1Pe 5:13 which is to be understood not figuratively, either of Rome or Jerusalem, but properly of Babylon, the metropolis of Chaldea, or Assyria. The persons to whom it is written were Jews, at least chiefly; for there might be some Gentiles among them, who may be taken notice of in some parts of the epistle; but the principal part were Jews, as appears from their being called the strangers of the dispersion, or, as James calls them, "the twelve tribes scattered abroad"; from the mention of the tradition of their fathers; from their having their conversation honest among the Gentiles, and their past life among them; from urging subjection to the civil magistrates among the Heathens, and the right use of their Christian liberty as to the ceremonies of the law; and from the near destruction of Jerusalem, which could only affect them; and from the use made of the writings of the Old Testament, and the authority of the prophets; see 1Pe 1:1 as well as from the second epistle, which was written to the same; see 2Pe 1:19 in which he seems to refer to the epistle to the Hebrews, written by Paul, as to these. And besides, Peter was the minister of the circumcision, or of the circumcised Jews, as Paul was of the Gentiles; and even those passages in this epistle, which seem most likely to concern the Gentiles, may be understood of the Jews, as which speak of their ignorance, idolatry, and having not been a people, 1Pe 1:14 which were true of them before conversion, and as living among Gentiles. The occasion of writing it was this; Peter meeting with Sylvanus, a faithful brother, and who had been a companion of the Apostle Paul, he takes this opportunity of sending a letter by him to the converted Jews, dispersed among the Gentile countries, where he, with Paul, and others, travelled: the design of which is to testify of the true doctrine of grace, in which they were agreed; see 1Pe 5:12. And accordingly in it he does treat of the doctrine of electing grace, of redeeming grace, of regenerating and sanctifying grace, and of persevering grace; and exhorts believers to the exercise of grace, of faith, hope, and love, and to the discharge of such duties becoming their several stations, whereby they might evidence to others the truth of grace in themselves, and adorn the doctrine of the grace of God, and recommend it to others: and particularly he exhorts them patiently to bear all afflictions and persecutions they should meet with, for their profession of the true grace of God, in which he encourages them to stand steadfast: and this is the general scope and design of the epistle.

Gill: 1 Peter 3 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 1 PETER 3

In this chapter the apostle instructs wives how to behave towards their husbands, and husbands how to behave towards their wives; and then exhorts to various things common to all Christians, and particularly to suffer patiently for righteousness sake; to which he encourages them from the sufferings of Christ, and the benefits resulting from them, on which he enlarges to the end of the chapter. He begins with the duty of wives to their husbands, even unbelieving ones, which is subjection to them, urged from the profitable effect of it; since hereby they might be won over to the Christian religion, without the use of the word, as a means, by their conversation, which is explained of chastity and fear, 1Pe 3:1. And he proceeds to give some advice about their apparel, that they should have a greater regard to internal ornaments; particularly meekness and quietness of spirit, which is highly esteemed of by God, rather than to outward adorning; and which he enforces by the examples of godly women in former times, who were so adorned, and were subject to their husbands, particularly Sarah, the wife of Abraham, 1Pe 3:3. And next the apostle directs husbands how to conduct towards their wives, to dwell with them, and honour them, because vessels, and weaker vessels, and also heirs of the same grace of life; and besides, to use them ill would be an hinderance of their praying together, 1Pe 3:7. And then follow various exhortations to unity of judgment, compassion, brotherly love, pity, courteousness, and patience under the reproaches and revilings of men, which is the way to inherit a blessing they are called unto, 1Pe 3:8 and that these are incumbent on the saints, and that they shall be blessed, who are helped to regard them, is proved by some passages out of Psa 34:12, which passages are cited, 1Pe 3:10. And in order to encourage to the exercise of the above things, the apostle suggests, that they that so behaved should not be hurt by any; and if they did suffer for righteousness sake from wicked men, yet still they would be happy; nor should this deter them from making a public confession of their faith; to which should be added a good conscience and conversation, to the shame and confusion of them that spoke evil of them, and accused them, 1Pe 3:13. And though they were distressed and injured by men, they should not be cast down, nor murmur, since it was the will of God it should be so; and since it was better to suffer for doing well than for doing ill; and especially the example of Christ should animate to patience, since he, an innocent person, suffered for the sins of unjust men, to reconcile them to God; and he is now glorified and happy, and so will his people be, 1Pe 3:17. And having made mention of his being quickened by the Spirit, the apostle takes occasion from hence of observing, that by the same Spirit Christ preached in the times of Noah to disobedient persons, whose spirits were now in hell; and he takes notice of the longsuffering of God in that dispensation towards them, and of the goodness of God in saving Noah, and his family, in the ark, which was a figure of baptism; of which some account is given what it is, and is not, and which saves by the resurrection of Christ, 1Pe 3:19 who is described by his ascension to heaven, session at the right hand of God, and dominion over angels, authorities, and powers, 1Pe 3:22.

College: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION

This commentary is written for the general reader with a serious interest in Scripture. Its purpose is to provide a historical interpretation of 1 Peter; that is, an interpretation of what Peter meant to say to his ancient audience. I write with the conviction that modern readers can only determine God's message to us after and on the basis of a determination of Peter's message to his ancient contemporaries. Because I believe God worked through Peter and inspired his work, I believe it has great relevance to every reader in every age. But we can only determine what it means to us if we have first determined what it meant when Peter wrote it. It is this latter task that is the focus of most commentaries, including this one. I will occasionally make comments about what a given passage means today, but not consistently. I will consistently comment on what Peter meant to say to his original readers. I hope and pray that my readers will recognize the contemporary relevance of Peter's letter, even though it will not be my purpose to point it out or illustrate it. My purpose is to provide a base to build on for contemporary application.

I have been especially influenced by the commentaries by Paul Achtemeier and Ramsey Michaels. I have also frequently consulted the commentaries by Leonard Goppelt and Peter Davids. I often refer the reader to these works for further information, and even where I do not, the reader would be well advised to consult them for a scholar's depth of treatment.

I have commented on the NIV text. In some places where it seems deficient, I have provided an alternative translation, usually from the NRSV. The commentary makes note of the most significant textual variants and my opinions concerning them, but does not provide a list of manuscripts, versions, or church fathers. Interested readers should use the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament .

AUTHOR

Peter identifies himself in the opening words of the letter: "Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ." The book clearly claims to have been written by the well-known apostle, a leading figure in the Gospels and in the first half of the book of Acts.

This claim is well supported by second century evidence. Some even argue that 1 Clement, written near the end of the first century, reflects use of 1 Peter. It is certainly true that Polycarp of Smyrna knew and used 1 Peter. This is repeatedly reflected in his letter to the Philippians, written in the first half of the second century. It is all the more significant since Smyrna was in one of the regions Peter addressed.

This is also true of Hierapolis, the home of Papias, who also wrote in the first half of the second century. According to Eusebius, Papias used quotations from the first epistle of Peter.

In the latter part of the second century Irenaeus cited 1 Peter and explicitly mentioned Peter as the author. All subsequent ancient Christian authors agree.

The only evidence that some believe might indicate another opinion is that the Muratorian Canon (late second century) does not list 1 Peter. Others believe that 1 Peter was originally listed and is omitted because of the corrupt state of our copy of this list. In any case it would be a questionable argument from silence to use the omission as evidence that the author of the Canon knew 1 Peter and considered it to be falsely ascribed. He was quite capable of identifying works which he considered to be falsely ascribed.

Until modern times Peter's authorship of 1 Peter was universally accepted among Christians. However, many modern scholars, including Goppelt and Achtemeier, consider the book pseudepigraphical. Their arguments are not compelling.

One argument against Petrine authorship is the good quality of the Greek in 1 Peter. However, in recent decades there has been a growing awareness that Greek was widely used as a second language in Palestine. It is not improbable that, even without a special gift from the Spirit, Peter would have known Greek. Furthermore, 1 Peter 5:12 may indicate that Silvanus assisted Peter as his secretary. This is a debated point which is discussed in the comments on that verse. But if Silvanus did secretarial work for Peter, then he may have influenced the Greek style.

A second argument used against Peter having written 1 Peter is the similarity of the content of parts of 1 Peter to the letters of Paul. However, such similarities are not surprising. The incident Paul recounts in Galatians 2 does not indicate that he and Peter remained at odds with each other or that they did not share many common emphases.

A third argument is that the references to persecution indicate a late date, perhaps during the reign of Domitian (A.D. 81-96) or Trajan (A.D. 98-117) - after the death of Peter during the reign of Nero (A.D. 54-68). However, there are no clear indications of state-ordered persecution in 1 Peter. Fortunately, this argument has lost much of its force because most contemporary scholars agree that the persecution reflected in 1 Peter does not presuppose a government-sponsored persecution.

In the light of the weakness of arguments to the contrary and the strength of the second century support for Peter as the author, the claim made in 1 Peter 1:1 should be accepted. The author is Peter the apostle.

PLACE OF COMPOSITION

First Peter 5:13 says "She who is in Babylon, chosen together with you, sends you her greetings, and so does my son Mark." Peter was in "Babylon." There are three possible referents: Mesopotamian Babylon, a Roman military settlement named Babylon (located near modern Cairo, Egypt), and the city of Rome. The most likely choice is Rome. Rome is symbolically designated "Babylon" in the book of Revelation and several Jewish works (including 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch). One weakness of this approach is that 1 Peter appears to be the earliest such reference.

But there is reasonably good evidence that Peter went to Rome. Clement of Rome, writing in the mid-90s, implies that Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome during the Neronian persecution brought on by the fire in Rome in July of A.D. 64. In the early second century Ignatius's letter to the Romans seems to assume that Peter had been in Rome. Beginning in the second half of the second century there is a steady stream of references to Peter in Rome (although many of them are mixed in with dubious assertions about Peter founding the Roman church).

In addition to Peter, 1 Peter 5:13 places Mark in "Babylon" as well. If Colossians and Philemon were written from Rome, they place Mark there with Paul (Col 4:10; Phlm 24).

DATE

The previous paragraph points out that 1 Clement 5-6 suggests that Peter died in the Neronian persecution. As in the case of Peter's presence in Rome, sources from the late second century and beyond provide a steady stream of references to Peter's martyrdom under Nero (mixed with various dubious claims). The vast majority of scholars accept the idea that Peter was martyred by order of Nero between A.D. 64 and 68. Since Peter is the author, 1 Peter must have been written no later than A.D. 68.

Few, if any, would suggest a date earlier than the 60s. Earlier dates might not allow adequate time for Peter to come to Rome or for Christianity to spread through most of Asia Minor.

RECIPIENTS

Concerning the five provinces listed in 1 Peter 1:1 see the commentary for details. They encompass most of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Peter addressed Christians who were scattered throughout these areas.

The fact that Peter addressed his readers with the term "Diaspora" or "Dispersion" (1:1) misled many in the past to maintain that his readers were primarily Jewish Christians. The term "Diaspora," meaning "scattered," was used frequently by the Jews to refer to those who had been scattered throughout the world, away from their Palestinian homeland. However, there is a consensus among modern interpreters that Peter used it metaphorically to include Gentile Christians. All Christians live away from their homeland with God.

Besides the likelihood that many Gentiles had become Christians in these predominantly Gentile regions, several verses in 1 Peter indicate that many of the readers came out of a pagan past. See, for example, 1:14, "do not conform to the evil desires you had when you lived in ignorance"; 1:18, "you were redeemed from the evil way of life handed down to you from your forefathers"; and 4:3, "you have spent enough time in the past doing what pagans choose to do."

ENCOURAGING THE PERSECUTED

First Peter 5:12 sums up Peter's purpose: "I have written to you briefly, encouraging you and testifying that this is the true grace of God. Stand fast in it." Peter's letter was a word of encouragement to Christians who were facing persecution and needed encouragement to stand firm in their faith.

Earlier interpreters often thought of these persecutions as state-sponsored persecutions leading to imprisonment and death. More recent interpreters have noticed that the nature and extent of the persecutions is not very specific. The only specific reference to physical persecution is the reference in 2:20 to Christian slaves being beaten. There is no reference to state-sponsored persecution.

But that the persecutions were severe is clear from such references as 1:6, "You may have had to suffer grief in all kinds of trials" and 4:12, "do not be surprised at the painful trial you are suffering."

We are familiar with the antagonistic environment the early Christians lived in from reading Acts and Paul's letters. In the early second century several pagan writers provide further evidence of how Christians were perceived by others. In writing about Nero's persecution of Christians Tacitus describes them as "a class hated for their abominations" and calls Christianity "a deadly superstition . . . hideous and shameful." In describing the same event Suetonius describes Christians as "a class of men given to a new and wicked superstition." During roughly the same period of time Pliny, the Roman governor of Bithynia (one of the five regions Peter addressed), wrote to the emperor Trajan and described Christianity as "a perverse and extravagant superstition." These are the kinds of criticisms Peter presumably had in mind when he made comments like "they accuse you of doing wrong" (2:12) and they "speak maliciously against your good behavior in Christ" (3:16).

Peter wrote to remind these readers of what God had done for them in Christ (e.g., 1:1-12; 2:4-10) and to encourage them to stand firm (e.g., 1:13-25; 2:11-25). We can benefit from overhearing what he said.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Achtemeier, Paul J. 1 Peter . Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996.

Aland, Barbara, Kurt Aland, et al., eds. The Greek New Testament . 4th Rev. Ed. United Bible Societies, 1993.

Bauer, Walter. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 2d Ed. Rev. William F. Arndt, F. Wilbur Gingrich, and Frederick W. Danker. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979.

Bigg, Charles. Epistles of St. Peter and St. Jude . International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1901.

Bruce, F.F. The Canon of Scripture. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1988.

Carson, D.A., D.J. Moo, and L. Morris. An Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992.

Dalton, W.J. Christ's Proclamation to the Spirits: A Study of 1 Peter 3:18-4:6. 2nd Ed. Analecta Biblica 23. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1989.

Davids, Peter H. The First Epistle of Peter. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990.

Elliott, J.H. The Elect and the Holy: An Exegetical Examination of 1 Peter 2:4-10 and the Phrase basivleion iJeravteuma. Novum Testamentum. Supplement 12. Leiden: Brill, 1966.

Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. 2nd Ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993.

Finegan, Jack. Handbook of Biblical Chronology . Rev. ed. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998.

France, R.T. "Exegesis in Practice: Two Samples." In New Testament Exegesis. Ed. I. Howard Marshall. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977.

Goppelt, Leonard. A Commentary on 1 Peter . Ed. Ferdinand Hahn. Trans. and Aug. John E. Alsup. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993.

Grudem, Wayne. The First Epistle of Peter. Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988.

Hemer, Colin. "The Address of 1 Peter." Expository Times 89 (1977-78): 239-243.

Hort, F.J.A. The First Epistle of St. Peter 1:1-2:17. London: Macmillan, 1898.

Jones, R.B. "Christian Behavior under Fire (First Epistle of Peter)." Review and Expositor 46 (1949): 56-66.

Kelly, J.N.D. A Commentary on the Epistles of Peter and of Jude. Harper New Testament Commentary. New York: Harper and Row, 1969.

Marshall, I. Howard. 1 Peter . IVP New Testament Commentary Series. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1991.

Metzger, Bruce M. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament . 2nd Ed. United Bible Societies, 1994.

Michaels, J. Ramsey. 1 Peter. Word Biblical Commentary. Vol. 49. Waco, TX: Word, 1988.

Moffatt, James. The General Epistles. The Moffatt New Testament Commentary. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1940.

O'Brien, P.T. "Letters, Letter Forms." In Dictionary of Paul and His Letters . Eds. G.F. Hawthorne, R.P. Martin, and D.G. Reid. 550-553. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1993.

Osburn, Carroll D., ed. Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity . 2 Vols. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1993, 1995.

Piper, John and Wayne Grudem, eds. Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood: A Response to Evangelical Feminism. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 1991.

Selwyn, E.G. The First Epistle of St. Peter. London: Macmillan, 1946.

Wallace, Daniel B. Greek Grammar beyond the Basics. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

ABBREVIATIONS

BAGD A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament by Bauer, Arndt, Gingrich, and Danker

KJV King James Version

NASB New American Standard Bible

NIV New International Version

NRSV New Revised Standard Version

UBS ⁴ United Bible Society Greek New Testament, 4th Edition

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

College: 1 Peter (Outline)

OUTLINE

I. THE GREETING - 1:1-2

II. A CALL TO BE HOLY - 1:3-2:10

A. The Hope of Salvation - 1:3-9

B. The Glory of This Salvation - 1:10-12

C. Be Holy in All You Do - 1:13-16

D. Live in Reverent Fear as Those Redeemed by Christ's Blood - 1:17-21

E. Love One Another as Those Born Again through the Word of God - 1:22-25

F. Crave Pure Spiritual Milk - 2:1-3

G. God's Chosen People through Jesus - 2:4-10

III. INSTRUCTIONS FOR EXEMPLARY LIVING IN SOCIETY'S STRUCTURES - 2:11-3:12

A. Live Good Lives among the Pagans - 2:11-12

B. Submit to the Governing Authorities - 2:13-17

C. Slaves, Submit to Your Masters - 2:18-25

1. Submit Even to Harsh Masters - 2:18-20

2. Follow the Example of Christ - 2:21-25

D. Wives, Submit to Your Husbands - 3:1-6

E. Husbands, Be Considerate - 3:7

F. General Instructions for All - 3:8-12

IV. ENCOURAGEMENT TO THOSE WHO SUFFER FOR DOING GOOD - 3:13-4:11

A. Do Not Be Frightened - 3:13-17

B. Christ Also Suffered - And Was Exalted - 3:18-22

C. Live for the Will of God - 4:1-6

D. Love and Serve Each Other - 4:7-11

V. MORE EXHORTATIONS TO BE STEADFAST IN THE FACE OF SUFFERING - 4:12-5:11

A. Rejoice When You Suffer for Christ - 4:12-19

B. Show Humility in Your Relationships, Especially You Who Shepherd - 5:1-5

C. A Summarizing Call to Suffer for Christ - 5:6-11

VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS - 5:12-14

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV