Text -- 2 Corinthians 2:11 (NET)

2:11 so that we may not be exploited by Satan (for we are not ignorant of his schemes).

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Robertson: 2Co 2:11

That no advantage may be gained over us ( hina mē pleonektēthōmen ).

First aorist passive subjunctive after hina mē (negative purpose) of pleonekteō , old verb from pleonektēs , a covetous man (1Co 5:10.), to take advantage of, to gain, to overreach. In N.T. only in 1Th 4:6; 2Co 2:11; 2Co 7:2; 2Co 12:17. "That we may not be overreached by Satan."

Robertson: 2Co 2:11

His devices ( autou ta noēmata ).

Noēma from noeō to use the nous is old word, especially for evil plans and purposes as here.

Vincent: 2Co 2:11

Lest Satan should get an advantage of us ( ἵνα μὴ πλεονεκτηθῶμεν ὑπὸ τοῦ Σατανᾶ )

Lit., in order that we be not made gain of , or overreached , by Satan . Rev., that no advantage may be gained over us . The verb, from πλέον more , and ἔχω to have , appears in the noun πλεονεξία greed of gain , covetousness . See on Rom 1:29.

Vincent: 2Co 2:11

Are ignorant - devices ( ἀγνοοῦμεν - νοήματα )

A paronomasia (see on Rom 1:29-31). As nearly as possible, " not know his knowing plots."

Wesley: 2Co 2:11

To whom he had been delivered, and who sought to destroy not only his flesh, but his soul also.

Wesley: 2Co 2:11

For the loss of one soul is a common loss.

JFB: 2Co 2:11

Literally, "That we may have no advantage gained over us by Satan," namely, by letting one of our members be lost to us through despair, we ourselves furnishing Satan with the weapon, by our repulsive harshness to one now penitent. The loss of a single sinner is a common loss; therefore, in 2Co 2:10, he said, "for your sakes." Paul had "delivered" the offender "to Satan for the destruction of the flesh, that the Spirit might be saved" (1Co 5:5). Satan sought to destroy the spirit also: to let him do so, would be to give him an advantage, and let him overreach us.

JFB: 2Co 2:11

"Ignorant" and "devices" are words akin in sound and root in Greek: we are not without knowledge of his knowing schemes.

Clarke: 2Co 2:11

Lest Satan should get an advantage - If the man who has given sufficient proof of the sincerity of his repentance be not restored, he may be overwhelmed with sorrow, and sink into despair; and then the discipline of the Church will be represented, not as emendatory, but as leading to destruction. Of this our enemies would most gladly avail themselves, as they wish to discredit this ministry; and there is always at hand a devil to suggest evil, and prompt men to do it; for in this respect we have thorough acquaintance with his devices. Let us therefore be careful to remove, both from Satan and his partisans, all those occasions which might turn to the disadvantage or disparagement of the Gospel of Christ.

Calvin: 2Co 2:11

11.That we may not be taken advantage of by Satan This may be viewed as referring to what he had said previously respecting excessive sorrow. For it is a most wicked ³³⁰ fraud of Satan, when depriving us of all consolation, he swallows us up, as it were, in a gulf of despair; and such is the explanation that is given of it by Chrysostom. I prefer, however, to view it as referring to Paul and the Corinthians. For there was a twofold danger, that beset them from the stratagems of Satan — in the event of their being excessively harsh and rigorous, or, on the other hand, in case of dissension arising among them. For it very frequently happens, that, under colour of zeal for discipline, a Pharisaical rigour creeps in, which hurries on the miserable offender to ruin, instead of curing him. It is rather, however, in my opinion, of the second danger that he speaks; for if Paul had not to some extent favored the wishes of the Corinthians, Satan would have prevailed by kindling strife among them.

For we are not ignorant of his devices That is, “We know, from being warned of it by the Lord, that one stratagem to which he carefully has recourse is, that when he cannot ruin us by open means, he surprises us when off our guard by making a secret attack. ³³¹ As, then, we are aware that he makes an attack upon us by indirect artifices, and that he assails us by secret machinations, we must look well before us, and carefully take heed that he may not, from some quarter, do us injury. He employs the word devices in the sense in which the Hebrews make use of the term זמה ( zimmah,) but in a bad sense, ³³² as meaning artful schemes and machinations, which ought not to be unknown to believers, and will not be so, provided they give themselves up to the guidance of God’s Spirit. In short, as God warns us, that Satan employs every means to impose upon us, and, in addition to this, shows us by what methods he may practice imposture upon us, it is our part to be on the alert, that he may have not a single chink to creep through.

Defender: 2Co 2:11

Satan can defeat a Christian (or a congregation) either through that Christian condoning sin or his refusal to forgive a repentant sinner."

TSK: 2Co 2:11

2Co 11:3, 2Co 11:14; 1Ch 21:1, 1Ch 21:2; Job 1:11, Job 2:3, Job 2:5, Job 2:9; Zec 3:1-4; Luk 22:31; Joh 13:2; Act 1:25; 1Co 7:5; Eph 6:11, Eph 6:12; 2Ti 2:25; 1Pe 5:8; Rev 2:24; Rev 12:9-11, Rev 13:8

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: 2Co 2:11

Lest Satan - The devil. The name Satan denotes an adversary, an accuser, an enemy. It is the usual proper name which is given to the devil, the great adversary of God and man.

Should get an advantage of us - The literal translation of the Greek would be, "That we may not be defrauded by Satan."( Ἵνα μὴ πλεονεκτηθῶμεν ὑπὸ τοῦ Σατανᾶ Hina mē pleonektēthōmen hupo Satana ). The verb used here denotes to have more than another; then to gain, to take advantage of one, to defraud. And the idea is, that they should at once re-admit the penitent offender to their communion, lest if they did not do it, Satan would take advantage of it to do injury to him and them. It is a reason given by Paul why they should lose no time in restoring him to the church. What the advantage was which Satan might gain, Paul does not specify. It might be this: That under pretence of duty, and seeking the purity of the church, Satan would tempt them to harsh measures; to needless severity of discipline; to an unkind and unforgiving spirit; and thus, at the same time, injure the cause of religion, and ruin him who had been the subject of discipline.

For we are not ignorant of his devices - We know his plans, his thoughts, his cunning, his skill. We are not ignorant of the great number of stratagems which he is constantly using to injure us, and to destroy the souls of people. He is full of wiles; and Paul had had abundant occasion to be acquainted with the means which he had used to defeat his plans and to destroy the church. The church, at all times, has been subjected to the influence of those wiles, as well as individual Christians. And the church, therefore, as well as individual Christians, should be constantly on its guard against those snares. Even the best and purest efforts of the church are often perverted, as in the case of administering discipline, to the worst results; and by the imprudence and lack of wisdom; by the rashness or overheated zeal; by the pretensions to great purity and love of truth; and by a harsh, severe, and censorious spirit, Satan often takes advantage of the church, and advances his own dark and mischievous designs.

Poole: 2Co 2:11

As I have done it in kindness to you, so I have also done it for the advantage both of that person, who is so forgiven, and of your whole church, which is concerned in the welfare or miscarriage of every individual member.

Lest Satan should get an advantage of us: the Greek is: That we be not overcome by Satan: pleonektein properly signifies to get again, or to gain a superiority, to get the upper hand. The advantage Satan was like to get by their continuing severity to this offender, was either by his over much grief, or by the hardening of his heart; so as he, seeing no probability to be restored again to his communion with the church, should be exposed, either to temptations to some desperate courses, (which are often the effects of minds full of sorrow and discontent), or else to courses of idolatry or looseness, in giving up himself to the devil’ s kingdom in the world, because he could not be admitted into the church, which is the kingdom of Christ.

For (saith the apostle) we are not ignorant of his devices nohmata , his thoughts and counsels, how he continually walketh about both like a roaring lion, seeking whom he may devour; and like an old serpent, seeking whom and how he may deceive. This lets us know, with how much prudence those who are trusted with the souls of others, ought to manage their reproofs, or severe dealings with others: the end of all these is the amendment and reformation of such persons, not their spiritual ruin and destruction; and all reproofs and censures must be given, and made, and managed with reference to that end. We have not only the concern of God’ s glory (which is the main) to be looked at, but the good also of their souls, whom we so reprove, censure, or alienate ourselves from: and indeed, without consulting this, we cannot consult God’ s glory; who hath told us, that he desireth not the death of a sinner, but rather that he should turn from his wickedness and live: and therefore we must have an eye about us, and beneath us, to the devil, as well as above us, to God; and prudently judge how such afflictive and harsh actions may be so done by us, that in the mean time Satan get no advantage, and we lose the souls of those with whom we so deal, instead of gaining them to God; which is the main and principal end we ought in all those actions to aim at, 1Co 5:5 ; so 1Ti 1:20 .

Haydock: 2Co 2:11

In the name and in the person of Christ, I ordered him to be excommunicated; in the same, I order him now to be re-admitted into your communion, and this for your sake. We ought to take care that the remedies we employ, do not give occasion to the triumphs of Satan, by throwing the patient into despair, on account of our too great severity. (St. Ambrose) ---

The Greek may be translated: that we may not fall into the power of Satan, on account of our too great severity. (Calmet)

Gill: 2Co 2:11

Lest Satan should get an advantage of us,.... Or make gain of us, or we should be circumvented by him; a metaphor taken from covetous persons, who take every occasion, and make use of every advantage to circumvent and deceive persons in trading with them: Satan gets an advantage of the churches, when church discipline is brought into neglect and contempt, or turned into tyranny; or when he can draw off any person from a church, or keep him out of it: wherefore the apostle's argument is, that since the incestuous person had true repentance for his sin, he ought to be forgiven, comforted, and received into the church; lest by too great severity, and a too long continuance of the censure on him, he should be either plunged into despair, or be drawn into a denial of the faith, or into an open scandalous course of wickedness; and so the church entirely lose a member, that might, by the proper use of discipline, have been an useful one, and Satan gain one:

for we are not ignorant of his devices; and cunning stratagems; some of his crafty contrivances and designs are known, though not all of them; and this particularly, that he sometimes transforms himself into an angel of light, and under pretence of showing a just indignation against sin, and keeping up a strict and righteous discipline, destroys souls, ruins churches, and brings religion into contempt. This was one of his devices in former times, that persons who fell into any gross sin after baptism, and a profession of religion, were never to be restored and received into the communion of the church again, let their repentance be ever so sincere. This cruel and inexorable spirit, under the show of strict religion and discipline, is what the apostle here would caution against, as one of the wiles of Satan.

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

NET Notes: 2Co 2:11

¹ tn Or “be taken advantage of.”

Geneva Bible: 2Co 2:11

Lest Satan should get an advantage of us: for we are not ignorant of his ^{( i )} devices.

^{( i )} Of his mischievous counsel and devilish will.

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: 2Co 2:1-17

1 Having shown the reason why he came not to them,

6 he requires them to forgive and to comfort that excommunicated person,

10 even as himself also upon his true repentance had forgiven him;

12 declaring withal why he departed from Troas to Macedonia,

14 and the happy success which God gave to his preaching in all places.

MHCC: 2Co 2:5-11

The apostle desires them to receive the person who had done wrong, again into their communion; for he was aware of his fault, and much afflicted under his punishment. Even sorrow for sin should not unfit for other duties, and drive to despair. Not only was there danger last Satan should get advantage, by tempting the penitent to hard thoughts of God and religion, and so drive him to despair; but against the churches and the ministers of Christ, by bringing an evil report upon Christians as unforgiving; thus making divisions, and hindering the success of the ministry. In this, as in other things, wisdom is to be used, that the ministry may not be blamed for indulging sin on the one hand, or for too great severity towards sinners on the other hand. Satan has many plans to deceive, and knows how to make a bad use of our mistakes.

Matthew Henry: 2Co 2:5-11

In these verses the apostle treats concerning the incestuous person who had been excommunicated, which seems to be one principal cause of his writing this epistle. Here observe, 1. He tells them that the crime of that person had grieved him in part; and that he was grieved also with a part of them, who, notwithstanding this scandal had been found among them, were puffed up and had not mourned, 1Co 5:2. However, he was unwilling to lay too heavy a charge upon the whole church, especially seeing they had cleared themselves in that matter by observing the directions he had formerly given them. 2. He tells them that the punishment which had been inflicted upon this offender was sufficient, 2Co 2:6. The desired effect was obtained, for the man was humbled, and they had shown the proof of their obedience to his directions. 3. He therefore directs them, with all speed, to restore the excommunicated person, or to receive him again to their communion, 2Co 2:7, 2Co 2:8. This is expressed several ways. He beseeches them to forgive him, that is, to release him from church-censures, for they could not remit the guilt or offence against God; and also to comfort him, for in many cases the comfort of penitents depends upon their reconciliation not only with God, but with men also, whom they have scandalized or injured. They must also confirm their love to him; that is, they should show that their reproofs and censures proceeded from love to his person, as well as hatred to his sin, and that their design was to reform, not to ruin him. Or thus: If his fall had weakened their love to him, that they could not take such satisfaction in him as formerly; yet, now that he was recovered by repentance, they must renew and confirm their love to him. 4. He uses several weighty arguments to persuade them to do thus, as, (1.) The case of the penitent called for this; for he was in danger of being swallowed up with over-much sorrow, 2Co 2:7. He was so sensible of this fault, and so much afflicted under his punishment, that he was in danger of falling into despair. When sorrow is excessive it does hurt; and even sorrow for sin is too great when it unfits for other duties, and drives men to despair. (2.) They had shown obedience to his directions in passing a censure upon the offender and now he would have them comply with his desire to restore him, 2Co 2:9. (3.) He mentions his readiness to forgive this penitent, and concur with them in this matter. " To whom you forgive I forgive also, 2Co 2:10. I will readily concur with you in forgiving him."And this he would do for their sakes, for love to them and for their advantage; and for Christ's sake, or in his name, as his apostle, and in conformity to his doctrine and example, which are so full of kindness and tender mercy towards all those who truly repent. (4.) He gives another weighty reason (2Co 2:11): Lest Satan get an advantage against us. Not only was there danger lest Satan should get an advantage against the penitent, by driving him to despair; but against the churches also, and the apostles or ministers of Christ, by representing them as too rigid and severe, and so frightening people from coming among them. In this, as in other things, wisdom is profitable to direct, so to manage according as the case may be that the ministry may not be blamed, for indulging sin on the one hand, or for too great severity towards sinners on the other hand. Note, Satan is a subtle enemy, and uses many stratagems to deceive us; and we should not be ignorant of his devices: he is also a watchful adversary, ready to take all advantages against us, and we should be very cautious lest we give him any occasion so to do.

Barclay: 2Co 2:5-11

Again we have a passage which is an echo of trouble and of unhappiness. When Paul had visited Corinth there had been a ring-leader to the opposition. This man had clearly personally insulted Paul who had insisted that discipline must be exercised upon him. The majority of the Corinthians had come to see that his conduct had not only hurt Paul, but had injured the good name of the whole Corinthian Church. Discipline had been exercised, but there were some who felt that it had not been sufficiently severe and who desired to impose a still greater punishment.

It is now that the supreme greatness of Paul emerges. His plea is that enough has been done; the man is now penitent and to exercise still further discipline would do far more harm than good. It might simply drive the man to despair, and to do that is not to serve Christ and the Church, but to offer an opportunity to Satan to lay hold upon the man. Had Paul been actuated by merely human motives he would have gloated over the hard fate of his former enemy. Nowhere does the majesty of his character better emerge than on this occasion, when, in the graciousness of his heart, he pleads for mercy on the man who had hurt him so much. Here is a supreme example of Christian conduct in face of injury and insult.

(i) Paul did not take the matter personally at all. It was not the injury done to his personal feelings which was important. What he was anxious about was the good discipline and the peace of the Church. There are some people who take everything personally. Criticism, even when it is kindly meant and kindly given, they take as a personal insult. Such people do more than any other kind of people to disturb the peace of a fellowship. It would be well to remember that criticism and advice are usually offered, not to hurt us, but to help us.

(ii) Paul's motive in the exercise of discipline was not vengeance but correction; he did not aim to knock a man down, but to help him to get up. His aim was to judge a man, not by the standards of abstract justice, but of Christian love. The fact is that quite often sins are good qualities gone wrong. The man who can plan a successful burglary has initiative and organizing power; pride is a kind of intensification of the independent spirit; meanness is thrift run to seed. Paul's aim in discipline was, not to eradicate such qualities as a man might have, but rather to harness them to higher purposes. The Christian duty is not to render the sinner harmless by battering him into submission, but to inspire him to goodness.

(iii) Paul's insistence was that punishment must never drive to despair and must never take the heart out of a man. The wrong kind of treatment often gives a man the last push into the arms of Satan. Over-severity may well drive him from the Church and its fellowship, while sympathetic amendment might well bring him in. Mary Lamb, who had terrible periods of insanity, was harshly treated by her mother. She used to sigh, "Why is it that I never seem able to do anything to please my mother?" Luther could scarcely bear to pray the Lord's Prayer because his own father had been so stern that the word father painted a picture of grim terror to him. He used to say, "Spare the rod and spoil the child--yes; but, beside the rod keep an apple, to give the child when he has done well." Punishment should encourage and not discourage. In the last analysis, this can happen only when we make it clear that, even when we are punishing a person, we still believe in him.

Constable: 2Co 1:12--8:1

II. ANSWERS TO INSINUATIONS ABOUT THE SINCERITY OF PAUL'S COMMITMENT TO THE CORINTHIANS AND TO THE MINISTRY 1:12--7:16

Second Corinthians is a rather difficult book to outline because it is a very personal letter.

"Traditionally, Paul's two letters to Timothy and one to Titus are called the Pastorals.' But 2 Corinthians has a strong claim to be recognized as the Pastoral Epistle par excellence, because it contains not pure' but applied' pastoralia."⁶³

Paul's purpose in writing was not to teach doctrine primarily, though he did so to a considerable extent. It was primarily to answer the criticisms of opponents who were seeking to undermine his ministry, especially in Corinth.

"Here it is his strong feeling rather than any deliberate arrangement that suggests the order of his utterances. Nevertheless, although exact analysis is seldom possible owing to digressions and repetitions, yet some divisions are fairly clear, and the letter becomes more intelligible when they are noted."⁶⁴

Constable: 2Co 2:5-17

2. The treatment of the offender and the result of the severe letter 2:5-17

Paul in this pericope explained his perspective on the encouraging and discouraging experiences of his recent ministry. He did so to let the Corinthians know how he felt about them and to encourage his readers to adopt his attitude toward ministry.¹⁰³

Constable: 2Co 2:5-11

The treatment of the offender 2:5-11

"Particularly apparent here is Paul's sensitivity as a pastor: He avoids naming the culprit (vv. 5-8); he recognizes that Christian discipline is not simply retributive but also remedial (vv. 6, 7); he understands the feelings and psychological needs of the penitent wrongdoer (vv. 6-8); he appeals to his own conduct as an example for the Corinthians to follow (v. 10); and he is aware of the divisive operation of Satan within the Christian community (v. 11)."¹⁰⁴

2:5 The person who caused sorrow to Paul and the Corinthians seems to have done so by insulting Paul either when Paul had been in Corinth last or since then. He was probably either the incestuous person referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:1-8¹⁰⁵ or someone who had been rude to Paul, probably by challenging his apostolic authority.¹⁰⁶

2:6-8 Paul commended his readers for disciplining the offender, warned them against over-reacting, and urged them to convince him of their love for him. He "urged" this action, not ordered it, because true Christian love must be spontaneous and unforced or it ceases to be what it professes to be. The "majority" may refer to the whole church (Gr. hoi pleiones). The minority apparently held out for more severe discipline of this person. Thus Paul threw the whole weight of his apostolic authority behind forgiving as he had previously thrown it behind disciplining.

By accepting the offender after he repented the church would be confirming the Lord's forgiveness of him (cf. Matt. 16:19; 18:18; Luke 17:3; John 20:23).

"Discipline which is so inflexible as to leave no place for repentance and reconciliation has ceased to be truly Christian; for it is no less a scandal to cut off the penitent sinner from all hope of re-entry into the comfort and security of the fellowship of the redeemed community than it is to permit flagrant wickedness to continue unpunished in the Body of Christ."¹⁰⁷

2:9 This action would also show that the church accepted Paul's apostolic authority. This was a test of its obedience to his authority. The reference to a previous letter seems to be another allusion to the severe letter (vv. 3-4).

2:10-11 Paul united in spirit with his readers. Indeed he had taken the initiative and forgiven the offending Corinthian before the other Corinthian Christians had. Paul deliberately understated the seriousness of the offense so no one would imagine that he considered himself virtuous for granting forgiveness readily.¹⁰⁸ This is the strongest evidence that the offense was not incest.

Paul had forgiven the offender in the presence of Christ, namely with the awareness that Jesus Christ was observing him. Jesus had taught that forgiveness of one another is a condition for receiving family forgiveness from the heavenly Father (Matt. 5:12, 14-15; 18:23-35; cf. Col. 3:13; Eph. 4:32). The apostle had also forgiven to preserve the unity that he enjoyed with this church. Third, he had forgiven the offender to frustrate Satan's desire to create discord in the church and between the church and Paul. The major emphases in these verses are on unity, moderation, and encouragement in the face of this problem.

College: 2Co 2:1-17

2 CORINTHIANS 2

D. THIRD TRAVEL ITINERARY DEFENDED (1:23-2:4)

(continued)

No commentary or translation makes a break in their outline at 2 Cor 2:1. The chapter divisions created by Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury in the eleventh century in this case, and in other instances in 2 Corinthians, are poorly drawn. Readers should not take the new chapter beginning here as anything but a convenience. The paragraph being handled continues from 1:23 through 2:4.

2:1 So I made up my mind

Although it is not translated by the NIV, Paul emphasizes that he decided "himself" (ejmautw'/, emautô). In light of the accusation of vacillation in 1:17 above, underlining his decision-making process as remaining uncluttered by worldly considerations is important. Paul sets apart exactly what he decided with the word "this" (tou'to, touto ), not in the NIV translation, but conveyed by the NASB's "I determined this."

that I would not make another painful visit to you.

This statement presumes a previous, disastrous visit. Evidently, this visit (see Introduction) was so awful, Paul determined never to return to Corinth again unless it was cleared up. Paul's only direct discussion of the problem evoked by this visit follows in 2 Cor 2:5-11.

The word "painful" (luphv, lypç) is a key word in this context, being used three times as a noun (2:1,3,7) and five times as a verb (2:2 - twice; 2:4; 2:5 - twice), and in 2 Corinthians, three more times as a noun (7:10 - twice; 9:7) and seven more times as a verb (6:10; 7:8 - twice; 7:9 - three times; 7:11). It can refer to physical pain, but more often, as here, to severe, gut-wrenching, emotional stress. Such personal suffering, considered one of life's main components, found expression in Greek tragedy. Paul, too, considers emotional distress part and parcel with the Christian life (2 Cor 7:8-11), but he also believes Christians can tap the power of Christ's suffering and resurrection to carry on their life in hope and strength (2 Cor 4:11).

In this instance, Paul does not seem to consider more pain, both with regard to the Corinthians and with regard to himself, to have anything other than negative spiritual consequences. Rather, the previous painful situation provides the catalyst for resolving the problem, which will supply spiritual benefit to all concerned.

2:2 For if I grieve you, who is left to make me glad but you whom I have grieved?

Paul explains his predicament should the problem in their relationship be left unresolved: The joy in his life will be permanently impaired. Without their love, he will be left with a hole in his heart. Paul states this almost in proverbial fashion, or a truism, one interpreter calling it "a feeble joke." By stating the pronouns "I" and "you" in the first clause, he shows that his first concern is with their welfare, meaning the pain he has caused the Corinthians. To leave them in grief, or pain (it's the same word as in 2:1) would be a disservice both to them and to him. Pain should move toward resolution, and thus gladness. Paul speaks of the logical impossibility for him to be made "glad" (eujfraivnw, euphrainô) so long as the Corinthians remain "grieved," or emotionally scarred by his actions. His concern is not really for himself but for them. He can't become glad without them becoming glad first. Correspondingly, the most notable use of the word euphrainô in the NT refers to the party thrown for the prodigal son when he returns (Luke 15:23-32).

2:3 I wrote as I did

For the first time Paul mentions a letter he wrote the Corinthians which apparently spoke directly to the situation of the Painful Visit, seeking resolution to the conflict. This letter has never been recovered. As noted in the introduction, this letter is not 1 Corinthians and is most likely not 2 Cor 10-13. Our knowledge of its content can only be reconstructed from Paul's description of it here, in 2:9 and in 7:8.

so that when I came I should not be distressed by those who ought to make me rejoice.

Paul's plans for another visit to the Corinthians, expressed by "came" (hlqon, çlthon), depended upon the success of this earlier letter, not 2 Corinthians, written in the wake of the recent, disastrous visit. The general purpose of the letter was to repair the torn relationship between Paul and the Corinthians so that he might once again "rejoice" because of them. The word translated "distressed" by the NIV is the same word translated "grieve" in 2:2 and as a noun, "pain" in 2:1, with the word "rejoice" (caivrw, chairô) being the verb form of "joy" (carav, chara ) in 1:24. The purpose of the letter, then, connects to Paul's overall purpose for the Corinthians, eschatological joy in eternity, for him and for them.

I had confidence in all of you, that you would all share my joy.

The word translated "had confidence" (peivqw, peithô) by the NIV in other contexts is translated "persuade." In Acts 19:8, it is used to describe Paul's three-month interchange with Jews in their Ephesian synagogue in his attempts to convince them about the gospel. He also uses it of himself in 2 Cor 5:11 to characterize his attempts to save "men" from the wrath of God. Here, he uses it to signify that he has come to a conclusion based on his intimate knowledge of the Corinthians in light of this current crisis. He believed with all his heart that the letter, sent through Titus, would be successful. To a certain extent, 2 Corinthians provides the best evidence that it was, specifically, 2:5-11 and 7:5-16.

Paul stresses his confidence in the whole church on this point by specifically using "all" (pa'", pas ) twice. Given the tendency of the Corinthian church to fragment, implied by both 1 and 2 Corinthians, this is saying something. Behind his confidence must be assurance that God wants this situation resolved for his purposes. With "joy" (carav, chara ), he connects back to 1:24. Their joy (1:24) and his joy (here) both now, as he has been explaining, and in eternity are wrapped up together.

2:4 For I wrote you out of great distress and anguish of heart and with many tears,

Paul gives expression to the depth of his emotional pain, which not only provided the occasion for the letter but also describes his personal condition as he wrote the letter. He was torn up inside, likely fearing that his "painful" actions during the horrendous visit could drive the Corinthians not only away from him but from the gospel altogether. He was sure the letter, probably painfully honest with respect to himself and them, would prevent his worst fears.

To convey his distraught condition, Paul piles up three nouns, modifying all of them with the adjective "many, much" (pollhv", pollçs), translated "great" and "many" by the NIV. The first noun, "distress" (qlivyi", thlipsis ), is used frequently in the NT to describe the affliction of Christians in commonality with the afflictions of Christ and in preparation for his return (Matt 21:24; Col 1:24; 1 Thess 1:6). In fact, it is used in this sense in 2 Cor 1:8 when Paul talks about "the hardships we suffered in the province of Asia." However, Paul does not have that sense nor the Asian experience in mind here. Rather, he takes the more literal use of the word, "press," or "squeeze" (the verb form being used this way in Mark 3:9) and applies it to the personal turmoil created in himself by the pressure exerted on him by his conflict with the Corinthians.

The second noun, "anguish" (sunochv, synochç), only used here and in Luke 21:25 in the NT, often refers to a prison and by association with that kind of misery, remorse and torment unmatched in human experience.

The third noun, "tears" (dakruvwn, dakryôn) shows the extent to which Paul was emotionally distraught. In fact, he cried at times while he wrote the Severe Letter. He probably wept during the events that led to the Severe Letter and also in the period up until he heard from Titus that the letter was successful.

not to grieve you but to let you know the depth of my love for you.

Paul denies that emotional injury was his purpose for the letter. However, his denial here and constant reference to grieving surrounding his discussion of the letter and the Painful Visit suggest that the letter was severely critical of the Corinthians - and that they took it badly, at least at first (2 Cor 7:8-9).

He was not trying to put them in the same state he was in, as people often do to others when they are upset. Rather, his desire and intention was to move honestly through the mutual hurt toward forgiveness, resolution, and fellowship. Quite rightly, Paul considers frank confrontation and personal disclosure of his feelings the highest expression of his love for Corinthians. Would he risk so much, if he didn't care?

To make this clear, he describes his love for them as having "depth," as the NIV expresses it. The word is actually an adverb, meaning "abundantly," and is a favorite of Paul's in 2 Corinthians, used seven times (1:12; 2:4; 7:13,15; 11:23 - twice; 12:15). In 2 Cor 12:15, as here, he uses the word as a way of expressing that his love for them is more than enough to overcome whatever obstacles might try to thwart it. He does not mean, as the NASB translation "especially" implies, that the Corinthian church is his favorite. Simply, like a good father, he has plenty of love for them, as well as more than enough love for all his children.

E. THE OFFENDER FORGIVEN (2:5-11)

2:5 If anyone has caused grief,

Paul reveals that the cause of the Painful Visit can be narrowed to the actions of one individual. This perspective continues through 2:11 but also is confirmed in 2 Cor 7:12. Paul's hypothetical language here should not be taken to mean that the emotional injury inflicted upon himself and the church is not real. He is simply giving his point polite expression. His choice to leave the perpetrator unnamed is polite too, but it is also pastoral. Having forgiven this individual, nothing would be gained by publicly shaming him further. Indeed, the readers of 2 Corinthians obviously know who this person is anyway.

Attempts, both old and new, to identify this offender with the man of 1 Cor 5:1-5 who openly lives with his stepmother are not convincing. Admittedly, the identification must be explored since Paul explicitly and adamantly calls for the 1 Corinthians man to be disciplined by the church. Yet, at least a couple of years have passed since 1 Corinthians was written, and it is not just wishful thinking to suppose the case to be closed. Having already spoken to this issue in 1 Corinthians, neither does it seem likely that Paul's Painful Visit would be prompted by the church's failure to discipline this man.

The Painful Visit seems to have been so painful because Paul had anticipated that it would be pleasurable (2 Cor 1:15). He had not expected trouble. Somehow, though, an action was taken by the offender which was a personal affront to Paul and his own character. Maybe he was accused of Ύaunting his apostolic office, being less than forthright about the money he was collecting, or simply manipulating the Corinthians for his own ends, the latter of which he has been defending himself from since 2 Cor 1:12. But it was a personal attack against Paul, not the offender's moral lapse, which thrust Paul into the kind of emotional turmoil he has been talking about here.

he has not so much grieved me as he has grieved all of you, to some extent-not to put it too severely.

No doubt, most perceive that the attack upon Paul by the offender did hurt him, or he wouldn't sense the need to deflect it as he does. Most likely, Paul is not denying that he was hurt initially but that the pain has had no long-term effect. His words presume the personal healing of having already forgiven the offender, which he articulates in 2:10. What Paul is concerned about is the long-term effect all this could have on the church, its relationship to him and the hard feelings that must still be lingering between various members who may have taken different sides. Presuming his theology of the church as a unified body, articulated in 1 Corinthians 12, Paul believes each member has been damaged in some way by all of this. Only the corporate forgiveness Paul advocates in 2:7 can make the whole body well.

The phrase "to some extent" (ajpoÉ mevrou", apo merous ), means "in part," or "partially," and was already used by Paul in 2 Cor 1:14 and can also be found in Rom 11:25; 15:15 and 15:24. Although some interpreters suggest that Paul employs it here to say that only part of the church has been hurt by the offender, this conflicts with the corporate forgiveness he urges upon the church in 2:7, his theology of the church, not to mention the fact that he also emphasizes "all of you" in this verse. What he must mean is well phrased in the NIV, "to some extent." Each one of the members has been affected in some way, some more, some less, by this messy situation.

The word ejpibavrw (epibarô) is the focal point of the phrase "not to put it too severely." This word refers to something being a burden which weighs others down. In the two other uses of the word in the NT (1 Thess 2:9; 2 Thess 3:8), Paul employs it to deny that he was ever an economic liability to the Thessalonians. He does not intend the word to be taken transitively here but rather as a parenthetical expression, which in the Greek prefaces "all of you," to apologize somewhat for his audacity in suggesting that each and every person in the Corinthian church has been hurt by the offender when the offender's actions were, as all know, perpetrated against Paul and Paul alone.

2:6 The punishment inflicted on him by the majority is sufficient for him.

Paul reveals that at least one aspect of the Severe Letter included his recommendation that the church exact discipline upon the one who acted against him when he made the Painful Visit. What form the discipline took cannot be determined with certainty. However, disfellowshiping, as in the case with the man of 1 Corinthians 5, seems likely. This probably meant being barred from all the house-gatherings of the church - especially from partaking of the Lord's Supper - and all social contact with other believers, with the expectation that this would bring repentance and restoration. Paul's use of the word "sufficient" (iJkanovn, hikanon ), emphasized by being the first word in the Greek sentence, suggests that Paul believes the offender has served enough time away from the church to be more than ready to express his change of heart and be received into fellowship again.

The word "punishment" (ejpitimiva, epitimia ) is unique to NT usage and out of its normal context even for Greek. Normally, it refers to the rights and freedoms someone has as a citizen. Paul uses it here with the sense of a cognate word, ejpitivmio" ( epitimios ), which describes the evaluation of someone who then receives their just reward, either positive or negative. Probably, he does this to say that the man's rights as a member of the Christian community require that he not be punished beyond what is necessary to accomplish his repentance. The view that the word means "reproof" here, unnecessarily looks away from the strong evidence throughout the passage that the offender was a bona fide member of the Corinthian church.

The word "majority" (pleivone", pleiones ) stands out since Paul just emphasized "all" (pa'", pas ) in 2:5. The trouble between Paul and his offender may have affected the whole church, but the fact of the matter is that the discipline Paul called for in the Severe Letter was enacted by most of those in the church, but not everyone. If Paul knew the whole church was behind him he would never have been so troubled by the situation and so anxious about the result. A substantial faction of the church may still be actively opposed to Paul or at least opposed to the discipline Paul demanded be taken against the offender. Perhaps, what they really disliked was Paul's authoritarian stance on the issue. Be that as it may, the spector of this minority who did not side with Paul on this issue hangs heavy over the whole epistle of 2 Corinthians (see Introduction), and over the inquisitional atmosphere under which Paul is writing in this section. Paul wants to answer their criticisms and win them over.

2:7 Now instead, you ought to forgive and comfort him,

At first, unwilling to discipline this man without prodding by Paul, the Corinthians now need to be reined in. They have let the discipline go too long. Paul, as is customary for him, has not used the word for forgiveness favored by the Gospels, ajfivhmi (aphiçmi), but rather carivzomai ( charizomai ), which is the verbal cognate of cavri" ( charis ), "grace." Grace, used over 75 times in Paul's letters, 18 times in 2 Corinthians, carries the weight in describing God's decisive act in saving mankind through Jesus Christ. Paul will use the verb form to express God's forgiveness of our sins (Col 2:13), of the bounty God bestows on his children (Rom 8:32), and, as here, of the forgiveness believers should share with one another. This willingness to forgive flows out of the forgiveness believers have already received from God through Christ (Eph 4:32; Col 3:13).

The word "comfort" (parakalevw, parakaleô), along with its noun cognate (paravklhsi", paraklçsis), Paul already used heavily in 1:3-6. He may well be leaning on that opening overture as he urges caring for and encouraging this disciplined member of the Corinthian community. As with forgiveness, Paul believes Christians, having received the abundant benefit of God's comfort through Christ, ought to have plenty to share with a fellow believer in need of it.

so that he will not be overwhelmed by excessive sorrow.

The care and concern Paul shows for this disciplined individual contrasts starkly with Paul's vitriolic condemnation of the "false apostles" of 2 Cor 11:13, which leads to the conclusion that this person should not be lumped in with them, even if he might have been influenced by them in some way. He most certainly is being treated as a member of the church, whose discipline should lead back into the fold, whereas those men are viewed as bad, outside influences being driven away from the church.

The word "overwhelmed" (katapivnw, katapinô) derives from the basic Greek word pinô meaning "to drink." Usually it means "swallow," as in Matt 23:24, regarding a camel, or in the passive, as here, to mean "be swallowed," or "drowned" as in Heb 11:29, regarding the Egyptians' crossing the Red Sea. Paul does not wish that the disciplined individual "drown in his tears" as he contemplates the punishment for his actions.

Once again Paul speaks of grief (luphv, lypç), this time translated by the NIV as "sorrow." This is the most popular word in this paragraph. Paul has been grieved over this situation, as has the church and the disciplined individual. Now it's time to put on the brakes and begin the healing process. "Abundant" (perissovtero", perissoteros ), or "excessive" sorrow, as the NIV has it, is totally unnecessary. Paul has no desire to drive this person away from the church and his faith completely, or in effect, to cause him to renounce his baptism. Paul has overcome his hurt with forgiveness. He is urging the church to do the same. He requests the same for the disciplined individual. It is time for him to turn from grief to accept his forgiveness and be restored to full fellowship.

2:8 I urge you, therefore, to reaffirm your love for him.

The word Paul uses for "therefore" (diov, dio ) is the strongest inferential conjunction in Greek and brings added weight to the urgency of Paul's conclusion. The word for "urge" (parakalevw, parakaleô) is the same word used for "comfort" in 2:7. Now, it carries the sense of an impassioned, personal appeal, as it often does when Paul presses his counsel as an apostle in his epistles (Rom 12:1: 15:30; 1 Cor 1:10; 2 Cor 6:1; Eph 4:1; Phil 4:2; 1 Thess 4:10).

Without a doubt, Paul applies firm pressure on the Corinthians to do what he asks, here and in 2:9. Yet, it must be observed that at no point does he demand or issue a decree, despite his apostolic authority. He respects the autonomy of the local congregation. He believes sincerely that God has the power to work his will through the spiritual tenacity of the body of Christ and its leaders. Coercion on his part would simply short circuit God's own authentic voice to be heard within the church itself.

By using "reaffirm" (kurovw, kyroô), Paul signals that he is requesting a formal, congregational procedure in which the offender is publicly affirmed and reinstated to the body. The word is a legal term for the ratification of a will by a court. Paul uses it in precisely this manner in Gal 3:15,17. The call for congregational affirmation of the offender recognizes the social dynamic of sin as does Paul's use of the word "love" (ajgavph, agapç). Since all have been affected in some way by the man's sin (2:5), all need to declare their forgiveness for him to know he is really welcomed back into their worship and social structure.

Paul's use of "reaffirm" is the third courtroom term Paul has used since 2:6, following "punishment" and "forgive." Remember, Paul has pictured himself as being on trial since 1:5 and on the stand since 2:1. In 2:5-11, its almost like a trial within a trial. Demonstrating his own loving character, Paul, as it were, drops the charges against the one who offended him and almost as judge encourages the congregation as jury to rescind punishment. In 2:8 and especially 2:9 with "stand the test" the character of the Corinthian church itself seems to be on trial as to whether it will actually demonstrate its love for the man or not.

2:9 The reason I wrote you was to see if you would stand the test and be obedient in everything.

Paul makes his third specific reference to the Severe Letter, the others being in 2:3 and 2:4. He supplies yet another purpose for it. Not only was it to relieve his distress and express his love but also to see what their reaction to his concerns would be. The NIV's "stand the test" makes it sound like a test of survival. Will they complete the course, pass/fail? Yet, the way Paul expresses this in Greek suggests rather that he presumes they will complete the exam. He wants to know the results, their score, literally, "That I might know (gnw', gnô) your test (dokimhvn, dokimçn)." It amounts to an opportunity to prove their character, a test of their mettle in this sticky situation.

Paul's request for the Corinthians to "be obedient" with its emphasis on "in everything" might sound authoritarian at first. However, Paul's theological concept of the word obedience mitigates against this. He only uses the adjective "obedient" (uJphvkoo", hypçkoös), two other times in the NT. In Phil 2:8, it refers to Christ's obedience to God to go to his death on the cross. In Acts 7:39, it describes the failure of the Hebrews to obey Moses, who spoke God's "living words," in the Sinai desert. The noun "obedience" (uJpakohv, hypakoç), when used in the NT, usually carries with it the idea of obedience to Christ (1 Pet 1:2), God (Rom 15:18), or faith (Rom 1:5), one of the best examples in fact being 2 Cor 10:5 in which Paul speaks of taking "every thought captive to the obedience of Christ."

Obedience here in 2:9, then, must be obedience to Christ. Like Moses and others who have served God before him, Paul certainly views his counsel as instrumental for bringing about obedience to God or Christ in this case and in others (Phlm 21). However, he would view sheer obedience to himself as near blasphemous. His job as Christ's apostle is to direct people to follow Christ's lordship and seek God's will independent of his own muscle.

2:10 If you forgive anyone, I also forgive him.

Using the same word three times in this verse (the second time in this sentence is a presumption) that he used in 2:7 for forgive ( charizomai ), Paul expresses his solidarity with the Corinthian church. He participates in the actions they take, and it is their actions which really matter. If he was a dictator, he wouldn't say it like this. He is counseling. He is urging. But he is not the church; they are. This principle for church leadership and ministry must be actively applied today still.

And what I have forgiven-if there was anything to forgive-

Paul has taken the lead to forgive the offender as an act of leadership for the church to follow. This is emphasized by the appearance of the personal pronoun, "I," not required by Greek, as well as the rare use of kaiv ( kai , "and") as emphatic, obscured by the NIV translation but shown in the NASB's "indeed." He has forgiven first, but notably it is the church's forgiveness which must be enacted formally to really count. Why else does Paul take so much time and trouble in this section of 2 Corinthians to get the church to forgive the offender?

Paul may be playing down the hurt to be polite or to demonstrate that his forgiveness is genuine, but there can be no doubt from what he has said so far that he was stung deeply by the actions of this offender.

-I have forgiven in the sight of Christ for your sake,

Paul emphasizes that his process of coming to full forgiveness is complete by stating his actions in the perfect tense, "have forgiven" (kecavrismai, kecharismai ). "In the sight of Christ," more literally "in the face (or presence) of Christ" emphasizes the solemnity - almost an oath - of what Paul has done. He has settled the matter for good in his heart through personal prayer. Christ knows his forgiveness is genuine.

Paul explains that he has done this to benefit the Corinthian church. Clearly, this is not his only motivation to cleanse his heart. However, it does leave the path clear for the church to do the same. If he was the injured party, and he has forgiven the offender, surely the church has no reason to hold a grudge. They must forgive him too.

2:11 in order that Satan might not outwit us.

What might seem to some to be merely a human test of wills between the Corinthian church, the offender, and Paul, Paul recognizes to be a strategic spiritual battle between God and Satan. The battle is over the heart and soul of the offender, who is wandering in the middle of the battlefield. On one side are the forces of God, Paul, and the church. On the other side are Satan and his minions. Who will win this man over and take him back to their line as the spoils of victory? When the church cast him out in their disciplinary action, they purposely pushed him toward Satan with the expectation that the horror of that would cause him to turn and run back toward them. Paul fears that if they hold out on their forgiveness too long, he will be driven so far toward Satan that they won't ever get him back. They must extend their open arms now before it is too late.

The word "outwit" (pleonektevw, pleonekteô) appears in 2 Corinthians four of the five times it is found in the NT. The other three references, 2 Cor 7:2; 12:17,18, make it clearer than here that the word has more involved with it that just outsmarting someone. It has to do with deception, particularly deception in order to swindle someone out of money, defrauding them of something they own. In the other three references, Paul denies that he or Timothy swindled the Corinthians, most likely with reference to the collection. The noun form of this word (pleonevkth", pleonektçs) refers to one who covets (1 Cor 5:10,11; 6:10; Eph 5:5) and the adjective (pleonexiva, pleonexsia ) to greediness (Rom 1:29; 2 Cor 9:5).

The word "Satan" (Savtano", transliterated from Hebrew /fc) is one of the four words Paul uses in 2 Corinthians to represent God's spiritual opponent. In 2 Cor 4:4, Paul calls him "the god of this age," in 2 Cor 6:15 "Belial," and in 2 Cor 11:3 "the serpent." Outside of 2 Corinthians, Paul also calls him "the tempter" (1 Thess 3:5) and "the devil" (1 Thess 3:5). He will use Satan again in 2 Cor 11:14 and 12:7, the more common of the words for him to use overall, used seven more times in his NT writings (Rom 16:20; 1 Cor 5:5; 7:5; 1 Thess 2:18; 2 Thess 2:9; 1 Tim 1:20; 5:15). The word "satan" itself refers to an accuser or a prosecutor, presumably in Christian thought, as the one who desires that all people be prosecuted - and not redeemed or forgiven - for their sins.

For we are not unaware of his schemes.

Although not conveyed by the NIV or other translations, Paul has set up a word play in his choice of words. The verb "unaware" (ajgnoevw, agnoeô) means "ignorant," or more literally, "not mindful," and is the negative verb for "think" The noun "schemes" (novhma, noçma) is built on the same root and means "mind" or thought. To capture the wordplay, the English would need to read, "We are not unmindful of his mind."

Paul uses "mind" four more times in 2 Corinthians, once generically (2 Cor 3:14), but two other times in contexts where he is concerned about Satan capturing the minds of believers (2 Cor 4:4; 11:3) and once where he urges the minds of believers to be loyal to Christ (2 Cor 10:5). The only other time he uses the word is in Phil 4:7 where he pledges that the "peace of God" guards the "hearts and minds" of Christians. Apparently, Paul views spiritual warfare as a battle of minds. Winning minds, keeping minds, scheming in the mind (Satan) is the name of the game. Paul states here, though, that Satan's deceptions do not go unnoticed, particularly by himself and other apostles who shepherd the church on Christ's behalf.

Paul knows that Satan will do anything he can, not only to snatch believers away from the church but also to divide the church into opposing camps. This must not happen in this particular case in Corinth. Paul seems confident that he knows what Satan is up to and that he will be defeated here. The church's extension of love and forgiveness toward the offender, for which Paul is asking, will do the trick.

F. ACTUAL TRAVEL DESCRIBED (2:12-13)

2:12 Now when I went to Troas to preach the gospel of Christ

Although the NIV and some other translations make a major break at 2:12 and link 2:12-13 with 2:14-3:6, most commentaries, for good reasons, view 2:12-13 as the necessary conclusion to Paul's defense of his changing travel itinerary, which has anchored what he has said since 1:12. Furthermore, not only does the topic of discussion change at 2:14, but Paul also switches from the first person singular, "I," to the first person plural, "we."

Instead of returning to Corinth, as planned in the second itinerary, Paul went up the coast of Asia Minor from Ephesus about 200 miles to Troas. His evangelistic purpose seems to have been part of a long-visualized plan to establish a church in this fertile, cosmopolitan seaport of perhaps 100,000 inhabitants. However, his practical purpose was to receive Titus's report on whether the Severe Letter had been successful in mending the rip in Paul's relationship with the Corinthians.

Troas is only mentioned here by Paul, but it also appears in Acts 20:5 as the city from which Paul and seven emissaries eventually departed for Jerusalem with the relief collection. It also is notable as the city in which Paul left his cloak and scrolls, which he requests Timothy to collect for him in 2 Tim 4:13.

Outside the NT, Troas was more commonly known as Alexandrian Troas, having been named for Alexander the Great shortly after being built in 311 B.C. The city was established because of the 50-mile coastland which projected into the Aegean Sea at this point just south of the Hellespont, where Greece and Asia Minor connect. An artificial harbor and hardy sea wall were built in order to make Troas the important city it was when Paul arrived - a thriving port for sea traffic to and from Macedonia (especially Neapolis, a few miles from Philippi) and along the coast of Asia Minor. The city was so prominent that at one point Julius Caesar considered making it the capital of the Roman Empire.

Paul's interest in bringing the gospel to this major traffic center between East and West is consistent with his normal pattern. Whether he arrived on foot or by ship is unknown, but movement by sea would have been the quickest and easiest.

and found that the Lord had opened a door for me,

Paul uses the same expression of a door being opened to emphasize God's preevangelistic activity also in 1 Cor 16:9 regarding Ephesus and in Col 4:3. The expression conveys an identifiable receptiveness of people to the gospel message. It implies that Paul has been able to plant a church in Troas. This is confirmed by Acts 20:5 and by early church history.

The NIV has rearranged the structure, which is more literally rendered by the NASB as "a door was opened for me in the Lord." The phrase "in the Lord" (ejn kurivw/, en kyriô) stipulates that Paul works within the master plan designed and in the process of being implemented by God himself. In Troas, Paul readily observes that God has already been at work preparing the soil for the seed of the gospel. The fact that the tense of the participle "was opened" (ajnewgmevnh", aneôgmençs) is perfect suggests that the door has been open for some time and has remained open for his entry. It also suggests that Paul has had his eye on Troas for a while and that this is not just an impromptu trip to wait for Titus.

2:13 I still had no peace of mind,

Literally, Paul says, "I had no rest in my spirit," which is a way for Paul to describe the constant personal anxiety he was bearing, even in the midst of great success in Troas. Although it is suggested that this might include the "deadly peril" he experienced in Ephesus mentioned in 2 Cor 1:10, this seems unlikely since it is stated there that he has already been delivered from it. Rather, he must be speaking of the burden of his worry for the Corinthians and their reception of the Severe Letter described in 2:1-4.

The word "peace," or "rest" (a[nesi", anesis ), is only used five times in the NT, three times here in 2 Corinthians. In both of the other passages, 2 Cor 2:13 and 7:5, it is joined with the negative, to describe an unattained but desirous personal state free from concern, which Paul, in 2 Thess 1:7, says will come ultimately from God. The appearance of the word in 2 Cor 2:13 and in 7:5 is significant to the structure of 2 Corinthians because Paul repeats it in 7:5 to signal that he is resuming the travel narrative which begins in 2:12-13.

because I did not find my brother Titus there.

The cause of Paul's anxiety he explains as being the absence of Titus. Apparently, plan "A" was for Titus to bring his report on Corinth to Paul while he was evangelizing Troas. Paul had already determined not to go back to Corinth at all if the report was bad (2 Cor 2:1), and this would severely alter his plans for the collection and the people involved in it, which at this point was supposed to conclude in Corinth (Acts 20:1-5). Titus's delay seemed to signal to Paul that his mission with the Severe Letter had gone badly. His concern, though he doesn't say it specifically, was not for Titus himself or his personal welfare but for the Corinthians.

Paul's affection for Titus is conveyed in the word "brother" (ajdelfov", adelphos ), which he only attaches elsewhere to a person's name when referring to Epaphroditus (Phil 2:25), Onesimus (Phlm 16), and Timothy (2 Cor 1:1). Paul will mention this valued coworker for the gospel seven more times in 2 Corinthians (7:6,13,14; 8:6,16,23; 12:18). He is described in Gal 2:1-3 as the precedent-setting case for not requiring Greek converts to Christianity to be circumcised, being the first convert from Antioch to come to Jerusalem with Paul.

Paul's Greek expression for "because I did not find" (tw'/ mhÉ euJrei'n me, tô mç heurein me) is unique in the NT, though not uncommon outside of it.

So I said good-by to them and went on to Macedonia.

The word "so" or "but" (ajllav, alla ) articulates a contrast with finding the open door in Troas, suggesting that Paul has broken off a thriving evangelistic opportunity out of his love and concern for the Corinthians. Once again, Paul provides evidence that his changes in plans are not for his own personal benefit, as he was charged (2 Cor 1:12-14) but in service of the gospel, if anything, tilted toward the needs of the Corinthians.

The word "said good-bye" (ajpotaxavmeno", apotaxamenos ), used also to describe Paul's departure from the Corinthian and Ephesian churches in Acts 18:18,21, implies that Paul left Troas with some reluctance because he felt a warm kinship with the new believers there. He does return for one week (Acts 20:5) a few months later, but, since that came from an unexpected turn of events, we can assume that Paul has no idea if he will ever see these people again.

Because of his anxiety Paul could have left early, before Titus was expected. More likely, though, Titus had missed a prearranged rendezvous date in Troas. Plan "B" might have been for Titus to remain in Macedonia, probably Philippi, after a certain date in order to save time going back into Greece with Paul later. Interpreters are divided as to whether Paul would have crossed by sea or by land to Macedonia or whether an approaching winter season would have affected him either way. Crossing by sea only took two days, according to Acts 16:11. So, it seems most likely Paul went by ship. Perhaps, part of Paul's anxiety, emphasized again in 2 Cor 7:6, was that he would miss Titus in crossing.

IV. DEFENSE OF APOSTOLIC MINISTRY

IN PRINCIPLE (2:14-7:4)

Having responded in 1:12-2:13 to the personal attack on his integrity incited by his multiple changes in travel plans, Paul moves on to the loftier element of his defense in 2:14-7:4: articulating the principles and procedures which separate true apostolic ministry from all others, including those currently competing with Paul for the Corinthians' loyalty and attention. This comes off as something of a closing argument. It is not structured as rationally as Paul is capable of, for instance in Galatians, and appears to ramble, with many twists and turns. As one interpreter notes, the connections between paragraphs are more "associative" (astonishingly like James) than "logical." This may be an indication of Paul's distraught emotional state over the current situation with the Corinthians, or it may simply be that Paul has chosen to employ a different style of argument in this case. It has been demonstrated convincingly that this section does hold together tightly, even intricately, in terms of its theme and purpose.

Some have seen such self-contained development in 2 Cor 2:14- 7:4 that they have postulated that it was originally part of a separate letter (see Introduction). Such theories, though rightly observing the special nature of this section of the letter, nevertheless exaggerate its detachment from its context. The fact that this long section is framed by the Titus narrative, which it leaves at 2:13 and picks up again at 7:5, simply shows that Paul views all of what he says about ministry in general here as relevant precisely to the situation with the Corinthians. From this correction on their understanding of ministry they can determine the genuineness of Paul's ministry and the truthfulness of their own Christian faith.

A. SUFFICIENT FOR MINISTRY (2:14-3:6)

1. The Aroma of Christ Spread (2:14-17)

2:14 But thanks be to God,

The statement of thanksgiving is most likely not the result of an emotional outburst on Paul's part but rather comes to the surface as a highly calculated introduction to this special segment about the nature of ministry. Paul uses the exact same thanksgiving formula (literally, "to God be thanks") in 1 Cor 15:57 when celebrating the "victory" God gives believers through the work of Christ. Similar words of thanksgiving are found in Rom 6:17; 7:25; 2 Cor 8:16; and 9:15.

Paul's exultation here very likely is prompted to a certain extent by the joyous occasion of Titus's safe arrival in Macedonia, which Paul does not detail until 7:5-16. It should also be seen as Paul's response to the opened door at Troas, noted in 2:12. Yet, as important as they may be to Paul personally, these are merely two specific instances of the dynamic, gracious power of the gospel which Paul has witnessed over and over again in his apostolic ministry. It is really this wider grasp of God's awesome, unbeatable work which gives Paul pause here and launches him into the most in-depth reflections on the true nature of ministry anywhere in the NT.

who always leads us in triumphal procession in Christ

The word "always" and the later word "everywhere" (actually the phrase "in every place") combine to give expression to the colossal, universal breadth of what Paul is talking about. God will spread his word successfully throughout the globe, even through the frustrating limitations of sinful and frail people, whether apostolic or not. This is a promise worth recalling in the midst of mission and ministry even today.

Paul's switch from first person singular (maintained since 2Cor 1:23) to first person plural, which will continue through most of chapter six, works to widen Paul's perspective as well. Certainly, the focus continues to be through his own lens, most evident in 3:1. Yet, his remarks about ministry have widened to take in all apostolic ministry, which in application includes all who are called to ministry today. He speaks for all and of all whose lives evoke the mission and ministry of the gospel.

The participle "who leads in triumphal procession" comes from a verb (qriambeuvw, thriambeuô) which is only used one other time in the NT, in Col 2:15, but is a very well known word in Greek and Roman culture. As early as the second century B.C. the word became associated with the victory processions which lauded conquering Roman generals. Well documented in ancient sources, with over 300 of the parades described, these parades came to include several carefully staged elements: the treasures, or trophies, taken from the conquered land, led by trumpeters, the captives made up in native costume strewing cinnamon, the defeated general, who would take part in reenacting his losing battle, the victorious general, adorned to look like Jupiter in a purple toga, a tunic stitched with palm-motifs, a scepter crowned by an eagle, and red-leaded face, riding in a chariot, preceded by incense-bearers. The triumphal procession ended at the temple of Jupiter, in whose honor it was held, at which time the conquered general and the captives were executed.

How and even whether this striking visual scene should be applied to what Paul is saying here is a matter of continuing controversy among interpreters. Easily dismissed is the interpretation represented by the KJV translation "cause to triumph," which unfortunately even Calvin adopted, despite knowing the object of this verb never refers to the victor but to the defeated. Other interpreters believe Paul has in mind the triumphal procession with himself and the apostles among the victorious officers accompanying the general, the general being Christ. This, however, seems too self-laudatory for a man who is trying to avoid boasting inferences, as evident in 2 Cor 3:1. It also fails to face up to the incongruity of associating Christian apostles with the grizzly spector of a pompous general joyously marching prisoners to their death, quite at odds with the gospel message and with 2 Cor 2:15.

Despite Calvin's aversion to it, a view more in sync with the word's use in the NT period, suggests that Paul views himself with other believers as among the captives. This is much more in line with the humility Paul seeks to maintain in the wider context of this passage (2 Cor 4:10-12; 6:10), as well his other writings (1 Cor 3:18; Rom 8:13), as when he refers to himself as an "ambassador in chains" (Eph 6:20) and a "slave of Christ" (Rom 1:1; Gal 1:10).

Although the use of the verb as a metaphor before the time of Paul may be in question, the possibility that he has used it metaphorically in this way cannot be denied simply on the basis of as yet unavailable literary evidence. Oral usage cannot be accounted for on this basis, and Paul certainly shows himself to be capable of adapting Greek language creatively for his own purposes in his writings. Neither does it seem necessary to generalize the purpose of the word to signify simply "to display" or "make known" when Paul continues the stunning imagery of the word in 2:14-16 with "spreads," "fragrance," "aroma," and "death," all easily associated with the victory parade, as well. Demonstration that the metaphor is one of shame and humiliation, as one interpreter has done very capably, still builds on the imagery of Paul and Christians as captives in the military parade.

Coming to grips with Paul as captive in this picture is not so difficult when we remember who the victor is. Paul views himself as captive, yes, and initially, a resistant captive (Galatians 2), but no longer. He, as well as the other apostles, are among the first to be captured, who now willingly, even eagerly, work for their Lord, spreading the incense, in making known the good news of emancipation from sin and the certain punishment of death for it. This parade does not end in death for all the captives, only those who resist the good news. Precisely at this point Paul pushes out the image of the Roman victory parade for his own purposes. It is known that on rare occasions certain captives might be spared death by the conquering general. Paul, it seems, builds on this possibility, as evident from 2 Cor 2:16. Thus, the joy of celebration and the humility of defeat and death are ably combined in Paul's visual imagery.

The fact that he begins with the Roman image does not mean he can't exaggerate an aspect of it when this suits his purposes. As one interpreter puts it, "A metaphor, when it really functions as such, goes beyond the readers' expectations, otherwise it would not bring about a new vision of reality. This is why this metaphorical passage must also be interpreted in terms of its immediate context in Paul's discourse, and not merely in terms of the readers' old knowledge that it evokes."

and through us spreads everywhere the fragrance of the knowledge of him.

The NIV translation "spreads" for the Greek word normally translated "make known" or "manifest" (fanerovw, phaneroô) appropriately corresponds to the picture of captives strewing cinnamon incense along the victory parade route described above. The NIV translation "fragrance" describes the pleasant smell which relates to the parade. Paul uses it elsewhere to encompass Christ's love and sacrifice for the world (Eph 5:2) and of the support gifts Paul received from the Philippians while imprisoned in Rome (Phil 4:8).

However, the Greek word itself is a neutral term depending on the context to determine whether it is a good or a bad smell. For this reason, some interpreters suggest that what Paul may have in mind is the stench of body odor from the sweat of the suffering captives as they struggled along the parade route. This would correspond fittingly to the phrase "through us," depicting Paul and those who evoke the gospel as doing so through the very pores of their lives. They don't just tell the gospel; they live it. The natural smell of the human body at work in his service wafting over the human race would still be a good smell to God and to those who surrender to the Good News coming from the lives of God's servants.

The fragrance coming from them in fact is "the knowledge of him." Mere human knowledge is vain (1 Cor 8:1-2), but knowledge which brings about a saving relationship with God is true and good. Although it is not crystal clear that "him" here refers to God, as opposed to Christ, Paul shows that he means God since he speaks of "the knowledge of the glory of God" in 2 Cor 4:6 and "the knowledge of God" in 2 Cor 10:5. It is through Christ, or "in the face of Christ" (2 Cor 4:6), that people can know God. So, Paul and those who evoke Christ make known the gospel, which makes known Christ, who makes known God.

The word "everywhere" (ejn pantiÉ tovpw/, en panti topô) depicts the invincible, never dissipating, strength of "the essence of Christ" in Paul's day and ours. Even today through believers it continues to expand to penetrate every culture and every people in every corner of the globe.

2:15 For we are to God the aroma of Christ

With "aroma" (eujwdiva, euôdia) Paul switches to a word which is only used to describe pleasant smells. The two other places the word is used in the NT are Eph 5:2 and Phil 4:18. In both, as here, Paul attempts to clarify his use of "fragrance" as something which is in fact pleasant to God. Paul sees himself and others who evoke the gospel as extensions of Christ himself. The word "aroma" is connected to sacrifices in the OT which are acceptable to God (Gen 8:32; Exod 29:18; Lev 1:9; Num 15:3; Ezek 6:13).

Paul at this point has probably mixed his Greek metaphor of the victory parade with OT sacrificial language as it applies to Christ. He can't help himself. Christ is the perfect lamb, the only acceptable sacrifice to atone for human sin. Indeed, his servants extend his sacrifice as they expend their lives in his service. But he adds this Jewish-Christian element of sacrifice without destroying the image of the victory parade, since the captives did in fact march to the temple of Jupiter where they were slaughtered as sacrifices.

among those who are being saved and those who are perishing.

The same participles (in reverse order) are used to describe the two eschatological categories into which all people fit in 1 Cor 1:18, juxtaposed there by "the message of the cross," foolish to one, the power of God to the other. Likewise, here it is the preaching of the gospel message through one's entire being, the aroma of which covers all humanity, the reception of which divides humanity into two distinct groups. Will they join the victory parade toward salvation in Christ or will they refuse and be led away to their eternal death?

It is with the preposition "among" (ejn, en ), used twice in this verse, that Paul most clearly distinguishes himself and those who evoke the gospel from others in the church. The apostolic leadership, in his day and in ours, is in fact "the aroma of Christ," and in his name captures and nurtures others in the faith. Leaders are not exalted above the others; they are "in," "among," or "part of" the others. Nevertheless, they are identifiable in terms of their effect and in terms of their call. All believers should be Christ's aroma, but simply, they are not, probably because they are in varying stages of spiritual maturity. True Christian leaders, however, are unmistakably Christ's aroma, both in the midst of believers and in among humanity.

2:16 To the one we are the smell of death; to the other, fragrance of life.

Given what Paul wants to say, he has knowingly switched back to the neutral word for smell he first used in 2:14. As there, the NIV has translated it "fragrance" in reference to those who are being saved but "smell" now with the added context of those who are perishing. "Stench," "odor," or "fume" would be more poignant in the latter case. Regardless, the pleasant or odious smell is determined by the recipient, not the source. Paul pictures all humanity inhaling the smell of those who witness for Christ and either being convicted by it, and purposefully living joyously in its sweetness, or rejecting the witness, turning away and covering their noses from its nauseating stench.

A similar dichotomy can be found among the Jewish rabbis regarding the effect of the Law, or Torah. This may be significant since Paul will soon contrast the ministry of the new covenant with that of the old in 2 Cor 3:7-18 and speak more in terms of life and death in 5:1-6:2. He may purposefully here be supplanting the Torah as the Great Separator with the gospel, though this is not certain.

The NIV simplifies to "death" what is literally "from death to death" and to "life" what is literally "from life to life." Interpreters hesitate to apply the terminology too literally since that would imply lack of opportunity for someone to move from death to life or the possibility of losing life for death. The concept of origin signalled by "from" (ejk, ek , "out of") cannot start until after the smell of the gospel has reached them. At that point, Paul has already said that humanity divides into a death group and a life group. From death to death and from life to life, then, must have to do with progression either outside or inside a relationship with God in Christ.

Upon acceptance of the gospel, then, one progresses from the new life acquired in Christ in this life to a culmination of an eternal life with Christ in the next. Upon rejection of the gospel, one progresses from a life with no hope to a hopeless afterlife. One interpreter speaks of moving "from inauthentic existence to eschatological condemnation" or from authentic existence to eternal life." Paul uses the exact same expression regarding faith, "from faith to faith," in Rom 1:17, probably also in terms of progression, from initial faith to mature faith.

And who is equal to such a task?

What is the answer to the question? At first blush, an answer of "no one" seems right. After all, rhetorical questions of this sort from Paul usually assume a negative response. Also, a similar question is asked in Joel 2:11, expecting a negative response. However, when seen in the light of the follow-up comments found in 2:17 and 3:1, some form of "yes" answer seems more appropriate. There, Paul contrasts his own conduct and calling with others and responds to a potential accusation of boasting. Why do that if he demeans himself with this question?

The key to the issue probably is in 3:4-5 where Paul will speak of confidence because of a competence (same word as "equal" in 2:16) which comes only from God. So, Paul's question does not call for a swashbuckling "We are!" or "I am!" as if his success in preaching the gospel has anything to do with his own abilities. Rather, a soft but firm "Some are, and some who make people think they are, are not," would seem to fit the scenario best. What he says after the question in 2:17 - but really all the way through 7:4 - is intended to help readers decipher true leaders through whom God really works from those who merely project the empty facade of secular leadership, not an unimportant concern in the church still today.

It is significant that Paul does not ask, "Who is worthy?" or "Who is superb?" To those questions, he would certainly have spoken a loud "No one!" Rather, the word he chose, "competent" (iJkanov", hikanos ), simply means "adequate" or "just enough." What he asks, then, is whether anyone is even sufficient for God to use in this awesome task of being the aroma of Christ which separates all humanity into life and death groups. The answer is that no one is worthy but anyone God calls for this purpose is sufficient enough to be used as an instrument of God's power.

2:17 Unlike so many, we do not peddle the word of God for profit.

Up to now, Paul has been defensive, responding to criticism of himself. For the first time, the letter turns polemical, Paul taking the offense, striking out at others he views as interfering with his ministry among the Corinthians. However, this is still a tactic in defending himself. Now, the letter begins to reveal that criticisms to which Paul has been responding may not have come entirely from the Corinthians themselves but from outsiders who have bent their ear. The battle lines have been drawn on the nature of true, apostolic ministry. Paul means to win hands down for he will expose them for the frauds they are.

Paul identifies the opposition as "so many," or literally, "the many" (oiJ polloiv, hoi polloi ). This description should not be taken to mean that Paul views the majority of "Christian" missionaries as inadequate compared to himself or necessarily that most of the Corinthians have been romanced into their corner. Rather, it simply means that a substantial number are in this category, disappointingly more than Paul or Christians in general would suspect, and that Paul does not think very much of them.

Bearing a heavy burden in Paul's attempt to malign the opposition is the word translated by the NIV as "peddle for profit" (kaphleuvw, kapçleuô). This is the only use of the word in the NT, and it is used only twice in the Septuagint (the second century B.C. translation of the OT in Greek). The word comes from the marketplace, familiar territory for Paul who regularly set up his tent-making business there as he did in Corinth, where merchants vie with one another to hawk their wares. So, first of all, Paul's criticism has to do with selling the word of God as some kind of trinket, an abhorrent thought for this which provides a person with a priceless eternity. It brings to mind Simon the Sorcerer from Acts 8:9-24, who sought to buy the power of the Spirit from Peter and John, thinking he could "buy the gift of God with money." Apparently, like many traveling Greek philosophers of their day, these newcomers to Corinth sought financial gain from the gospel. Paul, on the other hand, accepted no money from the Corinthians (1 Cor 9:15; 2 Cor 7:2; 12:17; Phil 4:15; 1 Thess 2:9), which they may have found insulting. Although Paul does not have a problem in principle with receiving support from churches (1 Cor 9:14), he seems to have grave suspicions about the motivations of these intruders. Were they in it for the money? How could the free gift of God be sold for a profit?

Underlying Paul's criticism of his opponents seems to be alarm - beyond their acceptance of financial support - at some way in which their actions, words, or motivations have impaired the true gospel. The word "peddle for profit" carried with it a sinister connotation, so common in the marketplace, of diminishing the product as a way of increasing profits. Isaiah 1:22 speaks of wine being mixed or "diluted" with water. Other references use the word to signify the fraud and cheating that went on in the marketplace. Coming back to this subject in 2 Cor 4:2, Paul denies using "deception" or that "we distort the word of God."

Could Paul's adversaries, as the Judaizers in Galatians, be falsifying the gospel by clinging to Jewish law and the old covenant, a problem Paul takes on in 2 Cor 3:7-18? Could they be preaching a gospel which is inoffensive and nonconfrontational, failing to specify clearly the ramifications of not accepting the gospel, and thus ineffective in separating the death group from the life group? Could their acceptance of money be spawning a life of luxury incapable of identifying with or demonstrating Christ's suffering, so intrinsic to the apostolic message from Paul's viewpoint? Could they be acting out of their own will without submitting to God's providential control over evangelistic activity?

All of these are viable possibilities. The main point, not to be minimized, is that Paul's objection to these other "missionaries" ultimately is not a matter of ministry style, or even motivation. Rather, it is the nature of the gospel message, "the word of God" itself, which is at stake. This is what Paul considers in jeopardy should he be unable to win over the Corinthians with his arguments regarding the true nature of ministry in the chapters which follow.

On the contrary, in Christ we speak before God with sincerity, like men sent from God.

Paul asserts that, in direct contrast to those others now in Corinth, his words and the words of others who truly are the aroma of Christ are moderated by the fact that they are "in Christ." They have been won over by Christ, are being changed into his likeness, and are his loyal servants. He himself controls their voice, not just their preaching but even the authenticity of their relationships with others. They can do nothing else but speak "with sincerity," the whole, unadulterated truth out of pure motivations. Likewise, as ambassadors of God, as the prophets of old, "men sent from God," they do not - indeed, cannot - diminish God's word in any way. Literally, they are "in the sight of God" (katevnanti qeou', katenanti theou ) who discerns their every step, their every word, their every thought. This is the nature of things for the true minister even today.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

McGarvey: 2Co 2:11

that no advantage may be gained over us by Satan: for we are not ignorant of his devices . [There is a close correlation between verse 10 and 1Co 5:3 . There Paul identified himself with the church, and, though absent, anticipated its action and acted with it. Here he ratifies beforehand the action which he bids it take. There he acted in the name of the Lord and here he does it in the presence of Christ. He forgives the sinner for the sake of the church, that he may not be lost to the church. When a church, through carelessness in exercising mercy and forgiveness, loses a member, it is permitting Satan to overreach it. Paul was too well versed in Satan's methods to be thus outwitted by that adversary.]

Lapide: 2Co 2:1-17

CHAPTER 2

SYNOPSIS OF THE CHAPTER

i. He declares that he had not come to them through fear of causing sadness to himself and to them.

ii. He exhorts them (ver. 6) to re-admit the fornicator, on his repentance, who had been excommunicated by him (1 Cor. v.), and (ver. 10) he absolves him from the sentence of excommunication and from his penance.

iii. He tells them (ver. 14) that he sheds everywhere a good odour of Christ, which is life to the good and faithful, and death to the evil and unbelieving.

Ver. 1 . — But I determined this with myself. I determined not to come to you from a desire to spare you. Cf. chap. 1. 23.

Ver. 2. — For if I make you sorry. Although I made you sorry by rebuking you in my First Epistle, yet I am now made glad with you in seeing the repentance and sorrow, both of yourselves and the fornicator. The "for if" is not causal but explanatory.

Who is he then that maketh me glad, but the same which is made sorry by me? He who is grieved and made penitent by my reproof is the one who most makes me glad, i.e., the incestuous person whom I excommunicated (1Co 1:5).

Ver. 3.— Lest when I came I should have sorrow. I wished by sending you a letter first to rebuke and correct your evil ways, lest I should be forced to do so in person, which would be very painful to me.

Having confidence in you all. I had complete confidence that you would at once take away whatever might displease me, because you regard my joy as yours, and my grief therefore as yours also. I knew, therefore, that what displeased me would displease you. S. Paul says ail this to prepare the Corinthians for his arrival, and to induce them to amend themselves, lest he should be deeply grieved at seeing them not yet amended.

Ver. 5.— He hath not grieved me. The fornicator did not grieve me only.

But in part. He grieved, says Anselm, many other good men as well as me; those, viz., who banished from their society with ignominy the man that I had already excommunicated.

That I may not overcharge you all. Overcharge you by putting on you the suspicion that there are not many who are grieved on account of the incestuous person. In the First Epistle (v. 2) he seems to have charged them all with consenting to, or with treating lightly, the sin of incest.

Ver. 6.— Sufficient to such a man is this punishment. The public separation and shame of excommunication. Hence it follows that the man repented after his excommunication, and is here absolved by the Apostle.

Ver. 7.— So that contrariwise ye ought rather to forgive him. Forgive him the rest of his term of penance by admitting him to your fellowship again. Cf. ver. 10.

Ver.8.— That ye would confirm your love toward him. By declaring in public assembly of the Church that you once more embrace him as a brother. There is an allusion in the Greek verb to the fixed days of assembly for legal trials or elections, and the Apostle therefore alludes to the fixed days of assembly in the Church, and bids the Corinthians confirm their love then toward the incestuous person by re-admitting him.

Ver. 9.— For to this end also did I write. Viz., this Epistle, to the end that I might induce you to confirm your love toward him.

That I might know the proof of you. A proof of your obedience.

Ver. 10.— To whom ye forgive anything, I forgive also. You have asked through Titus that he may be forgiven, and I make the same request of you. So Theodoret explains these words. Cf. also chap. vii. 7. It is clear from ver. 7 that this forgiveness had not yet taken place, and the meaning therefore is: As, when you were gathered together and my spirit I excommunicated him (1 Cor. 5), so now do I join with you in forgiving him, as you will forgive him at my exhortation.

Observe against Luther that this Epistle was written to the rulers of the Church, or rather to the Church itself, that it might exercise this power of absolving, not corporately, but by the prelates. Yet out of courtesy he wishes even the laity to co-operate in the absolution, and by their consent, prayers, desire, and compassion to forgive this scandal which had been given to them and the Church, and to remit the due canonical penance or punishment. Cf. 1Co 5:4. Hence he goes on to say, "For your sakes forgave I it in the person of Christ."  S. Paul here asserts that he forgave in the exercise of his power and jurisdiction as the vicar of Christ; and he orders his sentence to be publicly proclaimed in the Corinthian Church, by the bishop or some other officer, and implies that the Corinthians forgave merely through their prayers, consent, and execution of the sentence of absolution.  S. Chrysostom lays this down clearly when he says: " As when he ordered the man to be cut off he did not allow that with them was any authority to forgive, since he said, 'I have judged to deliver such an one to Satan,' so again did he admit them into partnership with him when he said, 'When ye are gathered together to deliver him.' He was aiming at two ends, one that the sentence might be passed, and the other that it should not be carried out without them, lest he should seem to do them an injury by so acting. Neither does he pass sentence alone, lest the Apostle should seem to be isolated and to despise them."

If I forgave anything, to whom I forgave it, for your sakes forgave I it in the person of Christ. I forgave it, i.e., I determined to forgive it (ver. 7), and now by this letter and by the bearer, whether Titus or some other, I forgive it. This is a Hebraism, by which the past is put for the present.

It may be asked, What was it that the Apostle forgave? I reply 1. that this forgiveness consisted in giving absolution from excommunication, and at the same time, or rather still more, in giving full indulgence for the incest, i.e., remission of all the penalty due because of it. It is evident from 1 Cor. v. that the punishment inflicted was excommunication, and with it the penalty of ignominious exclusion from the Church, and the handing over of his body to be afflicted by Satan. Here, however, he absolves him from every chain by which he had been bound.

2. To forgive, properly speaking, refers to guilt or punishment. Of excommunication alone is it strictly said, "I absolve."

3. He re-admits him to grace, both on account of the zeal of the Corinthians and the contrition of the incestuous person, and relaxes his punishment and shame and rebuke, lest from too much sorrow he should despair. This indulgence is referred to by the word anything. Whatever part of the punishment you have asked may be forgiven him, I forgive him.

4. He remits the punishment not merely, as Calvin thinks, before the Church, but in God's judgment: this is expressed by the phrase in the person of Christ, otherwise there would not have been any indulgence or mercy shown here to the fornicator. It is better to be visited on earth with infamy and corporal punishment than before he tribunal of God to be handed over to the fire, either of purgatory of hell.

Hence S. Thomas and others rightly lay down that the Apostle and the Church give indulgences. So, in olden times, martyrs, when in prison, sent to the Bishops men who had lapsed, praying them to relax their punishment, as appears from Tertullian ( ad Martyr. c. 1), Cyprian ( Epp. 11, 21, 22); and the Council of Nice (c. xi. and xii.) grants to those that have lapsed that, according to the willingness with which they bore the punishment inflicted on them, might the Bishop give indulgence. Cf. Baronius, vol. i. p. 592. Observe that the reason for giving indulgence was the fear that the penitent might despair. Hence, formerly, indulgence was not given unless a good part of the penalty had been paid, and that lest the vigour of discipline and of satisfaction, which is the third part of repentance, should be relaxed. Cf. S. Cyprian ( ad Martyr. lib. iii. Epp. 6). The Council Trent (sess. xxv.), in its decree on indulgences, orders that moderation should be shown in giving indulgences, according to the ancient practice of the Church, lest ecclesiastical discipline should, by excessive leniency, be rendered lax.

If I forgave anything. He speaks modestly of his generosity. Hence he adds that he did it in the Person of Christ.

In the person of Christ. This may be understood (1.) in the presence of Christ. So Theodoret and Vatablus. This rendering is eagerly adopted by Calvin and Beza, and read as if it meant, I forgive him ex animo, really and not feignedly. (2.) Properly it means, "I forgive him by the authority of Christ entrusted to me, who said, 'Whatsoever ye shall loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.'" So Theophylact renders it: "I forgive him just as if Christ had forgiven him: just as a regent acts with the authority of a king, and orders, passes laws, and pardons in his stead." As S. Paul, in 1 Cor. v., had excommunicated the fornicator in the name of Christ, so here, by the same authority, he sets him free, just as any one who might have been condemned by the regent could not be pardoned but by the regent himself.

Ver. 11 . — Lest Satan should get an advantage over us. Lest we be deceived, and lest that fornicator be, by excessive severity, driven by Satan to despair. The Greek verb means, lest we be seized unjustly, and taken possession of by Satan, just as misers, usurers, and tyrants defraud, and rob, and oppress. Hence Ambrose renders it, "Lest we be possessed by Satan." For, as Theophylact says, when Satan catches and deceives souls, he does not seize what is his own but what is ours and Christ's. Hence Tertullian ( de Pudicit. c. xiii.) reads for the following clause: "We are not ignorant of his devices," "We are not ignorant of his robberies."

For we are not ignorant of his devices. Plutarch relates an excellent saying of Chabrias, that "he is the best commander who knows intimately the plans of the enemy." In like manner he is the best Christian soldier and captain who knows thoroughly the devices and machinations of Satan. He transforms himself into an angel of light, that that which is a suggestion of our enemy the devil may seem to be the counsel of a friendly angel. We often experience suggestions of evil surmisings, bitterness of soul, anger, moroseness, cowardice, and we think that we are moved by some good cause and by reason, and that these things come forth from our own minds, when all the time they proceed from the devil, who suggests them to our ruin. The Christian, therefore, should, in such cases, reflect whether these suggestions are in accordance with charity, humility, patience, grace, and the law of Christ, and if he finds them to be opposed, let him be sure that they are of the devil: if he is in doubt, let him take counsel with his confessor, his superior, or some prudent man.  S. Anthony, by long experience, learnt this and taught it: he was in the habit of constantly laying bare and explaining to his disciples, the arts and devices of the devil, and of pointing out the way to defeat them, as we read in the life of him by Athanasius.  S. Francis, too, frequently did the same thing, and so freed many of his followers from the devil's temptations, as S. Bonaventura relates ( Visa, lib. i. c. 11).

In this way, then, Satan was instigating the leaders of the Corinthian Church to show anger and indignation against this fornicator for having so foully stained the first purity of his Church, to the end that, being deprived of all comfort and hope, he might lose all heart and become desperate. Paul saw through this intent of Satan, and here exposes it, and bids them receive the fornicator once more into grace, and give him, on his penitence, pardon and remission.

Vers. 12, 13.— Furthermore, when I came to Troas . . . I had no rest in my spirit, because I found not Titus my brother. S. Jerome (ad Hedibiam ) says that Titus was S. Paul's interpreter, and explained the sublime truths taught by him in Greek worthy of the subject. There was, too, another reason why Paul went to Troas to meet Titus, viz., that he was anxious to hear from Titus, whom he had sent to Corinth, the state of the Church there, before he himself fulfilled his promise of returning thither. Hence, in chap. vii. 6, he says that he had been comforted in Macedonia by the arrival of Titus, who brought him word of the sorrow of the Corinthians and of their desire to see him. Titus, however, seems to have reported to Paul that the time was not yet ripe for his return to Corinth. Paul, therefore, postponed his visit to Corinth, and sent on this letter to pave the way for him, to and correct the failings of the Corinthians.

Ver. 14.— Now thanks be unto God which always causeth us to triumph in Christ. The Syriac and Theophylact render this "triumphs in us," i.e., makes us conspicuous to all. A triumph is the procession of a victorious commander through the midst of the city with his trophies and other signs of victory. But those things which seem to us to be suffering and shame are our glory and triumph, says Theophylact. Secondly, Anselm understands it of God triumphing over the devil in us or through us. Cf. Col 2:15.

The Apostle seems to have had to bear sharp persecution in Macedonia, and, indeed, in vii. 5 he says that he had suffered there every kind of tribulation: without were fightings, within were fears; but God's grace gloriously and triumphantly overcame them all. S. Jerome ( Ep. 150 ad Hedibiam, qu. xi.) says beautifully that the Apostle here gives thanks to God for counting him worthy to be the subject of the triumph of His Son over so many persecutions and evils, which he underwent in his task of converting the Gentiles to Christ. " For the triumph of God," says S. Jerome, " is the suffering of the martyrs for the name of Christ, the shedding of their blood, and their joy in the midst of torture. For when anyone saw the martyrs stand firm, and so perseveringly endure tortures, and glory in their sufferings, the odour of the Knowledge of Christ was shed abroad among the Gentiles, and the half unconscious thought would arise that if the Gospel were not true it would never be proof against death." The preaching of the Gospel therefore triumphs in the Apostles, inasmuch as in it faith overcomes unbelief, truth falsehood, the love of Christ the hatred of the scornful, patience every kind of suffering and persecution, and even death itself.

Ver.15 . — We are unto God a sweet savour of Christ. Or, according to the Latin, a sweet odour. We scatter by word and example a good report of Christ to the honour of God. A good odour is exhaled from special kinds of herbs and such things as sweet spices. Such was the fame of the Apostles and of their preaching, such was the glory and honour that sprang from their virtues and was due to their merits. Hence the bride, i.e., the Church, in Song vii. 1, compares herself to a garden of sweet spices in which there is to be seen the beauty, pleasantness, and fair order of the growing herbs and sweetly scented flowers which exhale their delicious fragrance. This is what Christ orders in S. Matt. v. i6, where by another metaphor glory and good name are called the splendour that flows forth from the light of good works.

S. Bernard ( Serm. xii . in Cantic.) says excellently: " Paul was a chosen vessel, truly a sweet-smelling vessel, filled with pleasant odours and with every fair colour for the painter, for he was a good odour of Christ in every place. Truly, far and wide was the fragrance of his abundant sweetness scattered from that breast which so anxiously and for all the Churches. For see what spices and aromas he had stored up within : ' I die daily,' he says, ' for your glory,' and, ' Who is weak and am I not weak? '"

Observe again that, as the more spices are crushed the greater is the fragrance they exhale, so is it with Christ, His Apostles and Martyrs, and all the Saints: the greater the persecutions and tribulations that pressed them and, as it were, crushed them, the sweeter was the odour that their virtue gave forth.

Cf. Ambrose and Anselm, and S. Bernard ( Serm. 71 in Cantic. ), who discourses of the spiritual colour and odour of virtues from the text, "I am the Rose of Sharon and the Lily of the valley." He says: " The character has its colours and its odours; odour in the good report it bears, colour in the conscience within. The good intention of your heart gives its colour to your work; the example of your modesty and virtue gives it its odour. The righteous is in himself a fair lily, to his neighbour he is full of sweet odours. To our neighbour we owe it that we maintain a good reputation, to ourselves that we are careful to have a conscience void of offence."  S. Jerome also, alluding to the same passage, says: " The life and conversation of a Bishop, pastor, or teacher ought to be such that all his goings out and comings in, and all his works should be redolent of heavenly grace."

Heathen writers also employ this image of odour in rebuking evil livers. Martial, e.g., says that "he smells not sweet who always smells sweet," implying that that man's chastity was to be suspected who was always endeavouring to overwhelm the foulness of his own shameful disease by some artificial scent. Certainly we read of the virgin Catherine of Sienna, that she was wont to close her nostrils when she met any one that was impure, as though the smell of his wickedness was grievous to her, God giving this most chaste virgin perception of such things.  S. Basil ( Ep. 175) relates that some bird-catchers were wont to dip the wings of tame doves in some sweet liquid which was pleasant to other doves, so as to allure them and catch them. So must the Christian do: by the sweet odour of his virtues he must allure the lost and bring them to Christ. So did the virgin Cecilia win to Christ her spouse Valerianus, by causing him, on the first night of their marriage life, to smell the most fragrant odour of her chastity, as though it were the scent of spring roses.

Ver. 16.— To the one we are the savour of death unto death, and to the other the savour of life unto life." " We are," says Theophylact, " a royal censer, and wherever we go we carry with us the odour of the spiritual ointment, i.e., in every place we scatter the good fumes of the knowledge of God." Again says Œcumenius: " As the fragrance of ointment nourishes the dove and destroys the beetle, and as the light of the sun gladdens the eyes that are healthy and hurts those that are weak, as fire purifies gold and destroys straw, so is Christ ruin to the evil, resurrection to the good." Observe the Hebraism, an odour of death unto death, i.e., a deadly odour bringing death. The fragrance of the fame of the life, preaching, and conversion of the Apostles breathed life into the good, death into the evil; for the wicked, unable to bear the splendour of such holiness, hardened themselves the more in their wickedness, envy, or hatred. But Clement of Alexandria ( Pæd. lib. ii.) reads, "odour from death" and "odour from life," which means: The preaching of the Cross and death of Christ is an odour to the unbelievers arising from the death of Christ, and tends to the ruin of those who regard that death merely as a death, and find it accordingly foolishness or a stumbling-block: but to them that believe it is an odour from life, inasmuch as they embrace the life offered to them in this death. For the death of Christ was the cause of his resurrection to a glorious life, and in us it is the cause of our resurrection to the life of grace in this world, and the life of glory in the world to come.

And who is sufficient for these things? The ministers, says Ambrose, who are in every place a good odour of Christ are as few as they are insufficient.

Ver. 17 . — For we are not as many which corrupt the word of God. The particle for denotes that Paul, with the few other Apostles, was by God's grace a fitting minister of Christ, and scattered wherever he went the good odour of the Gospel, while many others were unfitting preachers of the Gospel, of evil odour and of bad report

The Latin for corrupt is "adulterate," which, Salmeron says, denotes the act of one who has connection with a woman that is not his wife; so does he who mingles truth and falsehood adulterate the word of God.  S. Gregory ( Morals, lib. xxii. c. 12) says: ' To adulterate the word of God is either to think of it otherwise than it is, or to seek from it, not spiritual fruit but the corrupt offspring of human praise. To speak in sincerity is to say nothing but what one ought, i.e., to seek always the glory of the Creator. " Again ( Morals, lib. xvi. c. 2 5) he says: " An adulterer seeks not offspring but carnal delight; and whoever perversely serves vain-glory is rightly said to adulterate the word of God, because it is not his aim to beget children to God by sacred eloquence but to display his own knowledge. Whosoever therefore is drawn to speak by the desire of vain-glory spends his labour rather on pleasure than generation."

But the Greek word used here is not the word for committing adultery, but one that denotes to traffic as an inn-keeper, and S. Paul contrasts with this sincere dealing. They make the word of God a matter of traffic, who, like inn-keepers, preach the Gospel for gain, and look at it entirely from the point of view of their own profit. Still the Latin accurately translates the passage, because, as inn-keepers often adulterate the wine that they sell to increase their profits, so do greedy and false preachers of the Gospel mingle with it their own gain, and so adulterate that Gospel which should be pure, and be purely referred to God's glory. "War is not a matter of traffic," said King Pyrrhus, "but of fighting." Cowardly captains, from dread of battle, stave it off by payment of money; others sell the loyalty they owe to their leader, and, like inn-keepers, arrange with the enemy the price of the cities and fortresses entrusted to their charge.

Again, these same false preachers, in order to add to their gain and to win the applause of men, often teach and preach what they see is pleasing to great men or to the people, and tickle their ears, and so corrupt the Gospel with false and empty doctrines. The Apostle seems to be here censuring incidentally his enemies the false Apostles, who were adulterating Christianity with Judaism, and who are severely reproved by him in chaps. x. and xi. Hence, in chap. iv. 2, he explains "corrupt" to mean "handle the word of God deceitfully," and he contrasts himself and other sincere teachers of the Gospel with these deceitful dealers in chap. iii.

But as of sincerity, but as of God, in the sight of God speak we in Christ. I am not an inn-keeper, as are the false apostles, but a sincere preacher of the word of God, preaching nothing but what I have learned from God and have received at His mouth as His ambassador. I know too, and constantly keep in mind and reflect that I stand and preach in the presence of God, and that all that I do or say is noted by Him and will have to be accounted for by me in the hour of death.

In Christ, says S. Jerome ( ad Hedibiam ), is the same as for Christ ; or it may mean "of Christ and His religion." The sense then is: I preach the doctrine of Christ alone, I spread the honour and glory of Christ alone. Or in Christ may again be taken to mean that he speaks and preaches in the truth, faithfulness, and sincerity of Christ. S. Chrysostom once more takes it to mean through Christ and His grace.

Introduction / Outline

Robertson: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

Second Corinthians

From Macedonia a.d. 54 Or 55

By Way of Introduction

The Pauline authorship is admitted by all real scholars, though there is doubt by some as to the unity of the Epistle. J.H. Kennedy ( The Second and Third Letters of St. Paul to the Corinthians , 1900) has presented the arguments in a plausible, but not wholly convincing, manner for the plea that chapters 2 Corinthians 10-13 really represent a separate and earlier letter, the one referred to in 2Co_2:3, which was later tacked on to chapters 1-9 as part of the same Epistle. This theory does explain the difference in tone between chapters 1 to 7 and 10 to 13, but that fact is sufficiently clear from the stubborn minority against Paul in Corinth reported by Titus after the majority had been won to Paul by First Corinthians and by Titus (2Co_2:1-11). There are in fact three obvious divisions in the Epistle. Chapters 1 to 7 deal with the report of Titus about the victory in Corinth and Paul’s wonderful digression on the glory of the ministry in 2 Corinthians 2:12-6:10; chapters 8 and 2Co_9:1-15 discuss the collection for the poor saints in Jerusalem already mentioned in 1Co_16:1. and which Titus is to press to completion on his return to Corinth; chapters 10 to 13 deal sharply with the Judaizing minority who still oppose Paul’s leadership. These three subjects are in no sense inconsistent with each other. The letter is a unity. Nowhere do we gain so clear an insight into Paul’s own struggles and hopes as a preacher. It is a handbook for the modern minister of inestimable value. One can hear Paul’s heart throb through these chapters. The syntax is often broken by anacolutha. The sentences are sometimes disconnected. Grammatical agreements are overlooked. But there is power here, the grip of a great soul holding on to the highest ideals in the midst of manifold opposition and discouragements. Christ is Master of Paul at every turn.

The date of the Epistle is clearly after I Corinthians, for Paul has left Ephesus and is now in Macedonia (2Co_2:13), probably at Philippi, where he met Titus, though he had hoped to meet him at Troas on his return from Corinth. At a guess one may say that Paul wrote in the autumn of a.d. 54 or 55 of the same year in the spring of which he had written I Corinthians, and before he went on to Corinth himself where he wrote Romans (Act_20:1-3; Rom_16:1).

The occasion for writing is the return of Titus from Corinth with mixed news of the Pauline majority and the minority in opposition. So Titus is sent back with this Epistle to finish the task while Paul waits awhile for matters to clear up (2Co_13:1-10).

It is not certain whether the letter mentioned in 2Co_2:3 is our I Corinthians or a lost letter like the one alluded to in 1Co_5:9. If it is a lost one, we know of four Corinthian Epistles (the one in 1Co_5:9, our I Corinthians, the one in 2Co_2:3, our II Corinthians), assuming the unity of II Corinthians. Few things in Paul’s ministry gave him more concern than the troubles in Corinth. The modern city pastor finds little in his work that Paul has not faced and mastered. There is consolation and courage for the preacher in the conduct and counsels of this greatest of all preachers.

JFB: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

THE following reasons seem to have induced Paul to write this Second Epistle to the Corinthians: (1) That he might explain the reasons for his having deferred to pay them his promised visit, by taking Corinth as his way to Macedonia (1Co 4:19; 2Co 1:15-16; compare 1Co 16:5); and so that he might set forth to them his apostolic walk in general (2Co 1:12, 2Co 1:24; 2Co 6:3-13; 2Co 7:2). (2) That he might commend their obedience in reference to the directions in his First Epistle, and at the same time direct them now to forgive the offender, as having been punished sufficiently (2Co 2:1-11; 2Co 7:6-16). (3) That he might urge them to collect for the poor saints at Jerusalem (2Co 8:1-9, 2Co 8:15). (4) That he might maintain his apostolic authority and reprove gainsayers.

The external testimonies for its genuineness are IRENÆUS [Against Heresies, 3,7,1]; ATHENAGORAS [Of the Resurrection of the Dead]; CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA [Miscellanies, 3, p. 94; 4, p. 101]; TERTULLIAN [On Modesty, 13].

The TIME OF WRITING was after Pentecost, A.D. 57, when Paul left Ephesus for Troas. Having stayed in the latter place for some time preaching the Gospel with effect (2Co 2:12), he went on to Macedonia, being eager to meet Titus there, having been disappointed in his not coming to Troas, as had been agreed on between them. Having heard from him the tidings he so much desired of the good effect produced on the Corinthians by his First Epistle, and after having tested the liberality of the Macedonian churches (2Co 8:1), he wrote this Second Epistle, and then went on to Greece, where he abode for three months; and then, after travelling by land, reached Philippi on his return at Passover or Easter, A.D. 58 (Act 20:1-6). So that this Epistle must have been written about autumn, A.D. 57.

Macedonia was THE PLACE from which it was written (2Co 9:2, where the present tense, "I boast," or "am boasting," implies his presence then in Macedonia). In Asia (Lydian Asia) he had undergone some great peril of his life (2Co 1:8-9), whether the reference be [PALEY] to the tumult at Ephesus (Acts 19:23-41), or, as ALFORD thinks, to a dangerous illness in which he despaired of life. Thence he passed by Troas to Philippi, the first city which would meet him in entering Macedonia. The importance of the Philippian Church would induce him to stay there some time; as also his desire to collect contributions from the Macedonian churches for the poor saints at Jerusalem. His anxiety of mind is recorded (2Co 7:5) as occurring when he came into Macedonia, and therefore must have been at Philippi, which was the first city of Macedonia in coming from Troas; and here, too, from 2Co 7:6, compared with 2Co 7:5, must have been the scene of his receiving the comforting tidings from Titus. "Macedonia" is used for Philippi in 2Co 11:9, as is proved by comparison with Phi 4:15-16. So it is probably used here (2Co 7:5). ALFORD argues from 2Co 8:1, where he speaks of the "grace bestowed on the churches (plural) of Macedonia," that Paul must have visited other churches in Macedonia, besides Philippi, when he wrote, for example, Thessalonica, Berea, &c., and that Philippi, the first on his route, is less likely to have been the scene of his writing than the last on his route, whichever it was, perhaps Thessalonica. But Philippi, as being the chief town of the province, was probably the place to which all the collections of the churches were sent. Ancient tradition, too (as appears from the subscription to this Epistle), favors the view that Philippi was the place from which this Epistle was sent by the hands of Titus who received, besides, a charge to prosecute at Corinth the collection which he had begun at his first visit (2Co 8:6).

The STYLE is most varied, and passes rapidly from one phase of feeling to another; now joyous and consolatory, again severe and full of reproof; at one time gentle and affectionate, at another, sternly rebuking opponents and upholding his dignity as an apostle. This variety of style accords with the warm and earnest character of the apostle, which nowhere is manifested more beautifully than in this Epistle. His bodily frailty, and the chronic malady under which he suffered, and which is often alluded to (2Co 4:7; 2Co 5:1-4; 2Co 12:7-9; compare Note, see on 2Co 1:8), must have been especially trying to one of his ardent temperament. But besides this, was the more pressing anxiety of the "care of all the churches." At Corinth, as elsewhere, Judaizing emissaries wished to bind legal fetters of letter and form (compare 2Co. 3:3-18) on the freedom and catholicity of the Church. On the other hand, there were free thinkers who defended their immorality of practice by infidel theories (1Co 15:12, 1Co 15:32-36). These were the "fightings without," and "fears within" (2Co 7:5-6) which agitated the apostle's mind until Titus brought him comforting tidings from Corinth. Even then, while the majority at Corinth had testified their repentance, and, as Paul had desired, excommunicated the incestuous person, and contributed for the poor Christians of Judea, there was still a minority who, more contemptuously than ever, resisted the apostle. These accused him of crafty and mercenary motives, as if he had personal gain in view in the collection being made; and this, notwithstanding his scrupulous care to be above the possibility of reasonable suspicion, by having others besides himself to take charge of the money. This insinuation was palpably inconsistent with their other charge, that he could be no true apostle, as he did not claim maintenance from the churches which he founded. Another accusation they brought of cowardly weakness; that he was always threatening severe measures without daring to execute them (2Co 10:8-16; 2Co 13:2); and that he was vacillating in his teaching and practice, circumcising Timothy, and yet withholding circumcision from Titus; a Jew among the Jews, and a Greek among the Greeks. That most of these opponents were of the Judaizing party in the Church, appears from 2Co 11:22. They seem to have been headed by an emissary from Judea ("he that cometh," 2Co 11:4), who had brought "letters of commendation" (2Co 3:1) from members of the Church at Jerusalem, and who boasted of his purity of Hebrew descent, and his close connection with Christ Himself (2Co 11:13, 2Co 11:23). His partisans contrasted his high pretensions with the timid humility of Paul (1Co 2:3); and his rhetoric with the apostle's plain and unadorned style (2Co 11:6; 2Co 10:10, 2Co 10:13). It was this state of things at Corinth, reported by Titus, that caused Paul to send him back forthwith thither with this Second Epistle, which is addressed, not to Corinth only (1Co 1:2), but to all the churches also in Achaia (2Co 1:1), which had in some degree been affected by the same causes as affected the Corinthian Church. The widely different tone in different parts of the Epistle is due to the diversity which existed at Corinth between the penitent majority and the refractory minority. The former he addresses with the warmest affection; the latter with menace and warning. Two deputies, chosen by the churches to take charge of the contribution to be collected at Corinth, accompanied Titus (2Co 8:18-19, 2Co 8:22).

JFB: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

• THE HEADING; PAUL'S CONSOLATIONS IN RECENT TRIALS IN ASIA; HIS SINCERITY TOWARDS THE CORINTHIANS; EXPLANATION OF HIS NOT HAVING VISITED THEM AS HE HAD PURPOSED. (2Co. 1:1-24)
• REASON WHY HE HAD NOT VISITED THEM ON HIS WAY TO MACEDONIA; THE INCESTUOUS PERSON OUGHT NOW TO BE FORGIVEN; HIS ANXIETY TO HEAR TIDINGS OF THEIR STATE FROM TITUS, AND HIS JOY WHEN AT LAST THE GOOD NEWS REACHES HIM. (2Co. 2:1-17)
• THE SOLE COMMENDATION HE NEEDS TO PROVE GOD'S SANCTION OF HIS MINISTRY HE HAS IN HIS CORINTHIAN CONVERTS: HIS MINISTRY EXCELS THE MOSAIC, AS THE GOSPEL OF LIFE AND LIBERTY EXCELS THE LAW OF CONDEMNATION. (2Co. 3:1-18) Are we beginning again to recommend ourselves (2Co 5:12) (as some of them might say he had done in his first Epistle; or, a reproof to "some" who had begun doing so)!
• HIS PREACHING IS OPEN AND SINCERE, THOUGH TO MANY THE GOSPEL IS HIDDEN. (2Co. 4:1-18)
• THE HOPE (2Co 4:17-18) OF ETERNAL GLORY IN THE RESURRECTION BODY. (2Co. 5:1-21)
• HIS APOSTOLIC MINISTRY IS APPROVED BY FAITHFULNESS IN EXHORTATION, IN SUFFERINGS, IN EXHIBITION OF THE FRUITS OF THE HOLY GHOST: HIS LARGENESS OF HEART TO THEM CALLS FOR ENLARGEMENT OF THEIR HEART TO HIM. EXHORTATIONS TO SEPARATION FROM POLLUTION. (2Co. 6:1-18)
• SELF-PURIFICATION THEIR DUTY RESULTING FROM THE FOREGOING. HIS LOVE TO THEM, AND JOY AT THE GOOD EFFECTS ON THEM OF HIS FORMER EPISTLE, AS REPORTED BY TITUS. (2Co. 7:1-16)
• THE COLLECTION FOR THE SAINTS; THE READINESS OF THE MACEDONIANS A PATTERN TO THE CORINTHIANS; CHRIST THE HIGHEST PATTERN; EACH IS TO GIVE WILLINGLY AFTER HIS ABILITY; TITUS AND TWO OTHERS ARE THE AGENTS ACCREDITED TO COMPLETE THE COLLECTION. (2Co. 8:1-24)
• REASONS FOR HIS SENDING TITUS. THE GREATER THEIR BOUNTIFULNESS, THE MORE SHALL BE THE RETURN OF BLESSING TO THEM, AND THANKSGIVING TO GOD. (2Co 9:1-15)
• HE VINDICATES HIS APOSTOLIC AUTHORITY AGAINST THOSE WHO DEPRECIATED HIM FOR HIS PERSONAL APPEARANCE. HE WILL MAKE HIS POWER FELT WHEN HE COMES. HE BOASTS NOT, AS THEY, BEYOND HIS MEASURE. (2Co. 10:1-18)
• THROUGH JEALOUSY OVER THE CORINTHIANS, WHO MADE MORE ACCOUNT OF THE FALSE APOSTLES THAN OF HIM, HE IS OBLIGED TO COMMEND HIMSELF AS IN MANY RESPECTS SUPERIOR. (2Co. 11:1-33)
• REVELATIONS IN WHICH HE MIGHT GLORY: BUT HE RATHER GLORIES IN INFIRMITIES, AS CALLING FORTH CHRIST'S POWER: SIGNS OF HIS APOSTLESHIP: HIS DISINTERESTEDNESS: NOT THAT HE IS EXCUSING HIMSELF TO THEM; BUT HE DOES ALL FOR THEIR GOOD, LEST HE SHOULD FIND THEM NOT SUCH AS HE DESIRED, AND SO SHOULD HAVE TO BE SEVERE AT HIS COMING. (2Co. 12:1-21) He proceeds to illustrate the "glorying in infirmities" (2Co 11:30). He gave one instance which might expose him to ridicule (2Co 11:33); he now gives another, but this one connected with a glorious revelation of which it was the sequel: but he dwells not on the glory done to himself, but on the infirmity which followed it, as displaying Christ's power. The oldest manuscripts read, "I MUST NEEDS boast (or glory) though it be not expedient; for I will come." The "for" gives a proof that it is "not expedient to boast": I will take the case of revelations, in which if anywhere boasting might be thought harmless. "Visions" refers to things seen: "revelations," to things heard (compare 1Sa 9:15) or revealed in any way. In "visions" their signification was not always vouchsafed; in "revelations" there was always an unveiling of truths before hidden (Dan 2:19, Dan 2:31). All parts of Scripture alike are matter of inspiration; but not all of revelation. There are degrees of revelation; but not of inspiration.
• HE THREATENS A SEVERE PROOF OF HIS APOSTOLIC AUTHORITY, BUT PREFERS THEY WOULD SPARE HIM THE NECESSITY FOR IT. (2Co 13:1-14)

TSK: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

The most remarkable circumstance in this Epistle, observes Mr. Scott, is the confidence of the Apostle in the goodness of his cause, and in the power of God to bear him out in it. Opposed as he then was by a powerful and sagacious party, whose authority, reputation, and interest were deeply concerned, and who were ready to seize on every thing that could discredit him, it is wonderful to hear him so firmly insist upon his apostolical authority, and so unreservedly appeal to the miraculous power which he has exercised and conferred at Corinth. So far from shrinking from the contest, as afraid of some discovery being made, unfavourable to him and the common cause, he, with great modesty and meekness indeed, but with equal boldness and decision, expressly declares that his opposers and despisers were the ministers of Satan, and menaces them with miraculous judgments, when as many of their deluded hearers had been brought to repentance and re-established in the faith, as proper means could in a reasonable time effect. It is inconceivable that a stronger internal testimony, not only of integrity, but of divine inspiration, can exist. Had there been anything of imposture among the Christians, it was next to impossible but such a conduct must have occasioned a disclosure of it. Of the effects produced by this latter epistle we have no circumstantial account; for the journey which St. Paul took to Corinth, after he had written it, is mentioned by St. Luke only in a few words (Act 20:2, Act 20:3). We know, however, that St. Paul was there after he had written this Epistle; that the contributions for the poor brethren at Jerusalem were brought to him from different parts to that city (Rom 15:26); and that, after remaining there several months, he sent salutations from some of the principal members of that church, by whom he must have been greatly respected, to the church of Rome (Rom 16:22, Rom 16:23). From this time we hear no more of the false teacher and his party; and when Clement of Rome wrote his epistle to the Corinthians, St. Paul was considered by them as a divine apostle, to whose authority he might appeal without fear of contradiction. The false teacher, therefore, must either have been silenced by St. Paul, by virtue of his apostolical powers, and by an act of severity which he had threatened (2Co 13:2, 2Co 13:3); or this adversary of the apostle had, at that time, voluntarily quitted the place. Whichever was the cause, the effect produced must operate as a confirmation of our faith, and as a proof of St. Paul’s divine mission.

TSK: 2 Corinthians 2 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

2Co 2:1, Having shown the reason why he came not to them, 2Co 2:6, he requires them to forgive and to comfort that excommunicated person, 2Co 2:10. even as himself also upon his true repentance had forgiven him; 2Co 2:12, declaring withal why he departed from Troas to Macedonia, 2Co 2:14. and the happy success which God gave to his preaching in all places.

Poole: 2 Corinthians 2 (Chapter Introduction)

CORINTHIANS CHAPTER 2

MHCC: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

The second epistle to the Corinthians probably was written about a year after the first. Its contents are closely connected with those of the former epistle. The manner in which the letter St. Paul formerly wrote had been received, is particularly noticed; this was such as to fill his heart with gratitude to God, who enabled him fully to discharge his duty towards them. Many had shown marks of repentance, and amended their conduct, but others still followed their false teachers; and as the apostle delayed his visit, from his unwillingness to treat them with severity, they charged him with levity and change of conduct. Also, with pride, vain-glory, and severity, and they spake of him with contempt. In this epistle we find the same ardent affection towards the disciples at Corinth, as in the former, the same zeal for the honour of the gospel, and the same boldness in giving Christian reproof. The first six chapters are chiefly practical: the rest have more reference to the state of the Corinthian church, but they contain many rules of general application.

MHCC: 2 Corinthians 2 (Chapter Introduction)

(2Co 2:1-4) Reasons for the apostle not coming to Corinth.

(2Co 2:5-11) Directions about restoring the repentant offender.

(2Co 2:12-17) An account of his labours and success in spreading the gospel of Christ.

Matthew Henry: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians

In his former epistle the apostle had signified his intentions of coming to Corinth, as he passed through Macedonia (1Co 16:5), but, being providentially hindered for some time, he writes this second epistle to them about a year after the former; and there seem to be these two urgent occasions: - 1. The case of the incestuous person, who lay under censure, required that with all speed he should be restored and received again into communion. This therefore he gives directions about (ch. 2), and afterwards (ch. 7) he declares the satisfaction he had upon the intelligence he received of their good behaviour in that affair. 2. There was a contribution now making for the poor saints at Jerusalem, in which he exhorts the Corinthians to join (ch. 8, 2Co 9:1-15).

There are divers other things very observable in this epistle; for example, I. The account the apostle gives of his labours and success in preaching the gospel in several places, ch. 2. II. The comparison he makes between the Old and New Testament dispensation, ch. 3. III. The manifold sufferings that he and his fellow-labourers met with, and the motives and encouragements for their diligence and patience, ch. 4, 5. IV. The caution he gives the Corinthians against mingling with unbelievers, ch. 6. V. The way and manner in which he justifies himself and his apostleship from the opprobrious insinuations and accusations of false teachers, who endeavoured to ruin his reputation at Corinth, ch. 10-12, and throughout the whole epistle.

Matthew Henry: 2 Corinthians 2 (Chapter Introduction)

In this chapter the apostle proceeds in the account of the reasons why he did not come to Corinth (2Co 2:1-4). Then he writes concerning the incestuous person who lay under censure; and gives direction for restoring him, together with the reasons for their so doing (2Co 2:5-11), and afterwards informs them of his labours and success in preaching the gospel in several places (2Co 2:12-17).

Barclay: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO THE LETTERS TO THE CORINTHIANS

The Greatness Of Corinth

A glance at the map will show that Corinth was made for greatness. The southern part of Greece is very nearly an island. On the west the Corinthian Gulf deeply indents the land and on the east the Saronic Gulf. All that is left to join the two parts of Greece together is a little isthmus only four miles across. On that narrow neck of land Corinth stands. Such a position made it inevitable that it should be one of the greatest trading and commercial centres of the ancient world. All traffic from Athens and the north of Greece to Sparta and the Peloponnese had to be routed through Corinth, because it stood on the little neck of land that connected the two.

Not only did the north to south traffic of Greece pass through Corinth of necessity, by far the greater part of the east to west traffic of the Mediterranean passed through her from choice. The extreme southern tip of Greece was known as Cape Malea (now called Cape Matapan). It was dangerous, and to round Cape Malea had much the same sound as to round Cape Horn had in later times. The Greeks had two sayings which showed what they thought of it--"Let him who sails round Malea forget his home," and, "Let him who sails round Malea first make his will."

The consequence was that mariners followed one of two courses. They sailed up the Saronic Gulf, and, if their ships were small enough, dragged them out of the water, set them on rollers, hauled them across the isthmus, and re-launched them on the other side. The isthmus was actually called the Diolkos, the place of dragging across. The idea is the same as that which is contained in the Scottish place name Tarbert, which means a place where the land is so narrow that a boat can be dragged from loch to loch. If that course was not possible because the ship was too large, the cargo was disembarked, carried by porters across the isthmus, and re-embarked on another ship at the other side. This four mile journey across the isthmus, where the Corinth Canal now runs, saved a journey of two hundred and two miles round Cape Malea, the most dangerous cape in the Mediterranean.

It is easy to see how great a commercial city Corinth must have been. The north to south traffic of Greece had no alternative but to pass through her; by far the greater part of the east to west trade of the Mediterranean world chose to pass through her. Round Corinth there clustered three other towns, Lechaeum at the west end of the isthmus, Cenchrea at the east end and Schoenus just a short distance away. Farrar writes, "Objects of luxury soon found their way to the markets which were visited by every nation in the civilized world--Arabian balsam, Phoenician dates, Libyan ivory, Babylonian carpets, Cilician goatsair, Lycaonian wool, Phrygian slaves."

Corinth, as Farrar calls her, was the Vanity Fair of the ancient world. Men called her The Bridge of Greece; one called her The Lounge of Greece. It has been said that if a man stands long enough in Piccadilly Circus he will in the end meet everyone in the country. Corinth was the Piccadilly Circus of the Mediterranean. To add to the concourse which came to it, Corinth was the place where the Isthmian Games were held, which were second only to the Olympics. Corinth was a rich and populous city with one of the greatest commercial trades in the ancient world.

The Wickedness Of Corinth

There was another side to Corinth. She had a reputation for commercial prosperity, but she was also a byword for evil living. The very word korinthiazesthai, to live like a Corinthian, had become a part of the Greek language, and meant to live with drunken and immoral debauchery. The word actually penetrated to the English language, and, in Regency times, a Corinthian was one of the wealthy young bucks who lived in reckless and riotous living. Aelian, the late Greek writer, tells us that if ever a Corinthian was shown upon the stage in a Greek play he was shown drunk. The very name Corinth was synonymous with debauchery and there was one source of evil in the city which was known all over the civilized world. Above the isthmus towered the hill of the Acropolis, and on it stood the great temple of Aphrodite, the goddess of love. To that temple there were attached one thousand priestesses who were sacred prostitutes, and in the evenings they descended from the Acropolis and plied their trade upon the streets of Corinth, until it became a Greek proverb, "It is not every man who can afford a journey to Corinth." In addition to these cruder sins, there flourished far more recondite vices, which had come in with the traders and the sailors from the ends of the earth, until Corinth became not only a synonym for wealth and luxury, drunkenness and debauchery, but also for filth.

The History Of Corinth

The history of Corinth falls into two parts. She was a very ancient city. Thucydides, the Greek historian, claims that it was in Corinth that the first triremes, the Greek battleships, were built. Legend has it that it was in Corinth that the Argo was built, the ship in which Jason sailed the seas, searching for the golden fleece. But in 146 B.C. disaster befell her. The Romans were engaged in conquering the world. When they sought to reduce Greece, Corinth was the leader of the opposition. But the Greeks could not stand against the disciplined Romans, and in 146 B.C. Lucius Mummius, the Roman general, captured Corinth and left her a desolate heap of ruins.

But any place with the geographical situation of Corinth could not remain a devastation. Almost exactly one hundred years later, in 46 B.C. Julius Caesar rebuilt her and she arose from her ruins. Now she became a Roman colony. More, she became a capital city, the metropolis of the Roman province of Achaea, which included practically all Greece.

In those days, which were the days of Paul, her population was very mixed. (i) There were the Roman veterans whom Julius Caesar had settled there. When a Roman soldier had served his time, he was granted the citizenship and was then sent out to some newly-founded city and given a grant of land so that he might become a settler there. These Roman colonies were planted all over the world, and always the backbone of them was the contingent of veteran regular soldiers whose faithful service had won them the citizenship. (ii) When Corinth was rebuilt the merchants came back, for her situation still gave her commercial supremacy. (iii) There were many Jews among the population. The rebuilt city offered them commercial opportunities which they were not slow to take. (iv) There was a sprinkling of Phoenicians and Phrygians and people from the east, with their exotic customs and their hysterical ways. Farrar speaks of "this mongrel and heterogeneous population of Greek adventurers and Roman bourgeois, with a tainting infusion of Phoenicians; this mass of Jews, ex-soldiers, philosophers, merchants, sailors, freedmen, slaves, trades-people, hucksters and agents of every form of vice." He characterizes her as a colony "without aristocracy, without traditions and without well-established citizens."

Remember the background of Corinth, remember its name for wealth and luxury, for drunkenness and immorality and vice, and then read 1Co_6:9-10 .

Are you not aware that the unrighteous will not inherit the

Kingdom of God? Make no mistake--neither fornicators, nor

idolaters, nor adulterers, nor sensualists, nor homosexuals, nor

thieves, nor rapacious men, nor drunkards, nor slanderers, nor

robbers shall inherit the Kingdom of God--and such were some of

you.

In this hotbed of vice, in the most unlikely place in all the Greek world, some of Paulgreatest work was done, and some of the mightiest triumphs of Christianity were won.

Paul In Corinth

Paul stayed longer in Corinth than in any other city, with the single exception of Ephesus. He had left Macedonia with his life in peril and had crossed over to Athens. There he had had little success and had gone on to Corinth, and he remained there for eighteen months. We realize how little we really know of his work when we see that the whole story of that eighteen months is compressed by Luke into 17 verses (Act_18:1-17 ).

When Paul arrived in Corinth he took up residence with Aquila and Prisca. He preached in the synagogue with great success. With the arrival of Timothy and Silas from Macedonia, he redoubled his efforts, but the Jews were so stubbornly hostile that he had to leave the synagogue. He took up his residence with one Justus who lived next door to the synagogue. His most notable convert was Crispus, who was actually the ruler of the synagogue, and amongst the general public he had good success.

In the year A.D. 52 there came to Corinth as its new governor a Roman called Gallio. He was famous for his charm and gentleness. The Jews tried to take advantage of his newness and good nature and brought Paul to trial before him on a charge of teaching contrary to their law. But Gallio, with impartial Roman justice, refused to have anything to do with the case or to take any action. So Paul completed his work in Corinth and moved on to Syria.

The Correspondence With Corinth

It was when he was in Ephesus in the year A.D. 55 that Paul, learning that things were not all well in Corinth, wrote to the church there. There is every possibility that the Corinthian correspondence as we have it is out of order. We must remember that it was not until A.D. 90 or thereby that Paulcorrespondence was collected. In many churches it must have existed only on scraps of papyrus and the putting it together would be a problem: and it seems that, when the Corinthian letters were collected, they were not all discovered and were not arranged in the right order. Let us see if we can reconstruct what happened.

(i) There was a letter which preceded 1 Corinthians. In 1Co_5:9 Paul writes, "I wrote you a letter not to associate with immoral men." This obviously refers to some previous letter. Some scholars believe that letter is lost without trace. Others think it is contained in 2Co_6:14-18 and 2Co_7:1 . Certainly that passage suits what Paul said he wrote about. It occurs rather awkwardly in its context, and, if we take it out and read straight on from 2Co_6:13 to 2Co_7:2 , we get excellent sense and connection. Scholars call this letter The Previous Letter. (In the original letters there were no chapter or verse divisions. The chapters were not divided up until the thirteenth century and the verses not till the sixteenth, and because of that the arranging of the collection of letters would be much more difficult).

(ii) News came to Paul from various sources of trouble at Corinth. (a) News came from those who were of the household of Chloe (1Co_1:11 ). They brought news of the contentions with which the church was torn. (b) News came with the visit of Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus to Ephesus. (1Co_16:17 ). By personal contact they were able to fill up the gaps in Paulinformation. (c) News came in a letter in which the Corinthian Church had asked Paul guidance on various problems. In 1Co_7:1 Paul begins, "Concerning the matters about which you wrote..." In answer to all this information Paul wrote 1 Corinthians and despatched it to Corinth apparently by the hand of Timothy (1Co_4:17 ).

(iii) The result of the letter was that things became worse than ever, and, although we have no direct record of it, we can deduce that Paul paid a personal visit to Corinth. In 2Co_12:14 he writes, "The third time I am ready to come to you." In 2Co_13:1-2 , he says again that he is coming to them for the third time. Now, if there was a third time, there must have been a second time. We have the record of only one visit, whose story is told in Act_18:1-17 . We have no record at all of the second, but Corinth was only two or three daysailing from Ephesus.

(iv) The visit did no good at all. Matters were only exacerbated and the result was an exceedingly severe letter. We learn about that letter from certain passages in 2 Corinthians. In 2Co_2:4 Paul writes, "I wrote to you out of much affliction and anguish of heart and with many tears." In 2Co_7:8 he writes, "For even if I made you sorry with my letter, I do not regret it though I did regret it; for I see that that letter has grieved you, though only for a while." It was a letter which was the product of anguish of mind, a letter so severe that Paul was almost sorry that he ever sent it.

Scholars call this The Severe Letter. Have we got it? It obviously cannot be I Corinthians, because it is not a tear-stained and anguished letter. When Paul wrote it, it is clear enough that things were under control. Now if we read through 2 Corinthians we find an odd circumstance. In 2Cor 1-9 everything is made up, there is complete reconciliation and all are friends again; but at 2Cor 10 comes the strangest break. 2Cor 10-13 are the most heartbroken cry Paul ever wrote. They show that he has been hurt and insulted as he never was before or afterwards by any church. His appearance, his speech, his apostleship, his honesty have all been under attack.

Most scholars believe that 2Cor 10-13 are the severe letter, and that they have become misplaced when Paulletters were put together. If we want the real chronological course of Paulcorrespondence with Corinth, we really ought to read 2Cor 10-13 before 2Cor 1-9. We do know that this letter was sent off with Titus. (2Co_2:13 ; 2Co_7:13 ).

(v) Paul was worried about this letter. He could not wait until Titus came back with an answer, so he set out to meet him (2Co_2:13 ; 2Co_7:5 , 2Co_7:13 ). Somewhere in Macedonia he met him and learned that all was well, and, probably at Philippi, he sat down and wrote 2Cor 1-9, the letter of reconciliation.

Stalker has said that the letters of Paul take the roof off the early churches and let us see what went on inside. Of none of them is that truer than the letters to Corinth. Here we see what "the care of all the churches" must have meant to Paul. Here we see the heart-breaks and the joys. Here we see Paul, the shepherd of his flock, bearing the sorrows and the problems of his people on his heart.

The Corinthian Correspondence

Before we read the letters in detail let us set down the progress of the Corinthian correspondence in tabular form.

(i) The Previous Letter, which may be contained in 2Co_6:14-18 and 2Co_7:1 .

(ii) The arrival of Chloepeople, of Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus, and of the letter to Paul from the Corinthian Church.

(iii) 1 Corinthians is written in reply and is despatched with Timothy.

(iv) The situation grows worse and Paul pays a personal visit to Corinth, which is so complete a failure that it almost breaks his heart.

(v) The consequence is The Severe Letter, which is almost certainly contained in 2Cor 10-13, and which was despatched with Titus.

(vi) Unable to wait for an answer, Paul sets out to meet Titus. He meets him in Macedonia, learns that all is well and, probably from Philippi, writes 2Cor 1-9, The Letter of Reconciliation.

The first four chapters of 1 Corinthians deal with the divided state of the Church of God at Corinth. Instead of being a unity in Christ it was split into sects and parties, who had attached themselves to the names of various leaders and teachers. It is Paulteaching that these divisions had emerged because the Corinthians thought too much about human wisdom and knowledge and too little about the sheer grace of God. In fact, for all their so-called wisdom, they are really in a state of immaturity. They think that they are wise men, but really they are no better than babies.

FURTHER READING

2 Corinthians

F. F. Bruce, 1 and 2 Corinthians (NCB; E)

J. Hering, The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians (translated by A. W. Heathcote and P. J. Allcock)

A. Plummer, 2 Corinthians (ICC; G)

R. V. G. Tasker, The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians (TC; E)

Abbreviations

ICC: International Critical Commentary

MC: Moffatt Commentary

NCB: New Century Bible

TC: Tyndale Commentary

E: English Text

G: Greek Text

Barclay: 2 Corinthians 2 (Chapter Introduction)

When A Saint Rebukes (2Co_1:23-24; 2Co_2:1-4)

Pleading For A Sinner's Pardon (2Co_2:5-11)

In The Triumph Of Christ (2Co_2:12-17)

Constable: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Historical background

First Corinthians did not dispel the problems in the church at Corinth completely. While it resolved some of these, opposition to the Apostle Paul persisted and Paul's critics continued to speak out against him in the church. One man in particular seems to have been the ringleader of the opposition (10:7). He had rallied the support of a significant minority. The issue was Paul's apostolic authority. His critics were claiming authority equal with Paul's. This was in effect a claim to apostolic authority on their part or a denial of the full apostolic authority of Paul.

News of continuing problems in Corinth reached Paul in Ephesus during his prolonged stay there during his third missionary journey. He then made a brief visit to Corinth. However his efforts to resolve the conflicts fell through (2:1; 12:14; 13:1-2). Paul apparently suffered insult and lost face during that visit (2:5-8; 7:12). Consequently this was a painful visit for Paul. He then returned to Ephesus.

Paul's next step in dealing with the situation in Corinth was to send a severe letter from Ephesus by the hand of Titus and another unnamed brother (2:3-4; 7:8-12; 12:18). He apparently directed this letter, now lost, at the party opposed to him and particularly its leader. Some commentators believe that 2 Corinthians 10-13 contains part of this letter, but the evidence for this is not convincing.¹

Paul evidently intended to receive Titus' report concerning the effects of this severe letter in Ephesus. However, persecution there made it expedient for Paul to leave that city earlier than he had anticipated (Acts 20:1). He found an open door for the gospel to the north in Troas. Eager to meet Titus who was taking the land route from Corinth back to Ephesus Paul moved west into Macedonia (2:12-13). There Titus met him and gave him an encouraging report (7:6-16). Most of the church had responded to Paul's directives and the church had disciplined the troublemakers (2:5-11). Unfortunately some in the congregation still refused to acknowledge Paul's authority over them (10:1-13:10).

Paul rejoiced at the repentance of the majority. However his concern for the unrepentant minority and his desire to pick up the money the Corinthians had begun to collect for their poorer brethren in Jerusalem led him to write 2 Corinthians. Along with these primary motives Paul also felt compelled to refute the charge of fickleness leveled at him by his critics. He had changed his travel plans and had not come to see them as he had said he would.

The whole situation provided him an opportunity to clarify the nature of Christian ministry.

Paul wrote the Second Epistle to the Corinthians from Macedonia, perhaps Philippi, Thessalonica, or Berea, probably in the fall or winter of 56 A.D. A date a year earlier or later is possible.

Some commentators believe Paul wrote 1 Corinthians after his painful visit and after he wrote the severe letter.² I believe it is more probable that he wrote 1 Corinthians before these two events.³ It is very difficult to reconstruct the details of Paul's activities since the data available to us is incomplete.

Paul's Corinthian Contacts
Paul's founding visit	His "former letter"	The Corin-thians' letter to him	First Corin-thians	Paul's "painful visit"	His "severe letter"	Second Corin-thians	Paul's antici-pated visit

"2 Corinthians is very different from the letters between which it was written, 1 Corinthians and Romans. Whereas each of those letters is, in its own way, systematic and orderly, 2 Corinthians is, on the face of it, uneven and digressive. It is no surprise, therefore, that many scholars have suggested that 2 Corinthians is really a collection of letters put together later as a single letter."⁴

"Second Corinthians presents many inspiring texts and passages to the reader and teacher of God's Word. A quick survey reveals approximately eighty individual verses lending themselves to extended meditation and exposition, apart from the sixty or so constituent paragraphs of the letter. This letter is a rich lode for the edification of God's people."⁵

Message⁶

The subject of 2 Corinthians is ministry, the church's work of service in the world. This is the central concept Paul dealt with in this epistle. What did he say about ministry?

He spoke of ministry in two ways. There is ministry per se (philosophy of ministry), and there is ministry to the world (practice of ministry).

Let's consider first what Paul revealed about the ministry of the church per se. This is the way Paul spoke of ministry most often in 2 Corinthians. In 1 Corinthians there is more emphasis on the practice of ministry than on the philosophy of ministry.

Paul had a lot to say about the authority of the church's ministry. Jesus Christ is the church's authority. He is the One who assigns each believer particular ministry within the body of Christ (cf. 1 Cor. 12:11, 18, 28; Eph. 4:11-13). The Corinthian church was having a major problem because some in its company were failing to accept Paul's appointment by Christ as an apostle and their own appointment as non-apostles. This was a practical repudiation of Jesus Christ's authority in the church. We must bow to the authority of Christ in the church by recognizing and responding appropriately to those He has appointed to various roles in the body. We identify these people by their gifts (divinely given abilities) and by their offices (divinely given positions).

Paul also had a lot to say in this epistle about the resources of the church's ministry. He emphasized three primarily.

One important resource is the encouragement of God. Paul spoke of this in the first part of the epistle especially. We read "comfort" in our texts, but the Greek word paraklesis means comfort through encouragement. The same Greek root describes the Holy Spirit as our Paraclete in John 14-16. Paul both taught and demonstrated in this letter that God's encouraging comfort always exceeds our discouragement and distress in ministry. The secret to finding it sufficient is taking God's view of how our ministry is really proceeding. This viewpoint Paul revealed, too.

A second resource is divine revelation. Paul did not preach himself or a message that he had concocted. He preached what God had revealed. Thus, revelation constituted both Paul's public message and his personal encouragement. We, too, have received the same message to communicate as ambassadors of Christ. It is a message of reconciliation, and it is the source of our encouragement.

A third resource is the prayers of the saints. Paul called for and counted on the prayers of God's people to bring God's power into play through him as he ministered (1:11). He realized that his own prayers would not move God to work as well as the concerted prayers of many of God's children (cf. James 4:2). Lack of prayer is often a sign of confidence in self rather than confidence in God.

In addition to the authority and resources of our ministry, Paul also had a lot to say in this epistle about experience in ministry. Three features mark experience in ministry.

First, one thing that marks ministry is tribulation. Paul spoke extensively in 2 Corinthians about the afflictions he experienced during his ministry. Furthermore he revealed that these are part of ministry, anyone's ministry who is carrying it out as God has directed. Some people do not welcome the gospel. To them it is a death scent. We should expect to experience tribulation in ministry. We have all experienced this in witnessing to some extent.

Second, another thing that should mark our ministry is hope. God has revealed the end of our ministry. We will all stand before Jesus Christ and receive a reward one day (5:10). This hope is a certainty. The Christian who loses sight of his or her hope is going to drift and suffer discouragement rather than press toward the mark. The end of our ministry is constantly in view in this epistle.

Third, a mark of Christian ministry is triumph. Paul revealed and illustrated by his own attitude that no matter how response to our ministry may appear to us our ministry is always triumphant. The reason for this is that God is at work through His ministers. One of the problems Paul's critics in Corinth had and that we have is that they were evaluating ministry superficially rather than realistically. We need to evaluate ministry on the basis of what God has revealed is happening, not what appears to be happening.

Paul not only revealed much about ministry per se in 2 Corinthians, he also revealed a lot about the ministry of the church to the world. Three emphases predominate.

First, Paul revealed what the message of the church is: the Word of God. Ours is a ministry of the Word. By "the Word" Paul meant the revelation God has given us. In his day it consisted of the Old Testament Scriptures plus the revelations that he and the other New Testament prophets had received that were for all Christians. Paul contrasted his message and ours with the message of Moses and exulted in its superiority. God has removed the veil and we can now see His glory clearly revealed in the face of Jesus Christ.

Second, Paul revealed the church's equipment to carry on its ministry to the world. We are ready to minister only when we separate from the world's sins and conform to God's will. Paul contrasts with his critics in this letter in all these respects. As these characteristics mark us we, too, will be ready to minister.

Third, Paul revealed the exercise of the church's ministry to the world. In exercising its ministry the church does three things according to this epistle.

1. It exercises discipline to restore the erring to effective ministry. Paul's great concern in this epistle was the restoration of the rebellious critics in the Corinthian church to unity and usefulness.

2. The church also is to give no occasion of stumbling to others. Paul's concern was that the behavior of the Corinthian Christians would be an encouragement to other believers and a base from which the gospel could proceed even farther into unevangelized regions beyond.

3. Third, the church exercises the grace of giving. It seeks to facilitate the principle of equality that God has demonstrated throughout history, namely that those who have should share with those who have not. This applies not only to the gospel message but to the physical necessities of life (chs. 8-9).

From these emphases the message of the book emerges. The church needs to submit to revealed authority, to draw upon supernatural resources and equipment, and to experience triumph through tribulation as it executes its mission. As it does so it will effectively carry out its ministry of proclaiming the message of reconciliation to the world.

Constable: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

Outline

I. Introduction 1:1-11

A. Salutation 1:1-2

B. Thanksgiving for comfort in affliction 1:3-11

1. Thanksgiving for comfort 1:3-7

2. Thanksgiving for deliverance 1:8-11

II. Answers to insinuations about the sincerity of Paul's commitment to the Corinthians and to the ministry 1:12-7:16

A. Defense of his conduct with regard to his promised visit and the offender 1:12-2:17

1. The postponement of the intended visit 1:12-2:4

2. The treatment of the offender and the result of the severe letter 2:5-17

B. Exposition of Paul's view of the ministry 3:1-6:10

1. The superiority of Christian ministry to Mosaic ministry 3:1-11

2. The great boldness of the new ministers 3:12-4:6

3. The sufferings and supports of a minister of the gospel 4:7-5:10

4. The life of a minister of Christ 5:11-6:10

C. Appeal for restoration of the Corinthians' confidence in him 6:11-7:16

1. An appeal for large-heartedness and consistency 6:11-7:4

2. The encouraging response of the Corinthians so far 7:5-16

III. Instructions concerning the collection for the poor saints in Judea 8:1-9:15

A. The example of the Macedonians 8:1-7

B. The supreme motive for giving 8:8-15

C. The delegates of the churches 8:16-24

D. The anticipated visit of Paul 9:1-5

E. The benefits of generous giving 9:6-15

IV. Appeals concerning Paul's apostolic authority 10:1-13:10

A. Replies to charges made against Paul 10:1-18

1. Reply to the charge of cowardice 10:1-6

2. Reply to the charge of weakness 10:7-11

3. Reply to the charge of intrusion 10:12-18

B. Claims made by Paul 11:1-12:18

1. Paul's reasons for making these claims 11:1-6

2. Freedom to minister without charge 11:7-15

3. Paul's service and sufferings 11:16-33

4. Special revelations Paul received 12:1-10

5. Paul's supernatural miracles and paternal love 12:11-18

C. Exhortations in view of Paul's approaching visit 12:19-13:10

1. Paul's concerns 12:19-21

2. Paul's warnings 13:1-10

V. Conclusion 13:11-14

A. The exhortation 13:11-12

B. The salutation 13:13

C. The benediction 13:14

Constable: 2 Corinthians

2 Corinthians

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Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

THE SECOND

EPISTLE OF ST. PAUL, THE APOSTLE,

TO THE CORINTHIANS.

INTRODUCTION.

The subject and design of this second Epistle to the Corinthians, is much the same as of the former. He comforts and congratulates with those who were now reformed by his admonitions. He blames the faulty with apostolical liberty; and being forced to justify himself and his proceedings against the upstart false teachers, he gives an ample account of his sufferings, and also of the favours and graces, which God had bestowed upon him. This Epistle was written not long after the first, (an. 57. [in the year 57.]) some months before that to the Romans, from some place in Macedonia, perhaps from Philippi, as marked at the end of divers Greek copies, though it is observed, that those subscriptions are not much to be relied upon. (Witham) --- In this Epistle St. Paul comforts those who are now reformed by his admonitions to them in the former, and absolves the incestuous man on doing penance, whom he had before excommunicated for his crime. Hence he treats of true penance, and of the dignity of the ministers of the New Testament. He cautions the faithful against false teachers, and the society of infidels. He gives an account of his sufferings, and also of the favours and graces which God hath bestowed on him. (Challoner) --- St. Paul, not being able to come to the Corinthians as soon as he had promised, writes this Epistle to inform them, that it was not through inconstancy, but on account of several weighty reasons, which had hitherto hindered him. Several other reasons, likewise, compelled him to write. For during his absence, several false teachers of the Jews had come amongst them, teaching them that it was necessary to observe the law of Moses, in order to be saved. St. Paul, therefore, first excuses himself, by saying, that the afflictions and troubles he had met with, had hindered him from coming to them. He next orders the fornicator to be restored to favour; after which, he extols his apostleship, forming a comparison between the law of Christ, and of Moses, wherein he blames the false teachers. He then subjoins an exhortation to a pious and holy life, with liberality in their alms, after the example of the Macedonians. As the false teachers had been very industrious in establishing their own reputation, by detracting from that of St. Paul, he enumerates his own sufferings, and the favours he had received from God, shewing that he had much more reason to glory than they; and concludes by exhorting them to correct those faults with which they still remained infected. (Estius) --- This letter may be justly appreciated as a perfect masterpiece of that animated and solid eloquence, which all interpreters so much admire in St. Paul. (Bible de Vence)

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Gill: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 2 CORINTHIANS

This epistle, according to the subscription at the end of it, was written from Philippi of Macedonia; and though the subscriptions annexed to the epistles are not always to be depended on, yet it seems very likely that this was written from thence; for the apostle not finding Titus at Troas, as he expected, went into Macedonia, where he met with him, and had an account from him of the success of his first epistle; of the state and condition of the church, and of the temper and disposition of mind in which the members of it were, and which gave him great satisfaction; upon which he immediately wrote this second epistle, and sent it by the same person to them; see 2Co 2:12, 2Co 7:5. It is very probable it might be written the year after the former; and so it is placed by Dr. Lightfoot in the year 56, as the former is in the year 55; though some place this in the year 60, and the other in 59. The occasion of this epistle was partly to excuse his not coming to them according to promise, and to vindicate himself from the charge of unfaithfulness, levity, and inconstancy on that account; and partly, since what he had wrote about the incestuous person, had had a good effect both upon him and them, to direct them to take off the censure that had been laid upon him, and restore him to their communion, and comfort him; likewise to stir them up to finish the collection for the poor saints they had begun; as also to defend himself against the calumnies of the false teachers, who were very industrious to sink his character and credit in this church; which he does by observing the doctrines of the Gospel he preached, which were far more glorious than, and abundantly preferable to, the ministration of the law of Moses, which those men desired to be teachers of; as likewise the success of his ministry in every place; the many sufferings he had underwent for the sake of Christ, and his Gospel; the high favours and privileges he had received of the Lord, as well as the signs, wonders, and miracles done by him in proof of his apostleship; and in which are interspersed many things useful and instructive.

Gill: 2 Corinthians 2 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 2 CORINTHIANS 2

The apostle, in this chapter, goes on to give reasons of his not coming, as yet, to Corinth; and removes the charge of severity, which some might think him guilty of, in what he had written in his former epistle concerning the incestuous person, who having repented of his sin, he would now have comforted, and the censure laid on him by the church taken off; after which he gives an account of the success of the Gospel in several parts, of its power and purity, and of the faithful dispensation of it by himself and others: in 2Co 2:1, he assigns this as a reason why he had determined with himself not to come to Corinth as yet, and why he deferred his coming, that when he came he might not be sorrowful himself, nor make others sorrowful, which necessarily involve each other; for if he made others sorrowful by his sharp rebukes, which as things had been he could not but in faithfulness give, he must be in sorrow himself, since there would be none to make him cheerful, but such whom he made sorrowful, 2Co 2:2, wherefore to meet together under such circumstances must be uncomfortable; and hence he chose to put off his coming until things took another turn; and this was the reason of his writing with so much seeming severity concerning the incestuous person, in the former epistle, to bring him and them to repentance, and so prevent that sorrow which he otherwise must have had, had he in person come to them whilst they were unconcerned about that affair; and that he might have that joy, which he was confident of everyone was desirous he should have, 2Co 2:3, and he was so far from being of a cruel and uncompassionate disposition, that it was with an aching heart, and with flowing eyes, that he wrote that letter to them; nor was it written with that view merely to grieve them, but to let them know the tender and affectionate concern he had for their welfare, 2Co 2:4. Besides, this affair of the incestuous person was not only matter of grief to the apostle, but to them all; or he was not the only person he was grieved with, but with them all, and therefore it was necessary to use greater severity and roughness, 2Co 2:5. However, inasmuch as the end he had in view was answered, the humbling of the delinquent, and bringing him to repentance, nothing more was to be done, the punishment of excommunication was sufficient, 2Co 2:6, and that ought now to be removed, and the man forgiven, and comforted, lest he should be overwhelmed with sorrow, and be reduced to despair, 2Co 2:7. Wherefore the apostle entreats them to give some fresh assurances of their love to the repenting brother, and signify it by their hearty reception of him into communion again, 2Co 2:8, in doing which they would give proof of their obedience to him the apostle, which was an end he had in writing to them before, concerning the excommunication of the same person, 2Co 2:9, and which he urges them to from his own example, who was ready to join with them in forgiving him, out of love to them, and in the name of Christ, 2Co 2:10, and the rather it became them to do so, lest Satan should get an advantage of them, and establish a bad principle and practice among them, that such as fall into sin, though they repent, should not be restored to the communion of the church, of whose devices in different forms and shapes, to do mischief to the churches of Christ, and particular believers, the apostle and others were not ignorant, 2Co 2:11. Moreover, what had took up his time, and had prevented him from coming to Corinth as yet, was his being called to, and employed in the preaching of the Gospel elsewhere, particularly at Troas, where he was the rather inclined to stay, and there was a necessity of it, because there was a door opened for it, 2Co 2:12, and yet not finding Titus, there, as he expected, he was uneasy, and departed thence into Macedonia, in quest of him, 2Co 2:13, where, as in other places, he preached the Gospel with success, which he ascribes to God, and gives him thanks for it, 2Co 2:14, which success he illustrates by dividing the persons to whom he preached the Gospel, into two classes, they that are saved, and they that perish, 2Co 2:15, on whom it had different effects, diffusing death, and adding death to death in the one, and communicating life, and adding life to life in the other: and lest he should be thought to arrogate too much to himself, and other ministers of the word, of whom he speaks, he acknowledges his and their insufficiency to preach the Gospel, and make it effectual; and that all fitness for it, and all the virtue and efficacy of it, were from the Lord, 2Co 2:16, and then gives the reason why he, and the rest of the faithful ministers of the Gospel, were a sweet savour to Christ, as he had asserted, because they did not, as others, corrupt this box of ointment, but faithfully and sincerely poured it out, without mixing and adulterating it; and this they did as being in the view of the omniscient God, to whom they could appeal for their integrity and honesty, 2Co 2:17.

College: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION

Studying 2 Corinthians plunges the modern reader back to the real, tumultuous world of early Christianity. The simple ideals of sharing and goodwill described in Acts 2:42-47 seem to have little place among the diverse converts from this boomtown of Corinth where Paul chooses to anchor his Greek mission. Rather, this microcosm of the early church bickers and accuses, revels in disorder and confusion, reeks of unrenounced pagan practices, and uncritically pursues self-promotion and even disloyalty to Paul, its founder.

When we speak of restoring the NT church, the Corinthian church is not what we have in mind. But maybe this is where we should really start: a real community of believers struggling to understand and implement their Christian faith against the helter-skelter backdrop of values and principles they desired to leave behind. As we understand what Paul teaches this troubled church, we will learn badly needed principles to help bring to maturity our own, real churches which inherit the same struggle.

Second Corinthians stands in stark contrast to Paul's other NT writings in a number of ways. Other letters, like 1 Corinthians, Romans, Galatians, and Colossians are carefully ordered, easily outlined, logical, controlled, as Paul confidently responds to carefully gauged concerns. Methodically, he establishes crucial, theological principles as the basis for practical, behavioral appeals.

By contrast, 2 Corinthians is chaotic and disjointed. Digressions lead the reader far afield before returning to the point. So uneven is 2 Corinthians, that many scholars suggest it is a composite of four or five writings, even a number of conservative scholars admitting two. Intensity, emotion, defensiveness, and second-guessing rather than controlled reasoning bind this epistle together. We see Paul at his weakest, basest, most human. Yet seeing him work through the truth of the gospel in the midst of exasperating difficulties is enlightening.

To a certain extent, it is healthy for our lofty ideals of this giant to be punctured and brought down to reality, even as the Corinthian church does so for our view of the early church. Paul's relationship with the Corinthians at this historical juncture is ugly, and readers deserve to be warned about how disconcerting seeing this can be.

These features of 2 Corinthians make studying and understanding the text much more dependent than usual on grasping the historical circumstances behind and leading up to its writing. Without a clear grasp of the historic story, hopeless confusion will engulf efforts to interpret the text at a number of points.

So, study of 2 Corinthians must begin by seeking to understand the Corinth of Paul's day and Paul's relationship to the local church there before preceding to a reliable interpretation of the text.

THE CITY OF CORINTH

Fortunately, Corinth is a NT city we know a great deal about. It has been heavily excavated and was minutely described by classical writers like Strabo and Dio Chrysostom.

The city that Paul entered in A.D. 50 had been resurrected from the ashes of the old city burned to the ground by the Romans in 146 B.C. Having laid in ruins for 100 years, two years before his death in 44 B.C., Julius Caesar decreed that Corinth (and also Carthage) should be rebuilt. Although located just 60 miles from Athens on the narrow isthmus strategically joining the Greek mainland to the Peloponnesus, the new Corinth was built and organized as a Roman city. Its colonists were gleaned from freedmen, former slaves originating from Syria, Egypt, Judea, Greece, and from retiring Roman soldiers.

The city's layout and its buildings were Roman, as was its governmental organization and law. Its official language was Latin, although Greek was the common language for business and conversation. The people prized Roman articles, importing them in great quantities. In addition to the four magistrates elected each year and its city council, it was administrated by a proconsul appointed annually by the Roman senate.

Corinth's dominance over the five-mile wide isthmus insured economic vitality. Ships traveling between Italy and Asia Minor were happy to pay the fee to cross the isthmus rather than sail the extra 200 miles south around treacherous Cape Malae. Besides, Corinth had even constructed a grooved pavement, called the Diolkos, between the ports on either side of the isthmus on which smaller ships could be hauled in wheeled vehicles. For a larger ship, the goods were loaded on transport carts and reloaded onto another ship waiting at the other harbor.

Julius Caesar dreamed of increasing Corinth's stock by constructing a canal across the isthmus. Not until Nero, A.D. 67., was such a project begun. Actual completion, however was not achieved until modern times, in 1893.

With the two ports, Laechaeum, on the Corinthian Gulf, and Cenchraea, on the Saronic Gulf, Corinth thrived as a center for trade. The major land route between the Greek mainland and the Peloponnesus also went through it. Besides shipbuilding and repair, it hosted bronze, tile, and pottery factories, as well as the necessary warehousing for transportable goods. Corinth's market areas boasted hundreds of stalls filled with craftsmen plying their trade, locals selling merchandise and food, as well as visitors from throughout the empire hawking imported items. They even had places which sold drinks cooled by underground water systems. Paul himself, we know, took up a leather-working stall in this area for eighteen months (Acts 18:1-3).

New Corinth was an eclectic, international city from its inception. In Paul's day, it was a bustling, wide open, boomtown, with over 80,000 inhabitants, and growing every day. It had already outstripped Athens politically, replacing it as the capital of Achaia.

Corinth's prestige was further enhanced by its hosting of the Isthmian Games, second only in significance to the Olympics. Held every two years in Corinth since A.D. 3, these games drew thousands of tourists and lots of business. The city's most prestigious political official was the one responsible for administering the games, occupying a prominent year-round governmental office. The games were dedicated to the Greek sea god, Poseidon, and featured oratory, music, and drama, as well as athletic contests. A dramatic theater as well as a 20,000 seat stadium were used for these events.

Corinth's eclecticism revealed itself in an array of religious choices established by its multicultural inhabitants. Egyptians promoted the cults of Isis and Osiris. Isis was worshiped as a god for sailors because the myth tells of her enduring search on the seas for her betrayed and lost husband Osiris. Osiris is a god of afterlife, who after his death was resurrected to become head of the underworld.

Greeks and Romans honored Poseidon, god of the sea; Athena, goddess of war, the sea, cities and the arts; Aphrodite, goddess of love and fertility; Apollo, god of prophecy; Asklepios, god of healing; and emperors beginning with Julius Caesar. Prominent temples and statues are dedicated to all of these. Apollos often features prominently in colonized cities as an ode of good fortune. His famous Delphic oracle is only some 30 miles from Corinth. The much publicized report that Old Corinth's temple to Aphrodite housed over 1,000 sacred prostitutes is regarded as Athenian slander and is not so certain to still be functioning this way in Paul's day, although this does not mean to imply that Corinth was any more sexually pristine than any other seaport.

One of the busiest religious centers in Paul's day was the Asklepium. Comparable to a modern-day health club, people came here to bathe in its fountain, sleep (healing in their dreams), excercise, read, and dine (on sacrificial meat, cf. 1 Cor 8:10; 10:21). Replicas of body parts found in excavations were offered to the Asklepios by thankful beneficiaries of his healing.

Though not a god, Sisyphus, was considered one of the founding kings of ancient Corinth. Noted for his craftiness, in Greek mythology he was banished to Hades with the everlasting task of pushing a rock up a hill only to have it slip back down. For the Corinthian in Paul's day, he stands for successful cunning in business, but behind the temporary luster, perhaps, he signifies the emptiness of life's ambitions that lurked in the background of people's thoughts.

Judaism came with the early Jewish colonists and seems to have thrived. A dynamic synagogue certainly was functioning when Paul arrived, according to Acts 18:4-17. Also, a building inscription reading "Synagogue of the Hebrews" has been found by archaeologists along the Lechaeum road. Although the inscription is somewhat later than Paul's day, its location in the city center suggests the prominence of Judaism from the early days of New Corinth. Significant increases to the Jewish population likely occurred in A.D. 19 and in the late 40s when Tiberius and then Claudius expelled Jews from Rome. According to Acts 18:2, the latter purge is what brought Aquila and Priscilla and their tentmaking business to Corinth for the eighteen months Paul evangelized there. As Acts 18:8,17 indicate, the Jewish community probably had a certain amount of freedom to manage its own affairs and to appoint its own officials.

Due to Roman influence, Corinthians banded together into self-governing clubs and societies of 10 to 15 people which met in homes around the city. These clubs were delineated by individual trades or professions. Something like small unions, they provided vital social interaction and shared meals but even underwrote members' burial expenses from their kitty of dues. Although each had its sponsoring god, they were not religious in nature.

Most likely, the Corinthian church of Paul's day took on the pattern of these clubs as they met in various homes throughout the city. This helps explain the household factions decried in 1 Cor 1:10-12 and even the food-related problems of 1 Corinthians 8 and 11:17-34.

Corinth in the time of Paul was a city of wealth and prosperity. The families who had come a generation or two previously had worked hard. They had carved out successful lives by their own sweat and ingenuity. Like American immigrants, they were proud of their accomplishments, which they demonstrated in their proliferation of self-commending inscriptions around the city. But like the grandchildren of immigrants today, the Corinthians of Paul's day were noted for their superficial materialism and moral perversity. Such traits are epitomized by the fact that before the century was over, Corinth would become the first Greek city in the Roman Empire to hold bloodthirsty gladiatorial shows.

PAUL AND THE CORINTHIANS

Paul's rocky, seven-year relationship with the Corinthians begins in the fall of A.D. 50 as he enters Corinth on what becomes the last stop of his second missionary journey. Already on the road for a year, he had established churches in Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, and Athens, despite opposition from Gentiles, Jews, and intellectuals (Acts 16-17). As Acts 18 describes, he enters the din of Corinth alone but is quickly befriended by Aquila and Priscilla, who were probably already Christians when they came to Corinth from Rome. For eighteen months the three of them lived, worked, and spread the gospel together there, eventually joined by Silas and Timothy.

At first, Paul shared the gospel and fielded questions in the Jewish synagogue. It wasn't too long, however, before stiff opposition to his presence arose, and he was ejected. However, he took with him many new Christians from among the God-fearing Gentiles who attended the synagogue, as well as Jews including the head of the synagogue, Crispus. Boldly, they set up shop for the first church right next door in the home of Titius Justus. Presumably, they continued to meet there and in other homes around the city for the next eighteen months, since God had instructed Paul to remain in Corinth despite the risks of conflict.

Sparks did fly, and at one point the Jews pressed charges against Paul for breaking Jewish law before Gallio, the Roman proconsul. Quite rightly, Gallio rebuffed the Jewish accusations as being outside any Roman concern. Although this may seem like a relatively minor incident in the life of Paul, the mention of Gallio in Acts 18:14 emerges as the single most important event enabling us to date Paul's life with accuracy. The reason for this is that archaeologists have discovered a datable inscription about a boundary dispute from Emperor Claudius to Gallio which places Gallio's one-year term between A.D. 51 and 52. Anchored by Paul's encounter with Gallio being A.D. 51, the rest of Paul's life can be dated backward and forward from time periods provided in the Acts and his letters.

Upon leaving Corinth, Paul sailed to Syria, probably Antioch, before quickly setting out over land to revisit the previously established churches in Asia Minor and then settling in Ephesus for three years. While in Ephesus, he sent the Corinthians three letters and slipped across the Aegean Sea in a vessel for a brief, surprise visit.

The first letter, commonly known as the "previous letter," is mentioned in 1 Cor 5:9-11. Given the wild immorality of Corinth, it is not surprising that Paul emphasized separation from such people in this letter. However, it has never been found, although a few scholars believe 2 Cor 6:14-7:1 may have originally been part of it.

Next, Paul received a letter from the Corinthians asking various specific questions about Christian life and practice. He is also informed verbally from members of Chloe's household (1 Cor 1:11) about the factionalism that is hurting the church's witness. He responded with the letter we know of as 1 Corinthians. During this period, Timothy was dispatched to Corinth for a brief time (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10) as Paul's personal ambassador, perhaps to give further voice to Paul's teaching in 1 Corinthians or to other issues Paul anticipated. We have no indication as to how long Timothy stayed.

Paul's brief trip to Corinth in A.D. 54 and the letter on its heels upon his return are chief events which underlie Paul's writing of 2 Corinthians in A.D. 56. We don't know why Paul went. Maybe Timothy reported that Paul's personal presence was needed. Possibly, conservative agitators had followed Paul to Corinth as they previously had to Galatia and were stirring up trouble, causing the Corinthians to second-guess Paul's credibility (2 Cor 11:13). What we do know is that this trip, usually described as "the painful visit" (2 Cor 2:1), was a complete disaster. Paul left angry and humiliated. Apparently, he confronted the ringleader of the trouble (perhaps someone in the church who had been influenced by the outsiders) face to face but when the man insulted him, no one in the church came to Paul's defense.

Speculation regarding the accusations hurled at Paul include the illegitimacy of his authority over the Corinthians and his misuse of funds collected for the Jerusalem offering (1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 7:2; 8:11). This was not a theological issue so much as one of personal integrity. Paul speaks of his being hurt emotionally most by the fact that the church did not side with him (2 Cor 2:5-11).

Upon his return, Paul wrote a third letter to the Corinthians, "the severe letter" (2 Cor 2:4; 7:8). Although not existing today, as described in 2 Cor 2:4-11 and 7:5-13, it was undoubtedly the most emotional and strident of any of Paul's letters. Apparently, he unleashed his anger and disappointment, scolding the church for not supporting him and demanding that the majority of the church take charge and discipline the offender as well as apologize to him. The letter is so harsh that Paul seems genuinely afraid ("fears within" - 2 Cor 7:5) that it will drive the church farther away from him and from Christ. But he sees no choice; this situation can't be left like it is.

Titus received the formidable task of delivering this explosive letter into the charged atmosphere of the Corinthian church and carrying out its demands. Paul's anxieties over Titus's success seem to overwhelm him as he waits for news. Apparently, the arrangements with Titus were that they would meet in Troas after a set period of time, maybe as long as six months. Second Corinthians 2:12 tells us that Paul went by land up to Troas, probably in A.D. 55 but was crushed to find Titus was not there. Remaining for some time evangelizing, maybe a month or so, he crossed over to Macedonia, probably Philippi, desperate to find Titus there. Finally, Titus arrived with the great news that the Corinthians - or most of them - were back in the fold. Genuinely remorseful over their hurtful behavior toward Paul, they had, indeed, dealt with the offender and expressed their renewed devotion to him (2 Cor 7:7,11,12).

The letter we call 2 Corinthians historically comes as Paul's fourth letter to Corinth. Buoyed by Titus's positive report, Paul writes this highly emotional letter, sending it back with Titus (2 Cor 7:17), probably A.D. 56. The letter interacts over and over with the events of the Painful Visit and the Severe Letter. Paul gushes with joy over the Corinthians' response (2 Cor 7:7,13-16), even recommending that they lift the punishment on the person who offended him (2 Cor 2:7). However, the tone of the letter is extremely defensive as Paul squirms under pressure from the Corinthians (most likely as advised by Titus) to toot his own horn regarding his own apostolic credentials. Out of his love for them, but against his own convictions against boasting, he is willing to explain the superiority of his apostleship in terms the Corinthians seem to require. These terms - such as providing letters of recommendation (2 Cor 3:1) and lists of accomplishments (2 Cor 6:3-13; 11:16-12:10) - Paul regards as superficial and unnecessary (2 Cor 3:2-3; 10:7) and probably reflect the influence of the conservative agitators upon the Corinthians. Paul seems to know he must respond, however uncomfortable it is for him, in order to block any further inroads from these outsiders and thus reinforce his renewed relationship with the Corinthians.

Titus brought 2 Corinthians to Corinth armed with Paul's commendation within the letter to spur the church to complete its collection of the offering for the Jerusalem Christians (1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 8:10-24). Paul followed a few months later (2 Cor 12:14; Acts 20:3) and remained in Corinth three months. During this period, he wrote Romans, but we know nothing of his interaction with the Corinthian church. Presumably, he finalized the Corinthian offering, but he must have worked diligently to solidify this troubled church and contend personally with the outside agitators and their remaining pockets of influence. At any rate, once the various representatives from the Greek and Asian churches arrived in Corinth with their offerings (Acts 20:1-6), he tried to set sail with them to Syria but, discovering treachery from the Jewish community in Corinth, he and the others traveled first to Troas, and, then, set sail from there.

We have no certainty of further communication or visitation between Paul and the Corinthian church after this. Possibly, following release from his first Roman imprisonment, he returned to Corinth and other churches in Greece and Asia Minor, as the Pastoral epistles suggest (1 Tim. 1:3; 2 Tim. 4:20).

THE UNITY OF 2 CORINTHIANS

One may rightly comment that the literary unity of 2 Corinthians "cannot just be presupposed." Analyses which question whether various sections of 2 Corinthians are original to it have come long and hard during the past two centuries of critical scholarship. Second Corinthian's sharp shifts in content and uneven tone make it the most susceptible of all the NT books to patchwork theories despite the fact that none of the Greek manuscripts (dating back to the third century) give the slightest hint that 2 Corinthians was ever anything different than what we read today. Although the ebb and flow of research has sidelined many conjectures, questions still remain regarding some parts of 2 Corinthians. As many as nine sections of 2 Corinthians have been scrutinized. However, just five will be discussed here.

First, 2 Cor 2:14-7:4 has been noted as at one time existing separately from 2 Corinthians. Even a casual reader is jolted at the jump between the travelogue commentary in 2:12-13 and the military parade description of the gospel in 2:13-17 which opens a five-chapter philosophy of apostolic ministry. It is all the more noticeable when, beginning at 7:5, the travelogue picks up again and continues on until 7:16. However, upon closer perusal, scholars are increasingly reluctant to name this as part of a separate letter. Despite the abruptness between 2:13 and 2:14, the theme of human weakness and divine power in 2:12-17 connects to 1:8-10, and the theme of divine ownership connects 1:22 and 2:14. Despite the change of subject between 7:4 and 7:5, the verbal links supplied by "encouragement" (7:4,13), "joy" (7:4,7) and "troubles" (7:4,5) supply sturdy connections. Besides, the efforts to postulate yet another letter between 1 and 2 Corinthians or to connect this to the Severe Letter are unwarranted. More recent efforts to anaylze 2 Corinthians 1-7 through the eyes of Roman rhetoric as well as chiastic structure loudly confirm separation of 2:14-7:4 as ill-conceived. Certainly, it is a digression but not without purpose and point to the context as a whole.

Second, perhaps less obvious to the casual reader because it is such a short section is 2 Cor 6:14-7:1. Here, again, though, the careful reader observes an interruption between 6:13 ("Open wide your hearts also") and 7:2 ("Make room for us in your hearts"). Scholarly analysis of these six verses suggests that not only are they out of place, they don't sound like Paul, using six words he never uses elsewhere in his writings nor used by anyone else in the NT ( hapax legomenae ). Is this a snippet of something someone else said or wrote that Paul has adapted into his material, or is it something Paul wrote or spoke at another time and place that he decides to use here?

Despite some of the unusual language, Pauline themes do appear here: the church as the temple of God, the polarization of righteousness and unrighteousness as well as between light and dark. Also, plenty of characteristic Pauline language occurs: "living God" (2 Cor 3:3; 1 Thess 1:9), "unbeliever" (twelve other occurrences in 1 and 2 Cor), and "holiness" (Rom 1:4; 1 Thess 3:13). Although conclusions vary, many today incline toward this section being from Paul.

Eyeing the language of separation from unrighteousness, some have been tempted to conclude that 6:14-7:1 is part of the "previous" letter mentioned in 1 Cor 5:9. However, the point is explicitly different. Paul emphasizes that in the previous letter he urged separation from the immorality of believers not dissociation from unbelievers as emphasized in 6:14-7:1.

Most likely, then, Paul himself has inserted this pre-formed, self-contained unit of material from previous teaching, either oral or written, perhaps influenced by others. Interesting comparisons to Qumran materials as well as writings of Philo have been made. The placement exactly here in 2 Corinthians is so awkward as to be unlikely to come from anyone other than Paul. However, two points should be kept in mind. One is that Paul dictated this letter as he did all his letters. This fact enhances the potential for distraction, interruption, and loose digressions such as this. A second point is that although the section's relationship to the immediately previous verses is not obvious, as one backs up to 6:1 and reads of Paul's concern about receiving "God's grace in vain" or to 5:19 to see Paul's emphasis on people "no longer living for themselves but for him who died for them," Paul's emphasis on separation and holiness in 6:14-7:1 fits well.

Probably inconceivable to the casual reader is the suggestion that 2 Corinthians 8 and 2 Corinthians 9 both were not originally part of 2 Corinthians. Arguments regarding 2 Corinthians 8 - repetition of information about Titus (7:13-15; 8:16-17), presumption of knowledge about the two brothers coming with him (8:18,22), or even evidence that 2 Corinthians 8 as well as 2 Corinthians 9 are formal business letters - do not convince many. Arguments regarding 2 Corinthians 9, first proposed by Semler 200 years ago, that 2 Corinthians 9 was originally a letter sent to Christians outside Corinth, are more formidable, and give scholars more pause.

What pulls them up short is the language Paul uses to refer to the collection ("service") in 9:1, which, in Greek, reads like a first mention of the collection. In addition to that, the regional reference to Achaia in 9:2 and the repetition of information from chapter 8 in chapter 9 regarding the collection give added support to the idea of chapter 9 being originally independent.

On the other side of the question is the fact that Paul's reference to the collection in 9:1 is modified by ( men gar , "and for") which suggests a resumption of a previous subject perhaps after a brief pause in dictation. The repetition of details regarding the collection is probably emphatic, and the regional reference to Achaia seems unlikely to exclude Corinth. Tipping the scale against an independent chapter 9, as noted by Furnish, are two references in chapter 9 which presume information from chapter 8: the mention of the brothers (9:3; 8:18) and the emphasis on their completing the collection (9:4-5; 8:7-15).

Admittedly, this is a close call. However, the evidence does not demand that chapters 8 and 9 are two separate letters about the collection, one to Corinth, and one to Achaia. Rather, these are interdependent chapters in 2 Corinthians, chapter 8 dealing with the details of the collection project and chapter 9 emphasizing motivation for the project, as noted by Danker.

Fourth, without a doubt the most serious challenge to the unity of 2 Corinthians comes from chapters 10-13. As long ago as 1870, Hausrath broadcast his belief that in these chapters, he had discovered the missing "severe" letter to the Corinthians. No doubt, in chapters 10-13 Paul erupts into harsh tones of anger and disappointment which seem to undercut completely the exuberance and joy which he builds up to by chapters 7, 8, and 9.

But Hausrath looked closer and pointed to evidence that chapters 10-13 were written previous to chapters 1-9. Particularly he saw passages in chapters 1-9 written in the past tense which appear to allude to passages from chapters 10-13 written in future tenses, such as 1:23 which says that Paul "did not return" to them in order to spare them, corresponding to 13:2 in which Paul asserts that he "will not return" in order to spare them or when Paul says in 2:3-4 that he "wrote" them out of great distress and in 13:10 when he says "I write" so that I may not have to be harsh. Hausrath also contends that Paul's reference to Rome (west of Corinth) as "regions beyond you" in 2 Cor 10:16 makes much better sense if he is in Ephesus (east of Corinth), where he wrote the Severe Letter, rather than Macedonia (north of Corinth), where he wrote 2 Corinthians.

Criticism against Hausrath's identification of 2 Cor 10-13 with the "severe" letter has withered its persuasiveness among scholars. Primarily, chapters 10-13 do not contain something we know specifically was in the Severe Letter: Paul's demand that an individual who offended him be punished (2:5-6; 7:12). Also, chapters 10-13 promise a visit (12:14; 13:1), but the Severe Letter was sent in place of a Painful Visit (1:23; 2:1). Regarding "regions beyond you," the language need not be taken so literally and the Macedonian region should be recognized as much more culturally distinct from Achaia than it looks like on a map.

More appealing to scholars of all stripes, including many conservatives, is to view 2 Cor 10-13 as a separate, fifth letter, written after Titus returns with new, bad news after delivering 2 Corinthians 1-9. This position still takes into account Hausrath's future tense passages. It helps make sense of 2 Cor 12:18 which refers to Titus's visit in the past tense when it was in the planning stage in 2 Corinthians 7-9. Also, it explains the increased strident tones of chapters 10-13 as Paul's response to new, outside influences claiming some kind of rival apostolic authority to Paul's (11:13; 12:11) rather than to internal problems which seem to be his concern in chapters 1-9.

This way of viewing chapters 10-13 is attractive but is not demanded by the evidence. As Witherington points out, the past (aorist) tenses describing Titus's visit in 12:17-18 need not be real. Especially as Paul reaches the end of the book, they could well be epistolary (spoken from the standpoint of the audience reading the letter). The mention of the unnamed brother traveling with Titus does correspond with 2 Cor 8:18,22. Reading 12:17-18 this way opens up the very real possibility that Paul could have received new information about problems in Corinth before sending 2 Corinthians but after writing chapters 1-9. This could explain the gulf between chapters 10-13 as well as an entirely separate letter.

Other ways which account for the change of tone in chapter 10-13 have to do with how one reads the letter. Perhaps chapters 1-9 are directed to the majority of the church which has fallen into line with Paul after the Painful Visit, the Severe Letter, and Titus's hard work while chapters 10-13 are to the minority who are still under the sway of outside opposition to Paul. After all, 2 Cor 2:6 does speak of "the majority" which imposed discipline upon the offender named in the Severe Letter.

Perhaps, as a growing group of scholars are showing, Paul's heightened criticism of the Corinthians in chapters 10-13 concludes a calculated rhetorical plan employing counterattack ( synkrisis ) or strong emotional appeal ( peroratio ) to win his defense against the charges being leveled at him by the Corinthians. One must admit that Paul never relaxes from a defensive posture in 2 Corinthians from the beginning to the end. While Paul's harsh tones in chapters 10-13 following the lead up in chapters 7, 8, and 9 may seem abrupt, his concerns from early in the letter haven't really changed, just his emotionalism. The issue of his character raised in chapter 1 and of the legitimacy of his apostleship raised in chapter 3 remain the object of his defense in chapters 10-13.

The correspondence of these issues is enough to suggest that even though outside influence of "false apostles" (11:13) is not named earlier, they influence the minority of the Corinthian church and provide the ammunition against Paul observed in the earlier chapters. Who else would have brandished "letters of recommendation" (3:1)? Their earliest influences could even be in the background of Paul's problems associated with the Painful Visit.

As evident from 2 Cor 7:8-13, the offending individual merely became the pretext for the whole church failing to rally behind Paul until after the Severe Letter. Although Paul can be ecstatic that most of the church has recommitted themselves to him and to the gospel by the time he writes 2 Corinthians, nevertheless, pockets of opposition likely remain under the growing influence of the outside agitators. With chapters 10-13 Paul intends to level a decisive blow against this opposition not only to bring the remainder of the church back to the true gospel but also to shore up any lingering doubts from those who have pledged their loyalty.

Paul's transition to chapter 10 indeed is rocky but, as Danker points out, no more so than Phil 3 or Rom 9. In this commentary, therefore, we will treat 2 Corinthians as a unity and will treat chapters 10-13 as primarily aimed at responding to a vocal minority of the church who remain mesmerized by the outsiders' criticisms of Paul.

PAUL'S OPPONENTS

Second Corinthians resounds with the echo of outside voices filling the Corinthians' heads with notions geared to sever their relationship with Paul. Since Paul originally brought the gospel to Corinth and made it possible for people there to be reconciled with God through Christ and begin a vibrant church meeting in homes throughout the city, others have come to Corinth presenting themselves as superior in authority to the apostle Paul himself. Presuming the opponents in 2 Cor 10-13 and 1-9 are the same, they supposedly have letters of authentication from Jerusalem (3:1-3), Paul blasts them as "false apostles" (11:13) and sarcastically as "super apostles" in 12:11. Nevertheless, they have influenced and confused the Corinthians enough to force Paul to write 2 Corinthians and fill it with self-commendation regarding his integrity and his "superior" apostolic credentials over theirs. He does this because he feels he must in order to win the Corinthians back, but he finds doing so personally disturbing and repugnant.

Whereas Paul finds it difficult to boast about himself, self-commendation seems to be the chief characteristic of these outsiders. Clues from 2 Corinthians indicate that they were proud of their Jewish heritage (11:22), their "Christian" service (11:23), their oratorical skill (11:6), their self-confidence (1:15-17), and their charismatic experiences (12:12). They preached a different gospel than Paul's (11:4). They also accepted money from the Corinthians, unlike Paul who refused it (12:16). They may have viewed Paul's effort to collect money from the Corinthians for the Jerusalem Christians as cutting off their own purse strings and threatening their prosperity in Corinth.

Their heated, personalized efforts to undercut Paul sound like Paul's opposition in Galatians, commonly called Judaizers (Gal 4:17). However, no mention of the law or circumcision in 2 Corinthians clouds this identification and requires that, if these are the same people, they have changed their tune considerably since Galatians. The fact that they tout letters of recommendation - where else but from Jerusalem - makes it difficult to lay aside the picture of a band of renegade, conservative Jewish Christians who first followed Paul to Galatia and now to Corinth with the expressed purpose of replacing Paul's gospel and his authority to represent true Christianity (Gal 1:6-7).

It is going too far to say that their credentials were currently legitimate or that they were actual apostles since Acts 15:24 reports that a faction of Jewish Christians had gone out falsely representing the church to new, Gentile congregations. It is possible, though, that they do have apostolic credentials - perhaps even knew Jesus before his crucifixion - but now are misusing these credentials to subvert Paul's successful mission to Gentiles in Galatia and now also in Corinth and other churches as well.

The picture of these Corinthian opponents as ultraconservative Jewish Christians clashes with a considerable amount of the evidence which points to their Greek or even gnostic origins. Their connection to revelations and wonders, rhetorical skills, "worldly" wisdom, and just their overall egotistical posture must be reckoned with. Undermining at least the gnostic element is the positive use of "knowledge" in 2 Corinthians. Nevertheless, a typical result when these ingredients are combined emerges with a conclusion that they were "Hellenistic Jews who were propagating . . . a 'spiritual gnosticism.'"

However, it seems inconceivable that ultraconservative Jewish Christians coming out of Jerusalem could be pushing a gospel so infiltrated with Greek ideas as to be outside the bounds of Paul's own radicalized message which had stripped unnecessary Jewish elements. Could these Jewish agitators be so clever as to be able to manipulate the Corinthians against Paul by successfully incorporating elements from Greek culture into their opposition to Paul which they themselves don't believe? It doesn't seem likely, but then no identification satisfactorily combines the paradoxical elements of these opponents as currently gleaned from the information we have from 2 Corinthians and the first century. As one commentator astutely points out, any final resolution is also hampered considerably by the fact that 2 Corinthians provides no information about the doctrine or theology of these opponents. Most current discussion recognizes the limitations involved in this discussion and offers no more than conjectures as has been done here.

It's best, then, to keep in mind the characteristics of Paul's opponents available from reading 2 Corinthians without any adamant historical identification until better information becomes available. They were Jewish. They were Greek. They considered themselves Christians. They hated Paul. They hurt Paul, and he feared what more they could do. It was up to him to marshal all the strength and the skills he had to prevent them from doing any further damage. They had backed him into a corner, and he responds with ferocity and emotion in 2 Corinthians, compelled out of his deep love for the Corinthians and his commitment to true, saving Christianity and humble, self-sacrificing leadership.

RELEVANCE

Christians treat 2 Corinthians like the ugly twin sister of 1 Corinthians. First Corinthian's poignant theology about challenging issues attracts everyone's constant attention. Meanwhile, 2 Corinthians sits in the corner waiting for someone to ask it to dance. Yet, once we make some effort to get to know 2 Corinthians, we will be pleasantly surprised.

Today, as in the days of the early church, various outside forces threaten to sever people's loyalty to Christ and cut away at the fabric of the church. It might be a cult like Mormons or Jehovah's Witnesses. It might be cultural forces like the challenges of postmodernism or the mind-set of the so-called Generation X which questions absolutes like God and salvation in Christ alone. It might just be an obstinate person who envies the authority of the minister, elders, or deacons and questions their integrity and decision-making at every turn and who draws around him or her an anti-faction.

If you are someone who cares deeply about your local church and would do almost anything to maintain its success and its integrity as a body of Christian believers, then 2 Corinthians will speak to your heart and nourish your soul. You will relate to Paul's agony over this church , feel his compassion, and be engulfed by his intense emotion in this letter. You will take in the principles of genuine church leadership and apply them to your life responsibly to enable you to enrich the quality of your local church.

The comments which follow are intended to help you both to understand 2 Corinthians in its own historical context and to apply its key principles to your own personal context in the church today.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

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-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

ABBREVIATIONS

1 Clem 1 Clement

1QH The Thanksgiving Hymns (Dead Sea Scroll)

1QM The War Scroll (Dead Sea Scroll)

1QS Rule of the Community (Dead Sea Scroll)

2 Clem 2 Clement

AJP American Journal of Philology

ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der römishen Welt, ed. Temporini and Haase

AusBR Australian Biblical Review

AUSS Andrews University Seminary Studies

BA Biblical Archaeologist

BBR Bulletin for Biblical Research

BSac Bibliotheca Sacra

BT Bible Translator

BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CD The Damascus Document (Dead Sea Scroll)

DPL Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, ed. Hawthorne, Martin, and Reid

Ebr. De Ebrietate (Philo)

EvQ Evangelical Quarterly

ExpTim Expository Times

HBT Horizons in Biblical Theology

Heres Qui Rerum Divinarum Heres sit (Philo)

HTR Harvard Theological Review

ICC International Critical Commentary

Int Interpretation

JB Jerusalem Bible

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JRH Journal of Religious History

JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament

JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JTS Journal of Theological Studies

LB Living Bible

NAB New American Bible

NASB New American Standard Bible

NEB New English Bible

Neot Neotestamentica

NICNT New International Commentary on the New Testament

NIDNTT New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, ed. Brown

NIV New International Version

NLT New Living Translation

NovT Novum Testamentum

NovTSupp Novum Testamentum Supplements

NRSV New Revised Standard Version

NTS New Testament Studies

RB Revue Biblique

ResQ Restoration Quarterly

RSV Revised Standard Version

SCJ Stone-Campbell Journal

SJT Scottish Journal of Theology

Spec.Leg. Philo, De Specialibus Legibus

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, ed. Kittel and Friedrich

TEV Today's English Version

T.Jos Testament of Joseph

T.Levi Testament of Levi

T.Naph Testament of Naphtali

TS Theological Studies

TynBul Tyndale Bulletin

WW Word and World

ZNW Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenshaft

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

College: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

OUTLINE

I. OPENING - 1:1-2

II. THANKSGIVING - 1:3-11

A. GOD COMFORTS - 1:3-7

B. GOD DELIVERS - 1:8-11

III. DEFENSE OF INTEGRITY - 1:12-2:13

A. CLARITY SOUGHT - 1:12-14

B. SECOND TRAVEL ITINERARY EXPLAINED - 1:15-17

C. CANDOR DEMANDED - 1:18-22

D. THIRD TRAVEL ITINERARY DEFENDED - 1:23-2:4

E. THE OFFENDER FORGIVEN - 2:5-11

F. ACTUAL TRAVEL DESCRIBED - 2:12-13

IV. DEFENSE OF APOSTOLIC MINISTRY IN PRINCIPLE - 2:14-7:4

A. SUFFICIENT FOR MINISTRY - 2:14-3:6

1. The Aroma of Christ Spread - 2:14-17

2. A Living Letter of Recommendation Sent - 3:1-3

3. A Personal Reference Provided - 3:4-6

B. SUPERIOR TO THE OLD COVENANT - 3:7-18

1. Glory Unsurpassed 3:7-11

2. Glory Unobstructed 3:12-18

C. TENACIOUS DESPITE SHORTCOMINGS - 4:1-5:10

1. Christ Preached Plainly - 4:1-6

2. Hardships Overcome because of Jesus' Death - 4:7-12

3. Increasing Multitudes Brought to Life - 4:13-15

4. Driven by Unseen, Eternal Reward - 4:16-18

5. Confident in Eternal Home - 5:1-10

a) Permanent Home Guaranteed - 5:1-5

b) Pleasing the Lord Prioritizes Life - 5:6-10

D. PREACHING RECONCILIATION THROUGH CHRIST - 5:11-6:2

1. Motivated by Christ's Love - 5:11-15

2. Christ's Message of Reconciliation Delivered - 5:16-6:2

E. HARDSHIPS IN MINISTRY - 6:3-10

F. AN APPEAL FOR OPENNESS AND RECONCILIATION - 6:11-7:4

1. Paul's Heart Opened - 6:11-13

2. Holiness Demanded - 6:14-7:1

3. Paul's Trust Expressed - 7:2-4

V. ENCOURAGING NEWS: RELATIONSHIP FULLY RESTORED - 7:5-16

A. TITUS REPORTS LOVE FOR PAUL - 7:5-7

B. TRUE REPENTANCE DEMONSTRATES INNOCENCE - 7:8-13a

C. TITUS EXPRESSED DEEP AFFECTION - 7:13b-16

VI. PREPARATION FOR THE COLLECTION - 8:1-9:15

A. INCENTIVES TOWARD GENEROSITY - 8:1-15

1. Excel Like the Macedonians - 8:1-7

2. Give Like Christ - 8:8-9

3. Complete Your Offering - 8:10-12

4. Achieve Equity - 8:13-15

B. TITUS PLUS TWO OTHERS SENT TO CORINTH TO HELP - 8:16-9:5

1. Criticism to Be Thwarted - 8:16-21

2. Measure Up to Expectations - 8:22-24

3. Follow Through on What Was Begun - 9:1-5

C. MORE INCENTIVE TO BE GENEROUS - 9:6-15

1. God Will Be Generous - 9:6-11

2. God Will Be Praised - 9:12-15

VII. FINAL DEFENSE OF MINISTRY - 10:1-13:10

A. LAUNCH OF A MASSIVE COUNTERATTACK - 10:1-18

1. Powerful Weapons Employed - 10:1-6

2. Forceful Personal Presence Warned - 10:7-10

3. God's Expansion of the Gospel Boasted - 10:12-18

B. COMPARISON TO FALSE APOSTLES MADE - 11:1-15

1. True Message of Jesus Preached - 11:1-6

2. No Money Accepted - 11:7-12

3. The False Apostles Serve Satan - 11:13-15

C. BOASTING AS A "FOOL" - 11:16-33

1. Rationale Provided - 11:16-21a

2. Ancestry and Hardships Listed - 11:21b-29

3. Weakness Boasted - 11:30-33

D. MORE BOASTING - 12:1-10

1. A Vision Divulged - 12:1-6

2. An Irremovable Thorn Remains - 12:7-10

E. "BOASTING" RETROSPECTIVE - 12:11-13

F. PREPARATION FOR THE THIRD VISIT - 12:14-13:10

1. No Exploitation Tactics Employed - 12:14-18

2. More Trouble Feared - 12:19-21

3. Harsh Treatment for Sinners Warned - 13:1-4

4. Faith-testing Evidences Paul's Strength - 13:5-10

VIII. CLOSING REMARKS - 13:11-14

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV