Text -- 2 Corinthians 10:10 (NET)

10:10 because some say, “His letters are weighty and forceful, but his physical presence is weak and his speech is of no account.”

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Robertson: 2Co 10:10

They say ( phasin ).

Reading of B old Latin Vulgate, but Westcott and Hort prefer phēsin (says one, the leader). This charge Paul quotes directly.

Robertson: 2Co 10:10

Weighty and strong ( bareiai kai ischurai ).

These adjectives can be uncomplimentary and mean "severe and violent"instead of "impressive and vigorous."The adjectives bear either sense.

Robertson: 2Co 10:10

His bodily presence ( hē parousia tou sōmatos ).

This certainly is uncomplimentary. "The presence of his body."It seems clear that Paul did not have a commanding appearance like that of Barnabas (Act 14:12). He had some physical defect of the eyes (Gal 4:14) and a thorn in the flesh (2Co 12:7). In the second century Acts of Paul and Thecla he is pictured as small, short, bow-legged, with eye-brows knit together, and an aquiline nose. A forgery of the fourth century in the name of Lucian describes Paul as "the bald-headed, hook-nosed Galilean."However that may be, his accusers sneered at his personal appearance as "weak"(asthenēs ).

Robertson: 2Co 10:10

His speech of no account ( ho logos exouthenēmenos ).

Perfect passive participle of exoutheneō , to treat as nothing (cf. 1Co 1:28). The Corinthians (some of them) cared more for the brilliant eloquence of Apollos and did not find Paul a trained rhetorician (1Co 1:17; 1Co 2:1, 1Co 2:4; 2Co 11:6). He made different impressions on different people. "Seldom has any one been at once so ardently hated and so passionately loved as St. Paul"(Deissmann, St. Paul , p. 70). "At one time he seemed like a man, and at another he seemed like an angel"( Acts of Paul and Thecla ). He spoke like a god at Lystra (Act 14:8-12), but Eutychus went to sleep on him (Act 20:9). Evidently Paul winced under this biting criticism of his looks and speech.

Vincent: 2Co 10:10

They say ( φασίν )

The correct reading is φησί says he . The Revisers retain they say , but read φησί he says in their text. The reference is to some well-known opponent. Compare one , any one in 2Co 10:7; 2Co 11:20. The only instance of the very words used by Paul's adversaries.

Vincent: 2Co 10:10

Weighty ( βαρεῖαι )

In classical Greek, besides the physical sense of heavy , the word very generally implies something painful or oppressive . As applied to persons, severe , stern . In later Greek it has sometimes the meaning of grave or dignified , and by the later Greek rhetoricians it was applied to oratory, in the sense of impressive , as here.

Vincent: 2Co 10:10

Weak

" No one can even cursorily read St. Paul's epistles without observing that he was aware of something in his aspect or his personality which distressed him with an agony of humiliation - something which seems to force him, against every natural instinct of his disposition, into language which sounds to himself like a boastfulness which was abhorrent to him, but which he finds to be more necessary to himself than to other men. It is as though he felt that his appearance was against him.... His language leaves on us the impression of one who was acutely sensitive, and whose sensitiveness of temperament has been aggravated by a meanness of presence which is indeed forgotten by the friends who know him, but which raises in strangers a prejudice not always overcome" (Farrar).

Vincent: 2Co 10:10

Bodily presence

All the traditions as to Paul's personal appearance are late. A bronze medal discovered in the cemetery of St. Domitilla at Rome, and ascribed to the first or second century, represents the apostle with a bald, round, well-developed head; rather long, curling beard; high forehead; prominent nose; and open, staring eye. The intellectual character of the face is emphasized by the contrast with the portrait of Peter, which faces Paul's. Peter's forehead is flat, the head not so finely developed, the face commonplace, the cheek bones high, the eye small, and the hair and beard short, thick, and curling. An ivory diptych of the fourth century, reproduced in Mr. Lewin's " Life of Paul," contains two portraits. In the one he is sitting in an official chair, with uplifted hand and two fingers raised, apparently in the act of ordination. The face is oval, the beard long and pointed, the moustache full, the forehead high, the head bald, and the eyes small and weak. The other portrait represents him in the act of throwing off the viper. A forgery of the fourth century, under the name of Lucian, alludes to him as " the bald-headed, hooknosed Galilean." In the " Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles" mention is made of one Dioscorus, the bald shipmaster, who followed Paul to Rome, and was mistaken for him and beheaded in his stead. In the " Acts of Paul and Thekla," a third-century romance, he is described as " short, bald, bowlegged, with meeting eyebrows, hook-nosed, full of grace." John of Antioch, in the sixth century, says that he was round-shouldered, with aquiline nose, greyish eyes, meeting eyebrows, and ample beard.

Vincent: 2Co 10:10

Contemptible ( ἐξουθενημένος )

Lit., made nothing of . Rev., of no account .

Wesley: 2Co 10:10

His stature, says St. Chrysostom, was low, his body crooked, and his head bald.

JFB: 2Co 10:10

Implying that there had been already more letters of Paul received by the Corinthians than the one we have, namely, First Corinthians; and that they contained strong reproofs.

JFB: 2Co 10:10

Greek, "says one," "such a one" (2Co 10:11) seems to point to some definite individual. Compare Gal 5:10; a similar slanderer was in the Galatian Church.

JFB: 2Co 10:10

(2Co 12:7; 1Co 2:3). There was nothing of majesty or authority in his manner; he bore himself tremblingly among them, whereas the false teachers spoke with authoritative bearing and language.

Clarke: 2Co 10:10

For his letters, say they, are weighty and powerful - He boasts of high powers, and that he can do great things. See on 2Co 10:1-2 (note)

Clarke: 2Co 10:10

But his bodily presence is weak - When you behold the man, you find him a feeble, contemptible mortal; and when ye hear him speak, his speech, ὁ λογος, probably, his doctrine, εξουθενημενος, is good for nothing; his person, matter, and manner, are altogether uninteresting, unimpressive, and too contemptible to be valued by the wise and the learned. This seems to be the spirit and design of this slander

Many, both among the ancients and moderns, have endeavored to find out the ground there was for any part of this calumny; as to the moral conduct of the apostle, that was invulnerable; his motives, it is true, were suspected and denounced by this false apostle and his partisans; but they could never find any thing in his conduct which could support their insinuations

What they could not attach to his character, they disingenuously attached to his person and his elocution

If we can credit some ancient writers, such as Nicephorus, we shall find the apostle thus described

Παυλος μικρος ην και συνεσταλμενος το του σωματος μεγεθος· και ὡσπερ αγκυλον αυτο κεκτημενος· σμικρον δε, και κεκυφος· την οφιν λευκος, και το προσωπον προφερης, ψιλος την κεφαλην, κ. τ. λ.

Nicephor., lib. ii., cap. 17

"Paul was a little man, crooked, and almost bent like a bow; with a pale countenance, long and wrinkled; a bald head; his eyes full of fire and benevolence; his beard long, thick, and interspersed with grey hairs, as was his head, etc.

I quote from Calmet, not having Nicephorus at hand

An old Greek writer, says the same author, whose works are found among those of Chrysostom, tom. vi. hom. 30, page 265, represents him thus: - Παυλος ὁ τριπηχυς ανθρωπος, και των ουρανων ἁπτομενος· "Paul was a man of about three cubits in height, (four feet six), and yet, nevertheless, touched the heavens."Others say that "he was a little man, had a bald head, and a large nose."See the above, and several other authorities in Calmet. Perhaps there is not one of these statements correct: as to Nicephorus, he is a writer of the fourteenth century, weak and credulous, and worthy of no regard. And the writer found in the works of Chrysostom, in making the apostle little more than a pigmy, has rendered his account incredible

That St. Paul could be no such diminutive person we may fairly presume from the office he filled under the high priest, in the persecution of the Church of Christ; and that he had not an impediment in his speech, but was a graceful orator, we may learn from his whole history, and especially from the account we have, Act 14:12, where the Lycaonians took him for Mercury, the god of eloquence, induced thereto by his powerful and persuasive elocution. In short, there does not appear to be any substantial evidence of the apostle’ s deformity, pigmy stature, bald head, pale and wrinkled face, large nose, stammering speech, etc., etc. These are probably all figments of an unbridled fancy, and foolish surmisings.

Defender: 2Co 10:10

Paul was evidently small and unimpressive in appearance, though certainly not a weakling (in view of the many hardships he had to overcome). Neither was he an eloquent orator. He probably would seem outwardly to compare very unfavorably to many charismatic preachers and evangelists today. Nevertheless, by both his spiritual power and his intellectual ability, he was probably the most effective missionary who ever lived. And his writings, of course, the so-called Pauline epistles, are indeed weighty and powerful - among the greatest ever written, even by secular standards."

TSK: 2Co 10:10

say they : Gr. saith he, 2Co 10:11

but : 2Co 10:1, 2Co 12:5-9; 1Co 2:3, 1Co 2:4; Gal 4:13, Gal 4:14

and his : 2Co 11:6; Exo 4:10; Jer 1:6; 1Co 1:17, 1Co 1:21, 1Co 2:1-4

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: 2Co 10:10

For his letters - The letters which he has sent to the church when absent. Reference is had here probably to the First Epistle to the Corinthians. They might also have seen some of Paul’ s other epistles, and been so well acquainted with them as to he able to make the general remark that he had the power of writing in an authoritative and impressive manner.

Say they - Margin, "Said he."Greek ( φησὶν phēsin ) in the singular. This seems to have referred to some one person who had uttered the words - perhaps some one who was the principal leader of the faction opposed to Paul.

Are weighty and powerful - Tyndale renders this: "Sore and strong."The Greek is, "heavy and strong"( βαρεῖαι καὶ ἰσχυραί bareiai kai ischurai . The sense is, that his letters were energetic and powerful. They abounded with strong argument, manly appeals, and impressive reproof. This even his enemies were compelled to admit, and this no one can deny who ever read them. Paul’ s letters comprise a considerable portion of the New Testament; and some of the most important doctrines of the New Testament are those which are advocated and enforced by him; and his letters have done more to give shape to the theological doctrines of the Christian world than any other cause whatever. He wrote 14 epistles to churches and individuals on various occasions and on a great variety of topics; and his letters soon rose into very high repute among even the inspired ministers of the New Testament (see 2Pe 3:15, 2Pe 3:16), and were regarded as inculcating the most important doctrines of religion. The general characteristics of Paul’ s letters are:

(1) They are strongly argumentative. See especially the Epistles to the Romans and the Hebrews.

\caps1 (2) t\caps0 hey are distinguished for boldness and vigor of style.

\caps1 (3) t\caps0 hey are written under great energy of feeling and of thought - a rapid and impetuous torrent that bears him forcibly along.

\caps1 (4) t\caps0 hey abound more than most other writings in parentheses, and the sentences are often involved and obscure.

\caps1 (5) t\caps0 hey often evince rapid transitions and departures from the regular current of thought. A thought strikes him suddenly, and he pauses to illustrate it, and dwells upon it long, before he returns to the main subject. The consequence is, that it is often difficult to follow him.

\caps1 (6) t\caps0 hey are powerful in reproof - abounding with strokes of great boldness of denunciation, and also with specimens of most withering sarcasm and most delicate irony.

\caps1 (7) t\caps0 hey abound in expressions of great tenderness and pathos. Nowhere can be found expressions of a heart more tender and affectionate than in the writings of Paul.

\caps1 (8) t\caps0 hey dwell much on great and profound doctrines, and on the application of the principles of Christianity to the various duties of life.

\caps1 (9) t\caps0 hey abound with references to the Saviour. He illustrates everything by his life, his example, his death, his resurrection. It is not wonderful that letters composed on such subjects and in such a manner by an inspired man produced a deep impression on the Christian world; nor that they should be regarded now as among the most important and valuable portions of the Bible. Take away Paul’ s letters, and what a chasm would be made in the New Testament! What a chasm in the religious opinions and in the consolations of the Christian world!

But his bodily presence - His personal appearance.

Is weak - Imbecile, feeble ( ἀσθενὴς asthenēs ) - a word often used to denote infirmity of body, sickness, disease; Mat 25:39, Mat 25:43-44; Luk 10:9; Act 4:9; Act 5:15-16; 1Co 11:30. Here it is to be observed that this is a mere charge which was brought against him, and it is not of necessity to be supposed that it was true, though the presumption is, that there was some foundation for it. It is supposed to refer to some bodily imperfections, and possibly to his diminutive stature. Chrysostom says that his stature was low, his body crooked, and his head bald. Lucian, in his Philopatris, says of him, "Corpore erat parvo, contracto, incurvo, tricubitali"- probably an exaggerated description, perhaps a caricature - to denote one very diminutive and having no advantages of personal appearance. According to Nicephorus, Paul "was a little man, crooked, and almost bent like a bow; with a pale countenance, long and wrinkled; a bald head; his eyes full of fire and benevolence; his beard long, thick, and interspersed with gray hairs, as was his head,"etc. But there is no certain evidence of the truth of these representations. Nothing in the Bible would lead us to suppose that Paul was remarkably diminutive or deformed; and though there may be some foundation for the charge here alleged that his bodily presence was weak, yet we are to remember that this was the accusation of his enemies, and that it was doubtless greatly exaggerated. Nicephorus was a writer of the sixteenth century, and his statements are worthy of no regard. That Paul was eminently an eloquent man may be inferred from a great many considerations; some of which are:

(1) His recorded discourses in the Acts of the Apostles, and the effect produced by them. No one can read his defense before Agrippa or Felix and not be convinced that as an orator he deserves to be ranked among the most distinguished of ancient times. No one who reads the account in the Acts can believe that he had any remarkable impediment in his speech or that he was remarkably deformed.

\caps1 (2) s\caps0 uch was somehow his grace and power as an orator that he was taken by the inhabitants of Lycaonia as Mercury, the god of eloquence; Act 16:12. Assuredly the evidence here is, that Paul was not deformed.

\caps1 (3) i\caps0 t may be added, that Paul is mentioned by Longinus among the principal orators of antiquity. From these circumstances, there is no reason to believe that Paul was remarkably deficient in the qualifications requisite for an orator, or that he was in any way remarkably deformed.

And his speech contemptible - To be despised. Some suppose that he had an impediment in his speech. But conjecture here is vain and useless. We are to remember that this is a charge made by his adversaries, and that it was made by the fastidious Greeks, who professed to be great admirers of eloquence, but who in his time confided much more in the mere art of the rhetorician than in the power of thought, and in energetic appeals to the reason and conscience of people. Judged by their standard it may be that Paul had not the graces in voice or manner, or in the knowledge of the Greek language which they esteemed necessary in a finished orator; but judged by his power of thought, and his bold and manly defense of truth, and his energy of character and manner, and his power of impressing truth on mankind, he deserves, doubtless, to be ranked among the first orators of antiquity. No man has left the impress of his own mind on more other minds than Paul.

Poole: 2Co 10:10

There are some amongst you that tell you, that indeed (when absent) I write severely, and with authority; but when I am there with you, neither my behaviour, nor my speech, speaks any such authority.

Haydock: 2Co 10:1-11

Who in presence indeed am lowly. [1] Literally, humble, (see Luke i. ver. 48.) that is, of a mean aspect, as to exterior appearances, and my speech contemptible, without the ornaments of human eloquence, but am said to be bold when absent, reprehending and threatening by my letters, which are owned to be weighty and strong, let such persons think , and be convinced, that such as I am by my letters, they shall find me by deeds, when I come, and shall be present with them. I desire and beseech you, that I may not be bold when I come, to make use of my authority, nor of those spiritual arms and weapons, of censures and excommunications, nor perhaps of exemplary punishments, which God sometimes in a miraculous manner shewed by his apostle. See the examples of Ananias and Saphira struck dead at St. Peter's words, (Acts v.) of Elymas struck with blindness for opposing St. Paul's preaching. (Acts xiii.) He puts them in mind, that the power, which God has given to his apostles, is so great and prevalent, that no force upon earth has been able to resist or hinder the designs of God, as to the spreading of the gospel, and the faith of Christ, and as he expresseth it, to the destruction of fortifications, we subverting counsels, and every thing that opposed the knowledge of God, who reduceth whom he pleaseth to the obedience of Christ. He admonishes them all to return to the obedience due to him, and the true ministers of the gospel, lest he be obliged to revenge, that is, punish such as remain disobedient. He acknowledges that his apostolical power was given him for the good and edification of the faithful, not for their destruction, which he will take care not to abuse. In fine, he tells them here in short, and more at large in the following chapter, that they may, if they please, consider outward appearances, his apostolical functions, the miracles God has wrought in his favour, what he has done, and suffered, by which will appear the advantages he has above his adversaries, who spoke with contempt of him. (Witham)

Gill: 2Co 10:10

For his letters, say they, are weighty and powerful,.... These words contain the reason why he did not choose to say any more of his authority as an apostle to punish offenders, that he might give no occasion for such a calumny, some among them, or the false apostles, had cast upon him; that his epistles, referring particularly to his former epistle, and that part of it which respected the incestuous person, and his delivery to Satan, were blustering and thundering; were laden with sharp reproofs and severe menaces; were heavy with charges, were filled with great swelling words, with boasts of power and authority, and with threatenings what he would do, when he came among them; whereas when present, as at his first coming to them, he was mild and gentle, even to a degree of meanness and baseness, as they suggested; and so they concluded he would be, should he come again; and therefore his letters were not to be regarded:

but his bodily presence is weak, and his speech contemptible: he made a mean figure, being of a low stature, and having an infirm body: the account the historian ^m gives of him is this, that

"he had a small and contracted body, somewhat crooked and bowed, a pale face, looked old, and had a little head; he had a sharp eye; his eyebrows hung downwards; his nose was beautifully bent, somewhat long; his beard thick and pretty long; and that, as the hair of his head, had a sprinkling of gray hairs:''

hence one in Lucian ⁿ scoffingly says of him,

"when the bald headed Galilean met me, with his hook nose, who went through the air to the third heaven:''

though the words of this text rather regard his mind and mien than the make of his body; and suggest that he was not a man of that greatness of soul, and largeness of mind, not possessed of those abilities and gifts, and of that freedom of speech, and flow of words, his letters promised; but instead of that, was a man of a mean spirit, very abject and servile, and to be despised; his conduct weak, and carrying no majesty and authority with his presence, his words without weight, his language vulgar, and style neglected; and, upon all accounts, a person worthy of no notice, and not at all to be either feared or regarded.

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

NET Notes: 2Co 10:10

¹ tn Or “unimpressive.”

² tn Or “is contemptible”; Grk “is despised.”

Geneva Bible: 2Co 10:10

For [his] letters, say ^{( g )} they, [are] weighty and powerful; but [his] bodily presence [is] weak, and [his] speech contemptible.

^{( g )} He notes out those who were the cause of these words.

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: 2Co 10:1-18

1 Against the false apostles, who disgraced the weakness of his person and bodily presence, he shows the spiritual might and authority with which he was armed against all adverse powers;

7 assuring them that at his coming he will be found as mighty in word as he is now in writing, being absent;

12 and withal taxing them for reaching out themselves beyond their compass, and vaunting themselves of other men's labours.

MHCC: 2Co 10:7-11

In outward appearance, Paul was mean and despised in the eyes of some, but this was a false rule to judge by. We must not think that none outward appearance, as if the want of such things proved a man not to be a real Christian, or an able, faithful minister of the lowly Saviour.

Matthew Henry: 2Co 10:7-11

In these verses the apostle proceeds to reason the case with the Corinthians, in opposition to those who despised him, judged him, and spoke hardly of him: " Do you, "says he, " look on things after the outward appearance? 2Co 10:7. Is this a fit measure or rule to make an estimate of things or persons by, and to judge between me and my adversaries?"In outward appearance, Paul was mean and despicable with some; he did not make a figure, as perhaps some of his competitors might do: but this was a false rule to make a judgment by. It should seem that some boasted mighty things of themselves, and made a fair show. But there are often false appearances. A man may seem to be learned who has not learned Christ, and appear virtuous when he has not a principle of grace in his heart. However, the apostle asserts two things of himself: -

I. His relation to Christ: If any man trust to himself that he is Christ's, even so are we Christ's, 2Co 10:7. It would seem by this that Paul's adversaries boasted of their relation to Christ as his ministers and servants. Now the apostle reasons thus with the Corinthians: "Suppose it to be so, allowing what they say to be true (and let us observe that, in fair arguing, we should allow all that may be reasonably granted, and should not think it impossible but those who differ from us very much may yet belong to Christ, as well as we), allowing them,"might the apostle say, "what they boast of, yet they ought also to allow this to us, that we also are Christ's. "Note, 1. We must not, by the most charitable allowances we make to others who differ from us, cut ourselves off from Christ, nor deny our relation to him. For, 2. There is room in Christ for many; and those who differ much from one another may yet be one in him. It would help to heal the differences that are among us if we would remember that, how confident soever we may be that we belong to Christ, yet, at the same time, we must allow that those who differ from us may belong to Christ too, and therefore should be treated accordingly. We must not think that we are the people, and that none belong to Christ but ourselves. This we may plead for ourselves, against those who judge us and despise us that, how weak soever we are, yet, as they are Christ's, so are we: we profess the same faith, we walk by the same rule, we build upon the same foundation, and hope for the same inheritance.

II. His authority from Christ as an apostle. This he had mentioned before (2Co 10:6), and now he tells them that he might speak of it again, and that with some sort of boasting, seeing it was a truth, that the Lord had given it to him, and it was more than his adversaries could justly pretend to. It was certainly what he should not be ashamed of, 2Co 10:8. Concerning this observe, 1. The nature of his authority: it was for edification, and not for destruction. This indeed is the end of all authority, civil and ecclesiastical, and was the end of that extraordinary authority which the apostles had, and of all church-discipline. 2. The caution with which he speaks of his authority, professing that his design was not to terrify them with big words, nor by angry letters, 2Co 10:9. Thus he seems to obviate an objection that might have been formed against him, 2Co 10:10. But the apostle declares he did not intend to frighten those who were obedient, nor did he write any thing in his letters that he was not able to make good by deeds against the disobedient; and he would have his adversaries know this (2Co 10:11), that he would, by the exercise of his apostolical power committed to him, make it appear to have a real efficacy.

Barclay: 2Co 10:7-18

Paul continues to answer his critics; and we are faced with the same problem that we are hearing only one side of the argument and can only deduce what the criticisms were from Paul's reply to them.

(i) It seems clear that at least some of Paul's opponents asserted that he did not belong to Christ in the same way as they did. Perhaps they were still casting up at him the fact that once he had been the arch-persecutor of the Church. Perhaps they claimed special knowledge. Perhaps they claimed a special holiness. In any event they looked down on Paul and glorified themselves and their own relationship to Christ.

Any religion which makes a man look down upon his fellow men and think himself better than they, is no true religion. When revival came to the East African Churches in recent years, one of its features was the public confession of sin. While the natives willingly took part in that confession, Europeans tended to stand aloof, and one of the missionaries wrote, "It is felt that to hold back from it is to refuse to be identified with the fellowship of forgiven sinners. Europeans are often accused of being proud and unwilling to share fellowship in this way." There can be no finer definition of the Church than a fellowship of forgiven sinners. When a man realizes that it is to such a fellowship he belongs there is no longer any room for pride. The trouble with the arrogant Christian is that he feels rather that Christ belongs to him than that he belongs to Christ.

(ii) It would seem that the Corinthians had actually sunk to taunting Paul about his personal appearance. His bodily presence, they jeered, was weak, and he was no speaker. It may well be that they were right. A description of Paul's personal appearance has come down to us from a very early book called The Acts of Paul and Thecla, which dates back to about A.D. 200. It is so unflattering that it may well be true. It describes Paul as "a man of little stature, thin-haired upon the head, crooked in the legs, of good state of body, with eyebrows meeting, and with nose somewhat hooked, full of grace, for sometimes he appeared like a man and sometimes he had the face of an angel." A little, balding, bandy-legged man, with a hooked nose and shaggy eyebrows--it is not a very impressive picture, and it may well be that the Corinthians made great play with it.

We might do well to remember that not seldom a great spirit has been lodged in a very humble body. William Wilberforce was responsible for the freeing of the slaves in the British Empire. He was so small and so frail that it seemed that even a strong wind might knock him down. But once Boswell heard him speak in public and afterwards said, "I saw what seemed to me a shrimp mount upon the table, but, as I listened, he grew and grew until the shrimp became a whale." The Corinthians had sunk nearly to the ultimate depths of discourtesy and of unwisdom when they taunted Paul upon his personal appearance.

(iii) It seems that they accused Paul of making boastful claims to authority in a sphere in which his writ did not run. No doubt they said that he might try to play the master in other Churches, but not in Corinth. His blunt answer is that Corinth is well within his sphere for he was the first man to bring them the good news of Jesus Christ. Paul was a Rabbi and it may be that he was thinking of a claim that the Rabbis often used to make. They claimed and received a very special respect. They claimed that respect for a teacher should exceed respect for a parent, for, they said, a parent brings a child into the--life of this world, but a teacher brings a scholar into the life of the world to come. Surely no man had a greater claim to exercise authority in the Church of Corinth than the man who, under God, had been its founder.

(iv) Then Paul levels a charge at them. Ironically he says that he would never dream of comparing himself with those who are forever giving themselves testimonials, and then, with unerring precision, he puts his finger on the spot. They can give themselves testimonials only because their one standard of measurement is themselves and their one standard of comparison is with one another.

They had, as so many people have, the wrong standard of measurement. A girl may think herself a good pianist but let her go and compare herself with Solomon or Moiseiwitsch and she may change her mind. A man may think himself a good golfer but let him compare himself with Cotton or Hogan or Palmer or Nicklaus and he may change his mind. A man may think himself a good preacher but let him compare himself with one of the princes of the pulpit and he may feel that he never wishes to open his mouth in public again.

It is easy enough to say, "I am as good as the next man," and no doubt it is true. But the point is, are we as good as Jesus Christ? He is our true rod of measurement and our proper standard of comparison and when we measure ourselves by him there is no room left for pride. "Self-praise," says Paul, "is no honour." It is not his own but Christ's "Well done!" for which a man must seek.

Before we leave this passage we must look at a phrase which is characteristic of Paul's heart. He wishes to get things straightened out at Corinth because he longs to go on to the regions beyond, where no man has yet carried the story of Christ. W. M. Macgregor used to say that Paul was haunted by the regions beyond. He never saw a ship riding at anchor or moored to the quay but he wished to board her and carry the good news to the regions beyond. He never saw a range of hills blue in the distance but he wished to cross it and to carry the story of Christ to the regions beyond.

Kipling has a poem called "The Explorer" which tells the story of another man who was haunted by the regions beyond.

" 'There's no sense in going further--it's the edge of

cultivation,'

So they said, and I believed it--broke my land and

sowed my crop--

Built my barns and strung my fences in the little

border station

Tucked away below the foothills where the trails run

out and stop.

Till a voice, as bad as Conscience, rang interminable

changes

On one everlasting Whisper, day and night repeated--

so:

'Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look

behind the ranges--

Something lost behind the ranges. Lost and waiting

for you. Go!' "

That is precisely how Paul felt. It was said of a great evangelist that, as he walked the city streets, he was haunted by the tramp, tramp, tramp of the Christless millions. The man who loves Christ will always be haunted by the thought of the millions who have never known the Christ who means so much to him.

Constable: 2Co 10:1--13:11

IV. APPEALS CONCERNING PAUL'S APOSTOLIC AUTHORITY 10:1--13:10

In this third and last major division of his epistle the apostle Paul defended his apostolic authority. He did this to silence his critics in Corinth and perhaps elsewhere permanently and to confirm the united support of the Christians there. One of Paul's major purposes in writing this letter was to prepare the way for his next visit. He had just referred to that "anticipated visit" (9:3-4). Consequently he felt compelled to establish his apostolic authority firmly. Broomall's observation on the tone of 2 Corinthians generally is especially true of chapters 10-13.

"The progress of thought in this epistle is like the movement of a mighty army advancing over rugged terrain still inhabited by pockets of stubborn resistance."²⁴³

Constable: 2Co 10:1-18

A. Replies to charges made against Paul 10:1-18

Paul responded to charges of cowardice, weakness, and intrusion that one or more critics in Corinth had evidently made against him. Failure to submit to apostolic authority could have dangerous consequences, such as disregarding his inspired writings. It was to spare his beloved readers from these ill effects that Paul wrote as he did, not out of a sense of wounded pride.

Constable: 2Co 10:7-11

2. Reply to the charge of weakness 10:7-11

As Paul defended himself against the charge of cowardice leveled by his critics, so he also claimed ability to deal forcefully with them in person as well as by letter. He referred to this to explain his conduct further and to urge obedience to his commands.

10:7 The Corinthian Christians tended to evaluate the claims of Paul's critics superficially. The apostle urged them to look below the surface. At least one critic seems to have been claiming that he had received apostolic authority from Christ that was every bit as binding as Paul's if not more binding. Paul did not dispute this claim here but simply argued that his own authority was from Christ. The critic and Paul both claimed to belong to Christ as His apostles. It was unfair for the Corinthians to accept the claim of the critic and to deny Paul's claim.

10:8 Paul said he could have said more about his apostolic authority without feeling shame about exaggerating. The facts spoke for themselves. However he did not want to put that kind of pressure on his opponents in a letter. They had charged that it was only in his letters that he could express himself forcefully. His reference to his authority for building up (v.8) seems intended to contrast his edifying ministry in Corinth with the destructive work of his critics (cf. 1 Cor. 3:17).

Paul had stressed the divine origin of his call and gospel when he defended himself to the Galatians (Gal. 1:1, 11-12, 15-16). Here he stressed the divine origin of his authority (3:5-6; 13:10) and how he had used it for his readers' good.

10:9-10 Paul's reference to terrifying his readers (v. 9) is ironical as is clear from verse 10. It is probably better to take the critics' charge that Paul was unimpressive as a reference to his conduct among them, not to his physical appearance, in view of the context (cf. 1:13). Paul evidently was not a showy speaker compared to many silver-tongued orators of his day. The power of his influence came through the Holy Spirit's working through his words (cf. 1 Cor. 1:17; 2:3; 2 Cor. 11:6).

". . . unlike his opponents (11:20), Paul avoided self-assertiveness and admitted the inferiority of his rhetorical skills (1 Cor. 1:17; 2:1-5; 2 Cor 11:6). What he firmly resists, however, is the inference drawn from the claim about his personal bearing and his manner of speaking--namely, that he was "timid" when face to face' (v. 1)."²⁴⁶

"Like so many who judge things according to the outward display of this world, Paul's opponents interpreted meekness as weakness, forbearance as cowardice, and gentleness as indecision (cf. v. 1; . . . 11:21 . . .)--or at least they had sought to induce the Corinthians to place this interpretation on Paul's character."²⁴⁷

10:11 Paul had restrained his words of exhortation to the Corinthians while he was with them for their welfare. He continued to do that in this letter lest he give substance to the charge that he was bold and impressive when absent. However, he was perfectly capable of being as forceful in person as he was in his letters (cf. 13:2, 10).

College: 2Co 10:1-18

2 CORINTHIANS 10

VII. FINAL DEFENSE OF MINISTRY (10:1-13:10)

Interpreters of 2 Corinthians agree universally that 10:1 initiates a clean break from what comes before it in chapter nine. The doxology of 9:15 marks the end of Paul's initiative in chapters eight and nine to prepare the Corinthians to restart their collection for the Jerusalem Christians. The issue is not brought up again even by inference. Interpreters also agree that in 2 Corinthians 10-13 Paul returns to a defense of his apostolic ministry, which has already occupied his attention for the most part of chapters two through seven. Further, they agree that the bitter, sarcastic tone of chapters ten through thirteen reveal Paul to be in a different frame of mind from that earlier defense. There, Paul's emotional state seems propelled by love and affection for the Corinthians. Here, Paul seems angry, his emotions boiling over in righteous indignation. Besides, he seems to have closed out the earlier treatment on a positive note: "I have complete confidence in you" (7:16).

The point at which interpreters divide is on how best to explain the dramatic shift so readily apparent. As explained in more detail in the Introduction, some still equate 10-13 with the Severe Letter, although the number of those who defend this view is dwindling. Many others believe that 10-13 is the major portion of a separate letter Paul wrote to the Corinthians prompted by still more bad news he learned fairly soon after sending off Titus and company with 2 Cor 1-9. This has become the more common view today.

However, a growing number, primarily based on studies of Greek rhetoric, have begun to maintain that Paul's drastic, emotional treatment of his defense against criticism, should be expected at the end of the letter as we have it. In the earlier defense, he was focused on winning over the majority of the church, already somewhat sympathetic to him. In 10-13, his harsh tones are spoken to this same majority but are actually directed through them to the outside meddlers and to the more hard-boiled minority who have been won over to them. Reference to these outside meddlers was already made in the earlier defense, as "peddlers" (2:17), people "with letters of recommendation" (3:1), who "distort the word of God" (4:2), who "take pride in what is seen" (5:12), and who have "corrupted" and "exploited" (7:2).

It is the view of this commentary that these earlier, sometimes oblique references, anticipate the full-blown vindication of Paul's authentic apostolic ministry over against the attempts by these influential outsiders to discredit not only Paul's ministry but his personal character. This, then, is the function of 10-13. It is Paul's rhetorical way of taking off the gloves and giving these outside meddlers and slanderers everything he's got. It has been left to the end to prevent muddying the waters of his earlier defense issues and perhaps putting off the majority whom he wishes to win over there. This gives him a chance while the air is more positive to make his appeal for the collection before getting into what he knows will be a strident tone in his final defense at the end of the letter.

A. LAUNCH OF A MASSIVE COUNTERATTACK (10:1-18)

1. Powerful Weapons Employed (10:1-6)

10:1 By the meekness and gentleness of Christ, I appeal to you-

Up until now, Paul has used "appeal" (parakalevw, parakaleô) mostly in the sense of "encourage" or "comfort" (1:4; 2:7; 5:20; 7:6; 7:13). Its meaning as "exhort" or "appeal" dominates the latter portion of 2 Corinthians (8:6; 9:5; 12:8,18; 13:11). Contrary to those who consider 10:1 to begin or to be near the beginning of a separate letter, Paul normally employs this verb not in the opening sections but toward the end of his letters in the parenetic (quick-thrust ethical admonitions) sections. This can be seen in Rom 12:1; 15:30; 16:17; 1 Cor 16:12,15; Phil 4:2; 1 Thess 5:14; 2 Thess 3:12.

The two attributes of Christ: "meekness" (prau?th", praütçs) and "gentleness" (ejpieivkeia, epieikeia ), are synonyms working together to emphasize the gentle compassion Christ exhibited, especially toward the infirm as well as sinners. Surprisingly, neither word ever describes Christ elsewhere in the NT, although in Matt 11:29 Jesus does describe himself as "meek" (prau?", praόs ), employing the adjectival form of "meekness." The adjective also describes him in Matt 21:5. Some are skeptical that such word usage in Matthew (written well after 2 Corinthians) could have influenced Paul at this point and suggest that these attributes refer to the incarnation as a whole.

However, Paul has already identified himself with the sufferings of Christ in 2 Cor 1:5; 2:15,17; and 5:14. To seek to imitate the character of Christ does not seem like such a stretch. Also, "meekness" does appear regularly as a positive characteristic of Christians (Gal 5:23; Eph 4:2; Col 3:12; Titus 3:2; James 3:13; 1 Pet 3:15. On other occasions Paul uses "meekness" to describe the manner in which church discipline is to be administered (Gal 6:1) and how opposition ought to be instructed (2 Tim 2:25). These latter two examples would seem to relate to Paul's situation in 2 Corinthians 10. As he prepares to do verbal battle with opponents in Corinth, how to mix convincing strength with humble compassion becomes a vexing question. The model he sees for this is in Christ.

I, Paul, who am "timid" when face to face with you, but "bold" when away!

In Greek, not only does "I, Paul," begin the verse, it includes an emphasizing pronoun (ajutov", autos ), usually translated intensively as "myself." No doubt, Paul wishes to dramatize forcefully his entrance into verbal combat with those who criticize him. By emphasizing himself, he also shows that attacks upon him have been personal, not including Timothy (named as coauthor) or other apostles (included in many of his first person plural pronouns).

The NIV quite rightly puts "timid" (tapeinov", tapeinos ) and "bold" (qarrevw, tharreô) in quotes because these words most likely represent criticisms of Paul from the mouths of those who oppose him. The Greek word for "timid" usually has a positive sense in the NT, often rendered "humble." Both James 4:6 and 1 Pet 5:5 quote Prov 3:34 which says that God "gives grace to the humble." Matthew 11:29 attributes this characteristic to Christ himself. Yet, the word does have a pejorative sense in Greek usage to refer to people who are weak in character and allow others to run roughshod over them without a peep. Paul would quickly identify himself as humble in the positive sense but not in the negative and would consider Christ the same.

The Greek word for "bold" can also have either a positive or negative sense. Boldness in terms of confidence to express oneself is the positive as found in 2 Cor 5:6,8; 7:16 and also in Heb 13:6. In the negative sense, found only outside the NT, it can refer to a "presumptuous" attitude which is offensive. Since Paul's accusers valued boldness, it is possible they merely criticize his inconsistency. However, most likely they think of his sharp tongue when writing as pompous since in person he comes across as a pushover. It is also possible that a slander against Paul's singularly unintimidating physical appearance is implied. In the forefront of the criticism must be the contrast between Paul's demeanor during his Painful Visit to Corinth, which he seems to have been incapable of dealing with in person, and the Severe Letter which boldly confronts the situation.

10:2 I beg you that when I come I may not have to be as bold as I expect to be

The opening verb "beg" (devomai, deomai ) is often used in the context of prayer (Luke 21:36; 22:32; Acts 4:31; 8:22,24; 10:2; Rom 1:10; 1 Thess 3:10). However, Paul uses it here in the more secular sense of imploring Corinthians to respond to his urgent plea. Apparently, he has made up his mind that if he must, he will confront his critics in Corinth with a ferocity no one there has ever seen. His discomfort in doing this at such a personal level remains evident. It is clear, however, that he will go toe to toe with his critics for sake of the true gospel in Corinth if necessary.

The mention of his coming to be with them once again in person comes as a cannon shot across the bow. It serves as a warning, not so much to the majority of Corinthians who have already made amends with Paul (noted in 2 Corinthians 7) but to those who remain defiant in their disdain for Paul. What action by the Corinthians would avert the impending personal confrontation? Does he have in mind a change of heart by his slanderers or perhaps expulsion from the church? Is Paul expecting another letter from the Corinthians, maybe a report back from someone on the collection team he is sending with 2 Corinthians, or does he simply expect a change by the time he gets there? We don't really know the answers to any of these questions. It does seem, though, that Paul intends his sharp, caustic rebuttal to his critics, which occupies him from this point to the end of the letter, to be his best effort to avoid the nasty, personal, confrontation he foresees.

Two helpful Greek words are not conveyed in the NIV translation. Following the infinitive for "bold," repeated from 10:1, is the Greek word for "confidence" (pepoivqesi", pepoithesis ). Its presence clarifies that Paul has the good kind of boldness in view as opposed to the pompous kind his accusers say is in his letters. It also underscores Paul's secure belief that his cause in defending himself is just. Paul will be "bold with confidence."

A second word left untranslated by the NIV is an infinitive meaning "to be courageous" (tolmavw, tolmaô) which works alongside the verb "I expect" (logivzomai, logizomai ). Paul is the only NT author to use this word, employing it four times in 2 Corinthians (1:15; 3:4; 8:22) and twice elsewhere (Eph 3:12; Phil 3:4). It signals that Paul will not shrink from this fight if it comes to pass. He will not just let this one pass, as apparently he did during the Painful Visit.

toward some people who think that we live by the standards of this world.

Paul's anticipated confrontation with "some people" most likely centers on those who have come into the Corinthian congregation from outside and have lobbied against Paul's credentials. Paul will have his eye trained on them throughout his four chapters of defense and will describe them more extensively as he goes along. As noted in the Introduction, it is tough to put our finger on exactly who they were, since they seem to bear a hybrid of qualities from both Jewish, Christian, and Hellenistic spheres. They must have had considerable influence on a number of the Corinthian Christians or Paul would not be so concerned about them. For this reason, Paul's reference to "some" probably includes Corinthians who might remain under their spell when Paul arrives. No doubt, Paul hopes to shake them out of it with his powerful defense from the personal attacks the agitators continue to spread against him.

The slander that Paul has heard being made against him attacks his character at the core. It identifies him with the very standards he repeatedly charges believers to back away from, throwing Paul's own words of caution in his face. He is a hypocrite, embracing a lifestyle he tells other believers to leave. Literally, "live by the standards of this world" is "walk according to the flesh," as ordinarily translated by the KJV. "Walk" (peripatevw, peripateô) is a common, vivid expression for a person's normal, habitual conduct or behavior. "Flesh" (savrx, sarx ), often expressed as "sinful nature" in the NIV, is the vestige of their old life that remains an evil force for believers to reckon with by the power of the Holy Spirit. The mind set on the "sinful nature," Paul says in Rom 8:6, "is death," whereas "the mind controlled by the Spirit is life." Over and over in his letters, Paul warns believers not to succumb to the power of their "sinful nature" (Rom 8:8; 1 Cor 5:5; Gal 5:13-24; Eph 2:3; Phil 3:4). So it is not surprising to see that this particular slander hits a nerve in Paul.

The slander probably goes back to the accusations Paul dealt with to a certain extent in 2 Cor 1-2 stemming from his change of travel plans to Corinth. Particularly, in 2 Cor 1:17, he notes that the charges against him in that situation involved operating "in a worldly manner," also employing the Greek word sarx . In 2 Cor 5:16, as a Christian Paul disavows any such "opportunistic" ( sarx again) tactics.

10:3 For though we live in the world, we do not wage war as the world does.

For just a bit, Paul broadens out his defense from being only about himself. Christianity as a whole and the way its adherents conduct themselves must be differentiated from the standard operating procedures of those outside its umbrella. As an apostolic representative of the Christian community, a slander of "walking in the flesh" (the literal meaning of the phrase the NIV translates as "live in the world") against Paul taints the whole movement. Paul can't let that happen. He readily admits that Christians live "in" an environment dominated by people controlled by their sinful natures. However, they are distinct because they are controlled not by their sinful natures but by the Spirit. They operate with just principles and higher motives. Most notably, they love their enemies (Matt 5:44) and repay evil with good (Rom 12:17; 1 Pet 4:19).

With "wage war" (strateuvw, strateuô), Paul initiates his depiction of the Christian enterprise with words associated with the military and war. This will continue through 10:6. It will recur in 11:7-11 and 11:30-33. Paul's use of such imagery to convey Christian principles of conduct in the midst of hostile environments would be appreciated by those in the church whose ancestry dates back to the colonization of Corinth by retired Roman soldiers.

Paul's use of war imagery so early in his defense suggests that he knows very well he is in a fight with his accusers at Corinth. However, he knows he cannot take the low road of slander and false accusation as they have. He cannot crush his enemy without concern for their spiritual welfare. He must be forceful, bold, determined, and truthful, without being mean-spirited and "hitting below the belt." His cause is just, defense of himself and of the gospel, but he cannot afford to lose the war for the hearts and minds of the Corinthians because of foul play. He will struggle with just how to do this throughout his defense. He has been drawn into battle, but how will he fight? He seeks to fight as all Christians are supposed to: defying the standards of the world for the standards of Christ.

Within this framework of war Paul seems to view himself in one respect as a general leading his troops against the evil forces of the world, including those amassed against him in Corinth. In another respect, he may view himself as an ambassador of Christ, mistreated and abused by his critics in Corinth. Such misconduct of highly vulnerable ambassadors in Paul's day was considered an act of war in and of itself.

10:4 The weapons we fight with are not the weapons of the world.

Paul begins to elaborate the differences between the Christian campaign and that of others. Once again "world" translates sarx . Christians do not employ the armament used by those who are controlled by their evil nature. The Greek word for "weapons" (o{plon, hoplon ) is a generic word meaning "tool" or "instrument." This word adapts to the context in which it is used. For shipping, it means "tackle," for harvesting, a "sickle," for shepherding, a "staff," thus for warfare, "weapon."

Throughout this depiction of Christian warfare, Paul never actually details what exactly the Christian weapons are. He probably has in mind the "weapons of righteousness" from 2 Cor 6:6-7 which include purity, understanding, patience, kindness, love, and truthful speech, all enacted in the Holy Spirit and the power of God. He could also be thinking of attributes like faith, hope, and love, listed as Christian armament in 1 Thess 5:8, or other qualities named in Rom 13:12-13 or Eph 6:11-17, other passages in which he describes Christians as soldiers.

On the contrary, they have divine power to demolish strongholds.

Regardless of what exactly the weapons are, the big issue for Paul is who furnishes the Christian arsenal. Paul says that the overwhelming power behind the Christian campaign, as opposed to those controlled by the evil nature of the world, is God himself. The NIV translation of "divine" is fine as long as it is understood that the word in the text is personal; it is God (qeov", theos ).

With God as the effective force behind their weapons, Paul believes no enemy has a chance against Christians. The victory will be as obviously decisive as the leveling of an enemy's most extensively defended fortress and even the stronghold within the fortress. The word for "demolish" (kaqaivresi", kathairesis ) is only found in 2 Corinthians, here and in 10:8 and 13:10, though its verb form is more common, used in 10:5, but also eight times in the gospels and Acts. Strictly, the idea is to take or pull something down. For a boat, it means to lower the sails. Here, Paul has in mind tearing down the thick walls, which often fortified cities of his day. By this he pictures Christian weapons as completely effective.

Most likely Paul draws on Prov 21:22 for his language here: "A wise man attacks the city of the mighty and pulls down the stronghold in which they trust." This becomes even more obvious in 10:5 as he presumes the superiority of Christian wisdom in contention with other available ideas.

10:5 We demolish arguments and every pretension that sets itself up against the knowledge of God,

Some translations (TEV, JB) include the first clause in 10:4 (following the Greek versification); most others, as the NIV, put it in 10:5. In any case, the location makes no difference to its sense.

What is most significant is that Paul now begins to clarify that the military campaign he has in mind takes place in the field of ideas. This is not only true for Christianity in general but also in his combat with his critics in Corinth. Important as it is, it is just one battle in a great war sweeping across the Mediterranean world in communities wherever Christianity has secured a beachhead. Battles continue to rage in this war even today.

Because the power of God supports Christianity's ideas, Paul believes the truthfulness of Christianity can win out over every competing philosophy or worldview and that this can be evidenced one argument after another. The word he uses for "argument" is only used here and in Rom 2:15. It can also be translated as "reckoning" or "reasoning." These are the human "strongholds" which God pulls down through people like Paul, through whom he speaks.

The word "pretension" (u{ywma, hypsôma), though not observable in English, continues the military analogy Paul is using. Literally, it refers to a landscape which has height or elevation, normally the best location in military strategy for defense in the open field. In terms of opponents to Christianity and Paul's own critics in Corinth, it pictures well the puffed up pride people can have in the strength of their arguments, thinking they are unassailable. "Pretension" is modified by a participle from a verb meaning "rise up" or "offer resistance" (ejpaivrw, epairô), translated by the NIV as "sets itself up." Prideful resistance to the claims of Christianity are futile.

Precisely, Paul identifies the irresistible strength of Christianity as "the knowledge of God." This most likely refers to the gospel of Christ. He has made a more direct connection between the two in 2:14-15 when he pictures the knowledge of Christ as the fragrance wafting over the crowd during a triumphal military parade.

Paul's language suggests that one element in Paul's detractors at Corinth may have been an attraction to the professional rhetoric of Sophists, influential Greek teachers who put great emphasis on crafting arguments in persuasive form and style. As detailed in 1 Corinthians 2 and 3, he considers such "wisdom" to be empty and void compared to God's wisdom, the mind of Christ which Christian evangelists share. Perhaps, his critics openly mock him for his failure to employ the proven methods of Sophists. For Paul's part, it is likely that he openly defies dependence on such human and worldly tactics and considers those who do so as dangerously impeding the progress of the true gospel.

and we take captive every thought to make it obedient to Christ.

Paul envisages the final stage in the annihilation of an ancient city. After storming the gates, overcoming the defenders, tearing down the walls and buildings, the cities inhabitants are carried off as prisoners of war. In relationship to Christianity, he sees opposing ideas in the world so totally defeated that they become subservient to the gospel.

The word "thought" (novhma, noçma) is only used six times in the NT, once in Phil 4:7, and four other times in 2 Corinthians (2:11; 3:14; 4:4; 11:3). In every other case, it is translated "mind" by the NIV, except when referring to the "schemes" of Satan in 2 Cor 2:11. Outside the NT, it can mean "design" or "purpose." So, we should not think that Paul means that Christ will overcome every random thought we have. Rather, he has in mind thoughts directed toward a purpose, a philosophy. Also, ultimately it is not just philosophies that become captive to Christ but the people attached to them. "Obedient to Christ" means to accept the gospel of Christ as true and to honor Christ as Lord.

10:6 And we will be ready to punish every act of disobedience, once your obedience is complete.

Good soldiers prepare themselves properly for battle. They check and recheck their gear and their weapons to be sure everything is functioning properly. They prepare themselves mentally and morally to enter into battle against their foe. Paul has checked himself over and pronounces that he is ready to do battle with his opponents in Corinth. All he needs is the church's backing. Notably, despite his readiness and despite his position as an apostle, Paul does not seem to believe he has free reign to punish his Corinthian opponents. He honors the authority of the local church over its own people and situation. After all, what good would any sort of discipline be if those in the Corinthian community are not prepared to enact and sustain it? They are the ones living there, not Paul.

Obedience for Paul does not mean obedient to him personally but obedient to the true gospel. Likewise, disobedience, that cries out for punishment, is not disobedience to Paul but the gospel. The two are intertwined to a certain extent, but 2 Cor 11:4 will clarify that it is a "different gospel" his opponents preach. Those he stands ready to punish certainly refer to the outsiders who are slandering him, but he also probably has in mind any of the Corinthian believers who remain under their sway even after receiving Paul's passionate case contained in 2 Corinthians.

Obedience itself is a vital component of any army. Unswerving obedience to commands enables the multiple units of operation to coordinate battle plan strategy. Insubordination to the orders of a superior officer are grounds for the severest of punishments because it cuts at the very fabric of military order and achievement. As Paul sees it, the battle for the advancement of Christianity in resistant environments throughout the world is difficult enough without unsanctioned orders from impostors spreading confusion. They must be rooted out and stopped from creating any further trouble by weakening the church internally.

2. Forceful Personal Presence Warned (10:7-11)

10:7 You are looking only on the surface of things. ^a

^a 7 Or Look at the obvious facts

This primary translation by the NIV coordinates with 5:12 where Paul labels his opponents as people "who take pride in what is seen." In fact, the same word, literally translated as "face" (provswpon, prosôpon), is employed. However, the evidence favors an imperative translation of the verb, noted as a secondary reading by the NIV: "Look at the obvious facts!" First, despite the fact that this second person plural present verb form of the verb "see" or "look" (blevpw, blepô) can be either imperative or indicative, Paul only uses it as an imperative (1 Cor 8:9; 10:18; 16:10; Gal 5:15; Phil 3:2; Eph 5:15; Col 2:8; 4:17). Second, Paul continues in the imperative frame of mind throughout the next two paragraphs, using third person imperatives in the very next sentence and in 10:11 and 10:17.

The primary fact he wants to call the Corinthians' attention to in this paragraph is the legitimacy of his personal calling from Christ, which his opponents apparently have called into question. The second criticism he responds to carries over to a certain extent the criticism he begins to respond to in 10:1-6, that he is a pushover in person and only forceful "when away." The current paragraph will clarify what "away" means in his letters. It will also reinforce the warning of the previous paragraph that his next coming will be powerful.

If anyone is confident that he belongs to Christ, he should consider again that we belong to Christ just as much as he.

Paul asks his critics to be open-minded and search within themselves as to the legitimacy of his calling. Although not translated in the NIV, twice Paul uses the reflexive "himself" (eJautov", heautos ) to emphasize his appeal to soul search. This occurs after both verbs, "is confident" and "consider," the second instance including the preposition "in" or "within" (ejpiv, epi ). From his point of view, if their calling is true, then they should be able to recognize the trueness of his calling.

Despite the fact that "anyone" is singular, his aim is on the whole group of critics, outsiders and insiders, he referred to as "some" in 10:2. Perhaps he personifies them as one, or, perhaps, he hopes each of them individually will consider his case honestly and that some of them might be won over to his side.

The phrase "belongs to Christ," repeated twice in this verse, is critical to Paul's point. Literally, it is just the word "Christ" in the genitive, or possessive form, "of Christ" (cristou', Christou ). It could simply refer to a Christian, but it is unlikely that Paul's opponents accuse him of not being a Christian. It could also refer to someone who was a disciple of Jesus during his ministry. This might apply to Paul's opponents but not to him. Most likely it refers to being specially called by Christ to ministry. The clarification is made in 11:23 when he responds to his opponents' exclusive claims to be "servants of Christ." Although the phrase does occur early in 1 Cor 1:12 as a label for one of the divided parties in Corinth, it is highly unlikely that Paul would aspire to be in one of the groups which he denounces wholesale in 1 Corinthians.

Most likely, then, Paul's opponents in Corinth, particularly those who have come from outside, appear to be denouncing Paul's apostleship on the grounds that he did not walk with Christ. They must have come into town and informed the Corinthians that Paul was not a real apostle, despite his claims. In regard to themselves, they may indeed have been disciples of Christ, or they may be claiming they have been commissioned by true apostles. This makes it highly likely that they are or have some relationship to the so-called Judaizers, prominent as Paul's opponents in Galatia. Perhaps the same ones or a separate band of them have followed Paul's steps to Corinth to inform them that Paul's commission is not valid and that his gospel to the Gentiles which does not include the Jewish elements of law and custom is illegitimate.

Perhaps as a peaceful gesture, at least at this point in his defense, Paul does not deny his opponents' claim to be commissioned as ministers of Christ. He simply pleads with them to give him the same gesture of good faith. In that, he speaks only indirectly to his opponents but directly to the Corinthian majority, he certainly means for the Corinthian majority to recognize that his credentials are defendable to his detractors.

10:8 For even if I boast somewhat freely about the authority the Lord gave us for building you up rather than pulling you down,

This is the first of 17 uses of the verb "boast" (kaucavomai, kauchaomai ) which will occur through 12:9. Paul's reluctance to boast (evident here and in 10:13,15; 11:16,18,30; 12:1,5,6) will be overcome by his desire to win back those who have bent their ears to the efforts of his detractors to discredit him. He begins by boasting about his "authority" (ejxousiva, exousia ), essentially his commissioning by Christ on the Damascus road to be the Lord's apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 9:15-16). It is possible for the adverb "somewhat freely" (perissotevrw", perissoterôs) to be used in the negative sense of "too much" or "excessive." However, Paul, clearly believes the little bit he focuses on his call here is hardly excessive.

What Paul wishes to draw attention to is not just the legitimacy of his commissioning but even more so the positive results of his commissioning self-evident to the Corinthians themselves. Not only did Paul and his associates establish the church at Corinth, he nurtured its growth personally, having lived with them for 18 months. Nobody can question that their church has been "fortified" or "built up" (oijkodomhvn, oikodomçn) on his watch.

But what about his opponents? How do they legitimate their claim to have enviable credentials? What have they done? Haven't they weakened the Corinthian church by causing it to divide into factions? Paul has done nothing to "pull them down." This is not what apostles are commissioned to do. In fact, what Paul is attempting to accomplish with this letter is to rebuild them in the wake of their being dismantled by the outsiders. Even if it means dealing harshly with some people when he arrives personally, he will do it if this will repair and revitalize the Corinthian church.

These, then, are the facts he calls on the church to observe. Who has built up the church? Who has torn it down? Who, then, is the true apostle?

Paul's language appears to be drawn from Jer 24:6 where the Lord speaks of building up and not tearing down his people following the Babylonian captivity.

I will not be ashamed of it.

This two-word clause in Greek, a negative particle followed by the verb "be ashamed" (aijscuvnw, aischynô), complements the adverb "somewhat freely" (perissotevrw", perissoterôs) in the previous clause. Essentially, he means that there is nothing he could say about his building up of the Corinthian church that would be excessive in the sense of having to take even a single word of it back. The verb "ashamed" is used similarly in Phil 1:20.

10:9 I do not want to seem to be trying to frighten you with my letters.

The word "frighten" (ejkfobevw, ekphobeô) is only used here in all the NT. It is an identification of the more normal word for "be afraid" (fobevomai, phobeomai ) used 95 times in the NT. Thus, it means to terrify or literally "frighten away." Paul does not by any stretch of the imagination intend to threaten so severely that he causes Corinthian believers to leave the faith. His intention is the contrary, not only in this letter but in all his letters: to strengthen their faith.

All in all, the Corinthians have received three letters from Paul up to this point: the Previous letter, 1 Corinthians, and the Severe Letter. Although both of the first two have notes of censure in them, surely the key reference point for Paul's comment is the Severe Letter. It may very well be that Paul's critics are making the most of the fact that this letter was particularly harsh, while Paul had shrunk away tongue-tied on the occasion of the Painful Visit, which precipitated the Severe Letter.

10:10 For some say, "His letters are weighty and forceful, but in person he is unimpressive and his speaking amounts to nothing."

The reason for Paul's denial that his letters are intended to frighten people away from the faith comes in this quotation, which undoubtedly has come to him from the mouths of his detractors in Corinth. They are spreading the slander that Paul is only forceful in his letters because he is weak and ineffectual in person. This charge, as far as they are concerned, cancels out any claim by Paul to be a legitimate apostle. If his "authority" is genuine, they claim, he would be consistently authoritative in word and deed. He would not shrink at personal confrontation. Again, the case in point is Paul's inability to confront during the Painful Visit as opposed to his harsh denunciation in the Severe Letter.

Although the criticism centers in inconsistency and perhaps even hypocrisy, the two faults cited against Paul's personal presence likely detract from Paul's ministry in and of themselves. The first one, "unimpressive" (ajsqenhv", asthençs) probably refers to the unattractive nature of Paul's physical appearance, at least from a Greek point of view. Literally, the word means "weak," and can refer to someone who is ill or sickly (Matt 25:44; Luke 9:2; Acts 5:15). People of authority were expected to be physically appealing as well as forceful in character. Paul in fact admits to some kind of permanent physical ailment in 2 Cor 12:7, though his language in describing it does not give much indication of what it was.

The most notable legendary, physical description of Paul is found in the second-century Acts of Paul and Thecla . Although it describes his body as healthy, the depiction, if bearing any resemblance to the truth, would not be very impressive to a Greek crowd. It describes Paul as "a man small of stature, with a bald head and crooked legs, in a good state of body, with eyebrows meeting and nose somewhat hooked, full of friendliness."

The second criticism attacks Paul's verbal inadequacies. His speech is "of no account," or "despised" (ejxouqenevw, exoutheneô). When we read Paul's letters, they appear to be full of rhetorical flair. Yet, it must be admitted, when he becomes emotionally distraught even in writing, his grammar and style go out the window. Perhaps the same and worse happens to Paul in emotionally laden public confrontations. What's more, Greek society put a great deal of stock in a person's oratorical ability as a reflection of the validity of his wisdom. It may very well be that Paul's opponents in Corinth were gifted and well-trained speakers and could point to this as evidence of their superior commission and message compared to Paul.

10:11 Such people should realize that what we are in our letters when we are absent, we will be in our actions when we are present.

Although Paul does not want to frighten away the legitimate believers in the Corinthian church, he does intend to put the fear of God into those who doubt that he will come forcefully this next time. As harsh as they admit he is in his letters, he intends to be in this next visit, that is, if those who are undercutting his apostolic authority are not dealt with by the majority. This time they will see that he is consistent. His bite will equal his bark. This verse comes as both a threat and a challenge. Will they dare call him on it?

3. God's Expansion of the Gospel Boasted (10:12-18)

10:12 We do not dare to classify or compare ourselves with some who commend themselves.

Initiated by "for" (gavr, gar ), not translated in the NIV, this verse picks up on the consideration Paul gives to boasting about himself, stated in 10:12. Paul, however, takes an unusual approach to his boasting. Rather than simply boasting of his accomplishments, he boasts in antithesis to the boasting of his counterparts in Corinth. Paul desires to expose to the Corinthian majority the hollowness of his opponents' claims as well as his superior standing as God's chosen servant.

Paul begins by satirizing his opponents in order to expose the emptiness of their boasting. While he feigns unworthiness to even measure himself against them, this is all done in jest. In reality he believes they have made themselves look good by setting the bar too low. His confidence is so high because their standards are too low to do him justice.

The word "dare" (tolmavw, tolmaô) figures prominently in this context, coming up another three times, in 2 Cor 10:12 and twice in 2 Cor 11:21. The word presumes that an obstacle exists against which one needs to muster the courage and resolution to contest. As mockery, it means the opposite, no true obstacle exists. The words "classify" (ejgkrivnw, enkrinô) and "compare" (sugkrivnw, synkrinô) amount to a play on words in Greek, both built on the same root which means "judge" (krivnw, krinô). Literally "classify" means "judge from" and "compare" means "judge with." The word "commend" (sunivsthmi, synistçmi), another key word in this context, will appear again in 10:18 twice and in 12:11, for a total of ten times in 2 Corinthians as a whole. It has a variety of meanings but is consistently used in the sense of "recommend" in 2 Corinthians.

In many cities of Paul's day, teachers of philosophy competed with each other to win over students for their instruction. Among their tactics was comparing their superior credentials and abilities with their rivals'. Paul's adversaries in Corinth seem to have carried on in much the same way for the loyalty of the Corinthian believers. Paul, not surprisingly, puts himself outside this competitive, worldly atmosphere in his cleverly concocted response to this scene.

When they measure themselves by themselves and compare themselves with themselves, they are not wise.

The reader is bowled over by the repetition of "themselves" (eJautov", heautos ) four times in this clause, two times also in the previous clause. Clearly, Paul intends to emphasize the egocentricity of his opponents in Corinth. They come out looking pretty good when they only use themselves as the standard of measure. How hard is it to impress when the goal which is set has already been achieved? This is not wisdom. It achieves no true gauge of value. It is sheer lunacy, foolishness. No doubt, Paul's detractors have claimed superior wisdom for themselves, but Paul unmasks it for the con job it really is and exposes it for all in Corinth to see. In doing so he also evidences his own superior wisdom to theirs.

10:13 We, however, will not boast beyond proper limits,

Paul distances himself from the kind of foolish boasting which characterizes his opponents. Strictly speaking, he decrees, "We will not boast about things that are not truly measured." In Greek, the NIV's "proper limits" is actually the plural of the word for measure negated (a[metra, ametra ).

but will confine our boasting to the field God has assigned to us, a field that reaches even to you.

In contrast to his opponents, he will seek a standard of assessment that is true and measurable. This measurement comes from God himself, not some mere human contrivance. Paul calls this measuring device "the canon" (kanwvn, kanôn). Literally, he says "according to the measure of the canon which God apportions to us." The word "canon" becomes extremely crucial later on in the second and third centuries as the word which applies to the written works which belonged in the Christian Bible. This canon of texts, or Bible, would be the rule or measure by which church doctrine and behavior must be evaluated. The word refers to a straight rod or bar. It eventually came to refer to a carpenter's rule or even the tongue of a balance, and then metaphorically for any norm or standard.

It is uncertain as to whether "canon" can ever refer to a geographic location, but the word it modifies, "measure," does refer to something that has been measured. The verb Paul uses, "has assigned" (merivzw, merizô) refers to something that has been divided or apportioned for use.

It appears, then, that Paul has in mind a sphere of influence which God has allotted him to which he believes he has been unquestionably faithful. There is little doubt that he thinks of his commissioning by Christ to be the apostle to the Gentiles, recorded in Acts 9:14-15, which was also affirmed by Peter, James, and John according to Gal 2:9.

Paul, then, suggests that the true appraisal of those who say they have been chosen to serve Christ is to measure the extent to which they have accomplished the task to which God has commissioned them. In his commission to bring the gospel to Gentiles, Paul believes evidence is plentiful to demonstrate that he has been faithful. The evidence closest at hand for the Corinthians to observe, of course, is themselves. Thus, the verse concludes dramatically with Paul's reference to the Corinthian church being an observable, positive result of Paul fulfilling his commission. They themselves, if anything, are what he would boast about, not himself.

What a stark contrast to his adversaries. Paul implicates that they ranged well beyond their commissioned area and in fact have intruded into his commissioned arena. By this standard, they have nothing to boast about because they have failed to live up to their mission. This again suggests that Paul's main opponents at Corinth have come from outside and are likely Judaizers or related to them. Paul must believe that the agreement of Gal 2:8-10 with Peter, James, and John, included a commission for Peter and those connected to him to focus their efforts on Jewish or perhaps even Judean evangelism. Thus, in disrupting the dominantly Gentile church at Corinth, Paul believes this agreement has been violated with disastrous results.

10:14 We are not going too far in our boasting as would be the case if we had not come to you, for we did get as far as you with the gospel of Christ.

Paul asks the Corinthians to answer as to whether he exceeded his commission in bringing the gospel to them. Has he violated his commission? Should he have never brought the gospel to them? Hopefully, they value the difference the gospel has made in their lives enough to believe God indeed sent Paul to them. If that is so, then they themselves are his key witnesses against his opponents. They are included in his commission. Within God's standards for a commissioned apostle, then, he excels his opponents. It is his opponents who have overstretched themselves by entering his field of work.

The verb "get" (fqavnw, phthanô) may not only refer to how far Paul came to get to the Corinthians but also to the fact that he brought the gospel to them first, arriving well before his opponents. In this sense, perhaps he is emphasizing that he laid first claim on the Corinthians and any self-respecting, legitimate apostle would focus on unreached people for Christ, not people well-established in the faith. In this regard, his opponents further undermine their position as superior to Paul.

10:15 Neither do we go beyond our limits by boasting of work done by others. ^a

^a 13-15 Or ¹³ We, however, will not boast about things that cannot be measured, but we will boast according to the standard of measurement that the God of measure has assigned us - a measurement that relates even to you. ¹⁴ . . . . ¹⁵ Neither do we boast about things that cannot be measured in regard to the work done by others.

The negative suggests that this is precisely what Paul's opponents are doing. Not only are they discrediting the foundation for Corinthian belief by defaming Paul, they are also trying to take credit for the spiritual growth of the Corinthians. What exactly they have done is difficult to say. They probably believe they have straightened the Corinthians out from being negatively affected by Paul's influence. Most likely they brought in a brand of Jewish legalism tinged with what they consider to be advanced spiritual insight and have convinced a number of the Corinthians that this is true Christianity. Paul's point is that no matter what they have done, they cannot justifiably take credit for Corinthian Christianity because the unalterable fact is that Paul and his associates first brought the gospel to Corinth. Unlike his opponents Paul has no need to take credit for what others have accomplished.

The word "work" (kovpo", kopos ), used again in 11:23 and 11:27, normally refers to manual labor. It can also refer to the suffering and pain involved in work that is highly demanding. Its use suggests that Paul considers himself to have expended a great deal of effort and perhaps also emotional trauma in planting and nourishing the Corinthian church. After working so hard it is not surprising that he would be exasperated at someone else claiming credit.

Our hope is that, as your faith continues to grow, our area of activity among you will greatly expand,

Paul reveals that he has a missionary strategy which very much hinges on the outcome of this letter and his upcoming visit. This strategy involves expanding his divine mandate to include areas beyond Corinth. He can hardly implement this strategy if the church in Corinth is not secure, settled into a maturing faith. Primary evidence for their maturing faith is that they are able to recognize the emptiness of his opponents claims, both against Paul and for themselves. The tone harkens back to 10:7 where Paul informs them that he yet awaits their complete obedience. Atop his list in his upcoming visit is his desire to exhort them to obedience and to solidify their faith.

Corinth, up to this point, has not lived up to its advanced billing, not with regard to the collection, as is evident from 2 Corinthians 8 and 9, nor have they likely been much of a witness to the gospel in their area. As in the collection, their immaturity stands in stark contrast to the mature witness maintained by the Macedonian churches, both Thessalonica (1 Thess 1:6-8) and Philippi (Phil 2:14-16).

The word translated "will greatly expand" (megaluvnw, megalynô) is only used here in 2 Corinthians. Also translated as "enlarge" or "magnify," it conveys the idea of explosive growth. Paul has high hopes for the advance of the gospel contingent on the Corinthians and the matter at hand. The NIV's "area of activity" translates the word "rule" (kanwvn, kanôn), previously used in 10:13 to refer to the measured out area of apostolic activity commissioned to Paul from the Lord. It carries basically the same idea here. Paul views the actual geographic arena of his missionary activity expanding within his overall commission.

10:16 so that we can preach the gospel in the regions beyond you.

Paul clarifies his vision as being geographically past the Corinthians. Most interpreters take this to mean further westward expansion, probably Spain. Possibly Paul hopes to use Corinth as a solid base for expansion in that direction. Paul unfolds just such a vision in Rom 15:23-29. However, there, it seems apparent, he is hoping for the Roman church to be his base of operations as he goes beyond into Spain. In that Paul writes Romans during his three-month stay in Corinth, which occurs soon after the writing of 2 Corinthians, it seems that he may have had a change of heart.

For we do not want to boast about work already done in another man's territory.

Unlike his opponents in Corinth, Paul does not need to use the accomplishments of others in order to exaggerate his claims. In fact, it is his policy not to expend his missionary effort in areas others have evangelized. It is not good stewardship of resources. His commission is to pioneer new areas for the gospel. He states this policy for the record explicitly in Rom 15:20. In the case of the Roman church, he writes that he intends to suspend this policy because of his long-held desire to visit this noteworthy church.

10:17 But, "Let him who boasts boast in the Lord." ^a

^a 17 Jer. 9:24

Paul freely adapts the Septuagint rendering of Jer 9:24 for his purposes. The OT text does not specifically say "in the Lord." However, it implies this when it calls for a person, whether wise, strong, or rich to boast only "that he [God] understands and knows me."

The big question regarding this quote is whether Paul intends "Lord" to be taken as God, as in the OT text, or intends a switch to Christ, a common NT ploy. In fact, a major factor informing this interpretation here is that Paul also quotes this same adaptation of Jer 9:24 in 1 Cor 1:30 where the context more clearly suggests he means "Christ" for Lord. Elsewhere, in Phil 3:3 he talks of Christians "boasting in Christ Jesus" (NIV has "glory" but the Greek word is the same), and in Gal 6:14, he refers to boasting "in the cross of Jesus Christ." It is correct to note that in this context, 10:13 specifically talks of God as the one apportioning the fields of service, the only legitimate avenue of boasting. However, in 10:8 he also refers to the Lord, meaning Christ, as commissioning him with the authority which he uses to edify the Corinthians. In this he is permitted to boast. Most likely, then, Paul intends "Lord" to be understood as Christ here and in 10:17.

10:18 For it is not the one who commends himself who is approved, but the one whom the Lord commends.

Paul concludes his argument regarding commendation by employing the same word for "commend" (sunivsthmi, synistçmi) that he did in 10:12. Appropriate commendation should not originate from oneself but from the Lord, meaning Christ. The self-commendation of his opponents, therefore, is bogus. There is no need to promote oneself before the church or to the Lord. He knows the tasks he has assigned and knows how well each has done within those tasks. The word Paul uses for "approved" (dovkimo", dokimos ) implies that someone has passed the test. Let the Lord's servants be satisfied with his ability to score their exams appropriately.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

McGarvey: 2Co 10:10

For, His letters, they say [a general expression, equivalent to "it is said"], are weighty and strong; but his bodily presence is weak, and his speech of no account . [Now even if I boast most freely that my authority is greater than yours, my boasting will not bring shame upon me if you put me to the test. You will find that I am not terrible in letters alone, but also in my presence, and you will find how falsely you have spoken when you said that my letters were the only part of me calculated to cause fear. However, I shall regret to thus demonstrate my power against you, for God gave me this power to use rather in building you up than in tearing you down. The apostle thus draws a subtle contrast between himself and his adversaries, for they had delighted in destructive rather than constructive works.]

Lapide: 2Co 10:1-18

CHAPTER 10

SYNOPSIS OF THE CHAPTER

i. In this and the two next chapters Paul defends his apostleship against the false apostles, who held him up to contempt as vile and despicable, and accused him of over-harshness, audacity, and insolence. Paul here points out that his arms are not carnal but spiritual, and therefore all the more powerful, because it is theirs to cast down all the strongholds, counsels, and wisdom of the world, as well as to inflict punishment on all disobedience.

ii. He contrasts (ver. 12) the boast of the false apostles of the provinces traversed and converted by them with the actual journeyings and conversions wrought by himself.

Observe that these false apostles envied the glory of Paul, and wished to destroy it by their own eloquence, boasting, and calumnies. It appears, from xi. 22, that they were Jews, and were greedy of gain and glory, braggarts, and self-assertive. Fro m xi. 4 it also appears that they preached Christ in appearance, but were endeavouring to gradually subvert the Gospel by Judaism and its errors (xi. 3; xii. 13). Of this class were Cerinthus, Ebion, and other Judaisers, who bitterly persecuted S. Paul as an apostate from their law. 1Cor. 15 was an exposition of the resurrection against the teaching of Cerinthus.

Ver. 1.— Now I Paul myself beseech you. Hitherto I have pleaded the cause of others, the poor; now I am going to speak for myself. I beseech you to observe my admonitions and the precepts which, as your Apostle, I have given you concerning a true Christian life.

By the gentleness of Christ. He beseeches them, says Theophylact, by the meekness and gentleness of Christ, that reverencing them they may lovingly hear, receive, and obey the entreaty of Paul. In the second place, he does it to signify that he imitates the meekness of Christ, not His severity. I do not order you, he seems to say, although by virtue of my apostleship I might, but I beseech you by the gentleness of Christ, which I imitate and ever keep before me. For Christ in rebuking, teaching, and guiding men, showed wondrous patience, kindness, and gentleness, as when He received into grace Matthew, the Magdalene, and other sinners, and most lovingly forgave them all their guilt and punishment without harsh words or blows.

In presence am base among you. When I am with you, I seem in outward appearance mean and base (cf. ver. 10); but when away from you, I am bold and confident. He speaks ironically; for, as the next verse tells us, the false apostles, who held him up to execration, used to say: "Why do you make so much of Paul? He is a base and worthless fellow. Apollos and others have far more grace and eloquence; there is no comparison between them. By the side of them he is ignorant and unpolished. Why, then, does he take upon himself, why does he presume, when away from you, to send you such threatening letters, rebuking you, ordering, scolding, excommunicating you?" S. Paul imitates the false apostles, and repeats their words, as much as to say. "I am not the domineering, insolent, severe, threatening man, when absent, that my detractors make me, but I beseech you by the meekness and gentleness of Christ." Cf. vers. 9, 10 (Chrysostom).

Ver. 2. — But I beseech you that I may not be bold. I beseech you to lovingly receive my admonitions, lest when I come to you and see your disobedience, rebellion, and contumacy, I use my boldness and power to inflict excommunication and other spiritual. punishment, which I am thought to have already inflicted arbitrarily (Anselm). The Latin version reads the passive, I am thought, but Theophylact takes it actively—I think, I propose to boldly punish some evil-disposed persons.

Which think of us as if we walked according to the flesh. As though we lived a carnal life, or better, as though we used carnal means, such as fleshly, human, and political wisdom, in doing by letter what I dare not do in person.

The Apostle says that they walk, fight, and glory according to the flesh, who, after the manner of carnal and, crafty men, walk and boast in outward gifts, such as birth, prudence, eloquence, good looks, sagacity, and by means of these seek to gain the applause of men, and so win them to their side and overthrow their enemies. That this is his meaning is evident from the contrast drawn between these arms and spiritual arms in ver. 4. So, in xi. 18, he says that the false apostles boast according to the flesh, i.e., of external gifts. In v. 15, 16, again, he says that he knows no one, not even Christ, according to the flesh. In 2 Cor. 1, he contrasts the natural and carnal wisdom of philosophers and orators with the spiritual wisdom of Christians, and especially of Apostles. Cf. also Gal 3:3.

Ver. 4.— For the weapons of our warfare are not carnal. Carnal weapons are such as serve for carnal and bodily warfare and life, as the honours, pleasures, and power of this world. This the Apostles did not use in their task of subduing the world to Christ. Or rather, as said above, carnal weapons are human arts, sciences, reasonings, systems, eloquence, flatteries, boasting, hypocrisies, affected gravity and prudence, all of which are used by men of the world to gain influence and respect; while true and solid authority, such as Paul and the other Apostles had, is the gift of God, and is not to be obtained by external gifts or by assumed gravity, but rather by the display of virtue, wisdom, and holiness.

But mighty through God. Or, are the power of God. Through them God works powerfully in the minds of the hearers—converts them to the faith, makes them accept our preaching, brings them under subjection to Christ, so that we gain credence to what we say, and obtain what we want. These weapons are, says Anselm, (1.) Vehement spiritual zeal; (2.) Efficacious preaching, through God seeming to lend weight and force to our words; (3.) Wisdom; (4.) Courtesy; (S.) Holiness; (6.) Miracles; (7.) Frequent prayer; (8.) Purity of intention; (9.) Patience; (10.) Charity. When they see us men of the most blameless life, seeking not their wealth or honours, but their salvation only, and that by many labours, sacrifices, afflictions, daily death and martyrdom, and preaching to them with such zeal and ardour that all acknowledge Christ, and glorify Him and His Father—by all these things, as though by a most powerful dart, they are struck and wounded in their consciences, they yield, and believe our words and our doctrines. By these weapons do we Apostles destroy the vices and storm the kingdom of the devil, even the whole world. Hence apostleship and preaching of the Gospel are rightly called a warfare. Cf. 1Ti 1:18.

To the pulling down of strong holds. All reasonings, syllogisms, sophisms, eloquence, philosophic virtues, worldly power, grace, friendship, and all that the Gentiles and devils opposed to the preaching of the Gospel by the Apostles (Chrysostom and Anselm).

Ver. 5. — Casting down imaginations. Or, with Theophylact reasonings. The Syriac and Erasmus give imaginations; the Latin version, counsels. By our weapons we destroy all the counsels of the prudent of this world, by which they strive to overthrow the Gospel, to strengthen against it their heathenism, and to put their philosophers before Christ and us.

And every high thing. Every height, both of human and philosophic wisdom, as well as of diabolic magic, such as of Simon Magus and others, and of royal and imperial power. Imaginations and heights were the two towers set up by the Gentiles against the Apostles, one of which seemed impregnable through its intricate wiles, and the other by its height and strength. Yet both yielded to the weapons of the Apostles.

That exalteth itself against the knowledge of God. That knowledge of God given to us by Christ, and which we, His Apostles, teach throughout the world; faith, that is, in the Three in One, in the Son of God, in His Incarnation and death, in the Cross and its Redemption.

And bringing into captivity. Every thought, every intellect, however full of resources, however exalted in wisdom, must surrender as a conquered foe, and obey the Gospel of Christ.

When S. Paul says "every thought" or "every intellect" he does not mean to imply that all the philosophers and mighty men of the world who heard the Gospel preached were converted, but that the weapons of the Apostles were so powerful that they were able to subdue to the faith of Christ any thoughts and reasonings of the human intellect, however full of wiles, however highly exalted. As a matter of fact, they did subdue these powers in those who took these weapons, and admitted them into their soul, and so were converted. Many of all classes of philosophers and orators, illustrious for their learning and wisdom, were subdued by the weapons of the Apostles, and brought to believe in Christ. Such were Dionysius the Areopagite, Clement of Rome, Paul the proconsul, Justin the philosopher, Athenagoras, and others.

Ver. 6. — And having in a readiness to revenge all disobedience. Paul had said that his weapons were powerful to subdue any Gentiles or heathen wise men. He now goes on to say that this same power is able to punish all disobedience on the part of the faithful, or amongst heretics. I am ready, he says, and it is easy for me, to punish the disobedience of the false Apostles who depreciate me, by excommunicating them.

When your obedience is fulfilled. For I am unwilling to involve you in the same punishment. I would rather that you yourselves correct what needs correction and I am waiting until you fulfil what you have been ordered. Then when you have done that, I will unsheathe the sword of excommunication against those contumacious detractors. From this doctors lay down that this sword should not be drawn except against the disobedient, and those who, after having been warned, are still rebellious and obstinate.

Ver. 7. — Do ye look on things after the outward appearance? The Latin version takes this in the indicative. Ye see how openly and manifestly the truth has been set before your eyes, that I am not only a disciple of Christ, but also an Apostle endowed with such spiritual power as you see with your own eyes (Anselm).

Ver. 8. — Of our authority, which the Lord hath given us for edification. The Council of Trent (sess. xxv. c. 3) lays down from these words that the sword of excommunication should be soberly and cautiously drawn for edification; otherwise we see that it is rather despised than dreaded, and produces ruin rather than salvation, not only to the excommunicated, but also to the whole Church.

Ver. 10.— For his letters, say they, are weighty and powerful. My detractors, the false apostles, say that my letters are hard and bitter, severe and threatening, but my appearance is mean, contemptible, and puny. Nicephorus (lib. ii. c. 37) thus describes the stature and form of S. Paul from tradition and early representations. " Paul was small of stature, spare in form, round-shouldered, and somewhat inclined to stoop. His face was pale, and showed the marks of years. His head was small, and his eyes shone with a pleasant light. He had bushy eyebrows, a nose beautifully curved and somewhat long, and a thick and long beard, which, like his hair, was plentifully interspersed with white." S. Chrysostom ( Hom. de Princip. Apost.) says that "Paul was but three cubits high, and yet he touched the heavens." Lucian again, in his Philopater, laughs at Paul for having a head bald in front.

And his speech contemptible. Unlearned, inelegant, unadorned. Cf. 1Co 2:1-2.

Ver. 12. — For we dare not make ourselves of the number. I do not, like the false Apostles, boast of what I do not possess. I measure myself by my own foot, by the gifts of God, and by the things God's grace has done for me, says Photius, and so I do not arrogate to myself more than God has given me.

Paul speaks ironically. The false Apostles were in the habit of disparaging Paul's words and deeds, as though in him there was nothing great but his letters, which were high-flown enough, but were not borne out by his presence, than which nothing was more despicable. They would boast that in this they far excelled him. Therefore, says Paul, in scorn of their pride, I, a mere dwarf, do not dare to class myself with these giants, or to compare myself with them. None the less their boast of their greatness is baseless; while whatever I declare is true, and I measure myself by my own greatness, the grace I have received, and the things that I have really done.

The Latin version omits the last clause, "are not wise." The Syriac, Vatablus and others apply it to the false apostles, not to Paul. They commend themselves, but they do not see that they measure themselves by themselves, and compare themselves among themselves. They do foolishly in thus exalting themselves and making themselves giants. They act like a man who should measure his height by himself, instead of by a yard-measure, like a pigmy who boasts of his gigantic size; they have no other cause for their boasting than their self-delusion. Photius supplies after "they do not understand," that they are ridiculous to all, or, as S. Augustine says, in Ps. xxxv., they do not understand what they say and what they boast of.

Ver. 13 . — But we will not boast of things without our measure. This is the second charge brought by S. Paul against the false Apostles. They boast so largely that one would think they have preached the Gospel in every part of the world (Theophylact). I, however, boast not falsely, or beyond my measure; I measure myself by the true measure of the gifts and provinces that God has marked out for me. This measure reaches from Judæa through the intervening countries to Corinth. Just as kings glory in having extended their realms far and wide, so do I, as a doctor sent by Christ, glory in having extended His sway, and I hope to extend it still further.

Rule here denotes the measuring-line used by surveyors to fix the boundaries of fields and other grounds (cf. ver. 16). Measure denotes (1.) that by which anything is measured, as a yard-measure or a foot-measure; (2.) it denotes the quantity of the measuring-line; and (3.) the act of measuring; (4.) it stands for the thing measured, a bushel of wheat or an acre of land; i.e., corn to the amount of a bushel, land to the amount of an acre. In any of these last three senses the word may be used here, but best of all in the second.

Ver. 14 . — For we stretch not ourselves beyond our measure. This is his third scornful charge against the false apostles. They stretch out themselves and more than that by their boastful words, but let us see what good as a matter of fact they do. Whom have they converted? What cities or countries have they visited? They have never left their own home. Did they bring you into the Church? Ye are not their work, but mine in the Lord. It is I who have taken you and subdued you: you are my lot, the possession assigned me by the Lord. I can triumph over you and other provinces reaching to Judæa that I have subdued. And just as P. Scipio was called Africanus, and L. Scipio, Asiaticus, from the provinces they conquered, so might S. Paul have the agnomen of Corinthiacus, Achaicus, Macedonicus, Thracicus, Asiaticus, &c.

Ver. 15 . — Without our measure. The provinces not assigned us by God. This is again a blow aimed at the false apostles, who were in the habit of boasting, groundlessly of the many regions they had visited and converted.

Not boasting . . . of other men's labours. A fourth charge against the false apostles, who had entered into his labours at Corinth, where he had laid the foundations of the faith (Chrysostom). Doctors remark that heretics never go to unbelievers from zeal for the Gospel and for martyrdom, and convert them first of all to Christianity, but content themselves with endeavouring to attract the faithful. It may be said: Surely the Emperor Valens, when the Goths were anxious to be converted to Christianity, sent Arian Bishops, who made them Arians ( Freculphus, lib. iv. c. 20). I reply. This is true; but the Arians did not themselves take the initiative and go to the barbarous Goths from zeal for the faith, to plant among them the true faith, after the Apostolic manner, in hunger, thirst, persecutions, and deaths. The Goths invited them, and Valens consented. There is no difficulty in instilling poison into those who wish for it. Moreover, most of the Goths had previously been of the orthodox faith; but Ulphilas their Apostle, having been deceived by the Arians, deceived them in his turn and made them Arians, as Theodoret expressly says ( Hist. lib. iv. cap. ult. ).

But having hope when your faith is increased. I hope that when your faith is increased you will have no need of me; then I shall be able to go on to other nations to preach the Gospel (Chrysostom).

That we shall be enlarged by you. Or magnified in you. (1.) I hope that in those more distant regions I shall preach and bring back great glory. The teacher, says Theophylact, is magnified when his disciples grow in wisdom. (2.) It is better to refer the words magnified in you to what follows—according to our rule abundantly. I hope, as you increase in the faith, to be magnified through you according to our rule, i.e., to extend our rule, the bounds of my apostolate, to the regions beyond you, so that they, seeing your faith, holiness, and grace, may be provoked by your example, and eagerly await me and receive the Gospel.

As the Holy Land was divided by lot among the twelve tribes by fixed boundaries (Ps. lxxviii. 54), so was the whole earth divided as by a measuring-line among their antitypes, the twelve Apostles, that they might bring it under subjection to Christ. Thomas, e.g., evangelised India; Andrew, Achaia; John, Asia.

Abundantly. That my lot may be increased and spread further and further. I have not yet fixed any certain bounds to my province, nor has God, but I am always looking for and striving after its extension.

Ver. 16 . — Not to boast in another man's line. I do not meddle with the bounds, the provinces, and districts measured out and assigned, or occupied by other Apostles, so as to enter into things got ready by others, and to boast of other men's labours as if they were mine. He calls "made ready to his hand" those regions which had already received the Gospel from others; he refuses to seize upon the tilled fields of others, but rather chooses to be the first to plant the faith in any place he goes to. Cf. Rom 15:20.

The Greek κανών denotes the measuring-line of surveyors. Here the Apostle calls all those regions measured out to him, as it were, by God his rule. This "rule" he was daily extending, from his desire to preach everywhere; "as though," says Chrysostom, "he had come into possession of the earth and a fat inheritance." "Paul was," says Theophylact, "like a builder of the world, measuring it by his rule and building accordingly." The Greek κανών stands also for the builder's measuring-rod, but seems by S. Paul to be referred rather to the surveyor's.

Ver. 17.— But he that glorieth let him glory in the Lord. Let him glory in truth as before the Lord. Secondly, and better, to glory in the Lord is to glory with the glory given by the Lord, which alone commends a man, and vouches for him by the wonders which it works through him. This is the genuine meaning, for S. Paul contrasts glorying in one's self with glorying in the Lord. To glory in self is to commend self; to glory in the Lord is to be commanded by the Lord, and to glory in that commendation. Still it follows from this, thirdly, that he who truly glories should glory not in himself but in the Lord, by referring all that has been received to Him, whose gifts they are, by giving to Him all the glory, and directing everything to His praise and glory (Chrysostom).

By these words the Apostle shows where, when, and in what we should glory, and at the same time clears himself of all charge of ostentation and desire of vain-glory. He says implicitly: These great and fine things I say about myself, not because I wish to glory in myself, but because I wish to give the praise to the Lord, from whom I have received all my glory, and the ground of my glorying. Cf. 1Co 1:31, note.

Learn from this that true praise and glory come from God alone, and far excel all human glory; for, (1.) man's praise is but small and poor, men being but worms of earth; but God's glory is, as He is, boundless. (2.) Man's glory is outward and apparent only—within it is empty and ready to vanish away; but God's glory is inward and substantial; hence it fills and satisfies the soul. (3.) Man's glory is untrustworthy, feigned, and hypocritical—many laugh at you behind your back while praising you to your face; but God's glory is faithful and true. (4.) Man's glory is unstable, and, like a reed, is shaken by the slightest breath of rumour—they who praise you to-day will rail at you to-morrow; but God's glory is stable and constant. (5.) Man's glory is short-lived: mortals to die to-morrow praise you, and your praise will die with them. Where now are the praises of Cæsar, Pompey, Augustus? They have passed away—they are gone like smoke; but the praise of God is eternal. God will praise thee for ever before the angels and blessed ones, because thou didst despise the worlds glory, and sought for that true glory which lasts for ever with God. (6.) Man's glory is imperfect, maimed, and alloyed; a man is praised by some, blamed by others; as many men as there are, so many opinions and judgments are there. God's glory is entire and perfect, for whoever God praises is praised also by the inhabitants of heaven. (7.) Man's glory is erroneous and groundless. Men glorify the high-born, the rich, the powerful, even if they be villains, crime-stained, and tyrants. God's glory is most true and most certain, for He praises none but those endowed with virtue and true wisdom. Again, men glory in themselves, in their sagacity, virtue, fortitude—all things of naught; and therefore they glory in what is false, in nothing, in what is not. God's glory is to glory in God, of whom is all good and from whom flow all things to us, and to say, "Not unto us, not unto us, 0 Lord, but unto Thy name give the praise." (8.) Man's glory stands in the mouth of them that praise, confers no benefit on thee, impresses on thee no good. Therefore it is not in thee, but in Him that glorifies thee; just as honour is not in him that is honoured, but in him that confers it. But God's glory is both in God and in thee, for it is efficacious and fruitful. God does not merely beatify thee in thy soul with the light of glory, and in thy body with glorious gifts, but He communicates to the Blessed His own very Divine and uncreated glory, to be possessed and enjoyed. Oh, blind and insensate children of Adam, by nature greedy of praise, created and born to glory! Why do ye not seek after glory instead of its smoke and shadows? Why strive for what is false and fallacious and leave the true? Why seek for glory where it is not? You seek it on earth: it is not there, but in heaven. You seek it among men: it dwells among the angels and before God. You seek it in time: it is found in eternity. Thou, then, 0 Lord, art my glory; Thou art the joy of my heart. In thee will I glory and exalt all the day long. For myself I will glory in nothing save my infirmities. Let Jews, let worldly men seek glory from one another. I will require that which is from God alone. All human glory, all worldly honour, all temporal heights, when compared with Thy eternal glory are but vanity, foolishness, and reproach. 0 my Truth, my Mercy, my Glory, my God, 0 Blessed Trinity, to Thee alone be praise, honour, and glory; to Thee alone be blessing, wisdom, and thanksgiving; to Thee, our God, be honour, virtue, and strength for ever and ever. Amen.

Ver. 18 . — For not he that commendeth himself is approved. How is it, then, that Saints have sometimes commended themselves, as, e.g., Hezekiah, in Isa 38:3, and S. Paul in the next chapter, and in 2 Tim. 4.? I answer, They do indeed commend themselves, but at the same time they tacitly refer all their praise to God's grace as its first cause, and say: "By the grace of God I am what I am." Again, this self-commendation came not from themselves, but was inspired into them by the Holy Spirit, who spoke by their mouth. The Holy Spirit suggested to each writer of the Holy Scriptures what he should write.

Introduction / Outline

Robertson: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

Second Corinthians

From Macedonia a.d. 54 Or 55

By Way of Introduction

The Pauline authorship is admitted by all real scholars, though there is doubt by some as to the unity of the Epistle. J.H. Kennedy ( The Second and Third Letters of St. Paul to the Corinthians , 1900) has presented the arguments in a plausible, but not wholly convincing, manner for the plea that chapters 2 Corinthians 10-13 really represent a separate and earlier letter, the one referred to in 2Co_2:3, which was later tacked on to chapters 1-9 as part of the same Epistle. This theory does explain the difference in tone between chapters 1 to 7 and 10 to 13, but that fact is sufficiently clear from the stubborn minority against Paul in Corinth reported by Titus after the majority had been won to Paul by First Corinthians and by Titus (2Co_2:1-11). There are in fact three obvious divisions in the Epistle. Chapters 1 to 7 deal with the report of Titus about the victory in Corinth and Paul’s wonderful digression on the glory of the ministry in 2 Corinthians 2:12-6:10; chapters 8 and 2Co_9:1-15 discuss the collection for the poor saints in Jerusalem already mentioned in 1Co_16:1. and which Titus is to press to completion on his return to Corinth; chapters 10 to 13 deal sharply with the Judaizing minority who still oppose Paul’s leadership. These three subjects are in no sense inconsistent with each other. The letter is a unity. Nowhere do we gain so clear an insight into Paul’s own struggles and hopes as a preacher. It is a handbook for the modern minister of inestimable value. One can hear Paul’s heart throb through these chapters. The syntax is often broken by anacolutha. The sentences are sometimes disconnected. Grammatical agreements are overlooked. But there is power here, the grip of a great soul holding on to the highest ideals in the midst of manifold opposition and discouragements. Christ is Master of Paul at every turn.

The date of the Epistle is clearly after I Corinthians, for Paul has left Ephesus and is now in Macedonia (2Co_2:13), probably at Philippi, where he met Titus, though he had hoped to meet him at Troas on his return from Corinth. At a guess one may say that Paul wrote in the autumn of a.d. 54 or 55 of the same year in the spring of which he had written I Corinthians, and before he went on to Corinth himself where he wrote Romans (Act_20:1-3; Rom_16:1).

The occasion for writing is the return of Titus from Corinth with mixed news of the Pauline majority and the minority in opposition. So Titus is sent back with this Epistle to finish the task while Paul waits awhile for matters to clear up (2Co_13:1-10).

It is not certain whether the letter mentioned in 2Co_2:3 is our I Corinthians or a lost letter like the one alluded to in 1Co_5:9. If it is a lost one, we know of four Corinthian Epistles (the one in 1Co_5:9, our I Corinthians, the one in 2Co_2:3, our II Corinthians), assuming the unity of II Corinthians. Few things in Paul’s ministry gave him more concern than the troubles in Corinth. The modern city pastor finds little in his work that Paul has not faced and mastered. There is consolation and courage for the preacher in the conduct and counsels of this greatest of all preachers.

JFB: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

THE following reasons seem to have induced Paul to write this Second Epistle to the Corinthians: (1) That he might explain the reasons for his having deferred to pay them his promised visit, by taking Corinth as his way to Macedonia (1Co 4:19; 2Co 1:15-16; compare 1Co 16:5); and so that he might set forth to them his apostolic walk in general (2Co 1:12, 2Co 1:24; 2Co 6:3-13; 2Co 7:2). (2) That he might commend their obedience in reference to the directions in his First Epistle, and at the same time direct them now to forgive the offender, as having been punished sufficiently (2Co 2:1-11; 2Co 7:6-16). (3) That he might urge them to collect for the poor saints at Jerusalem (2Co 8:1-9, 2Co 8:15). (4) That he might maintain his apostolic authority and reprove gainsayers.

The external testimonies for its genuineness are IRENÆUS [Against Heresies, 3,7,1]; ATHENAGORAS [Of the Resurrection of the Dead]; CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA [Miscellanies, 3, p. 94; 4, p. 101]; TERTULLIAN [On Modesty, 13].

The TIME OF WRITING was after Pentecost, A.D. 57, when Paul left Ephesus for Troas. Having stayed in the latter place for some time preaching the Gospel with effect (2Co 2:12), he went on to Macedonia, being eager to meet Titus there, having been disappointed in his not coming to Troas, as had been agreed on between them. Having heard from him the tidings he so much desired of the good effect produced on the Corinthians by his First Epistle, and after having tested the liberality of the Macedonian churches (2Co 8:1), he wrote this Second Epistle, and then went on to Greece, where he abode for three months; and then, after travelling by land, reached Philippi on his return at Passover or Easter, A.D. 58 (Act 20:1-6). So that this Epistle must have been written about autumn, A.D. 57.

Macedonia was THE PLACE from which it was written (2Co 9:2, where the present tense, "I boast," or "am boasting," implies his presence then in Macedonia). In Asia (Lydian Asia) he had undergone some great peril of his life (2Co 1:8-9), whether the reference be [PALEY] to the tumult at Ephesus (Acts 19:23-41), or, as ALFORD thinks, to a dangerous illness in which he despaired of life. Thence he passed by Troas to Philippi, the first city which would meet him in entering Macedonia. The importance of the Philippian Church would induce him to stay there some time; as also his desire to collect contributions from the Macedonian churches for the poor saints at Jerusalem. His anxiety of mind is recorded (2Co 7:5) as occurring when he came into Macedonia, and therefore must have been at Philippi, which was the first city of Macedonia in coming from Troas; and here, too, from 2Co 7:6, compared with 2Co 7:5, must have been the scene of his receiving the comforting tidings from Titus. "Macedonia" is used for Philippi in 2Co 11:9, as is proved by comparison with Phi 4:15-16. So it is probably used here (2Co 7:5). ALFORD argues from 2Co 8:1, where he speaks of the "grace bestowed on the churches (plural) of Macedonia," that Paul must have visited other churches in Macedonia, besides Philippi, when he wrote, for example, Thessalonica, Berea, &c., and that Philippi, the first on his route, is less likely to have been the scene of his writing than the last on his route, whichever it was, perhaps Thessalonica. But Philippi, as being the chief town of the province, was probably the place to which all the collections of the churches were sent. Ancient tradition, too (as appears from the subscription to this Epistle), favors the view that Philippi was the place from which this Epistle was sent by the hands of Titus who received, besides, a charge to prosecute at Corinth the collection which he had begun at his first visit (2Co 8:6).

The STYLE is most varied, and passes rapidly from one phase of feeling to another; now joyous and consolatory, again severe and full of reproof; at one time gentle and affectionate, at another, sternly rebuking opponents and upholding his dignity as an apostle. This variety of style accords with the warm and earnest character of the apostle, which nowhere is manifested more beautifully than in this Epistle. His bodily frailty, and the chronic malady under which he suffered, and which is often alluded to (2Co 4:7; 2Co 5:1-4; 2Co 12:7-9; compare Note, see on 2Co 1:8), must have been especially trying to one of his ardent temperament. But besides this, was the more pressing anxiety of the "care of all the churches." At Corinth, as elsewhere, Judaizing emissaries wished to bind legal fetters of letter and form (compare 2Co. 3:3-18) on the freedom and catholicity of the Church. On the other hand, there were free thinkers who defended their immorality of practice by infidel theories (1Co 15:12, 1Co 15:32-36). These were the "fightings without," and "fears within" (2Co 7:5-6) which agitated the apostle's mind until Titus brought him comforting tidings from Corinth. Even then, while the majority at Corinth had testified their repentance, and, as Paul had desired, excommunicated the incestuous person, and contributed for the poor Christians of Judea, there was still a minority who, more contemptuously than ever, resisted the apostle. These accused him of crafty and mercenary motives, as if he had personal gain in view in the collection being made; and this, notwithstanding his scrupulous care to be above the possibility of reasonable suspicion, by having others besides himself to take charge of the money. This insinuation was palpably inconsistent with their other charge, that he could be no true apostle, as he did not claim maintenance from the churches which he founded. Another accusation they brought of cowardly weakness; that he was always threatening severe measures without daring to execute them (2Co 10:8-16; 2Co 13:2); and that he was vacillating in his teaching and practice, circumcising Timothy, and yet withholding circumcision from Titus; a Jew among the Jews, and a Greek among the Greeks. That most of these opponents were of the Judaizing party in the Church, appears from 2Co 11:22. They seem to have been headed by an emissary from Judea ("he that cometh," 2Co 11:4), who had brought "letters of commendation" (2Co 3:1) from members of the Church at Jerusalem, and who boasted of his purity of Hebrew descent, and his close connection with Christ Himself (2Co 11:13, 2Co 11:23). His partisans contrasted his high pretensions with the timid humility of Paul (1Co 2:3); and his rhetoric with the apostle's plain and unadorned style (2Co 11:6; 2Co 10:10, 2Co 10:13). It was this state of things at Corinth, reported by Titus, that caused Paul to send him back forthwith thither with this Second Epistle, which is addressed, not to Corinth only (1Co 1:2), but to all the churches also in Achaia (2Co 1:1), which had in some degree been affected by the same causes as affected the Corinthian Church. The widely different tone in different parts of the Epistle is due to the diversity which existed at Corinth between the penitent majority and the refractory minority. The former he addresses with the warmest affection; the latter with menace and warning. Two deputies, chosen by the churches to take charge of the contribution to be collected at Corinth, accompanied Titus (2Co 8:18-19, 2Co 8:22).

JFB: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

• THE HEADING; PAUL'S CONSOLATIONS IN RECENT TRIALS IN ASIA; HIS SINCERITY TOWARDS THE CORINTHIANS; EXPLANATION OF HIS NOT HAVING VISITED THEM AS HE HAD PURPOSED. (2Co. 1:1-24)
• REASON WHY HE HAD NOT VISITED THEM ON HIS WAY TO MACEDONIA; THE INCESTUOUS PERSON OUGHT NOW TO BE FORGIVEN; HIS ANXIETY TO HEAR TIDINGS OF THEIR STATE FROM TITUS, AND HIS JOY WHEN AT LAST THE GOOD NEWS REACHES HIM. (2Co. 2:1-17)
• THE SOLE COMMENDATION HE NEEDS TO PROVE GOD'S SANCTION OF HIS MINISTRY HE HAS IN HIS CORINTHIAN CONVERTS: HIS MINISTRY EXCELS THE MOSAIC, AS THE GOSPEL OF LIFE AND LIBERTY EXCELS THE LAW OF CONDEMNATION. (2Co. 3:1-18) Are we beginning again to recommend ourselves (2Co 5:12) (as some of them might say he had done in his first Epistle; or, a reproof to "some" who had begun doing so)!
• HIS PREACHING IS OPEN AND SINCERE, THOUGH TO MANY THE GOSPEL IS HIDDEN. (2Co. 4:1-18)
• THE HOPE (2Co 4:17-18) OF ETERNAL GLORY IN THE RESURRECTION BODY. (2Co. 5:1-21)
• HIS APOSTOLIC MINISTRY IS APPROVED BY FAITHFULNESS IN EXHORTATION, IN SUFFERINGS, IN EXHIBITION OF THE FRUITS OF THE HOLY GHOST: HIS LARGENESS OF HEART TO THEM CALLS FOR ENLARGEMENT OF THEIR HEART TO HIM. EXHORTATIONS TO SEPARATION FROM POLLUTION. (2Co. 6:1-18)
• SELF-PURIFICATION THEIR DUTY RESULTING FROM THE FOREGOING. HIS LOVE TO THEM, AND JOY AT THE GOOD EFFECTS ON THEM OF HIS FORMER EPISTLE, AS REPORTED BY TITUS. (2Co. 7:1-16)
• THE COLLECTION FOR THE SAINTS; THE READINESS OF THE MACEDONIANS A PATTERN TO THE CORINTHIANS; CHRIST THE HIGHEST PATTERN; EACH IS TO GIVE WILLINGLY AFTER HIS ABILITY; TITUS AND TWO OTHERS ARE THE AGENTS ACCREDITED TO COMPLETE THE COLLECTION. (2Co. 8:1-24)
• REASONS FOR HIS SENDING TITUS. THE GREATER THEIR BOUNTIFULNESS, THE MORE SHALL BE THE RETURN OF BLESSING TO THEM, AND THANKSGIVING TO GOD. (2Co 9:1-15)
• HE VINDICATES HIS APOSTOLIC AUTHORITY AGAINST THOSE WHO DEPRECIATED HIM FOR HIS PERSONAL APPEARANCE. HE WILL MAKE HIS POWER FELT WHEN HE COMES. HE BOASTS NOT, AS THEY, BEYOND HIS MEASURE. (2Co. 10:1-18)
• THROUGH JEALOUSY OVER THE CORINTHIANS, WHO MADE MORE ACCOUNT OF THE FALSE APOSTLES THAN OF HIM, HE IS OBLIGED TO COMMEND HIMSELF AS IN MANY RESPECTS SUPERIOR. (2Co. 11:1-33)
• REVELATIONS IN WHICH HE MIGHT GLORY: BUT HE RATHER GLORIES IN INFIRMITIES, AS CALLING FORTH CHRIST'S POWER: SIGNS OF HIS APOSTLESHIP: HIS DISINTERESTEDNESS: NOT THAT HE IS EXCUSING HIMSELF TO THEM; BUT HE DOES ALL FOR THEIR GOOD, LEST HE SHOULD FIND THEM NOT SUCH AS HE DESIRED, AND SO SHOULD HAVE TO BE SEVERE AT HIS COMING. (2Co. 12:1-21) He proceeds to illustrate the "glorying in infirmities" (2Co 11:30). He gave one instance which might expose him to ridicule (2Co 11:33); he now gives another, but this one connected with a glorious revelation of which it was the sequel: but he dwells not on the glory done to himself, but on the infirmity which followed it, as displaying Christ's power. The oldest manuscripts read, "I MUST NEEDS boast (or glory) though it be not expedient; for I will come." The "for" gives a proof that it is "not expedient to boast": I will take the case of revelations, in which if anywhere boasting might be thought harmless. "Visions" refers to things seen: "revelations," to things heard (compare 1Sa 9:15) or revealed in any way. In "visions" their signification was not always vouchsafed; in "revelations" there was always an unveiling of truths before hidden (Dan 2:19, Dan 2:31). All parts of Scripture alike are matter of inspiration; but not all of revelation. There are degrees of revelation; but not of inspiration.
• HE THREATENS A SEVERE PROOF OF HIS APOSTOLIC AUTHORITY, BUT PREFERS THEY WOULD SPARE HIM THE NECESSITY FOR IT. (2Co 13:1-14)

TSK: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

The most remarkable circumstance in this Epistle, observes Mr. Scott, is the confidence of the Apostle in the goodness of his cause, and in the power of God to bear him out in it. Opposed as he then was by a powerful and sagacious party, whose authority, reputation, and interest were deeply concerned, and who were ready to seize on every thing that could discredit him, it is wonderful to hear him so firmly insist upon his apostolical authority, and so unreservedly appeal to the miraculous power which he has exercised and conferred at Corinth. So far from shrinking from the contest, as afraid of some discovery being made, unfavourable to him and the common cause, he, with great modesty and meekness indeed, but with equal boldness and decision, expressly declares that his opposers and despisers were the ministers of Satan, and menaces them with miraculous judgments, when as many of their deluded hearers had been brought to repentance and re-established in the faith, as proper means could in a reasonable time effect. It is inconceivable that a stronger internal testimony, not only of integrity, but of divine inspiration, can exist. Had there been anything of imposture among the Christians, it was next to impossible but such a conduct must have occasioned a disclosure of it. Of the effects produced by this latter epistle we have no circumstantial account; for the journey which St. Paul took to Corinth, after he had written it, is mentioned by St. Luke only in a few words (Act 20:2, Act 20:3). We know, however, that St. Paul was there after he had written this Epistle; that the contributions for the poor brethren at Jerusalem were brought to him from different parts to that city (Rom 15:26); and that, after remaining there several months, he sent salutations from some of the principal members of that church, by whom he must have been greatly respected, to the church of Rome (Rom 16:22, Rom 16:23). From this time we hear no more of the false teacher and his party; and when Clement of Rome wrote his epistle to the Corinthians, St. Paul was considered by them as a divine apostle, to whose authority he might appeal without fear of contradiction. The false teacher, therefore, must either have been silenced by St. Paul, by virtue of his apostolical powers, and by an act of severity which he had threatened (2Co 13:2, 2Co 13:3); or this adversary of the apostle had, at that time, voluntarily quitted the place. Whichever was the cause, the effect produced must operate as a confirmation of our faith, and as a proof of St. Paul’s divine mission.

TSK: 2 Corinthians 10 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

2Co 10:1, Against the false apostles, who disgraced the weakness of his person and bodily presence, he shows the spiritual might and authority with which he was armed against all adverse powers; 2Co 10:7, assuring them that at his coming he will be found as mighty in word as he is now in writing, being absent; 2Co 10:12, and withal taxing them for reaching out themselves beyond their compass, and vaunting themselves of other men’s labours.

Poole: 2 Corinthians 10 (Chapter Introduction)

CORINTHIANS CHAPTER 10

MHCC: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

The second epistle to the Corinthians probably was written about a year after the first. Its contents are closely connected with those of the former epistle. The manner in which the letter St. Paul formerly wrote had been received, is particularly noticed; this was such as to fill his heart with gratitude to God, who enabled him fully to discharge his duty towards them. Many had shown marks of repentance, and amended their conduct, but others still followed their false teachers; and as the apostle delayed his visit, from his unwillingness to treat them with severity, they charged him with levity and change of conduct. Also, with pride, vain-glory, and severity, and they spake of him with contempt. In this epistle we find the same ardent affection towards the disciples at Corinth, as in the former, the same zeal for the honour of the gospel, and the same boldness in giving Christian reproof. The first six chapters are chiefly practical: the rest have more reference to the state of the Corinthian church, but they contain many rules of general application.

MHCC: 2 Corinthians 10 (Chapter Introduction)

(2Co 10:1-6) The apostle states his authority with meekness and humility.

(2Co 10:7-11) Reasons with the Corinthians.

(2Co 10:12-18) Seeks the glory of God, and to be approved of him.

Matthew Henry: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians

In his former epistle the apostle had signified his intentions of coming to Corinth, as he passed through Macedonia (1Co 16:5), but, being providentially hindered for some time, he writes this second epistle to them about a year after the former; and there seem to be these two urgent occasions: - 1. The case of the incestuous person, who lay under censure, required that with all speed he should be restored and received again into communion. This therefore he gives directions about (ch. 2), and afterwards (ch. 7) he declares the satisfaction he had upon the intelligence he received of their good behaviour in that affair. 2. There was a contribution now making for the poor saints at Jerusalem, in which he exhorts the Corinthians to join (ch. 8, 2Co 9:1-15).

There are divers other things very observable in this epistle; for example, I. The account the apostle gives of his labours and success in preaching the gospel in several places, ch. 2. II. The comparison he makes between the Old and New Testament dispensation, ch. 3. III. The manifold sufferings that he and his fellow-labourers met with, and the motives and encouragements for their diligence and patience, ch. 4, 5. IV. The caution he gives the Corinthians against mingling with unbelievers, ch. 6. V. The way and manner in which he justifies himself and his apostleship from the opprobrious insinuations and accusations of false teachers, who endeavoured to ruin his reputation at Corinth, ch. 10-12, and throughout the whole epistle.

Matthew Henry: 2 Corinthians 10 (Chapter Introduction)

There was no place in which the apostle Paul met with more opposition from false apostles than at Corinth; he had many enemies there. Let not any of the ministers of Christ think it strange if they meet with perils, not only from enemies, but from false brethren; for blessed Paul himself did so. Though he was so blameless and inoffensive in all his carriage, so condescending and useful to all, yet there were those who bore him ill-will, who envied him, and did all they could to undermine him, and lesson his interest and reputation. Therefore he vindicates himself from their imputation, and arms the Corinthians against their insinuations. In this chapter the apostle, in a mild and humble manner, asserts the power of his preaching, and to punish offenders (2Co 10:1-6). He then proceeds to reason the case with the Corinthians, asserting his relation to Christ, and his authority as an apostle of Christ (2Co 10:7-11), and refuses to justify himself, or to act by such rules as the false teachers did, but according to the better rules he had fixed for himself (2Co 10:12 to the end).

Barclay: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO THE LETTERS TO THE CORINTHIANS

The Greatness Of Corinth

A glance at the map will show that Corinth was made for greatness. The southern part of Greece is very nearly an island. On the west the Corinthian Gulf deeply indents the land and on the east the Saronic Gulf. All that is left to join the two parts of Greece together is a little isthmus only four miles across. On that narrow neck of land Corinth stands. Such a position made it inevitable that it should be one of the greatest trading and commercial centres of the ancient world. All traffic from Athens and the north of Greece to Sparta and the Peloponnese had to be routed through Corinth, because it stood on the little neck of land that connected the two.

Not only did the north to south traffic of Greece pass through Corinth of necessity, by far the greater part of the east to west traffic of the Mediterranean passed through her from choice. The extreme southern tip of Greece was known as Cape Malea (now called Cape Matapan). It was dangerous, and to round Cape Malea had much the same sound as to round Cape Horn had in later times. The Greeks had two sayings which showed what they thought of it--"Let him who sails round Malea forget his home," and, "Let him who sails round Malea first make his will."

The consequence was that mariners followed one of two courses. They sailed up the Saronic Gulf, and, if their ships were small enough, dragged them out of the water, set them on rollers, hauled them across the isthmus, and re-launched them on the other side. The isthmus was actually called the Diolkos, the place of dragging across. The idea is the same as that which is contained in the Scottish place name Tarbert, which means a place where the land is so narrow that a boat can be dragged from loch to loch. If that course was not possible because the ship was too large, the cargo was disembarked, carried by porters across the isthmus, and re-embarked on another ship at the other side. This four mile journey across the isthmus, where the Corinth Canal now runs, saved a journey of two hundred and two miles round Cape Malea, the most dangerous cape in the Mediterranean.

It is easy to see how great a commercial city Corinth must have been. The north to south traffic of Greece had no alternative but to pass through her; by far the greater part of the east to west trade of the Mediterranean world chose to pass through her. Round Corinth there clustered three other towns, Lechaeum at the west end of the isthmus, Cenchrea at the east end and Schoenus just a short distance away. Farrar writes, "Objects of luxury soon found their way to the markets which were visited by every nation in the civilized world--Arabian balsam, Phoenician dates, Libyan ivory, Babylonian carpets, Cilician goatsair, Lycaonian wool, Phrygian slaves."

Corinth, as Farrar calls her, was the Vanity Fair of the ancient world. Men called her The Bridge of Greece; one called her The Lounge of Greece. It has been said that if a man stands long enough in Piccadilly Circus he will in the end meet everyone in the country. Corinth was the Piccadilly Circus of the Mediterranean. To add to the concourse which came to it, Corinth was the place where the Isthmian Games were held, which were second only to the Olympics. Corinth was a rich and populous city with one of the greatest commercial trades in the ancient world.

The Wickedness Of Corinth

There was another side to Corinth. She had a reputation for commercial prosperity, but she was also a byword for evil living. The very word korinthiazesthai, to live like a Corinthian, had become a part of the Greek language, and meant to live with drunken and immoral debauchery. The word actually penetrated to the English language, and, in Regency times, a Corinthian was one of the wealthy young bucks who lived in reckless and riotous living. Aelian, the late Greek writer, tells us that if ever a Corinthian was shown upon the stage in a Greek play he was shown drunk. The very name Corinth was synonymous with debauchery and there was one source of evil in the city which was known all over the civilized world. Above the isthmus towered the hill of the Acropolis, and on it stood the great temple of Aphrodite, the goddess of love. To that temple there were attached one thousand priestesses who were sacred prostitutes, and in the evenings they descended from the Acropolis and plied their trade upon the streets of Corinth, until it became a Greek proverb, "It is not every man who can afford a journey to Corinth." In addition to these cruder sins, there flourished far more recondite vices, which had come in with the traders and the sailors from the ends of the earth, until Corinth became not only a synonym for wealth and luxury, drunkenness and debauchery, but also for filth.

The History Of Corinth

The history of Corinth falls into two parts. She was a very ancient city. Thucydides, the Greek historian, claims that it was in Corinth that the first triremes, the Greek battleships, were built. Legend has it that it was in Corinth that the Argo was built, the ship in which Jason sailed the seas, searching for the golden fleece. But in 146 B.C. disaster befell her. The Romans were engaged in conquering the world. When they sought to reduce Greece, Corinth was the leader of the opposition. But the Greeks could not stand against the disciplined Romans, and in 146 B.C. Lucius Mummius, the Roman general, captured Corinth and left her a desolate heap of ruins.

But any place with the geographical situation of Corinth could not remain a devastation. Almost exactly one hundred years later, in 46 B.C. Julius Caesar rebuilt her and she arose from her ruins. Now she became a Roman colony. More, she became a capital city, the metropolis of the Roman province of Achaea, which included practically all Greece.

In those days, which were the days of Paul, her population was very mixed. (i) There were the Roman veterans whom Julius Caesar had settled there. When a Roman soldier had served his time, he was granted the citizenship and was then sent out to some newly-founded city and given a grant of land so that he might become a settler there. These Roman colonies were planted all over the world, and always the backbone of them was the contingent of veteran regular soldiers whose faithful service had won them the citizenship. (ii) When Corinth was rebuilt the merchants came back, for her situation still gave her commercial supremacy. (iii) There were many Jews among the population. The rebuilt city offered them commercial opportunities which they were not slow to take. (iv) There was a sprinkling of Phoenicians and Phrygians and people from the east, with their exotic customs and their hysterical ways. Farrar speaks of "this mongrel and heterogeneous population of Greek adventurers and Roman bourgeois, with a tainting infusion of Phoenicians; this mass of Jews, ex-soldiers, philosophers, merchants, sailors, freedmen, slaves, trades-people, hucksters and agents of every form of vice." He characterizes her as a colony "without aristocracy, without traditions and without well-established citizens."

Remember the background of Corinth, remember its name for wealth and luxury, for drunkenness and immorality and vice, and then read 1Co_6:9-10 .

Are you not aware that the unrighteous will not inherit the

Kingdom of God? Make no mistake--neither fornicators, nor

idolaters, nor adulterers, nor sensualists, nor homosexuals, nor

thieves, nor rapacious men, nor drunkards, nor slanderers, nor

robbers shall inherit the Kingdom of God--and such were some of

you.

In this hotbed of vice, in the most unlikely place in all the Greek world, some of Paulgreatest work was done, and some of the mightiest triumphs of Christianity were won.

Paul In Corinth

Paul stayed longer in Corinth than in any other city, with the single exception of Ephesus. He had left Macedonia with his life in peril and had crossed over to Athens. There he had had little success and had gone on to Corinth, and he remained there for eighteen months. We realize how little we really know of his work when we see that the whole story of that eighteen months is compressed by Luke into 17 verses (Act_18:1-17 ).

When Paul arrived in Corinth he took up residence with Aquila and Prisca. He preached in the synagogue with great success. With the arrival of Timothy and Silas from Macedonia, he redoubled his efforts, but the Jews were so stubbornly hostile that he had to leave the synagogue. He took up his residence with one Justus who lived next door to the synagogue. His most notable convert was Crispus, who was actually the ruler of the synagogue, and amongst the general public he had good success.

In the year A.D. 52 there came to Corinth as its new governor a Roman called Gallio. He was famous for his charm and gentleness. The Jews tried to take advantage of his newness and good nature and brought Paul to trial before him on a charge of teaching contrary to their law. But Gallio, with impartial Roman justice, refused to have anything to do with the case or to take any action. So Paul completed his work in Corinth and moved on to Syria.

The Correspondence With Corinth

It was when he was in Ephesus in the year A.D. 55 that Paul, learning that things were not all well in Corinth, wrote to the church there. There is every possibility that the Corinthian correspondence as we have it is out of order. We must remember that it was not until A.D. 90 or thereby that Paulcorrespondence was collected. In many churches it must have existed only on scraps of papyrus and the putting it together would be a problem: and it seems that, when the Corinthian letters were collected, they were not all discovered and were not arranged in the right order. Let us see if we can reconstruct what happened.

(i) There was a letter which preceded 1 Corinthians. In 1Co_5:9 Paul writes, "I wrote you a letter not to associate with immoral men." This obviously refers to some previous letter. Some scholars believe that letter is lost without trace. Others think it is contained in 2Co_6:14-18 and 2Co_7:1 . Certainly that passage suits what Paul said he wrote about. It occurs rather awkwardly in its context, and, if we take it out and read straight on from 2Co_6:13 to 2Co_7:2 , we get excellent sense and connection. Scholars call this letter The Previous Letter. (In the original letters there were no chapter or verse divisions. The chapters were not divided up until the thirteenth century and the verses not till the sixteenth, and because of that the arranging of the collection of letters would be much more difficult).

(ii) News came to Paul from various sources of trouble at Corinth. (a) News came from those who were of the household of Chloe (1Co_1:11 ). They brought news of the contentions with which the church was torn. (b) News came with the visit of Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus to Ephesus. (1Co_16:17 ). By personal contact they were able to fill up the gaps in Paulinformation. (c) News came in a letter in which the Corinthian Church had asked Paul guidance on various problems. In 1Co_7:1 Paul begins, "Concerning the matters about which you wrote..." In answer to all this information Paul wrote 1 Corinthians and despatched it to Corinth apparently by the hand of Timothy (1Co_4:17 ).

(iii) The result of the letter was that things became worse than ever, and, although we have no direct record of it, we can deduce that Paul paid a personal visit to Corinth. In 2Co_12:14 he writes, "The third time I am ready to come to you." In 2Co_13:1-2 , he says again that he is coming to them for the third time. Now, if there was a third time, there must have been a second time. We have the record of only one visit, whose story is told in Act_18:1-17 . We have no record at all of the second, but Corinth was only two or three daysailing from Ephesus.

(iv) The visit did no good at all. Matters were only exacerbated and the result was an exceedingly severe letter. We learn about that letter from certain passages in 2 Corinthians. In 2Co_2:4 Paul writes, "I wrote to you out of much affliction and anguish of heart and with many tears." In 2Co_7:8 he writes, "For even if I made you sorry with my letter, I do not regret it though I did regret it; for I see that that letter has grieved you, though only for a while." It was a letter which was the product of anguish of mind, a letter so severe that Paul was almost sorry that he ever sent it.

Scholars call this The Severe Letter. Have we got it? It obviously cannot be I Corinthians, because it is not a tear-stained and anguished letter. When Paul wrote it, it is clear enough that things were under control. Now if we read through 2 Corinthians we find an odd circumstance. In 2Cor 1-9 everything is made up, there is complete reconciliation and all are friends again; but at 2Cor 10 comes the strangest break. 2Cor 10-13 are the most heartbroken cry Paul ever wrote. They show that he has been hurt and insulted as he never was before or afterwards by any church. His appearance, his speech, his apostleship, his honesty have all been under attack.

Most scholars believe that 2Cor 10-13 are the severe letter, and that they have become misplaced when Paulletters were put together. If we want the real chronological course of Paulcorrespondence with Corinth, we really ought to read 2Cor 10-13 before 2Cor 1-9. We do know that this letter was sent off with Titus. (2Co_2:13 ; 2Co_7:13 ).

(v) Paul was worried about this letter. He could not wait until Titus came back with an answer, so he set out to meet him (2Co_2:13 ; 2Co_7:5 , 2Co_7:13 ). Somewhere in Macedonia he met him and learned that all was well, and, probably at Philippi, he sat down and wrote 2Cor 1-9, the letter of reconciliation.

Stalker has said that the letters of Paul take the roof off the early churches and let us see what went on inside. Of none of them is that truer than the letters to Corinth. Here we see what "the care of all the churches" must have meant to Paul. Here we see the heart-breaks and the joys. Here we see Paul, the shepherd of his flock, bearing the sorrows and the problems of his people on his heart.

The Corinthian Correspondence

Before we read the letters in detail let us set down the progress of the Corinthian correspondence in tabular form.

(i) The Previous Letter, which may be contained in 2Co_6:14-18 and 2Co_7:1 .

(ii) The arrival of Chloepeople, of Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus, and of the letter to Paul from the Corinthian Church.

(iii) 1 Corinthians is written in reply and is despatched with Timothy.

(iv) The situation grows worse and Paul pays a personal visit to Corinth, which is so complete a failure that it almost breaks his heart.

(v) The consequence is The Severe Letter, which is almost certainly contained in 2Cor 10-13, and which was despatched with Titus.

(vi) Unable to wait for an answer, Paul sets out to meet Titus. He meets him in Macedonia, learns that all is well and, probably from Philippi, writes 2Cor 1-9, The Letter of Reconciliation.

The first four chapters of 1 Corinthians deal with the divided state of the Church of God at Corinth. Instead of being a unity in Christ it was split into sects and parties, who had attached themselves to the names of various leaders and teachers. It is Paulteaching that these divisions had emerged because the Corinthians thought too much about human wisdom and knowledge and too little about the sheer grace of God. In fact, for all their so-called wisdom, they are really in a state of immaturity. They think that they are wise men, but really they are no better than babies.

FURTHER READING

2 Corinthians

F. F. Bruce, 1 and 2 Corinthians (NCB; E)

J. Hering, The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians (translated by A. W. Heathcote and P. J. Allcock)

A. Plummer, 2 Corinthians (ICC; G)

R. V. G. Tasker, The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians (TC; E)

Abbreviations

ICC: International Critical Commentary

MC: Moffatt Commentary

NCB: New Century Bible

TC: Tyndale Commentary

E: English Text

G: Greek Text

Barclay: 2 Corinthians 10 (Chapter Introduction)

Paul Begins To Answer His Critics (2Co_10:1-6)

Paul Continues To Answer His Critics (2Co_10:7-18)

Constable: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Historical background

First Corinthians did not dispel the problems in the church at Corinth completely. While it resolved some of these, opposition to the Apostle Paul persisted and Paul's critics continued to speak out against him in the church. One man in particular seems to have been the ringleader of the opposition (10:7). He had rallied the support of a significant minority. The issue was Paul's apostolic authority. His critics were claiming authority equal with Paul's. This was in effect a claim to apostolic authority on their part or a denial of the full apostolic authority of Paul.

News of continuing problems in Corinth reached Paul in Ephesus during his prolonged stay there during his third missionary journey. He then made a brief visit to Corinth. However his efforts to resolve the conflicts fell through (2:1; 12:14; 13:1-2). Paul apparently suffered insult and lost face during that visit (2:5-8; 7:12). Consequently this was a painful visit for Paul. He then returned to Ephesus.

Paul's next step in dealing with the situation in Corinth was to send a severe letter from Ephesus by the hand of Titus and another unnamed brother (2:3-4; 7:8-12; 12:18). He apparently directed this letter, now lost, at the party opposed to him and particularly its leader. Some commentators believe that 2 Corinthians 10-13 contains part of this letter, but the evidence for this is not convincing.¹

Paul evidently intended to receive Titus' report concerning the effects of this severe letter in Ephesus. However, persecution there made it expedient for Paul to leave that city earlier than he had anticipated (Acts 20:1). He found an open door for the gospel to the north in Troas. Eager to meet Titus who was taking the land route from Corinth back to Ephesus Paul moved west into Macedonia (2:12-13). There Titus met him and gave him an encouraging report (7:6-16). Most of the church had responded to Paul's directives and the church had disciplined the troublemakers (2:5-11). Unfortunately some in the congregation still refused to acknowledge Paul's authority over them (10:1-13:10).

Paul rejoiced at the repentance of the majority. However his concern for the unrepentant minority and his desire to pick up the money the Corinthians had begun to collect for their poorer brethren in Jerusalem led him to write 2 Corinthians. Along with these primary motives Paul also felt compelled to refute the charge of fickleness leveled at him by his critics. He had changed his travel plans and had not come to see them as he had said he would.

The whole situation provided him an opportunity to clarify the nature of Christian ministry.

Paul wrote the Second Epistle to the Corinthians from Macedonia, perhaps Philippi, Thessalonica, or Berea, probably in the fall or winter of 56 A.D. A date a year earlier or later is possible.

Some commentators believe Paul wrote 1 Corinthians after his painful visit and after he wrote the severe letter.² I believe it is more probable that he wrote 1 Corinthians before these two events.³ It is very difficult to reconstruct the details of Paul's activities since the data available to us is incomplete.

Paul's Corinthian Contacts
Paul's founding visit	His "former letter"	The Corin-thians' letter to him	First Corin-thians	Paul's "painful visit"	His "severe letter"	Second Corin-thians	Paul's antici-pated visit

"2 Corinthians is very different from the letters between which it was written, 1 Corinthians and Romans. Whereas each of those letters is, in its own way, systematic and orderly, 2 Corinthians is, on the face of it, uneven and digressive. It is no surprise, therefore, that many scholars have suggested that 2 Corinthians is really a collection of letters put together later as a single letter."⁴

"Second Corinthians presents many inspiring texts and passages to the reader and teacher of God's Word. A quick survey reveals approximately eighty individual verses lending themselves to extended meditation and exposition, apart from the sixty or so constituent paragraphs of the letter. This letter is a rich lode for the edification of God's people."⁵

Message⁶

The subject of 2 Corinthians is ministry, the church's work of service in the world. This is the central concept Paul dealt with in this epistle. What did he say about ministry?

He spoke of ministry in two ways. There is ministry per se (philosophy of ministry), and there is ministry to the world (practice of ministry).

Let's consider first what Paul revealed about the ministry of the church per se. This is the way Paul spoke of ministry most often in 2 Corinthians. In 1 Corinthians there is more emphasis on the practice of ministry than on the philosophy of ministry.

Paul had a lot to say about the authority of the church's ministry. Jesus Christ is the church's authority. He is the One who assigns each believer particular ministry within the body of Christ (cf. 1 Cor. 12:11, 18, 28; Eph. 4:11-13). The Corinthian church was having a major problem because some in its company were failing to accept Paul's appointment by Christ as an apostle and their own appointment as non-apostles. This was a practical repudiation of Jesus Christ's authority in the church. We must bow to the authority of Christ in the church by recognizing and responding appropriately to those He has appointed to various roles in the body. We identify these people by their gifts (divinely given abilities) and by their offices (divinely given positions).

Paul also had a lot to say in this epistle about the resources of the church's ministry. He emphasized three primarily.

One important resource is the encouragement of God. Paul spoke of this in the first part of the epistle especially. We read "comfort" in our texts, but the Greek word paraklesis means comfort through encouragement. The same Greek root describes the Holy Spirit as our Paraclete in John 14-16. Paul both taught and demonstrated in this letter that God's encouraging comfort always exceeds our discouragement and distress in ministry. The secret to finding it sufficient is taking God's view of how our ministry is really proceeding. This viewpoint Paul revealed, too.

A second resource is divine revelation. Paul did not preach himself or a message that he had concocted. He preached what God had revealed. Thus, revelation constituted both Paul's public message and his personal encouragement. We, too, have received the same message to communicate as ambassadors of Christ. It is a message of reconciliation, and it is the source of our encouragement.

A third resource is the prayers of the saints. Paul called for and counted on the prayers of God's people to bring God's power into play through him as he ministered (1:11). He realized that his own prayers would not move God to work as well as the concerted prayers of many of God's children (cf. James 4:2). Lack of prayer is often a sign of confidence in self rather than confidence in God.

In addition to the authority and resources of our ministry, Paul also had a lot to say in this epistle about experience in ministry. Three features mark experience in ministry.

First, one thing that marks ministry is tribulation. Paul spoke extensively in 2 Corinthians about the afflictions he experienced during his ministry. Furthermore he revealed that these are part of ministry, anyone's ministry who is carrying it out as God has directed. Some people do not welcome the gospel. To them it is a death scent. We should expect to experience tribulation in ministry. We have all experienced this in witnessing to some extent.

Second, another thing that should mark our ministry is hope. God has revealed the end of our ministry. We will all stand before Jesus Christ and receive a reward one day (5:10). This hope is a certainty. The Christian who loses sight of his or her hope is going to drift and suffer discouragement rather than press toward the mark. The end of our ministry is constantly in view in this epistle.

Third, a mark of Christian ministry is triumph. Paul revealed and illustrated by his own attitude that no matter how response to our ministry may appear to us our ministry is always triumphant. The reason for this is that God is at work through His ministers. One of the problems Paul's critics in Corinth had and that we have is that they were evaluating ministry superficially rather than realistically. We need to evaluate ministry on the basis of what God has revealed is happening, not what appears to be happening.

Paul not only revealed much about ministry per se in 2 Corinthians, he also revealed a lot about the ministry of the church to the world. Three emphases predominate.

First, Paul revealed what the message of the church is: the Word of God. Ours is a ministry of the Word. By "the Word" Paul meant the revelation God has given us. In his day it consisted of the Old Testament Scriptures plus the revelations that he and the other New Testament prophets had received that were for all Christians. Paul contrasted his message and ours with the message of Moses and exulted in its superiority. God has removed the veil and we can now see His glory clearly revealed in the face of Jesus Christ.

Second, Paul revealed the church's equipment to carry on its ministry to the world. We are ready to minister only when we separate from the world's sins and conform to God's will. Paul contrasts with his critics in this letter in all these respects. As these characteristics mark us we, too, will be ready to minister.

Third, Paul revealed the exercise of the church's ministry to the world. In exercising its ministry the church does three things according to this epistle.

1. It exercises discipline to restore the erring to effective ministry. Paul's great concern in this epistle was the restoration of the rebellious critics in the Corinthian church to unity and usefulness.

2. The church also is to give no occasion of stumbling to others. Paul's concern was that the behavior of the Corinthian Christians would be an encouragement to other believers and a base from which the gospel could proceed even farther into unevangelized regions beyond.

3. Third, the church exercises the grace of giving. It seeks to facilitate the principle of equality that God has demonstrated throughout history, namely that those who have should share with those who have not. This applies not only to the gospel message but to the physical necessities of life (chs. 8-9).

From these emphases the message of the book emerges. The church needs to submit to revealed authority, to draw upon supernatural resources and equipment, and to experience triumph through tribulation as it executes its mission. As it does so it will effectively carry out its ministry of proclaiming the message of reconciliation to the world.

Constable: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

Outline

I. Introduction 1:1-11

A. Salutation 1:1-2

B. Thanksgiving for comfort in affliction 1:3-11

1. Thanksgiving for comfort 1:3-7

2. Thanksgiving for deliverance 1:8-11

II. Answers to insinuations about the sincerity of Paul's commitment to the Corinthians and to the ministry 1:12-7:16

A. Defense of his conduct with regard to his promised visit and the offender 1:12-2:17

1. The postponement of the intended visit 1:12-2:4

2. The treatment of the offender and the result of the severe letter 2:5-17

B. Exposition of Paul's view of the ministry 3:1-6:10

1. The superiority of Christian ministry to Mosaic ministry 3:1-11

2. The great boldness of the new ministers 3:12-4:6

3. The sufferings and supports of a minister of the gospel 4:7-5:10

4. The life of a minister of Christ 5:11-6:10

C. Appeal for restoration of the Corinthians' confidence in him 6:11-7:16

1. An appeal for large-heartedness and consistency 6:11-7:4

2. The encouraging response of the Corinthians so far 7:5-16

III. Instructions concerning the collection for the poor saints in Judea 8:1-9:15

A. The example of the Macedonians 8:1-7

B. The supreme motive for giving 8:8-15

C. The delegates of the churches 8:16-24

D. The anticipated visit of Paul 9:1-5

E. The benefits of generous giving 9:6-15

IV. Appeals concerning Paul's apostolic authority 10:1-13:10

A. Replies to charges made against Paul 10:1-18

1. Reply to the charge of cowardice 10:1-6

2. Reply to the charge of weakness 10:7-11

3. Reply to the charge of intrusion 10:12-18

B. Claims made by Paul 11:1-12:18

1. Paul's reasons for making these claims 11:1-6

2. Freedom to minister without charge 11:7-15

3. Paul's service and sufferings 11:16-33

4. Special revelations Paul received 12:1-10

5. Paul's supernatural miracles and paternal love 12:11-18

C. Exhortations in view of Paul's approaching visit 12:19-13:10

1. Paul's concerns 12:19-21

2. Paul's warnings 13:1-10

V. Conclusion 13:11-14

A. The exhortation 13:11-12

B. The salutation 13:13

C. The benediction 13:14

Constable: 2 Corinthians

2 Corinthians

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Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

THE SECOND

EPISTLE OF ST. PAUL, THE APOSTLE,

TO THE CORINTHIANS.

INTRODUCTION.

The subject and design of this second Epistle to the Corinthians, is much the same as of the former. He comforts and congratulates with those who were now reformed by his admonitions. He blames the faulty with apostolical liberty; and being forced to justify himself and his proceedings against the upstart false teachers, he gives an ample account of his sufferings, and also of the favours and graces, which God had bestowed upon him. This Epistle was written not long after the first, (an. 57. [in the year 57.]) some months before that to the Romans, from some place in Macedonia, perhaps from Philippi, as marked at the end of divers Greek copies, though it is observed, that those subscriptions are not much to be relied upon. (Witham) --- In this Epistle St. Paul comforts those who are now reformed by his admonitions to them in the former, and absolves the incestuous man on doing penance, whom he had before excommunicated for his crime. Hence he treats of true penance, and of the dignity of the ministers of the New Testament. He cautions the faithful against false teachers, and the society of infidels. He gives an account of his sufferings, and also of the favours and graces which God hath bestowed on him. (Challoner) --- St. Paul, not being able to come to the Corinthians as soon as he had promised, writes this Epistle to inform them, that it was not through inconstancy, but on account of several weighty reasons, which had hitherto hindered him. Several other reasons, likewise, compelled him to write. For during his absence, several false teachers of the Jews had come amongst them, teaching them that it was necessary to observe the law of Moses, in order to be saved. St. Paul, therefore, first excuses himself, by saying, that the afflictions and troubles he had met with, had hindered him from coming to them. He next orders the fornicator to be restored to favour; after which, he extols his apostleship, forming a comparison between the law of Christ, and of Moses, wherein he blames the false teachers. He then subjoins an exhortation to a pious and holy life, with liberality in their alms, after the example of the Macedonians. As the false teachers had been very industrious in establishing their own reputation, by detracting from that of St. Paul, he enumerates his own sufferings, and the favours he had received from God, shewing that he had much more reason to glory than they; and concludes by exhorting them to correct those faults with which they still remained infected. (Estius) --- This letter may be justly appreciated as a perfect masterpiece of that animated and solid eloquence, which all interpreters so much admire in St. Paul. (Bible de Vence)

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Gill: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 2 CORINTHIANS

This epistle, according to the subscription at the end of it, was written from Philippi of Macedonia; and though the subscriptions annexed to the epistles are not always to be depended on, yet it seems very likely that this was written from thence; for the apostle not finding Titus at Troas, as he expected, went into Macedonia, where he met with him, and had an account from him of the success of his first epistle; of the state and condition of the church, and of the temper and disposition of mind in which the members of it were, and which gave him great satisfaction; upon which he immediately wrote this second epistle, and sent it by the same person to them; see 2Co 2:12, 2Co 7:5. It is very probable it might be written the year after the former; and so it is placed by Dr. Lightfoot in the year 56, as the former is in the year 55; though some place this in the year 60, and the other in 59. The occasion of this epistle was partly to excuse his not coming to them according to promise, and to vindicate himself from the charge of unfaithfulness, levity, and inconstancy on that account; and partly, since what he had wrote about the incestuous person, had had a good effect both upon him and them, to direct them to take off the censure that had been laid upon him, and restore him to their communion, and comfort him; likewise to stir them up to finish the collection for the poor saints they had begun; as also to defend himself against the calumnies of the false teachers, who were very industrious to sink his character and credit in this church; which he does by observing the doctrines of the Gospel he preached, which were far more glorious than, and abundantly preferable to, the ministration of the law of Moses, which those men desired to be teachers of; as likewise the success of his ministry in every place; the many sufferings he had underwent for the sake of Christ, and his Gospel; the high favours and privileges he had received of the Lord, as well as the signs, wonders, and miracles done by him in proof of his apostleship; and in which are interspersed many things useful and instructive.

Gill: 2 Corinthians 10 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 2 CORINTHIANS 10

In this chapter the apostle has chiefly to do with the false teachers, and it is taken up in refuting their calumnies of him, and in exposing their boasting of themselves; and as he goes along, he takes notice of the efficacy of the Gospel, and of the success and extent of it, as it was preached by him, and other Gospel ministers, and points at the proper manner and ground of glorying. And whereas the false teachers had represented him as a mean spirited man, as well as his outward aspect was contemptible, and that he had not that authority and courage he boasted of, he describes himself by those characters they had reproached him with: by his name Paul, which signified little, they suggesting that he was little in soul, as well as in body; by his modesty and humility, when he was with the Corinthians, and by his boldness, now absent from them: and he entreats them by the meekness and gentleness of Christ, which he imitated, and they ought also, that they would not join in those sneers, nor reproach him for these things, 2Co 10:1 and that they would so behave, that, when he came among them, he might have no occasion of using that power and authority, which the false teachers called bluster and boldness; and which he had thought and determined in his own mind to exercise on some who traduced him and his fellow ministers as carnal selfish persons, 2Co 10:2 which calumny he removes by owning, that they walked in the flesh, in the body, and were subject to imperfections, as men; but denies that their ministerial warfare or service was managed in a carnal and worldly, or in a weak way and manner, 2Co 10:3 assigning this reason for it, because the weapons they made use of, in the warfare of their ministry, to defend truth, and annoy the enemy, to enlarge Christ's kingdom, and weaken Satan's, were not carnal, weak, and worldly, but spiritual and efficacious, through the power of God that accompanied them; and which appeared by the use they were of to the demolishing the strong holds of the flesh, and bringing down the haughty and lofty imaginations of the fleshly mind, which were opposed to the knowledge of God, and the refuting all the sophisms of fleshly wisdom, and carnal reasonings against the Gospel of Christ. This was the influence it had on some through the power of divine grace, whereby they became obedient to Christ, and subject to his word and ordinances, 2Co 10:4 whilst on others, as on Elymas the sorcerer, who sought to pervert the right ways of God, the apostolical power was exercised in a way of just punishment and awful vengeance, 2Co 10:6. The apostle moreover suggests to the Corinthians, that they judged of him, and the false teachers, according to the outward appearance of things, which was wrong: however, let these men make ever so great a show in the flesh, or what pretensions soever to Christianity, to being the members and ministers of Christ, the apostle would have them observe, that he, and those with him, were, and were to be looked upon as equally the same, 2Co 10:7 nay, should he exalt himself above them, and affirm he had an authority superior to theirs, which he describes by the efficient cause of it, the Lord, and by its end, edification, and not destruction, he should have no reason to be ashamed, since he was capable of giving proof of it, 2Co 10:8 however, he would say no more of this for the present, lest he should strengthen the calumny cast upon him, that it was his way to terrify by his letters, with blustering menaces of his power and authority, 2Co 10:9 and which calumny is more fully expressed in the words of the false teachers, who said, that his letters were bold and blustering, and by which he would be thought to be a man of power and authority; though, alas! a man of no speech nor presence, when in person among men, and so not to be regarded, 2Co 10:10. In answer to which the apostle returns, that he would have such a reviler know, that as he was in word by letters when absent, such would he be found to be in deed when present, 2Co 10:11 and then proceeds to expose the vain glorying of the false teachers, and to observe those things which he, and other faithful ministers of the word, might glory of; though they could not give themselves the liberties they did, and chose to glory in the Lord; they could not commend themselves in that bold and insolent manner, to the contempt of others, when there was no necessity for it, as the false teachers did, 2Co 10:12 nor could they boast of things they never did; of conversions they never were instruments of; of the planting of churches they had no concern in; and of spreading the Gospel where they had never been, which was the case of these men: whereas, whenever they gloried, it was when there was an absolute necessity for it, and always with modesty, acknowledging the grace and goodness of God unto them, and ever with truth; and of their own labours, and not of others; and particularly with respect to Corinth, it was with the strictest regard to truth that they affirmed they were the first that preached the Gospel there, converted souls, and planted a Gospel church, and hoped they should be the means of spreading it further still, 2Co 10:13. However, they did not desire to glory in themselves, but in the Lord, from whom they had all their gifts, success, and usefulness; and so they directed others to do, 2Co 10:17 and because, for this reason, that he that commends himself is not approved of God, but he that is commended by the Lord, 2Co 10:18.

College: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION

Studying 2 Corinthians plunges the modern reader back to the real, tumultuous world of early Christianity. The simple ideals of sharing and goodwill described in Acts 2:42-47 seem to have little place among the diverse converts from this boomtown of Corinth where Paul chooses to anchor his Greek mission. Rather, this microcosm of the early church bickers and accuses, revels in disorder and confusion, reeks of unrenounced pagan practices, and uncritically pursues self-promotion and even disloyalty to Paul, its founder.

When we speak of restoring the NT church, the Corinthian church is not what we have in mind. But maybe this is where we should really start: a real community of believers struggling to understand and implement their Christian faith against the helter-skelter backdrop of values and principles they desired to leave behind. As we understand what Paul teaches this troubled church, we will learn badly needed principles to help bring to maturity our own, real churches which inherit the same struggle.

Second Corinthians stands in stark contrast to Paul's other NT writings in a number of ways. Other letters, like 1 Corinthians, Romans, Galatians, and Colossians are carefully ordered, easily outlined, logical, controlled, as Paul confidently responds to carefully gauged concerns. Methodically, he establishes crucial, theological principles as the basis for practical, behavioral appeals.

By contrast, 2 Corinthians is chaotic and disjointed. Digressions lead the reader far afield before returning to the point. So uneven is 2 Corinthians, that many scholars suggest it is a composite of four or five writings, even a number of conservative scholars admitting two. Intensity, emotion, defensiveness, and second-guessing rather than controlled reasoning bind this epistle together. We see Paul at his weakest, basest, most human. Yet seeing him work through the truth of the gospel in the midst of exasperating difficulties is enlightening.

To a certain extent, it is healthy for our lofty ideals of this giant to be punctured and brought down to reality, even as the Corinthian church does so for our view of the early church. Paul's relationship with the Corinthians at this historical juncture is ugly, and readers deserve to be warned about how disconcerting seeing this can be.

These features of 2 Corinthians make studying and understanding the text much more dependent than usual on grasping the historical circumstances behind and leading up to its writing. Without a clear grasp of the historic story, hopeless confusion will engulf efforts to interpret the text at a number of points.

So, study of 2 Corinthians must begin by seeking to understand the Corinth of Paul's day and Paul's relationship to the local church there before preceding to a reliable interpretation of the text.

THE CITY OF CORINTH

Fortunately, Corinth is a NT city we know a great deal about. It has been heavily excavated and was minutely described by classical writers like Strabo and Dio Chrysostom.

The city that Paul entered in A.D. 50 had been resurrected from the ashes of the old city burned to the ground by the Romans in 146 B.C. Having laid in ruins for 100 years, two years before his death in 44 B.C., Julius Caesar decreed that Corinth (and also Carthage) should be rebuilt. Although located just 60 miles from Athens on the narrow isthmus strategically joining the Greek mainland to the Peloponnesus, the new Corinth was built and organized as a Roman city. Its colonists were gleaned from freedmen, former slaves originating from Syria, Egypt, Judea, Greece, and from retiring Roman soldiers.

The city's layout and its buildings were Roman, as was its governmental organization and law. Its official language was Latin, although Greek was the common language for business and conversation. The people prized Roman articles, importing them in great quantities. In addition to the four magistrates elected each year and its city council, it was administrated by a proconsul appointed annually by the Roman senate.

Corinth's dominance over the five-mile wide isthmus insured economic vitality. Ships traveling between Italy and Asia Minor were happy to pay the fee to cross the isthmus rather than sail the extra 200 miles south around treacherous Cape Malae. Besides, Corinth had even constructed a grooved pavement, called the Diolkos, between the ports on either side of the isthmus on which smaller ships could be hauled in wheeled vehicles. For a larger ship, the goods were loaded on transport carts and reloaded onto another ship waiting at the other harbor.

Julius Caesar dreamed of increasing Corinth's stock by constructing a canal across the isthmus. Not until Nero, A.D. 67., was such a project begun. Actual completion, however was not achieved until modern times, in 1893.

With the two ports, Laechaeum, on the Corinthian Gulf, and Cenchraea, on the Saronic Gulf, Corinth thrived as a center for trade. The major land route between the Greek mainland and the Peloponnesus also went through it. Besides shipbuilding and repair, it hosted bronze, tile, and pottery factories, as well as the necessary warehousing for transportable goods. Corinth's market areas boasted hundreds of stalls filled with craftsmen plying their trade, locals selling merchandise and food, as well as visitors from throughout the empire hawking imported items. They even had places which sold drinks cooled by underground water systems. Paul himself, we know, took up a leather-working stall in this area for eighteen months (Acts 18:1-3).

New Corinth was an eclectic, international city from its inception. In Paul's day, it was a bustling, wide open, boomtown, with over 80,000 inhabitants, and growing every day. It had already outstripped Athens politically, replacing it as the capital of Achaia.

Corinth's prestige was further enhanced by its hosting of the Isthmian Games, second only in significance to the Olympics. Held every two years in Corinth since A.D. 3, these games drew thousands of tourists and lots of business. The city's most prestigious political official was the one responsible for administering the games, occupying a prominent year-round governmental office. The games were dedicated to the Greek sea god, Poseidon, and featured oratory, music, and drama, as well as athletic contests. A dramatic theater as well as a 20,000 seat stadium were used for these events.

Corinth's eclecticism revealed itself in an array of religious choices established by its multicultural inhabitants. Egyptians promoted the cults of Isis and Osiris. Isis was worshiped as a god for sailors because the myth tells of her enduring search on the seas for her betrayed and lost husband Osiris. Osiris is a god of afterlife, who after his death was resurrected to become head of the underworld.

Greeks and Romans honored Poseidon, god of the sea; Athena, goddess of war, the sea, cities and the arts; Aphrodite, goddess of love and fertility; Apollo, god of prophecy; Asklepios, god of healing; and emperors beginning with Julius Caesar. Prominent temples and statues are dedicated to all of these. Apollos often features prominently in colonized cities as an ode of good fortune. His famous Delphic oracle is only some 30 miles from Corinth. The much publicized report that Old Corinth's temple to Aphrodite housed over 1,000 sacred prostitutes is regarded as Athenian slander and is not so certain to still be functioning this way in Paul's day, although this does not mean to imply that Corinth was any more sexually pristine than any other seaport.

One of the busiest religious centers in Paul's day was the Asklepium. Comparable to a modern-day health club, people came here to bathe in its fountain, sleep (healing in their dreams), excercise, read, and dine (on sacrificial meat, cf. 1 Cor 8:10; 10:21). Replicas of body parts found in excavations were offered to the Asklepios by thankful beneficiaries of his healing.

Though not a god, Sisyphus, was considered one of the founding kings of ancient Corinth. Noted for his craftiness, in Greek mythology he was banished to Hades with the everlasting task of pushing a rock up a hill only to have it slip back down. For the Corinthian in Paul's day, he stands for successful cunning in business, but behind the temporary luster, perhaps, he signifies the emptiness of life's ambitions that lurked in the background of people's thoughts.

Judaism came with the early Jewish colonists and seems to have thrived. A dynamic synagogue certainly was functioning when Paul arrived, according to Acts 18:4-17. Also, a building inscription reading "Synagogue of the Hebrews" has been found by archaeologists along the Lechaeum road. Although the inscription is somewhat later than Paul's day, its location in the city center suggests the prominence of Judaism from the early days of New Corinth. Significant increases to the Jewish population likely occurred in A.D. 19 and in the late 40s when Tiberius and then Claudius expelled Jews from Rome. According to Acts 18:2, the latter purge is what brought Aquila and Priscilla and their tentmaking business to Corinth for the eighteen months Paul evangelized there. As Acts 18:8,17 indicate, the Jewish community probably had a certain amount of freedom to manage its own affairs and to appoint its own officials.

Due to Roman influence, Corinthians banded together into self-governing clubs and societies of 10 to 15 people which met in homes around the city. These clubs were delineated by individual trades or professions. Something like small unions, they provided vital social interaction and shared meals but even underwrote members' burial expenses from their kitty of dues. Although each had its sponsoring god, they were not religious in nature.

Most likely, the Corinthian church of Paul's day took on the pattern of these clubs as they met in various homes throughout the city. This helps explain the household factions decried in 1 Cor 1:10-12 and even the food-related problems of 1 Corinthians 8 and 11:17-34.

Corinth in the time of Paul was a city of wealth and prosperity. The families who had come a generation or two previously had worked hard. They had carved out successful lives by their own sweat and ingenuity. Like American immigrants, they were proud of their accomplishments, which they demonstrated in their proliferation of self-commending inscriptions around the city. But like the grandchildren of immigrants today, the Corinthians of Paul's day were noted for their superficial materialism and moral perversity. Such traits are epitomized by the fact that before the century was over, Corinth would become the first Greek city in the Roman Empire to hold bloodthirsty gladiatorial shows.

PAUL AND THE CORINTHIANS

Paul's rocky, seven-year relationship with the Corinthians begins in the fall of A.D. 50 as he enters Corinth on what becomes the last stop of his second missionary journey. Already on the road for a year, he had established churches in Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, and Athens, despite opposition from Gentiles, Jews, and intellectuals (Acts 16-17). As Acts 18 describes, he enters the din of Corinth alone but is quickly befriended by Aquila and Priscilla, who were probably already Christians when they came to Corinth from Rome. For eighteen months the three of them lived, worked, and spread the gospel together there, eventually joined by Silas and Timothy.

At first, Paul shared the gospel and fielded questions in the Jewish synagogue. It wasn't too long, however, before stiff opposition to his presence arose, and he was ejected. However, he took with him many new Christians from among the God-fearing Gentiles who attended the synagogue, as well as Jews including the head of the synagogue, Crispus. Boldly, they set up shop for the first church right next door in the home of Titius Justus. Presumably, they continued to meet there and in other homes around the city for the next eighteen months, since God had instructed Paul to remain in Corinth despite the risks of conflict.

Sparks did fly, and at one point the Jews pressed charges against Paul for breaking Jewish law before Gallio, the Roman proconsul. Quite rightly, Gallio rebuffed the Jewish accusations as being outside any Roman concern. Although this may seem like a relatively minor incident in the life of Paul, the mention of Gallio in Acts 18:14 emerges as the single most important event enabling us to date Paul's life with accuracy. The reason for this is that archaeologists have discovered a datable inscription about a boundary dispute from Emperor Claudius to Gallio which places Gallio's one-year term between A.D. 51 and 52. Anchored by Paul's encounter with Gallio being A.D. 51, the rest of Paul's life can be dated backward and forward from time periods provided in the Acts and his letters.

Upon leaving Corinth, Paul sailed to Syria, probably Antioch, before quickly setting out over land to revisit the previously established churches in Asia Minor and then settling in Ephesus for three years. While in Ephesus, he sent the Corinthians three letters and slipped across the Aegean Sea in a vessel for a brief, surprise visit.

The first letter, commonly known as the "previous letter," is mentioned in 1 Cor 5:9-11. Given the wild immorality of Corinth, it is not surprising that Paul emphasized separation from such people in this letter. However, it has never been found, although a few scholars believe 2 Cor 6:14-7:1 may have originally been part of it.

Next, Paul received a letter from the Corinthians asking various specific questions about Christian life and practice. He is also informed verbally from members of Chloe's household (1 Cor 1:11) about the factionalism that is hurting the church's witness. He responded with the letter we know of as 1 Corinthians. During this period, Timothy was dispatched to Corinth for a brief time (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10) as Paul's personal ambassador, perhaps to give further voice to Paul's teaching in 1 Corinthians or to other issues Paul anticipated. We have no indication as to how long Timothy stayed.

Paul's brief trip to Corinth in A.D. 54 and the letter on its heels upon his return are chief events which underlie Paul's writing of 2 Corinthians in A.D. 56. We don't know why Paul went. Maybe Timothy reported that Paul's personal presence was needed. Possibly, conservative agitators had followed Paul to Corinth as they previously had to Galatia and were stirring up trouble, causing the Corinthians to second-guess Paul's credibility (2 Cor 11:13). What we do know is that this trip, usually described as "the painful visit" (2 Cor 2:1), was a complete disaster. Paul left angry and humiliated. Apparently, he confronted the ringleader of the trouble (perhaps someone in the church who had been influenced by the outsiders) face to face but when the man insulted him, no one in the church came to Paul's defense.

Speculation regarding the accusations hurled at Paul include the illegitimacy of his authority over the Corinthians and his misuse of funds collected for the Jerusalem offering (1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 7:2; 8:11). This was not a theological issue so much as one of personal integrity. Paul speaks of his being hurt emotionally most by the fact that the church did not side with him (2 Cor 2:5-11).

Upon his return, Paul wrote a third letter to the Corinthians, "the severe letter" (2 Cor 2:4; 7:8). Although not existing today, as described in 2 Cor 2:4-11 and 7:5-13, it was undoubtedly the most emotional and strident of any of Paul's letters. Apparently, he unleashed his anger and disappointment, scolding the church for not supporting him and demanding that the majority of the church take charge and discipline the offender as well as apologize to him. The letter is so harsh that Paul seems genuinely afraid ("fears within" - 2 Cor 7:5) that it will drive the church farther away from him and from Christ. But he sees no choice; this situation can't be left like it is.

Titus received the formidable task of delivering this explosive letter into the charged atmosphere of the Corinthian church and carrying out its demands. Paul's anxieties over Titus's success seem to overwhelm him as he waits for news. Apparently, the arrangements with Titus were that they would meet in Troas after a set period of time, maybe as long as six months. Second Corinthians 2:12 tells us that Paul went by land up to Troas, probably in A.D. 55 but was crushed to find Titus was not there. Remaining for some time evangelizing, maybe a month or so, he crossed over to Macedonia, probably Philippi, desperate to find Titus there. Finally, Titus arrived with the great news that the Corinthians - or most of them - were back in the fold. Genuinely remorseful over their hurtful behavior toward Paul, they had, indeed, dealt with the offender and expressed their renewed devotion to him (2 Cor 7:7,11,12).

The letter we call 2 Corinthians historically comes as Paul's fourth letter to Corinth. Buoyed by Titus's positive report, Paul writes this highly emotional letter, sending it back with Titus (2 Cor 7:17), probably A.D. 56. The letter interacts over and over with the events of the Painful Visit and the Severe Letter. Paul gushes with joy over the Corinthians' response (2 Cor 7:7,13-16), even recommending that they lift the punishment on the person who offended him (2 Cor 2:7). However, the tone of the letter is extremely defensive as Paul squirms under pressure from the Corinthians (most likely as advised by Titus) to toot his own horn regarding his own apostolic credentials. Out of his love for them, but against his own convictions against boasting, he is willing to explain the superiority of his apostleship in terms the Corinthians seem to require. These terms - such as providing letters of recommendation (2 Cor 3:1) and lists of accomplishments (2 Cor 6:3-13; 11:16-12:10) - Paul regards as superficial and unnecessary (2 Cor 3:2-3; 10:7) and probably reflect the influence of the conservative agitators upon the Corinthians. Paul seems to know he must respond, however uncomfortable it is for him, in order to block any further inroads from these outsiders and thus reinforce his renewed relationship with the Corinthians.

Titus brought 2 Corinthians to Corinth armed with Paul's commendation within the letter to spur the church to complete its collection of the offering for the Jerusalem Christians (1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 8:10-24). Paul followed a few months later (2 Cor 12:14; Acts 20:3) and remained in Corinth three months. During this period, he wrote Romans, but we know nothing of his interaction with the Corinthian church. Presumably, he finalized the Corinthian offering, but he must have worked diligently to solidify this troubled church and contend personally with the outside agitators and their remaining pockets of influence. At any rate, once the various representatives from the Greek and Asian churches arrived in Corinth with their offerings (Acts 20:1-6), he tried to set sail with them to Syria but, discovering treachery from the Jewish community in Corinth, he and the others traveled first to Troas, and, then, set sail from there.

We have no certainty of further communication or visitation between Paul and the Corinthian church after this. Possibly, following release from his first Roman imprisonment, he returned to Corinth and other churches in Greece and Asia Minor, as the Pastoral epistles suggest (1 Tim. 1:3; 2 Tim. 4:20).

THE UNITY OF 2 CORINTHIANS

One may rightly comment that the literary unity of 2 Corinthians "cannot just be presupposed." Analyses which question whether various sections of 2 Corinthians are original to it have come long and hard during the past two centuries of critical scholarship. Second Corinthian's sharp shifts in content and uneven tone make it the most susceptible of all the NT books to patchwork theories despite the fact that none of the Greek manuscripts (dating back to the third century) give the slightest hint that 2 Corinthians was ever anything different than what we read today. Although the ebb and flow of research has sidelined many conjectures, questions still remain regarding some parts of 2 Corinthians. As many as nine sections of 2 Corinthians have been scrutinized. However, just five will be discussed here.

First, 2 Cor 2:14-7:4 has been noted as at one time existing separately from 2 Corinthians. Even a casual reader is jolted at the jump between the travelogue commentary in 2:12-13 and the military parade description of the gospel in 2:13-17 which opens a five-chapter philosophy of apostolic ministry. It is all the more noticeable when, beginning at 7:5, the travelogue picks up again and continues on until 7:16. However, upon closer perusal, scholars are increasingly reluctant to name this as part of a separate letter. Despite the abruptness between 2:13 and 2:14, the theme of human weakness and divine power in 2:12-17 connects to 1:8-10, and the theme of divine ownership connects 1:22 and 2:14. Despite the change of subject between 7:4 and 7:5, the verbal links supplied by "encouragement" (7:4,13), "joy" (7:4,7) and "troubles" (7:4,5) supply sturdy connections. Besides, the efforts to postulate yet another letter between 1 and 2 Corinthians or to connect this to the Severe Letter are unwarranted. More recent efforts to anaylze 2 Corinthians 1-7 through the eyes of Roman rhetoric as well as chiastic structure loudly confirm separation of 2:14-7:4 as ill-conceived. Certainly, it is a digression but not without purpose and point to the context as a whole.

Second, perhaps less obvious to the casual reader because it is such a short section is 2 Cor 6:14-7:1. Here, again, though, the careful reader observes an interruption between 6:13 ("Open wide your hearts also") and 7:2 ("Make room for us in your hearts"). Scholarly analysis of these six verses suggests that not only are they out of place, they don't sound like Paul, using six words he never uses elsewhere in his writings nor used by anyone else in the NT ( hapax legomenae ). Is this a snippet of something someone else said or wrote that Paul has adapted into his material, or is it something Paul wrote or spoke at another time and place that he decides to use here?

Despite some of the unusual language, Pauline themes do appear here: the church as the temple of God, the polarization of righteousness and unrighteousness as well as between light and dark. Also, plenty of characteristic Pauline language occurs: "living God" (2 Cor 3:3; 1 Thess 1:9), "unbeliever" (twelve other occurrences in 1 and 2 Cor), and "holiness" (Rom 1:4; 1 Thess 3:13). Although conclusions vary, many today incline toward this section being from Paul.

Eyeing the language of separation from unrighteousness, some have been tempted to conclude that 6:14-7:1 is part of the "previous" letter mentioned in 1 Cor 5:9. However, the point is explicitly different. Paul emphasizes that in the previous letter he urged separation from the immorality of believers not dissociation from unbelievers as emphasized in 6:14-7:1.

Most likely, then, Paul himself has inserted this pre-formed, self-contained unit of material from previous teaching, either oral or written, perhaps influenced by others. Interesting comparisons to Qumran materials as well as writings of Philo have been made. The placement exactly here in 2 Corinthians is so awkward as to be unlikely to come from anyone other than Paul. However, two points should be kept in mind. One is that Paul dictated this letter as he did all his letters. This fact enhances the potential for distraction, interruption, and loose digressions such as this. A second point is that although the section's relationship to the immediately previous verses is not obvious, as one backs up to 6:1 and reads of Paul's concern about receiving "God's grace in vain" or to 5:19 to see Paul's emphasis on people "no longer living for themselves but for him who died for them," Paul's emphasis on separation and holiness in 6:14-7:1 fits well.

Probably inconceivable to the casual reader is the suggestion that 2 Corinthians 8 and 2 Corinthians 9 both were not originally part of 2 Corinthians. Arguments regarding 2 Corinthians 8 - repetition of information about Titus (7:13-15; 8:16-17), presumption of knowledge about the two brothers coming with him (8:18,22), or even evidence that 2 Corinthians 8 as well as 2 Corinthians 9 are formal business letters - do not convince many. Arguments regarding 2 Corinthians 9, first proposed by Semler 200 years ago, that 2 Corinthians 9 was originally a letter sent to Christians outside Corinth, are more formidable, and give scholars more pause.

What pulls them up short is the language Paul uses to refer to the collection ("service") in 9:1, which, in Greek, reads like a first mention of the collection. In addition to that, the regional reference to Achaia in 9:2 and the repetition of information from chapter 8 in chapter 9 regarding the collection give added support to the idea of chapter 9 being originally independent.

On the other side of the question is the fact that Paul's reference to the collection in 9:1 is modified by ( men gar , "and for") which suggests a resumption of a previous subject perhaps after a brief pause in dictation. The repetition of details regarding the collection is probably emphatic, and the regional reference to Achaia seems unlikely to exclude Corinth. Tipping the scale against an independent chapter 9, as noted by Furnish, are two references in chapter 9 which presume information from chapter 8: the mention of the brothers (9:3; 8:18) and the emphasis on their completing the collection (9:4-5; 8:7-15).

Admittedly, this is a close call. However, the evidence does not demand that chapters 8 and 9 are two separate letters about the collection, one to Corinth, and one to Achaia. Rather, these are interdependent chapters in 2 Corinthians, chapter 8 dealing with the details of the collection project and chapter 9 emphasizing motivation for the project, as noted by Danker.

Fourth, without a doubt the most serious challenge to the unity of 2 Corinthians comes from chapters 10-13. As long ago as 1870, Hausrath broadcast his belief that in these chapters, he had discovered the missing "severe" letter to the Corinthians. No doubt, in chapters 10-13 Paul erupts into harsh tones of anger and disappointment which seem to undercut completely the exuberance and joy which he builds up to by chapters 7, 8, and 9.

But Hausrath looked closer and pointed to evidence that chapters 10-13 were written previous to chapters 1-9. Particularly he saw passages in chapters 1-9 written in the past tense which appear to allude to passages from chapters 10-13 written in future tenses, such as 1:23 which says that Paul "did not return" to them in order to spare them, corresponding to 13:2 in which Paul asserts that he "will not return" in order to spare them or when Paul says in 2:3-4 that he "wrote" them out of great distress and in 13:10 when he says "I write" so that I may not have to be harsh. Hausrath also contends that Paul's reference to Rome (west of Corinth) as "regions beyond you" in 2 Cor 10:16 makes much better sense if he is in Ephesus (east of Corinth), where he wrote the Severe Letter, rather than Macedonia (north of Corinth), where he wrote 2 Corinthians.

Criticism against Hausrath's identification of 2 Cor 10-13 with the "severe" letter has withered its persuasiveness among scholars. Primarily, chapters 10-13 do not contain something we know specifically was in the Severe Letter: Paul's demand that an individual who offended him be punished (2:5-6; 7:12). Also, chapters 10-13 promise a visit (12:14; 13:1), but the Severe Letter was sent in place of a Painful Visit (1:23; 2:1). Regarding "regions beyond you," the language need not be taken so literally and the Macedonian region should be recognized as much more culturally distinct from Achaia than it looks like on a map.

More appealing to scholars of all stripes, including many conservatives, is to view 2 Cor 10-13 as a separate, fifth letter, written after Titus returns with new, bad news after delivering 2 Corinthians 1-9. This position still takes into account Hausrath's future tense passages. It helps make sense of 2 Cor 12:18 which refers to Titus's visit in the past tense when it was in the planning stage in 2 Corinthians 7-9. Also, it explains the increased strident tones of chapters 10-13 as Paul's response to new, outside influences claiming some kind of rival apostolic authority to Paul's (11:13; 12:11) rather than to internal problems which seem to be his concern in chapters 1-9.

This way of viewing chapters 10-13 is attractive but is not demanded by the evidence. As Witherington points out, the past (aorist) tenses describing Titus's visit in 12:17-18 need not be real. Especially as Paul reaches the end of the book, they could well be epistolary (spoken from the standpoint of the audience reading the letter). The mention of the unnamed brother traveling with Titus does correspond with 2 Cor 8:18,22. Reading 12:17-18 this way opens up the very real possibility that Paul could have received new information about problems in Corinth before sending 2 Corinthians but after writing chapters 1-9. This could explain the gulf between chapters 10-13 as well as an entirely separate letter.

Other ways which account for the change of tone in chapter 10-13 have to do with how one reads the letter. Perhaps chapters 1-9 are directed to the majority of the church which has fallen into line with Paul after the Painful Visit, the Severe Letter, and Titus's hard work while chapters 10-13 are to the minority who are still under the sway of outside opposition to Paul. After all, 2 Cor 2:6 does speak of "the majority" which imposed discipline upon the offender named in the Severe Letter.

Perhaps, as a growing group of scholars are showing, Paul's heightened criticism of the Corinthians in chapters 10-13 concludes a calculated rhetorical plan employing counterattack ( synkrisis ) or strong emotional appeal ( peroratio ) to win his defense against the charges being leveled at him by the Corinthians. One must admit that Paul never relaxes from a defensive posture in 2 Corinthians from the beginning to the end. While Paul's harsh tones in chapters 10-13 following the lead up in chapters 7, 8, and 9 may seem abrupt, his concerns from early in the letter haven't really changed, just his emotionalism. The issue of his character raised in chapter 1 and of the legitimacy of his apostleship raised in chapter 3 remain the object of his defense in chapters 10-13.

The correspondence of these issues is enough to suggest that even though outside influence of "false apostles" (11:13) is not named earlier, they influence the minority of the Corinthian church and provide the ammunition against Paul observed in the earlier chapters. Who else would have brandished "letters of recommendation" (3:1)? Their earliest influences could even be in the background of Paul's problems associated with the Painful Visit.

As evident from 2 Cor 7:8-13, the offending individual merely became the pretext for the whole church failing to rally behind Paul until after the Severe Letter. Although Paul can be ecstatic that most of the church has recommitted themselves to him and to the gospel by the time he writes 2 Corinthians, nevertheless, pockets of opposition likely remain under the growing influence of the outside agitators. With chapters 10-13 Paul intends to level a decisive blow against this opposition not only to bring the remainder of the church back to the true gospel but also to shore up any lingering doubts from those who have pledged their loyalty.

Paul's transition to chapter 10 indeed is rocky but, as Danker points out, no more so than Phil 3 or Rom 9. In this commentary, therefore, we will treat 2 Corinthians as a unity and will treat chapters 10-13 as primarily aimed at responding to a vocal minority of the church who remain mesmerized by the outsiders' criticisms of Paul.

PAUL'S OPPONENTS

Second Corinthians resounds with the echo of outside voices filling the Corinthians' heads with notions geared to sever their relationship with Paul. Since Paul originally brought the gospel to Corinth and made it possible for people there to be reconciled with God through Christ and begin a vibrant church meeting in homes throughout the city, others have come to Corinth presenting themselves as superior in authority to the apostle Paul himself. Presuming the opponents in 2 Cor 10-13 and 1-9 are the same, they supposedly have letters of authentication from Jerusalem (3:1-3), Paul blasts them as "false apostles" (11:13) and sarcastically as "super apostles" in 12:11. Nevertheless, they have influenced and confused the Corinthians enough to force Paul to write 2 Corinthians and fill it with self-commendation regarding his integrity and his "superior" apostolic credentials over theirs. He does this because he feels he must in order to win the Corinthians back, but he finds doing so personally disturbing and repugnant.

Whereas Paul finds it difficult to boast about himself, self-commendation seems to be the chief characteristic of these outsiders. Clues from 2 Corinthians indicate that they were proud of their Jewish heritage (11:22), their "Christian" service (11:23), their oratorical skill (11:6), their self-confidence (1:15-17), and their charismatic experiences (12:12). They preached a different gospel than Paul's (11:4). They also accepted money from the Corinthians, unlike Paul who refused it (12:16). They may have viewed Paul's effort to collect money from the Corinthians for the Jerusalem Christians as cutting off their own purse strings and threatening their prosperity in Corinth.

Their heated, personalized efforts to undercut Paul sound like Paul's opposition in Galatians, commonly called Judaizers (Gal 4:17). However, no mention of the law or circumcision in 2 Corinthians clouds this identification and requires that, if these are the same people, they have changed their tune considerably since Galatians. The fact that they tout letters of recommendation - where else but from Jerusalem - makes it difficult to lay aside the picture of a band of renegade, conservative Jewish Christians who first followed Paul to Galatia and now to Corinth with the expressed purpose of replacing Paul's gospel and his authority to represent true Christianity (Gal 1:6-7).

It is going too far to say that their credentials were currently legitimate or that they were actual apostles since Acts 15:24 reports that a faction of Jewish Christians had gone out falsely representing the church to new, Gentile congregations. It is possible, though, that they do have apostolic credentials - perhaps even knew Jesus before his crucifixion - but now are misusing these credentials to subvert Paul's successful mission to Gentiles in Galatia and now also in Corinth and other churches as well.

The picture of these Corinthian opponents as ultraconservative Jewish Christians clashes with a considerable amount of the evidence which points to their Greek or even gnostic origins. Their connection to revelations and wonders, rhetorical skills, "worldly" wisdom, and just their overall egotistical posture must be reckoned with. Undermining at least the gnostic element is the positive use of "knowledge" in 2 Corinthians. Nevertheless, a typical result when these ingredients are combined emerges with a conclusion that they were "Hellenistic Jews who were propagating . . . a 'spiritual gnosticism.'"

However, it seems inconceivable that ultraconservative Jewish Christians coming out of Jerusalem could be pushing a gospel so infiltrated with Greek ideas as to be outside the bounds of Paul's own radicalized message which had stripped unnecessary Jewish elements. Could these Jewish agitators be so clever as to be able to manipulate the Corinthians against Paul by successfully incorporating elements from Greek culture into their opposition to Paul which they themselves don't believe? It doesn't seem likely, but then no identification satisfactorily combines the paradoxical elements of these opponents as currently gleaned from the information we have from 2 Corinthians and the first century. As one commentator astutely points out, any final resolution is also hampered considerably by the fact that 2 Corinthians provides no information about the doctrine or theology of these opponents. Most current discussion recognizes the limitations involved in this discussion and offers no more than conjectures as has been done here.

It's best, then, to keep in mind the characteristics of Paul's opponents available from reading 2 Corinthians without any adamant historical identification until better information becomes available. They were Jewish. They were Greek. They considered themselves Christians. They hated Paul. They hurt Paul, and he feared what more they could do. It was up to him to marshal all the strength and the skills he had to prevent them from doing any further damage. They had backed him into a corner, and he responds with ferocity and emotion in 2 Corinthians, compelled out of his deep love for the Corinthians and his commitment to true, saving Christianity and humble, self-sacrificing leadership.

RELEVANCE

Christians treat 2 Corinthians like the ugly twin sister of 1 Corinthians. First Corinthian's poignant theology about challenging issues attracts everyone's constant attention. Meanwhile, 2 Corinthians sits in the corner waiting for someone to ask it to dance. Yet, once we make some effort to get to know 2 Corinthians, we will be pleasantly surprised.

Today, as in the days of the early church, various outside forces threaten to sever people's loyalty to Christ and cut away at the fabric of the church. It might be a cult like Mormons or Jehovah's Witnesses. It might be cultural forces like the challenges of postmodernism or the mind-set of the so-called Generation X which questions absolutes like God and salvation in Christ alone. It might just be an obstinate person who envies the authority of the minister, elders, or deacons and questions their integrity and decision-making at every turn and who draws around him or her an anti-faction.

If you are someone who cares deeply about your local church and would do almost anything to maintain its success and its integrity as a body of Christian believers, then 2 Corinthians will speak to your heart and nourish your soul. You will relate to Paul's agony over this church , feel his compassion, and be engulfed by his intense emotion in this letter. You will take in the principles of genuine church leadership and apply them to your life responsibly to enable you to enrich the quality of your local church.

The comments which follow are intended to help you both to understand 2 Corinthians in its own historical context and to apply its key principles to your own personal context in the church today.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

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-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

ABBREVIATIONS

1 Clem 1 Clement

1QH The Thanksgiving Hymns (Dead Sea Scroll)

1QM The War Scroll (Dead Sea Scroll)

1QS Rule of the Community (Dead Sea Scroll)

2 Clem 2 Clement

AJP American Journal of Philology

ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der römishen Welt, ed. Temporini and Haase

AusBR Australian Biblical Review

AUSS Andrews University Seminary Studies

BA Biblical Archaeologist

BBR Bulletin for Biblical Research

BSac Bibliotheca Sacra

BT Bible Translator

BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CD The Damascus Document (Dead Sea Scroll)

DPL Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, ed. Hawthorne, Martin, and Reid

Ebr. De Ebrietate (Philo)

EvQ Evangelical Quarterly

ExpTim Expository Times

HBT Horizons in Biblical Theology

Heres Qui Rerum Divinarum Heres sit (Philo)

HTR Harvard Theological Review

ICC International Critical Commentary

Int Interpretation

JB Jerusalem Bible

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JRH Journal of Religious History

JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament

JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JTS Journal of Theological Studies

LB Living Bible

NAB New American Bible

NASB New American Standard Bible

NEB New English Bible

Neot Neotestamentica

NICNT New International Commentary on the New Testament

NIDNTT New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, ed. Brown

NIV New International Version

NLT New Living Translation

NovT Novum Testamentum

NovTSupp Novum Testamentum Supplements

NRSV New Revised Standard Version

NTS New Testament Studies

RB Revue Biblique

ResQ Restoration Quarterly

RSV Revised Standard Version

SCJ Stone-Campbell Journal

SJT Scottish Journal of Theology

Spec.Leg. Philo, De Specialibus Legibus

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, ed. Kittel and Friedrich

TEV Today's English Version

T.Jos Testament of Joseph

T.Levi Testament of Levi

T.Naph Testament of Naphtali

TS Theological Studies

TynBul Tyndale Bulletin

WW Word and World

ZNW Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenshaft

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

College: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

OUTLINE

I. OPENING - 1:1-2

II. THANKSGIVING - 1:3-11

A. GOD COMFORTS - 1:3-7

B. GOD DELIVERS - 1:8-11

III. DEFENSE OF INTEGRITY - 1:12-2:13

A. CLARITY SOUGHT - 1:12-14

B. SECOND TRAVEL ITINERARY EXPLAINED - 1:15-17

C. CANDOR DEMANDED - 1:18-22

D. THIRD TRAVEL ITINERARY DEFENDED - 1:23-2:4

E. THE OFFENDER FORGIVEN - 2:5-11

F. ACTUAL TRAVEL DESCRIBED - 2:12-13

IV. DEFENSE OF APOSTOLIC MINISTRY IN PRINCIPLE - 2:14-7:4

A. SUFFICIENT FOR MINISTRY - 2:14-3:6

1. The Aroma of Christ Spread - 2:14-17

2. A Living Letter of Recommendation Sent - 3:1-3

3. A Personal Reference Provided - 3:4-6

B. SUPERIOR TO THE OLD COVENANT - 3:7-18

1. Glory Unsurpassed 3:7-11

2. Glory Unobstructed 3:12-18

C. TENACIOUS DESPITE SHORTCOMINGS - 4:1-5:10

1. Christ Preached Plainly - 4:1-6

2. Hardships Overcome because of Jesus' Death - 4:7-12

3. Increasing Multitudes Brought to Life - 4:13-15

4. Driven by Unseen, Eternal Reward - 4:16-18

5. Confident in Eternal Home - 5:1-10

a) Permanent Home Guaranteed - 5:1-5

b) Pleasing the Lord Prioritizes Life - 5:6-10

D. PREACHING RECONCILIATION THROUGH CHRIST - 5:11-6:2

1. Motivated by Christ's Love - 5:11-15

2. Christ's Message of Reconciliation Delivered - 5:16-6:2

E. HARDSHIPS IN MINISTRY - 6:3-10

F. AN APPEAL FOR OPENNESS AND RECONCILIATION - 6:11-7:4

1. Paul's Heart Opened - 6:11-13

2. Holiness Demanded - 6:14-7:1

3. Paul's Trust Expressed - 7:2-4

V. ENCOURAGING NEWS: RELATIONSHIP FULLY RESTORED - 7:5-16

A. TITUS REPORTS LOVE FOR PAUL - 7:5-7

B. TRUE REPENTANCE DEMONSTRATES INNOCENCE - 7:8-13a

C. TITUS EXPRESSED DEEP AFFECTION - 7:13b-16

VI. PREPARATION FOR THE COLLECTION - 8:1-9:15

A. INCENTIVES TOWARD GENEROSITY - 8:1-15

1. Excel Like the Macedonians - 8:1-7

2. Give Like Christ - 8:8-9

3. Complete Your Offering - 8:10-12

4. Achieve Equity - 8:13-15

B. TITUS PLUS TWO OTHERS SENT TO CORINTH TO HELP - 8:16-9:5

1. Criticism to Be Thwarted - 8:16-21

2. Measure Up to Expectations - 8:22-24

3. Follow Through on What Was Begun - 9:1-5

C. MORE INCENTIVE TO BE GENEROUS - 9:6-15

1. God Will Be Generous - 9:6-11

2. God Will Be Praised - 9:12-15

VII. FINAL DEFENSE OF MINISTRY - 10:1-13:10

A. LAUNCH OF A MASSIVE COUNTERATTACK - 10:1-18

1. Powerful Weapons Employed - 10:1-6

2. Forceful Personal Presence Warned - 10:7-10

3. God's Expansion of the Gospel Boasted - 10:12-18

B. COMPARISON TO FALSE APOSTLES MADE - 11:1-15

1. True Message of Jesus Preached - 11:1-6

2. No Money Accepted - 11:7-12

3. The False Apostles Serve Satan - 11:13-15

C. BOASTING AS A "FOOL" - 11:16-33

1. Rationale Provided - 11:16-21a

2. Ancestry and Hardships Listed - 11:21b-29

3. Weakness Boasted - 11:30-33

D. MORE BOASTING - 12:1-10

1. A Vision Divulged - 12:1-6

2. An Irremovable Thorn Remains - 12:7-10

E. "BOASTING" RETROSPECTIVE - 12:11-13

F. PREPARATION FOR THE THIRD VISIT - 12:14-13:10

1. No Exploitation Tactics Employed - 12:14-18

2. More Trouble Feared - 12:19-21

3. Harsh Treatment for Sinners Warned - 13:1-4

4. Faith-testing Evidences Paul's Strength - 13:5-10

VIII. CLOSING REMARKS - 13:11-14

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV