Text -- 2 Corinthians 11:28 (NET)

11:28 Apart from other things, there is the daily pressure on me of my anxious concern for all the churches.

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Robertson: 2Co 11:28

Besides those things that are without ( chōris tōn parektos ).

Probably, "apart from those things beside these just mentioned."Surely no man ever found glory in such a peck of troubles as Paul has here recounted. His list should shame us all today who are disposed to find fault with our lot.

Robertson: 2Co 11:28

That which presseth upon me daily ( hē epistasis moi hē kath' hēmeran ).

For this vivid word epistasis see note on Act 24:12, the only other place in the N.T. where it occurs. It is like the rush of a mob upon Paul.

Robertson: 2Co 11:28

Anxiety for all the churches ( hē merimna pasōn tōn ekklēsiōn ).

Objective genitive after merimna (distractions in different directions, from merizō ) for which word see Mat 13:22. Paul had the shepherd heart. As apostle to the Gentiles he had founded most of these churches.

Vincent: 2Co 11:28

Those things that are without ( τῶν παρεκτὸς )

Some explain, external calamities ; others, the things which are left out in the enumeration , as Mat 5:32; Act 26:29. Better, the latter, so that the literal meaning is, apart from the things which are beside and outside my enumeration : or, as Alford, not to mention those which are beside these . The word does not occur in classical Greek, and no instance of its usage in the former sense occurs in the New Testament or in the Septuagint. See Rev., margin.

Vincent: 2Co 11:28

That which cometh upon me ( ἐπισύστασις )

Lit., a gathering together against . Both here and Act 24:12, the best texts read ἐπίστασις onset . Rev., that which presseth upon me . " The crowd of cares."

Farrar remarks upon 2Co 11:23-28, that it is " the most marvelous record ever written of any biography; a fragment beside which the most imperiled lives of the most suffering saints shrink into insignificance, and which shows us how fractional at the best is our knowledge of the details of St. Paul's life." Eleven of the occurrences mentioned here are not alluded to in Acts.

Wesley: 2Co 11:28

Which I suffer on the account of others; namely, the care of all the churches - A more modest expression than if he had said, the care of the whole church.

Wesley: 2Co 11:28

Even those I have not seen in the flesh. St. Peter himself could not have said this in so strong a sense.

JFB: 2Co 11:28

"Beside" trials falling on me externally, just recounted, there is "that which cometh upon me (literally, the impetuous concourse to me of business; properly, a crowd rising up against one again and again, and ready to bear him down), the care of all the churches" (including those not yet seen in the flesh, Col 2:1): an internal and more weighty anxiety. But the oldest manuscripts for "that which cometh," read, "the pressure": "the pressing care-taking" or "inspection that is upon me daily." ALFORD translates, "Omitting what is BESIDES"; namely, those other trials besides those recounted. But the Vulgate, ESTIUS, and BENGEL, support English Version.

JFB: 2Co 11:28

The Greek implies, "my anxious solicitude for all the churches."

Clarke: 2Co 11:28

Beside those things that are without - Independently of all these outward things, I have innumerable troubles and mental oppressions

Clarke: 2Co 11:28

Which cometh upon me - Ἡ επισυατασις· This continual press of business; this insurrection of cases to be heard, solved, and determined, relative to the doctrine, discipline, state, persecution, and supply of all the Churches

All his perils were little in comparison of what he felt relative to the peace, government, and establishment of all the Churches among the Gentiles; for as he was the apostle of the Gentiles, the government of all the Churches among these fell in some sort on him, whether they were of his own planting or of the planting of others. See Col 2:1. None but a conscientious minister, who has at heart the salvation of souls, can enter into the apostle’ s feelings in this place.

Calvin: 2Co 11:28

28.Besides those things that are without “ Besides those things, ” says he, “which come upon me from all sides, and are as it were extraordinary, what estimate must be formed of that ordinary burden that constantly presses upon me — the care that I have of all the Churches.” The care of all the Churches he appropriately calls his ordinary burden. For I have taken the liberty of rendering ἐπισύστασιν in this way, as it sometimes means — whatever presses upon us. ⁸⁶⁵

Whoever is concerned in good earnest as to the Church of God, stirs up himself and bears a heavy burden, which presses upon his shoulders. What a picture we have here of a complete minister, embracing in his anxieties and aims not one Church merely, or ten, or thirty, but all of them together, so that he instructs some, confirms others, exhorts others, gives counsel to some, and applies a remedy to the diseases of others! Now from Paul’s words we may infer, that no one can have a heartfelt concern for the Churches, without being harassed with many difficulties; for the government of the Church is no pleasant occupation, in which we may exercise ourselves agreeably and with delight of heart, ⁸⁶⁶ but a hard and severe warfare, as has been previously mentioned, (2Co 10:4,) — Satan from time to time giving us as much trouble as he can, and leaving no stone unturned to annoy us.

TSK: 2Co 11:28

those : 2Co 11:23-27

the care : Act 15:36, Act 15:40,Act 15:41, Act 18:23, Act 20:2, 18-35; Rom 1:14, Rom 11:13, Rom 15:16, Rom 16:4; Col 2:1

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: 2Co 11:28

Besides those things that are without - In addition to these external trials, these trials pertaining to the body, I have mental trials and anxieties resulting from the necessary care of all the churches, But on the meaning of these words commentators are not agreed. Rosenmuller supposes that the phrase means "besides those things that come from other sources,""that I may omit other things."Beza, Erasmus, Bloomfield, and some others suppose that the passage means those things out of the regular routine of his office. Doddridge, "besides foreign affairs."Probably the sense is, "Apart from the things beside"( Χωρὶς τῶν παρεκτὸς Chōris tōn parektos ); "not to mention other matters; or if other matters should be laid aside, there is this continually rushing anxiety arising from the care of all the churches."That is, this would be enough in itself. Laying aside all that arises from hunger, thirst, cold, etc., this continual care occupies my mind and weighs upon my heart.

That which cometh upon me daily - There is great force in the original here. The phrase rendered "that which cometh upon me"means properly, "that which rushes upon me."The word ( ἐπισύστασις episustasis ) means properly a concourse, a crowd, hence, a tumult; and the idea here is, that these cares rushed upon him, or pressed upon him like a crowd of people or a mob that bore all before it. This is one of Paul’ s most energetic expressions, and denotes the incessant anxiety of mind to which he was subject.

The care of all the churches - The care of the numerous churches which he had established, and which needed his constant supervision. They were young; many of them were feeble; many were made up of heterogeneous materials; many composed of Jews and Gentiles mingled together, with conflicting prejudices, habits, preferences; many of them were composed of those who had been gathered from the lowest ranks of life; and questions would be constantly occurring relating to their order and discipline in which Paul would feel a deep interest, and which would naturally be referred to him for decision. Besides this, they had many trials. They were persecuted, and would suffer much. In their sufferings Paul would feel deep sympathy, and would desire, as far as possible, to afford them relief. In addition to the churches which he had planted, he would feel an interest in all others, and doubtless many cases would be refered to him as an eminent apostle for counsel and advice. No wonder that all this came rushing on him like a tumultuous assembly ready to overpower him.

Poole: 2Co 11:28

By the things that are without, the apostle meaneth either those evils which happened to him from persons that had nto relation to the Christian church, but were persons without, ( as the phrase is used, 1Co 5:13 ), or else such kinds of troubles and afflictions as very little influenced his mind, but only affected his outward man: such were his labours, travels, journeyings, imprisonment, stripes before mentioned.

Beside these (he saith) there lay upon him an inward care and solicitude for

all the Christian churches and this was a daily care. For an apostle differed from an ordinary pastor, not only in his immediate call from Christ, but also in his work; there lay an obligation upon such to go up and down preaching the gospel, and they further had, both a power, and also an obligation, to superintend all other churches, and to direct the affairs of them relating to order and government: and thereupon they were mightily concerned about their doing well or ill.

Haydock: 2Co 11:28

My daily instance. The labours that come in, and press upon me every day. (Challoner)

Gill: 2Co 11:28

Besides those things that are without,.... Or are omitted, which he had passed by, and had not mentioned in the account and enumeration of things he had given; for otherwise the things he had taken notice of and instanced in, were things external; but besides them and many other things which would be too tedious to relate,

that which cometh upon me daily, is not to be forgotten; meaning the prodigious deal of business which was every day upon his hands, through the continual coming of brethren to him, either for advice, or comfort, or instruction; and through the multiplicity of letters from divers parts, which he was obliged to give answers to; and the several duties of the day, as prayer, meditation, reading, praising, preaching, &c. and to sum up the whole, and which is explanative of the phrase,

the care of all the churches; not of ten, or twenty, or some only; but of all of them, he being the apostle of the Gentiles, and was concerned in planting, and raising them, and preaching the Gospel to most of them; and who continually stood in need of his watch and care over them, to provide ministers for some, to prevent schisms and heat divisions in others; to preserve others from errors and heresies, and warn them of the dangers to which they were exposed by false teachers; and to animate, strengthen, and support others under violent persecutions, lest their faith should fail, and they be tempted to desert the Gospel, and drop their profession of religion.

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

NET Notes: 2Co 11:28

¹ sn Apart from other things. Paul refers here either (1) to the external sufferings just mentioned, or (2) he refers to other things he has left unmentioned.

² tn “Anxious concern,” so translated in L&N 25.224.

Geneva Bible: 2Co 11:28

^{( 9 )} Beside those things that are without, that which cometh upon me daily, the care of all the churches.

^{( 9 )} He further adds this in conclusion, that the Corinthians should be ashamed to despise him upon whose care almost all churches depended, as it was plainly seen by experience.

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: 2Co 11:1-33

1 Out of his jealousy over the Corinthians, who seemed to make more account of the false apostles than of him, he enters into a forced commendation of himself,

5 of his equality with the chief apostles,

7 of his preaching the gospel to them freely, and without any charge to them;

13 shewing that he was not inferior to those deceitful workers in any legal prerogative;

23 and in the service of Christ, and in all kinds of sufferings for his ministry, far superior.

MHCC: 2Co 11:22-33

The apostle gives an account of his labours and sufferings; not out of pride or vain-glory, but to the honour of God, who enabled him to do and suffer so much for the cause of Christ; and shows wherein he excelled the false apostles, who tried to lessen his character and usefulness. It astonishes us to reflect on this account of his dangers, hardships, and sufferings, and to observe his patience, perseverance, diligence, cheerfulness, and usefulness, in the midst of all these trials. See what little reason we have to love the pomp and plenty of this world, when this blessed apostle felt so much hardship in it. Our utmost diligence and services appear unworthy of notice when compared with his, and our difficulties and trials scarcely can be perceived. It may well lead us to inquire whether or not we really are followers of Christ. Here we may study patience, courage, and firm trust in God. Here we may learn to think less of ourselves; and we should ever strictly keep to truth, as in God's presence; and should refer all to his glory, as the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who is blessed for evermore.

Matthew Henry: 2Co 11:22-33

Here the apostle gives a large account of his own qualifications, labours, and sufferings (not out of pride or vain-glory, but to the honour of God, who had enabled him to do and suffer so much for the cause of Christ), and wherein he excelled the false apostles, who would lessen his character and usefulness among the Corinthians. Observe,

I. He mentions the privileges of his birth (2Co 11:22), which were equal to any they could pretend to. He was a Hebrew of the Hebrews; of a family among the Jews that never intermarried with the Gentiles. He was also an Israelite, and could boast of his being descended from the beloved Jacob as well as they, and was also of the seed of Abraham, and not of the proselytes. It should seem from this that the false apostles were of the Jewish race, who gave disturbance to the Gentile converts.

II. He makes mention also of his apostleship, that he was more than an ordinary minister of Christ, 2Co 11:23. God had counted him faithful, and had put him into the ministry. He had been a useful minister of Christ unto them; they had found full proofs of his ministry: Are they ministers of Christ? I am more so.

III. He chiefly insists upon this, that he had been an extraordinary sufferer for Christ; and this was what he gloried in, or rather he gloried in the grace of God that had enabled him to be more abundant in labours, and to endure very great sufferings, such as stripes above measure, frequent imprisonments, and often the dangers of death, 2Co 11:23. Note, When the apostle would prove himself an extraordinary minister, he proves that he had been an extraordinary sufferer. Paul was the apostle of the Gentiles, and for that reason was hated of the Jews. They did all they could against him; and among the Gentiles also he met with hard usage. Bonds and imprisonments were familiar to him; never was the most notorious malefactor more frequently in the hands of public justice than Paul was for righteousness' sake. The jail and the whipping-post, and all other hard usages of those who are accounted the worst of men, were what he was accustomed to. As to the Jews, whenever he fell into their hands, they never spared him. Five times he fell under their lash, and received forty stripes save one, 2Co 11:24. Forty stripes was the utmost their law allowed (Deu 25:3), but it was usual with them, that they might not exceed, to abate one at least of that number. And to have the abatement of one only was all the favour that ever Paul received from them. The Gentiles were not tied up to that moderation, and among them he was thrice beaten with rods, of which we may suppose once was at Philippi, Act 16:22. Once he was stoned in a popular tumult, and was taken up for dead, Act 14:19. He says that thrice he suffered shipwreck; and we may believe him, though the sacred history gives a relation but of one. A night and a day he had been in the deep (2Co 11:25), in some deep dungeon or other, shut up as a prisoner. Thus he was all his days a constant confessor; perhaps scarcely a year of his life, after his conversion, passed without suffering some hardship or other for his religion; yet this was not all, for, wherever he went, he went in perils; he was exposed to perils of all sorts. If he journeyed by land, or voyaged by sea, he was in perils of robbers, or enemies of some sort; the Jews, his own countrymen, sought to kill him, or do him a mischief; the heathen, to whom he was sent, were not more kind to him, for among them he was in peril. If he was in the city, or in the wilderness, still he was in peril. He was in peril not only among avowed enemies, but among those also who called themselves brethren, but were false brethren, 2Co 11:26. Besides all this, he had great weariness and painfulness in his ministerial labours, and these are things that will come into account shortly, and people will be reckoned with for all the care and pains of their ministers concerning them. Paul was a stranger to wealth and plenty, power and pleasure, preferment and ease; he was in watchings often, and exposed to hunger and thirst; in fastings often, it may be out of necessity; and endured cold and nakedness, 2Co 11:27. Thus was he, who was one of the greatest blessings of the age, used as if he had been the burden of the earth, and the plague of his generation. And yet this is not all; for, as an apostle, the care of all the churches lay on him, 2Co 11:28. He mentions this last, as if this lay the heaviest upon him, and as if he could better bear all the persecutions of his enemies than the scandals that were to be found in the churches he had the oversight of. Who is weak, and I am not weak? Who is offended, and I burn not? 2Co 11:29. There was not a weak Christian with whom he did not sympathize, nor any one scandalized, but he was affected therewith. See what little reason we have to be in love with the pomp and plenty of this world, when this blessed apostle, one of the best of men that ever lived, excepting Jesus Christ, felt so much hardship in it. Nor was he ashamed of all this, but, on the contrary, it was what he accounted his honour; and therefore, much against the grain as it was with him to glory, yet, says he, if I must needs glory, if my adversaries will oblige me to it in my own necessary vindication, I will glory in these my infirmities, 2Co 11:30. Note, Sufferings for righteousness' sake will, the most of any thing, redound to our honour.

In the last two verses, he mentions one particular part of his sufferings out of its place, as if he had forgotten it before, or because the deliverance God wrought for him was most remarkable; namely, the danger he was in at Damascus, soon after he was converted, and not settled in Christianity, at least in the ministry and apostleship. This is recorded, Act 9:24, Act 9:25. This was his first great danger and difficulty, and the rest of his life was a piece with this. And it is observable that, lest it should be thought he spoke more than was true, the apostle confirms this narrative with a solemn oath, or appeal to the omniscience of God, 2Co 11:31. It is a great comfort to a good man that the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who is an omniscient God, knows the truth of all he says, and knows all he does and all he suffers for his sake.

Barclay: 2Co 11:16-33

All against his will Paul is forced to produce his credentials as an apostle. He feels that the whole thing is folly, and, when it comes to comparing himself with other people, it seems to him like madness. Nevertheless, not for his own sake, but for the sake of the gospel that he preaches, it has to be done.

It is clear that his opponents were Jewish teachers who claimed to have a gospel and an authority far beyond his. He sketches them in a few lightning strokes, when he speaks about what the Corinthians are willing to endure at their hands. They reduce the Corinthians to abject slavery: This they do by trying to persuade them to submit to circumcision and the thousand and one petty rules and regulations of the Jewish law, and so to abandon the glorious liberty of the gospel of grace. They devour them. The Jewish rabbis at their worst could be shamelessly rapacious. Theoretically they held that a rabbi must take no money for teaching and must win his bread by the work of his hands, but they also taught that it was work of exceptional merit to support a rabbi and that he who did so made sure of a place in the heavenly academy. They behaved arrogantly. They lorded it over the Corinthians. In point of fact the rabbis demanded a respect greater than that given to parents, and actually claimed that, if a man's father and teacher were both captured by brigands, he must ransom his teacher first, and only then his father. They struck them on the face. This may describe insulting behaviour, or it may well be meant quite literally (compare Act 23:2). The Corinthians had come to the curious stage of seeing in the very insolence of the Jewish teachers a guarantee of their apostolic authority.

The false teachers have made three claims which Paul asserts that he can equal.

They claim to be Hebrews. This word was specially used of the Jews who still remembered and spoke their ancient Hebrew language in its Aramaic form, which was its form in the time of Paul. There were Jews scattered all over the world, for instance there were one million of them in Alexandria. Many of these Jews of the dispersion had forgotten their native tongue and spoke Greek; and the Jews of Palestine, who had preserved their native tongue, always looked down on them. Quite likely Paul's opponents had been saying, "This Paul is a citizen of Tarsus. He is not like us a pure-bred Palestinian but one of these Greekling Jews." Paul says, "No! I too am one who has never forgotten the purity of his ancestral tongue." They could not claim superiority on that score.

They claim to be Israelites. The word described a Jew as a man who was a member of God's chosen people. The basic sentence of the Jewish creed, the sentence with which every synagogue service opens, runs, "Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord" (Deu 6:4). No doubt these hostile Jews were saying, "This Paul never lived in Palestine. He has slipped away out of the chosen people, living in Greek surroundings in Cilicia." Paul says, "No! I am as pure an Israelite as any man. My lineage is the lineage of the people of God." They cannot claim superiority on that point.

They claim to be descendants of Abraham. By that they meant that they were Abraham's direct descendants and therefore heirs to the great promise that God had made to him (Gen 12:1-3). No doubt they claimed that this Paul was not of as pure descent as they. "No!" says Paul. "I am of as pure descent as any man" (Phi 3:5-6). They had no claim to superiority here either.

Then Paul sets out his credentials as an apostle, and the only claim he would put forward is the catalogue of his sufferings for Christ. When Mr. Valiant-for-truth was "taken with a summons" and knew that he must go to God, he said, "I am going to my Father's; and though with great difficulty I am got hither yet now I do not repent me of all the trouble I have been at to arrive where I am. My sword I give to him that shall succeed me in my pilgrimage, and my courage and skill to him that can get it. My marks and scars I carry with me, to be a witness for me, that I have fought his battles who will now be my rewarder." Like Mr. Valiant-for-truth, Paul found his only credentials in his scars.

When we read the catalogue of all that Paul had endured, the one thing that must strike us is how little we know about him. When he wrote this letter, he was in Ephesus. That is to say we have reached only as far as Ac 19 ; and if we try to check this catalogue of endurance against the narrative of that book, we find that not one quarter of it is there. We see that Paul was an even greater man than perhaps we thought, for Acts merely skims the surface of what he did and endured.

Out of this long catalogue we can take only three items.

(i) "Three times," says Paul, "I have been beaten with rods." This was a Roman punishment. The attendants of the magistrates were called the lictors and they were equipped with rods of birch wood with which the guilty criminal was chastised. Three times that had happened to Paul. It should never have happened to him at all, because, under Roman law, it was a crime to scourge a Roman citizen. But, when the mob was violent and the magistrate was weak, Paul, Roman citizen though he was, had suffered this.

(ii) "Five times," says Paul, "I received the forty stripes less one." This was a Jewish punishment. The Jewish law lays down the regulations for such scourging (Deu 25:1-3). The normal penalty was forty stripes, and on no account must that number be exceeded, or the scourger himself was subject to scourging. Therefore they always stopped at thirty-nine. That is why scourging was known as "the forty less one." The detailed regulations for scourging are in the Mishnah, which is the book in which the Jewish traditional law was codified. "They bind his two hands to a pillar on either side, and the minister of the synagogue lays hold on his garments--if they are torn, they are tom, if they are utterly rent, they are utterly rent--so that he bares his chest. A stone is set behind him on which the minister of the synagogue stands with a strap of calf-hide in his hand, doubled and re-doubled, and two other straps that rise and fall thereto. The handpiece of the strap is one handbreadth long and one handbreadth wide, and its end must reach to his navel (i.e. when the victim is struck on the shoulder the end of the strap must reach the navel). He gives him one third of the stripes in front and two thirds behind, and he may not strike him when he is standing or when he is sitting but only when he is bending down ... and he that smites smites with one hand and with all his might. If he dies under his hand, the scourger is not culpable. But if he gives him one stripe too many, and he dies, he must escape into exile because of him." That is what Paul suffered five times, a scourging so severe that it was liable to kill a man.

(iii) Again and again Paul speaks of the dangers of his travels. It is true that in his time the roads and the sea were safer than they had ever been, but they were still dangerous. On the whole, the ancient peoples did not relish the sea. "How pleasant it is," says Lucretius, "to stand on the shore and watch the poor devils of sailors having a rough time." Seneca writes to a friend, "You can persuade me into almost anything now for I was recently persuaded to travel by sea." Men regarded a sea voyage as taking one's life in one's hands. As for the roads, the brigands were still here. "A man," says Epictetus, "has heard that the road is infested by robbers. He does not dare to venture on it alone, but waits for company--a legate, or a quaestor, or a proconsul--and joining him he passes safely on the road." But there would be no official company "or Paul. "Think," said Seneca, "any day a robber might cut your throat." It was the commonest thing for a traveller to be caught and held to ransom. If ever a man was an adventurous soul, that man was Paul.

In addition to all this there was his anxiety for all the Churches. This includes the burden of the daily administration of the Christian communities; but it means more than that. Myers in his poem, St. Paul, makes Paul speak of,

"Desperate tides of the whole great world's anguish

Forced thro' the channels of a single heart."

Paul bore the sorrows and the troubles of his people on his heart.

This passage comes to a strange ending. On the face of it, it would seem that the escape from Damascus was an anti-climax. The incident is referred to in Act 9:23-25. The wall of Damascus was wide enough to drive a carriage along it. Many of the houses overhung it and it must have been from one of these that Paul was let down. Why does he so directly and definitely mention this incident? It is most likely because it rankled. Paul was the kind of man who would find this clandestine exit from Damascus worse than a scourging. He must have hated with all his great heart to run away as a fugitive in the night. His bitterest humiliation was to fail to look his enemies in the face.

Constable: 2Co 10:1--13:11

IV. APPEALS CONCERNING PAUL'S APOSTOLIC AUTHORITY 10:1--13:10

In this third and last major division of his epistle the apostle Paul defended his apostolic authority. He did this to silence his critics in Corinth and perhaps elsewhere permanently and to confirm the united support of the Christians there. One of Paul's major purposes in writing this letter was to prepare the way for his next visit. He had just referred to that "anticipated visit" (9:3-4). Consequently he felt compelled to establish his apostolic authority firmly. Broomall's observation on the tone of 2 Corinthians generally is especially true of chapters 10-13.

"The progress of thought in this epistle is like the movement of a mighty army advancing over rugged terrain still inhabited by pockets of stubborn resistance."²⁴³

Constable: 2Co 11:1--12:19

B. Claims made by Paul 11:1-12:18

In this section Paul gave further evidence that he possessed apostolic authority to encourage the whole Corinthian church to continue to respond positively to his ministry.

Constable: 2Co 11:16-33

3. Paul's service and sufferings 11:16-33

To answer his critics and prove the extent of his own service and sufferings for Christ, Paul related many of his painful experiences as an apostle.

11:16 Paul apologized again for having to resort to mentioning these experiences (cf. v. 1). He did so to prove to the skeptical minority in the church that he had suffered as much as, if not even more than, the false apostles. The false teachers had impressed the "wise" Corinthians with their boasts. Consequently Paul answered these fools according to their folly (Prov. 26:5). However, he stressed that he was not a fool but was only speaking as one (i.e., boasting) to make his point.

"The key term is aphron, fool': not a dim-witted person or clown, a jester (as in play the fool'), but in the technical sense of the person in hellenistic-Roman society who had lost the correct measure (metron) of himself and the world around him . . ."²⁶²

11:17-18 These two verses are probably parenthetical. Paul evidently knew that only such "boasting" would convince the minority of his own genuineness. Straightforward claims such as the Lord Jesus made would not.

"The reason for Paul's embarrassment at this juncture is now given: self-commendation is not after the Lord' [cf. Rom. 15:5; Eph. 4:24; Col. 2:8] but, the exact opposite, after the flesh' [cf. 5:16], that is, typical of the old unregenerate nature whose values are dictated by the external, self-centered standards of this fallen world."²⁶³

11:19-21a The apostle was most ironical in these verses. The Corinthians considered themselves unusually wise, but they were being unusually foolish by not only humoring the fools in their midst but doing so gladly. They were absurdly tolerant. They submitted to the teaching of the false apostles even though it resulted in their own enslavement. Probably this teaching involved the Judaizing error (i.e., submission to the Mosaic Law is necessary for justification and or sanctification, cf. Gal. 2:4; 5:1). The false teachers had evidently devoured the Corinthians' financial contributions. They had abused them and exalted themselves at their expense. Hitting in the face may have occurred (cf. Acts 23:2; 1 Cor. 4:11), but it definitely pictures the most insulting and harmful conduct. How inconsistent this behavior was with the manner of the Savior.

Ironically Paul feigned shame that he had behaved so weakly among them. His conduct had been Christ-like. Now he was experiencing abuse for such gentleness, as his Master had.

11:21b-22 After repeated warnings that he was going to boast (10:8; 11:1, 6, 16), Paul now finally began. At first he matched each of his critic's claims: "So am I."

"It is probable that this Speech' mirrors, but so as to parody and also correct, the claims of the newly arrived false apostles."²⁶⁴

"Thus the Speech' proper has elements of antitriumphalism as well as of triumph, characteristics that inexactly replicate those in the remarkable victory parade metaphor set out in 2:14."²⁶⁵

The term "Hebrew" had three connotations. A "Hebrew" was a pure-blooded Jew and or one who could read the Old Testament in the original languages and speak Aramaic as contrasted with one who knew only Greek (cf. Acts 6:1; Phil. 3:5).

"Hebrew' . . . denotes Jews whose family ties were Palestinian, if they were not wholly resident in Palestine. . . . It looks very much as if Paul's opponents at Corinth were of Palestinian provenance."²⁶⁶

As an Israelite, Paul was a member of God's chosen people, as his critics were. Paul traced his descent all the way back to Abraham. He probably did so to connect himself with the promises of the Abrahamic Covenant and circumcision both of which were of cardinal importance to the Jews. Thus in his upbringing, his citizenship, and his ancestry Paul was not inferior to any of his Jewish critics.

11:23-25 The apostle listed general afflictions he had suffered in the service of Christ (v. 23) and then cited specific examples (vv. 24-25). He turned from nationality (v. 23) to achievements (vv. 24-29). Here he claimed superiority to his critics, not just equality with them. He proceeded from speaking as a fool (vv. 16, 17, 21) to talking like a madman (v. 23).

His opponents claimed to be servants of Christ (v. 23), but really they were masquerading as such (v. 13). Paul alone was the true servant of the Lord. However instead of citing successes that he had experienced in his ministry, the awards that he had received from others, he listed his apparent defeats. Thus he boasted in his weaknesses (v. 30; cf. 12:5, 9, 10).

". . . Paul is not in fact magnifying self in the passage which is now beginning--in this, too, there is complete disparity between himself and his adversaries--but he is magnifying, as he does throughout this epistle, the amazing grace of God which in the midst of afflictions and sufferings is sufficient for his every need."²⁶⁷

Paul's writing of 2 Corinthians fits into Luke's chronology of his life at Acts 20:2, so everything that Paul described here occurred before Acts 20:2. Paul's life involved many more dangerous experiences than we read about in Acts. Paul referred to many imprisonments (v. 23), but Acts only records one before this time (i.e., in Philippi, Acts 16:23-40). He mentioned numberless beatings (v. 23), whereas Acts only records one by now (also in Philippi, Acts 16:22-23). The only record of a near fatal experience in Acts before this was Paul's stoning at Lystra (Acts 14:19), though Paul said he had often been in danger of dying (v. 23). Paul claimed to have received whippings by the Jews five times (v. 24), but Acts says nothing about any of these. It does not mention the three beatings (by the Gentiles, v. 25; cf. 2 Tim. 3:11) either.

"The fact that St Paul was thrice treated in this way is evidence that being a Roman citizen was an imperfect protection when magistrates were disposed to be brutal."²⁶⁸

Paul had already experienced shipwreck three times by now, though Luke recorded none of these in Acts. Paul's night and day in the sea (v. 26) also comes as news to the reader of Acts. Obviously in Acts Luke gave us only a highly selective account of the Apostle Paul's very difficult life.

11:26-27 Paul broadened his description from specific hardships to general types of danger (v. 26) and privation (v. 27) that he had experienced as an apostle. Paul's sufferings on his journeys as a missionary merited special mention (v. 26) as did his labors when he settled in an area to plant a church (v. 27). Again Luke recorded only a few of these in Acts (cf. Acts 9:23, 29; 13:14; 14:19, 24; 16:16-40; 18:12; 19:23-41)

11:28-29 All the previous trials that Paul enumerated were temporary, but what follows remained with him always. Internal pressure (v. 28) harassed Paul on top of all the external difficulties that he endured. Specifically concern for the weak and the moral failures of his converts disturbed Paul (v. 29).

"And so it should be with every faithful pastor of Christ's flock: he should lovingly identify himself with those who have been committed to his care, showing himself deeply anxious for their spiritual well-being, compassionate with them in their frailties and temptations, and resisting and resenting every one who seeks to entice them away from the purity of their devotion to Christ. This compassion is not of man: it is the divine compassion of Christ Himself, burning in the heart of His servant, and blazing forth in love to reach and to bind to the one Bridegroom the hearts of those to whom he ministers."²⁶⁹

11:30-31 Rather than boasting about his strengths, as his critics did, Paul boasted in his weaknesses, humiliations, and sufferings. These would not initially impress others with his qualifications as an apostle, but these afflictions had come upon him as he had served others and Christ faithfully. They were evidences that God had supernaturally sustained His servant through countless discouraging circumstances. They were, therefore, the greatest possible proof that Paul was an apostle (cf. 1:8-10; 3:5; 4:7, 10-11; 12:5, 9-10). Paul called God as his witness that his claims, which probably seemed incredible to those who did not know him well, were true.

It may be that Paul anticipated what he was about to say in verses 32 and 33 with his strong claim in verse 31.²⁷⁰

11:32-33 Perhaps Paul mentioned the final experience he cited because it was his first experience of suffering for the gospel. It provided a pattern for Paul's life that continued. Paul's critics may have charged him with cowardice in his escape from Damascus, though there is no basis for this revealed in the text. That may be an additional reason he mentioned it, though I doubt it. It may also have been that it would have reminded his readers of his supernatural call and appointment as an apostle on the Damascus road. It was undoubtedly a humbling memory for Paul too.

Aretas IV was the father-in-law of Herod Antipas. He lived in Petra and ruled the kingdom of Nabatea (called Arabia in Gal. 1:17) between 9 B.C. and 40 A.D. Damascus at the time of Paul's conversion may have been under Nabatean rule.²⁷¹ Alternatively it was under Roman rule, and a colony of Nabateans controlled it.²⁷² The historical evidence is incomplete. Aretas evidently wanted to arrest Paul because the apostle began evangelizing in that region immediately after his conversion (cf. Acts 9:20; Gal. 1:17, 22-23). His activity antagonized the Jews living in the area who obtained official support for their opposition to Paul (cf. Acts 9 23-25). Aretas himself may have been a Jew.²⁷³

In many of his examples Paul presented himself as one who did not fit the pattern of "successful" ministers of the gospel. Like the Corinthians we modern Christians tend to evaluate a person's success on the basis of the standards of the world. Rather than playing down the events in his ministry that made him look inferior, Paul emphasized them because they glorified God's remarkably sufficient grace. In view of all Paul's calamities there is no way he could have been so effective unless God was with Him.

College: 2Co 11:1-33

2 CORINTHIANS 11

B. COMPARISON TO FALSE APOSTLES MADE (11:1-15)

1. True Message of Jesus Preached (11:1-6)

11:1 I hope you will put up with a little of my foolishness; but you are already doing that.

Like a shy schoolboy Paul haltingly climbs onto the stage, eyes downcast, stammering, fidgety, embarrassed, cautiously opens his mouth to speak, determined to be bold, but out comes a squeaky-voiced apology. Paul is not accustomed to listing his litany of credentials in order to win over a crowd. He is used to presenting the gospel plainly, boldly, convincingly. Yet, he is sidling up to the idea of writing out his entire resumι in order to provide the majority of Corinthians the ammunition to win the rest away from the outside challengers. Incredibly, despite his opening sentence, Paul will not actually get to listing his apostolic credentials until 11:21b. After harsh denunciation of his rivals through 11:15, Paul will restart the introduction to his credentials in 11:16. This will last until 11:21b when he finally gets his credentials under way.

Part of Paul's hesitation to list his credentials is that presenting them is too much like boasting. Self-adulation of the sort his rivals seem to have specialized in he has already blasted as unbiblical in 10:17-18. Yet, once he gets into his credentials, it will be seen that they are not really much like normal boasting. In fact, they are more like antiboasting, boasting in suffering service, not in achievements and awards.

Paul's first word in the sentence, translated by the NIV as "I wish" is not a verb but a special word (o[felon, ophelon ), rare in the NT, which is used to introduce an unattainable desire. With it Paul, like one forlorn of hope, betrays his lack of confidence, expecting rejection. Such self-deprecation combined with a verb like "put up with" (ajnevcw, anechô) was a common opening ploy in Greek rhetorical practice. Since Paul's rhetorical competence is one area which has been ridiculed by his attackers (10:10; 11:6), this may signal an effort by Paul to introduce a show of rhetorical flourish, even as he answers his critics. If that is the case, then this opening should be taken as somewhat tongue-in-cheek.

One can almost hear Paul chuckle as he writes the second half of the verse musing how the church has already patiently listened to a long letter. The NIV's "You are already doing that" paraphrases what is simply a repetition of the verb "put up with" (ajnevcw, anechô) in the present tense and could be rendered, "But in fact you are putting up with me." This second use of "put up with" may be an imperative, "But in fact put up with me." This would fit well with Paul's remarks which follow. However, it takes the punch out of the adversative "but" (ajllav, alla ) which separates the two clauses.

Many interpreters consider this verse the beginning of Paul's "Fool's Speech" because between here and 12:13 Paul will utter the word "folly," "foolishness" (ajfrosuvnh, aphrosynç), as here, or "fool," "foolish" (a[frwn, aphrôn) eight times (11:16 - twice, 17,19,21; 12:6,11). Elsewhere, he uses "fool" only three other times, in 1 Cor 15:36, Rom 2:20, and Eph 5:17. These two words are negations of Greek nouns which refer to prudent, discreet conduct which stems from a sound mind. Paul repeatedly refers to what he is doing in this speech as foolish because he is loosening control of his faculties to do it. This is highly uncomfortable for him, but he does open up to it because bringing all the Corinthians back into the fold is his highest priority.

11:2 I am jealous for you with a godly jealousy.

The verb "I am jealous" (zhlovw, zçloô) and the noun "jealousy" (zh'lo", zçlos), formed on the same Greek stem, can indicate "deep concern," as in 2 Cor 7:7, or "enthusiastic zeal," as in 2 Cor 9:2 or Gal 4:17. However, the NIV quite appropriately translates them from the reference point of desiring to get something back that has been taken away. In Exod 20:5 God can speak of being jealous for Israel when they go after other gods because they are his people. This also fits frequent OT language which depicts Israel as God's bride (Isa 54:5-6; 62:5; Ezek 16:8; Hos 2:19-20). Thus, Paul qualifies "jealousy" with "godly." Paul now speaks for Christ's claim on the Corinthian church using similar imagery. Christ's jealousy over some of the Corinthians who have left him means he wants them back. Paul sees it as his responsibility to accomplish this through his presentation.

I promised you to one husband, to Christ, so that I might present you as a pure virgin to him

Paul pictures himself as the father of the bride, who in Jewish culture negotiated the binding marriage contract of his daughter to her suitor. In return for safeguarding his daughter's sexual purity until the actual marriage (Gen 29:23; Deut 22:13-19), the father received the promise of goods, herds, or money for his daughter. The betrothal, or engagement period lasted about a year. During this year-long period, it was the father's responsibility to ward off any other suitors.

When the wedding ceremony took place, the groom honored his end of the contract and the father escorted his daughter to the groom's home. Should the groom find his bride to be sexually impure on their wedding night, he could return her to her father's house and reclaim his goods since the father's end of the contract had been broken. This in fact is what Joseph intended to do to Mary according to Matt 1:18-25 until Gabriel explained the extraordinary circumstances of Mary's pregnancy.

Viewing himself as father to the Corinthian church is in keeping with what Paul says in 1 Cor 4:15 in which he declares, "You do not have many fathers, for in Christ Jesus I became your father through the gospel." In 2 Cor 6:13, he calls them "my children" who he hopes will give their father a hug, and in 2 Cor 12:13-15, he again calls them "children" to whom he pledges to provide for all their needs. Such a paternal view of his relationship to the Corinthians can be seen in the way he conceives of individual converts as well (1 Thess 2:11; Phlm 10; 1 Tim 1:2; 2 Tim 1:2). In Gal 4:9 he pictures his relationship to those churches as a mother giving birth.

Paul's portrayal of an individual congregation as the bride of Christ is unique in the NT. However, the whole, universal church is conceived of as Christ's bride in Eph 5:23-32, Rev 19:7-9 and Rev 22:2. But even when James 4:12 cries to the church as, "You adulterous people," this marital relationship between Christ and the church is presumed. This image undoubtedly draws upon the OT imagery between God and Israel.

The adjective "pure" (aJgnov", hagnos ), besides its appropriateness for expressing sexual innocence, often stands opposite to sin of any nature as when 1 Tim 5:22 speaks of keeping oneself pure as the positive result of not sharing in the sins of others. It can also be found in lists of Christian virtues in association with being self-controlled and kind (Titus 2:5) as well as being right and noble (Phil 4:8). It amounts to keeping oneself untainted from a particular sin or sins as a whole.

Paul views the church as in the engagement period. His vigilance as a protective father commits him to watch out for the faithfulness of congregations which he has helped bring into the world until Christ returns at the Parousia to consummate his marriage to the bride. The engagement contract, most likely, is initiated when individuals are sealed by the Holy Spirit in baptism. Responsibility for caring discipleship of Christians beyond conversion, such as Paul articulates with the wedding imagery, remains a critical job for the church still today.

11:3 But I am afraid that just as Eve was deceived by the serpent's cunning,

From the image of marriage Paul's mind focuses on the first wife and her first temptation recorded in Genesis 3, not only to undermine her husband, but to transgress God's will. By the time of Paul, it was conjectured by Jewish Rabbis that Eve in fact was sexually seduced by an evil angel or the devil in the cloak of the serpent. Although the word translated "was deceived" (ejxapatavw, exapataô) can mean "seduce," in the NT it is consistently used in the context of deception not seduction (Rom 7:11; 16:18; 1 Cor 11:3; 2 Thess 2:3; 1 Tim 2:14). Paul's reference to the "minds" of the Corinthians in the second half of this verse confirms this interpretation.

Paul employs a different Greek word than the fairly complimentary "wise" (frovnimo", phronimos ) which the Septuagint translation of Gen 3:1 uses to describe the serpent. Rather, he appropriately employs the Greek word for "cunning" (panourgiva, panourgia ) which indisputably paints the serpent black, full of trickery and villainy. He does not want the Corinthians to think that the outside disrupters who deceive have anything but bad motives. They are not just zealously but naοvely wrong. They are sinister. Like the serpent their plan to woo the Corinthians is premeditated and intentional.

your minds may somehow be led astray from your sincere and pure devotion to Christ.

Paul focuses on the "minds" (novhma, noçma) of the Corinthians as the location of deception. This is now the last of five uses of this word in 2 Corinthians. The only other use in the NT is also by Paul in Phil 4:7. This word depicts the sphere in which people make decisions, design strategies, plan for the future. If this focal point of Christian influence is captured by an errant notion, particularly in reference to Christ and the gospel, it has huge ramifications for the integrity of their Christian lifestyle as well as the reality of their salvation. Paul presumes that the schemers have already made an impact and have taken some out of the true Christian fold. That's why he writes this letter, to dislodge the influence of the outsiders from the church and particularly those who have already been victimized by them.

Paul reminds the Corinthians of their vows of commitment to Christ as one might counsel a woman who is tempted to betray her husband. He uses the synonyms "sincere" (aJplovth", haplotçs) and "pure" (aJgnovth", hagnotçs). The first emphasizes the simplicity of devotion to something or someone, uncomplicated by other ideas or notions. The second, like its related word in 11:2, emphasizes 100% commitment, no mixed motives, no second thoughts. Remaining true to Christ through all the ups and downs of life, in the face of conflicting philosophies and moral principles, is no easy task in any generation. But this is what the unblemished bride Christ deserves.

11:4 For if someone comes to you and preaches a Jesus other than the Jesus we preached,

Even though Paul expresses himself in a conditional construction ("if"), given the context it is doubtful that he intends it to be taken as purely hypothetical. More than likely, his threefold description of heretical preaching is based on his knowledge of the intruders in Corinth. Certainly, it is also intended to stand as a grid to screen out future heresies or those which are ongoing in other localities. It remains as a valuable tool for evaluating contemporary heresies as well.

While it is important to attempt to explore the implications of the threefold criteria with regard to Paul's current problems in Corinth, probably the most revealing words are "other" (a[llo", allos ) and "different" (e{tero", heteros ), the first of which hovers over "Jesus," the second of which cradles "spirit" and "gospel." These two words are synonyms. The first refers to something which has been added to something else, the second refers simply to something different. As far as Paul is concerned, anything preached in these three areas which is different from what Paul has preached is not true, valid Christianity. The variety of differences is incalculable, but the standard of true Christianity against which they are to be measured is singular and unchanging.

Paul gives the Corinthians and Christians in general the credit, indeed the responsibility, for knowing what he preaches. He also presumes they can detect differences in the instruction they have received from Paul's opponents. The ultimate issue is whether they will recognize Paul's teaching as true. Really the bottom line is Paul's own credibility as an apostle in their eyes and Paul's success in unmasking his opponents as frauds. That is what Paul hopes to accomplish in the rest of chapter eleven.

Simply identifying the message of his opponents as different in these three respects does not give readers that much to go on. For this reason, interpreters offer a wide variety of possibilities for the identity of Paul's opponents. Most, however, tend to focus their attention on the first member of the threefold list, "Jesus." It strikes many as significant that Paul says "Jesus" and not "Christ." Paul tends to speak of Christ when dwelling on the saving gospel of grace. Some suggest that by using "Jesus" Paul's rivals are emphasizing the Jewishness of Jesus and perhaps a legalistic gospel. Going to the extreme opposite, others suggest Paul's rivals must be early Christian Gnostics, who under Greek influence tended to magnify the earthly Jesus as the pure vessel in whom the divine presence dwelt. Still another supports that these teachers thought of Jesus as a Greek divine man.

All of these strain more out of the simple word "Jesus" than can be proved. However, a more convincing theory draws on the broader context of 2 Corinthians as well as other Pauline uses of "Jesus" for its suggestion. It first notes that Paul only uses "Jesus" 16 times as compared to "Jesus Christ" or "Christ Jesus" 142 times and "Christ" alone an additional 166 times. Seven of the 16 uses of Jesus alone are in 2 Corinthians, of which the use in 11:4 is the last. Most of these concentrate in 2 Cor 4:5-14 in which Paul talks of true apostleship being "servants" and carrying "in our body the death of Jesus." This compares to Gal 6:17 in which Paul speaks of "bearing on my body the marks of Jesus." Further, Eph 2:10 points to "Jesus" as worshiped by all, but only after the Eph 2:7-8 passage exalts him for becoming "a servant," "humbled," and "obedient to death - even death on a cross."

This evidence brings the reasonable conclusion that if "Jesus" implies anything in 11:4, it is the humiliation and suffering of Jesus, particularly on the cross. The temptation to minimize this radical message of crucifixion and sacrifice is readily acknowledged by Paul, in fact in 1 Corinthians. In 1 Cor 1:18-25, Paul admits that the message of the cross which he preaches seems foolish to most, a stumbling block to Jews and Greeks alike. But he preaches it anyway because it is God's wisdom.

The vulnerability of the Corinthians to a Christianity which ignores the cross and the suffering of Jesus in his physical body is already evident in 1 Corinthians. Thus, it is not so surprising that some would be attracted to those who represent themselves as truer apostles than Paul, presenting a gospel not so disgustingly radical in its focus on the suffering and death of the one being worshiped. However, a Jesus like this which denies the central tenet of the incarnation and the horror of the cross, as far as Paul is concerned, is a false Christianity.

or if you receive a different spirit from the one you received, or a different gospel from the one you accepted,

The words "Jesus," "spirit," and "gospel" surprisingly form a unique combination in the NT, especially linked with "receive" (lambavnw, lambanô) and "accept" (devcomai, dechomai ). The word "accept" usually links with "the word," as in Luke 8:13; Acts 17:11; 1 Thess 1:6 and James 1:2. It makes sense that they rise and fall together. Yet, the fact that "Jesus" is listed first suggests the true notion that the preaching of a different Jesus necessarily will create both a different spirit and a different gospel. This is self-evident since the center of the gospel is the message of Jesus Christ and the salvation that can be found in him. Any "gospel" which distorts this or minimizes him certainly is not Christianity. This is true whether the distortion involves a sanitized Jesus that does not suffer on the cross as suggested here, or any other modern distortion of Jesus.

How "spirit" relates to the other two begins with the matter of how the word should be taken here. Most translations (NASB, KJV, NAB, JB, RSV, NRSV) agree with the lower case translation of the NIV, while only the LB and NLT make it upper case. Interpreters divide on this as well. The lower case seems most appropriate because it is inconceivable that Paul could even consider a different Holy Spirit existing, much less being passed on in the context of a false gospel. By a lower case "spirit," he may have in mind some kind of bad attitude, perhaps arrogant, authoritative, or ecstatic. If personalized at all, most likely he would intend, then, the spirit of Satan which Paul associates with his opponents in 11:13-14.

Even though the word "spirit" only appears once in the Greek, the NEB and TEV probably have the right idea by translating it twice, in the first instance as lower case, referring to the inferior "spirit" of Paul's opponents, and then again as upper case, referring to the true Spirit the Corinthian Christians received when they first accepted the gospel and were baptized. To receive another gospel, as far as Paul is concerned, also eradicates the power of the true Spirit in the lives of the Corinthians.

The only other place Paul uses the term "different gospel" is in Gal 1:6 in reference to the Judaizers who disrupted the Galatian churches with a false message of Jewish legalism. This may mean that Paul's opponents in Corinth were of the same ilk, essentially Judaizers with a few new wrinkles. However, the fact that Paul never brings up circumcision and the law in 2 Corinthians must not be overlooked in holding such a view. Yet another mutation of the gospel could be taking place in Corinth altogether different from Galatia. It could even be an offshoot of the same group still claiming official Jerusalem credentials but now with a message which has transmuted yet again since the Galatian situation, adding more disruptive Hellenistic permutations.

you put up with it easily enough.

Paul's tone is sarcastic. He deliberately reuses the verb "put up with" (ajnevcw, anechô) which began the paragraph in 11:1. He does this to pick up the tenor of his opening appeal for the Corinthians to "put up with" or "bear with" him in the foolish boasting which he is about to do. Since they are even now allowing themselves to be influenced by people spreading a false gospel - they can put up with it - surely they will indulge him in his representation of the true gospel. The tragedy is that they are not even resisting this false gospel. This is even more clearly indicated by the adverb "easy enough" (kalw'", kalôs) Paul adds to the verb. This word means "well" or even "beautifully." The Corinthians are bearing with the false gospel beautifully, meaning, they are lapping it up.

11:5 But I do not think I am in the least inferior to those "super-apostles."

That the outsiders have set their sights on lowering the Corinthians' esteem, for Paul, particularly as a legitimate apostle, fueled much of Paul's defense beginning in 2 Cor 3:1. His waving off the need for a letter of recommendation could only occur as a response to others with letters of some sort who are claiming a greater apostolic pedigree than Paul's. The center of their attack on Paul's gospel continues to be his lack of bona fide credentials, not being one of the original Twelve apostles. On the other hand, it appears they themselves have letters, probably at least from the Jerusalem church if not from one of the Twelve. Where or when they got them does not matter to Paul. Even if the credentials are genuine, they are being misused now to subvert the true gospel.

Some suggest that by "super-apostles" Paul refers directly to the three apostles he called "pillars" in Gal 2:9, Peter, James, and John. The point, then, is that he considers himself equal to them in his apostolic calling. However, to read it like this is to introduce a foreign element into the context. Second Corinthians 11:4 indicates that Paul is dealing with those who have come into the Corinthian situation from outside. Most likely they claim to be superior to Paul, so Paul sarcastically calls them "super-apostles." So, the NIV is quite right to put this word in quotation marks to indicate this. At the conclusion of his "boasting" speech, in 2 Cor 12:11, he will once again affirm that these so-called "super-apostles" are not superior to him. Really, they are not apostles at all, despite their claims, as he says in 11:13-14. How can they be if the gospel they preach is not the true gospel?

11:6 I may not be a trained speaker, but I do have knowledge.

The NIV's "speaker" (lovgo", logos ) literally is "the word." He is not admitting any lack of scriptural knowledge but rather an insufficiency in his rhetorical ability, his spoken word. The NIV's "not trained" (ijdiwvth", idiôtçs) refers to someone who has not had formal instruction in whatever subject or skill is at hand. In this case, it refers to Paul's lack of formal rhetorical training particularly when compared to his rival "apostles" in Corinth.

This harkens back to the criticism Paul acknowledges back in 10:10. There, he also seems to acknowledge a certain validity to the criticism. Paul may be trained exquisitely as a Jewish rabbi, and he may have received a good Greek education growing up in Tarsus as a Hellenistic Jew. However, this is not the same as having formal, advanced mentoring in the rhetorical arts. Since high proficiency in speech was prized and admired in Greek culture, it could well be that his opponents in Corinth are capable of impressing the church in these ways. The Corinthians might easily be persuaded that excellence in rhetorical form is an apostolic requisite and find Paul lacking in comparison to these Christian representatives among them now.

It is suggested that Paul may still be ironic here and only voicing a criticism from his opponents which he feels is invalid. This is possible since Paul's letters do portray considerable rhetorical flair. However, valid or not, Paul does not seem to be interested much in rhetorical wisdom, as he voices in 1 Cor 1:18-2:16. Rather, he claims the mantle of "knowledge" as the true trophy of superiority, and the incontrovertible mark of true apostleship.

It is unlikely that by "knowledge" (gnw'si", gnôsis) Paul means just that he is smart from a human perspective or that he is a walking encyclopedia. Knowledge like that, Paul usually views negatively. It "puffs up," he says in 1 Cor 8:1, is "vastly inferior to love," he says in 1 Cor 13:8. Rather, special knowledge that comes from God is more likely in his mind. This kind of knowledge, he says in 2 Cor 2:14, is the fragrance apostles spread everywhere, and is "the knowledge of the glory in the face of Christ," he says in 2 Cor 4:6. It is this knowledge of God which Paul in 2 Cor 10:5 says is besieged by human "arguments and pretension," which Paul wields to "demolish arguments" and "take captive every thought to make it obedient to Christ."

Interpreters suggest "knowledge" here centers in "deep spiritual insight," "insight into the mystery of the gospel," the claim "to know God personally and truly," an understanding of the truths of the gospel and insight into God's purposes," "knowledge of God and his Gospel," "'Jesus' and 'the gospel,'" and the ability to "distinguish the genuine and the spurious gospel." Note that the common factor in all but one of these interpretations is the gospel. This must be in the foreground of Paul's thoughts since he is contending with those whom he believes have brought a false gospel into Corinth and, unfortunately, have had some success with it.

Regardless, of rhetorical ability - and Paul probably has more training in this regard than any of the Twelve - authoritative knowledge of what the true gospel message entails is what sets true apostles apart from all others. Eyewitnesses of Christ's resurrection, understanding his victory over death and sin, knowledge of the horrors of Christ's sacrifice on the cross for humanity's sin, humility in the knowledge of God's grace which brings everything to pass - these things set true apostles apart in their knowledge. This kind of apostolic knowledge Paul emphatically claims for himself. In so doing, he denies it to his Corinthian opponents. Let them claim rhetoric. It is nothing. Divinely enhanced knowledge and understanding of the gospel is the only knowledge that really matters. Only this knowledge can save the world from God's judgment.

We have made this perfectly clear to you in every way.

The participle translated as a verb, "made clear" (fanerovw, phaneroô) is used for its ninth and last time in 2 Corinthians. It suggests that something becomes visible which could not be seen previously. Paul emphasizes the reality of this in the Greek by including the word "all" (pa'", pas ) in two prepositional phrases, first in the plural, "in all things" (translated as "perfectly" by the NIV) and in the singular, "in every way."

Paul believes, given his long personal history with the Corinthians, not only in bringing the gospel to them initially and living with them for 18 months "teaching them the word of God" (Acts 18:11) but through subsequent contact as well, that they know him well and have seen his knowledge of the gospel displayed in its powerful effect over and over again. Indeed, this is what baffles him. After seeing the genuine gospel displayed so consistently, how can even a minority of them be so easily attracted to what Paul observes to be a patently false gospel?

2. No Money Accepted (11:7-12)

11:7 Was it a sin for me to lower myself in order to elevate you by preaching the gospel of God to you free of charge?

Having contrasted his emphasis on true gospel content in his message as opposed to his rivals who magnify only themselves in their concentration on mesmerizing style, Paul now contrasts their approaches to money. While Paul has not accepted any money from the Corinthians, it appears that the so-called super-apostles have. In fact, like traveling Sophist teachers in the Greek world, these people seem to have believed that the value of their message was determined by the amount of compensation they received for delivering it. Paul believed it was critical for people to recognize that the gospel cannot be bought any more than it can be earned. It comes freely out of God's grace. However, while Paul expected the Corinthians to appreciate his self-sacrifice for them, Paul's rivals have been able to use this feature of Paul's ministry to their advantage, especially with those who hold the common Greek view.

Paul has dealt with this issue of monetary compensation before. In 1 Cor 9:1-18 he enthusiastically defends the right of other apostles and Christian workers to be supported by churches benefiting from their efforts. Yet, in the same breath he defends his right not to exercise this right so that he can offer the gospel free of charge. Given his bold sentiments on the matter, it seems hypocritical for him to receive financial support from the Macedonians, mentioned in 11:9 but also confirmed by Phil 4:15-16. Most likely his actual policy was to accept monetary support from congregations after he had left them to bring the gospel to new people and places but not while he was with them.

While the word for "sin" (aJmartiva, hamartia ) can refer to a "mistake" rather than a culpable sin, it is better to recognize the sarcastic tone of Paul once again. Thus, he asks the question with its gravest implications but believes what he has done is really the opposite of sin. Some in Corinth may have called Paul's refusal of payment a sin against them in the sense that he dishonored them by not accepting money that was offered.

Not only did Paul dishonor the wealthier Corinthians by not accepting their money, he aggravated the situation by actually working at a menial trade in the marketplace. Those of the upper class, instilled with Aristotle's disdain for manual labor, believed Paul humiliated himself and demeaned the gospel by this practice. He also embarrassed and insulted them in doing this. Learning a self-supporting skill was expected of a rabbi like Paul from his Jewish context. Yet, his considerable Greek background may have caused uneasiness even in himself in working beneath his social station.

The word "lower" (tapeinovw, tapeinoô) is usually translated as "humble" in its 13 other uses in the NT. It can refer to anything that is low, either of place (lying low), status, or rank. Normally it is taken as a moral and spiritual positive, juxtaposed with "being exalted," as in "he who humbles himself will be exalted" (Matt 23:12; Luke 14:11; 18:14; Jas 4:10). Paul puts a twist on it as he speaks of his lowering accomplishing the exaltation of others, the Corinthians. However, the fact that it turns out positively does not mean he does not feel the pangs of humiliation in working his trade while preaching the gospel.

Paul's trade skill, as indicated by Acts 18:3, was making tents. This could refer to work with leather or more likely with goats'-hair cloth, the latter a specialty of his home area of Cilicia. As well as material for tents, this cloth was used for making curtains, cloaks, and other articles which needed to be rain-resistant.

Paul usually speaks of the gospel as being "of Christ" (2:12; 9:13; 10:14), meaning Christ is what it is about. As here, he does occasionally refer to it as "of God" (Rom 1:1; 15:16; 1 Thess 2:2,8,9), emphasizing its origin as being in the character of God. The following qualification that the gospel was free to the Corinthians probably influenced Paul to implicate God's grace rather than Christ's work.

11:8 I robbed other churches by receiving support from them so as to serve you.

Once again Paul employs words with a history of war application. The word "robbed," used only here in all the NT, can refer to stripping the equipment from a slain combatant and also to pillaging a conquered village. The latter would seem more to Paul's mind as he sarcastically puts in the worst possible light the help sent to him by other churches while he labored in Corinth. The word "support" can refer to provisions or wages for an army on the move. This also fits with Paul's image of himself going from place to place conquering people with the power of the gospel message.

Taking Paul's language as sarcastic helps the reader realize that Paul fully appreciates those who have supported him. They have sacrificed willingly - right down to the bone - not just for him but ultimately for the sake of the Corinthians who became believers. Will the Corinthians disdain the self-sacrifice of others for their eternal welfare? The very fact that Corinthians benefited from all this should indicate to them that the sacrifice of others was worth it and that Paul's refusing money from them was for the best.

11:9 And when I was with you and needed something, I was not a burden to anyone,

Paul refers primarily to his initial visit to Corinth during the second missionary tour, described in Acts 18:1-17, when he stayed with them for eighteen months. The NIV "needed something" translates a Greek word (uJsterevw, hystereô) which indicates to be short, either in distance ("be behind"), in time ("come late"), in accomplishment ("fail"), or, as here, in basic human provision. When Paul ran short of funds for food or other necessities, he never asked a dime from the Corinthians. He does not say this to make the Corinthians feel guilty. On the contrary, he seeks their own verification that he stuck to his principles of not accepting money from people he sought to convert.

The verb "burden" (katanarkevw, katanarkeô), related to the English word "narcotics," can have a medical reference to make someone numb or stupefied. Used only here and in 2 Cor 12:13 and 12:14, the idea is more general in the sense of harming someone or being detrimental to their health. Paul chose not in any way to endanger the livelihood of the Corinthians as he preached the gospel to them, even if his own livelihood was left endangered, by being dependent on the demand for cilicium cloth and unsolicited help from other churches. Again, this was his choice in order to keep the Corinthians fertile recipients of the free gospel.

for the brothers who came from Macedonia supplied what I needed.

Acts 18:5 says, "When Silas and Timothy came from Macedonia, Paul devoted himself exclusively to preaching," whereas previous to their coming he worked as a tentmaker with Priscilla and Aquila and spoke in the synagogue on the Sabbath (Acts 18:3-4). This suggests that it is Silas and Timothy, and perhaps unnamed Macedonians with them, that Paul has in mind here in 2 Cor 11:9. Their generous provisions allowed him to stop tentmaking and give himself to the work of the gospel every day.

I have kept myself from being a burden to you in any way, and will continue to do so.

Paul emphasizes that he has remained true to his principle of not accepting money or other support from the Corinthians. Presumably, Paul means that he has maintained this principle even after leaving Corinth to evangelize other areas and that he has no plans to change this stance in the future. Yet, in these very circumstances he did accept help from the Macedonians and probably other churches as well. Why is he so firmly entrenched with regard to the Corinthians? It may simply be that the continuing presence of the apostolic rivals who do accept money - maybe even demand it - compels Paul not to budge. This special circumstance makes the Corinthians a unique case for not accepting help even after going elsewhere.

Another concern may be the collection. Very likely Paul does not want anything to take away from the Corinthians finalizing a generous offering for the Jerusalem Christians.

Another reason Paul refuses to ever accept money from the Corinthians may have to do with the influence on them of the Greek social convention regarding benefactors and clients. Affluent Greeks frequently were benefactors of civic enterprises and buildings. For this, they expected favors. The same principle applied if they were benefactors of artists or philosophers. There is every reason to believe such ideas were firmly entrenched in Corinth. If so, then Paul likely refuses money from the Corinthians for fear of becoming obligated to them. As a minister of the gospel, commissioned by Christ, he could not become their client. Rather, he saw himself as their benefactor, bringing them the gospel. If they have any obligation, then, it is to Paul, but especially to the Lord.

11:10 As surely as the truth of Christ is in me, nobody in the regions of Achaia will stop this boasting of mine.

Paul's opening oath formula signals that he feels it is essential to impress upon the Corinthians that he will never ever take their money. His position on this with regard to them is permanent, no matter how often they shove money under his nose. This suggests that Paul's problem goes deeper than the rivals or the collection and has more to do with their socially-embedded attitudes regarding benefactors and clients discussed above.

It is noteworthy that Paul employs supportive oath formulas more often in 2 Corinthians than in any other of his epistles. This is just one of six, others being in 1:18,23; 2:10; 11:11,31. Outside of 2 Corinthians, Paul uses oath formulas in Rom 1:9; 9:1; Gal 1:20; Phil 1:18; and 1 Thess 2:5,10. His formula "I speak the truth in Christ" in Rom 9:1 most closely resembles the words here in 11:10. This large volume of oaths may reflect the more highly rhetorical character of 2 Corinthians. It may also indicate Paul's insecure feelings about his relationship with the Corinthians. Underscoring his most heartfelt statements with supportive oaths helps cry out for the Corinthians' attention to his concerns.

Paul's reference to "regions of Achaia" serves as a reminder that he includes Christian congregations surrounding Corinth as the audience for 2 Corinthians. This he states directly in 2 Cor 1:1 and suggests in 2 Cor 9:2. Only the church in Cenchrea, a few miles from Corinth, is known from NT evidence. Phoebe, the bearer of Romans, is from Cenchrea (Rom 16:1). Other churches must have been planted in the area that simply do not register on NT records. The word "regions" (klivma, klima ) is interesting because it originates as a geographical zone, coming into English as "climate."

Paul's mention of "boasting" (kauvchsi", kauchçsis) suggests that he has not forgotten that his actions are being compared to his rivals in Corinth and that he is in the midst (begun in 2 Corinthians 10) of mustering up his daring to "boast" if he must. One of his "boasts," or signal differences from his rivals, involves the issue of money. He doesn't take any money from the Corinthians while his rivals do. This, he believes, should be in his favor. Furthermore, it is an important matter of principle for Paul. Early on in his relationship with the Corinthians, he silently sacrificed his time through working his trade among them. He feels really good about that choice and believes any shift from it would compromise his integrity with them and with himself. This self-sacrifice becomes increasingly important to maintain with respect to the Corinthians as they insist more and more on financially supporting Paul.

The verb translated "will stop" (fravssw, phrassô) is only used here and in two other places in the NT. The other references involve the shutting of mouths, of people (Rom 3:19) and of lions (Heb 11:33). The word usually assumes that something is being blocked from proceeding, as a dam does to a river, a barricade to travelers on a road, a shield to arrows, or a fence to those seeking to cross a field. In the case of mouths, the image suggests clenched teeth as barricading the flow of human speech and rendering the danger of lions harmless. In Paul's case in this verse he defiantly announces that his mouth cannot and will not be shut regarding his commitment to refuse support from the Corinthians. He strongly implies it is his clear understanding that this is what God wants in Paul's relationship to them.

11:11 Why? Because I do not love you? God knows I do!

Paul's denial suggests that at least some of the Corinthians have felt injured by Paul's refusal to accept their money. Perhaps this reaction has been egged on by Paul's opponents. If they have been affronted by his refusal to take their money, it only demonstrates further that they are being affected by the social conventions of their Greek culture regarding benefactors (discussed in 11:9 above).

The emotional nature of Paul's declaration of love for the Corinthians is deepened by the oath formula which follows. Paul's concern to convey his love for them is emphasized also in 2 Cor 2:4; 7:3; 8:7; and 12:15. Their insecurity in this regard and Paul's own insecurity about their love for him demonstrates the tenuousness of the relationship all round. Paul's arduous efforts to bridge the emotional gap are critical for the survival of genuine Christianity in Corinth.

In many ways, this kind of emotional to and fro between Paul and the Corinthian church typifies the difficulties between contemporary ministers and their congregations as well. Paul's capacity to express his love for this church despite all the problems models what all successful ministers must be able to do. Such love isn't necessarily simply caving in to situations in the congregation but must at times involve confrontation on both sides.

11:12 And I will keep on doing what I am doing in order to cut the ground from under those who want an opportunity to be considered equal with us in the things they boast about.

Many Bible versions begin a new paragraph with this verse (RSV, TEV, NEB, NRSV, and NLT). Although the reference to Paul's opponents in the latter part of the verse does lead into a fuller depiction of them in 11:13-15, the front part of the verse clearly fits with the topic of 11:7-11, Paul's reflections on refusing money from the Corinthians as a stance for "boasting." The NIV's decision on this seems best.

The language of "doing" seems a bit odd since it is what Paul is expressly not doing that fosters the whole debate. It does, however, help dramatize the determined effort involved on Paul's part to continue to refuse Corinthian financial support. Perhaps certain wealthier members of the Corinthian fellowship continue to offer him money despite his stated position.

Not only does he feel convicted about his position; he believes it puts him on higher ground than his opponents. As they try to convince the Corinthian Christians that they are every bit as much the apostles that Paul is, and more, their acceptance of payment from the Corinthians stands in stark contrast to Paul who accepts none. Paul believes his position on this enables him to "cut the ground from under" them, the Greek verb (ejkkovptw, ekkoptô) meaning "cut off," "cut out," or "cut down."

This word fits well with its object in the verse, "opportunity" (ajformhv, aphormç), since the latter is often associated with the base of operations for a war or even the resources for a war. Paul's encounter with his opponents in Corinth is warlike, and he believes his position on refusing money from the Corinthians weakens his enemies' claim to be apostles and in the long run will undermine their entire operation to oust Paul from his influential role in the Corinthian church.

It's as if Paul lays down the gauntlet to his opponents. If they wish to be viewed even on an equal footing with Paul, they will have to begin refusing money as Paul does. Paul banks on the fact that their avarice will never allow them to do this and that this will eventually lead to their undoing in Corinth. Do they believe in their "gospel" enough to preach it for free? If not, perhaps they are there just for the money and will be observed by the Corinthians to be every bit the rogues Paul believes they are.

The NIV's "equal" is well justified but does not rest on just one word. The idea comes from three words which literally read "just as also we" (kaqw'" kaiÉ hJmei", kathôs kai hçmeis). The whole expression suggests that despite all their boasting about being legitimate apostles, Paul's opponents in Corinth are obliged to use Paul as their measure of comparison since he is the only other apostle the Corinthians know. Paul presses this to his advantage. Let these so-called apostles put their money where their mouth is and measure up to Paul in refusing Corinthian money.

3. The False Apostles Serve Satan (11:13-15)

11:13 For such men are false apostles, deceitful workmen,

Having set himself apart from his Corinthian rivals on the basis of the true gospel he preaches and his self-sacrificing refusal to accept money from the Corinthians, Paul's invective against the impostors reaches fever pitch in these three short verses. Nowhere else in all his letters does he compact such stark denunciation of opponents into so few words. The fact that these Corinthian opponents would consider themselves not just apostles but committed Christian believers doing the Lord's work makes Paul's sinister depiction of them disturbing. Are they consciously disguising themselves, or are they unaware that Satan is their bedfellow? Can Satan use well-intentioned Christians to do his dirty work? This passage suggests that he can and does.

Nowhere else in all the NT is anyone called a "false apostle" (yeudapovstolo", pseudapostolos ), making it a likely suggestion that Paul has coined the term himself especially for this occasion of branding his opponents in Corinth. Warnings against "false prophets" come from the lips of Jesus in the gospels (Matt 7:15; 24:11,24; Mark 13:22; Luke 6:26) and elsewhere (2 Pet 2:1; 1 John 4:1). "The false prophet" figures prominently in Rev 16:13; 19:20; and 20:10. In the gospels Jesus also warns of "false Christs" (Matt 24:24; Mark 13:22). First John 2:18,22; 4:3 and 2 John 1:7 speak of "anti-Christs."

In calling his opponents in Corinth "false apostles," Paul could simply be condemning the message they bring as false without including a slam on their personal character. However, the images of deliberate dishonesty and Satanic influence which follow rule out any possibility of innocence or naοvety on their part from Paul's perspective.

The term "workmen" (ejrgavth", ergatçs) in the NT has a specific connection to missionary service as in Matt 9:37-38 where Jesus notably laments the harvest of people overwhelming the few "workers" to gather them in and in Matt 10:10 where he commissions the Twelve to go out as "workers." In 1 Tim 5:18 elders are also referred to as "workers." "Deceitful" (dovlio", dolios ) suggests his rivals' sinister motives. The adjective itself, only used here in all the NT, derives from the word "cunning" (dovlo", dolos ) which can refer to bait for catching fish. In using it, Paul deflects onto his opponents an accusation they have made about him (12:16).

Specifically, labeling his opponents "deceitful workers" in Paul's mind probably is rooted in his comments in 10:12-18. Thus, it likely connects to misusing whatever commission they may say they have received from Jerusalem apostles in order to invade Gentile territory Paul has staked out under his commission from the Lord (Acts 9:15) and from the apostolic council (Acts 15).

masquerading as apostles of Christ.

"Apostles of Christ" is no doubt what Paul's opponents call themselves. However, Paul believes this is no more than a costume or a mask covering their true identity and the one for whom they really work. The NIV's "masquerading" is an excellent rendition of the Greek participle. The verb on which it is built (metaschmativzw, metaschçmatizô) is rare in the NT but its repetition is a key linking the next three verses. Literally, it means to "change form," stressing an alteration of outward appearance. Phil 3:21 uses it to talk of the transformation of believers from their lowly bodies to those like the glorious body of Christ.

In this passage, it has more to do with concealing sinister motives behind friendly appearances. Paul's rivals may talk and look like true and even superior apostles to Paul, but this veneer conceals an evil plot to snatch the naοve Corinthians away from the truth and away from Paul, their apostle truly sent by Christ to them. To Paul the crack in this veneer is only too obvious as he has pointed out since 10:7: the self-praise, the encroachment on his territory, the vain elegance of their speech, and their hands held out for Corinthian money. He hopes the conclusion so obvious to him is becoming clear to all the Corinthians as well. The claims of these men are bogus and their impact dangerous.

11:14 And no wonder, for Satan himself masquerades as an angel of light.

Paul's assigning of a role for Satan in the current problems at Corinth was previously suggested in 2 Cor 2:11. Now, however, he begins to connect Satan specifically with the false apostles. The word "wonder" (qau'ma, thauma ), only used elsewhere in Rev 17:6, refers to marveling as the uninitiated crowd might to a juggler's or a magician's tricks. The sinister masquerade of the false apostles should be no marvel because of who they are associated with.

Nowhere else is Satan described precisely as a false "angel of light." Isaiah 14:12-14, often taken as a secondary reference to him, however, refers to the "morning star" and "son of dawn" who sought to usurp God and place his throne "above the stars of God." In Jewish literature outside the Bible, he is said to have "transformed himself into the brightness of angels" and even to have sung like an angel as a crucial disguise to deceive Eve. Paul previously in 11:3 connected the false apostles' influence on the Corinthians to the wily serpent's bad influence on Eve.

11:15 It is not surprising, then, if his servants masquerade as servants of righteousness.

Without the least hesitation, Paul links the rival "apostles" in Corinth to the enterprise of Satan, the cosmic enemy of Christ and his church. Their modus operandi is deception just like the one for whom they work. They masquerade as apostles, all too easily duping vulnerable Corinthian believers. Perhaps they dupe even themselves. Do they know they are working for Satan? We cannot know from this historical distance. However, that does not matter to Paul. His concern is with the Lord's sheep who are being lead astray. Whether his rivals recognize their duplicity with Satan or not, Paul's immediate concern is to quash their harmful influence.

Just like "masquerade" and "deception" are words which are readily associated with Satan, "servant" (diavkono", diakonos ) and "righteousness" (dikaiosuvnh, dikaiosynç) orbit in the sphere of God. Paul has already identified himself and other true apostles as "servants of God" (6:4) or as "servants of a new covenant" (3:6). He has spoken of his "ministry" (diakoniva, diakonia ) as that which "brings righteousness" (3:9) and "reconciliation" (5:18). "Righteousness" comes only from God (9:9) and is spread through the ministry of the gospel of Christ. Most likely, the false apostles do not necessarily refer to themselves as "servants of righteousness" as they do "apostles of Christ." Rather, these are Paul's peculiar terms which he equates with being true apostles of Christ. His rivals, despite appearances, are rather the antipathy of Paul's ideal.

Their end will be what their actions deserve.

Paul can associate the "end" (tevlo", telos ) with the ultimate judgment and condemnation of evildoers by God (Phil 3:19; 1 Thess 2:16) as he does here. However, he can also use the word to refer to the positive assessment of God on the righteous (Rom 6:22) or even to "the end" neutrally (1 Cor 1:18; 10:11; 15:24). No doubt, Paul expects the "end" of these false apostles working for Satan against Christ's church in Corinth to be personal condemnation.

Literally, Paul says "the end of them will be according to their work." The word "work" (e[rgon, ergon ) matches up with "workmen" (ergavth", ergatçs) in 11:12. Having already labeled what kind of workmen they are, "deceitful," what kind of "work" they do has been demonstrated by their actions. They are taking believers away from the fold of God. No worse work is possible than to neutralize someone else's eternal salvation. Paul leaves no doubt about their fate in God's hands of judgment or anyone else who leads believers astray.

As one wise commentator has noted, while Paul's extreme language against his rivals in Corinth has often been resurrected in the history of Christian doctrinal disputes and even local church splits, those of us in the contemporary church should be extremely hesitant to employ such vitriolic language. We are not in Paul's unique position with God. Rather, it's better for us to presume the sincerity of positions held by fellow believers and attempt to enter into positive dialogue anchored in the exegesis of Scripture. Perhaps Paul would have even done this with his rivals had he been personally present in Corinth. At a distance, and in writing, however, his only concern was to save the sheep, not the false shepherds.

C. BOASTING AS A "FOOL" (11:16-33)

1. Rationale Provided (11:16-21a)

11:16 I repeat: Let no one take me for a fool.

Paul recognizes he has diverted from his main theme in defending his policy toward Corinthian money (11:7-11) and in revealing the true identity of his opponents in Corinth (11:12-15). He gets himself back on track by reintroducing the banner he feels best categorizes the way he feels about what he is going to say. In 11:1, he called it "foolishness." Here, his fear of actually being thought "a fool" in the "foolishness" on which he is about to embark comes to the surface as he starts up his main focus once again.

It is important not to intermingle a more contemporary English idea of a fool in understanding the word "fool." It does not mean someone who is not very smart, nor does it have in mind a circus clown act or a court jester. Rather, it refers to someone who has lost his senses in relation to himself. A "fool" is out of touch with reality in either overestimating or underestimating the measure of himself. Paul does not want to be thought a fool in the sense of baseless boasting even though he feels foolish in attempting to quantify his apostolic credentials. He will risk it, however, out of his love for the Corinthians. If they need to take the measure of him over against his opponents in order to be convinced of his superior credentials, he will do it.

But if you do, then receive me just as you would a fool, so that I may do a little boasting.

The opening expression in Greek raises some complicated logic. The NIV's "but if you do" tries to smooth this out, but it should be noted that Paul's conditional statement is actually negated. What he says is "but if otherwise" or "but if you won't." What Paul seems to mean is that if no one considers him a fool for the boasting he is about to do, that's exactly what he wants. Let the Corinthians, then, allow him to play the role of a fool but understand it is only a part, as a character in a play. He will try this role on for their sakes, but it is not really him. In himself, he does not identify with this boastful activity of his character, as he forcefully stated in 10:12-18. They must not forget this as his character's monologue unfolds.

The adjective "little" preceding "boasting" should not be taken literally in this context. It is not that he has succumbed to do just a little real boasting to appease the Corinthians. Rather, it coordinates with the acting role he considers himself taking on, as one might try on the character of a play a little in order to try out for the part, deliver a few lines, sing a few bars. Paul's "boasting," then, is no more than a tool to enable the Corinthians to discover for themselves Paul's opponents revealed as phonies.

11:17 In this self-confident boasting I am not talking as the Lord would, but as a fool.

The word translated "self-confident" (uJpovstasi", hypostasis ) refers literally to that which settles at the bottom, or sediment, with the derived implication of something which is solidly supported. This idea matches his desire not to be out of line, or "a fool" (as noted in 11:16) in his "boasting" of himself. It is possible, though, that the word has a more general meaning of "undertaking" or "job" with which many commentators cautiously align themselves. Thus, Paul would be referring to "this business, or undertaking of boasting."

Paul's reference to the Lord demonstrates his embarrassment in all this. What he is about to do goes against what Paul understands as any kind of proper Christian boasting. That, he himself said in 10:17, should be "in the Lord." It should recognize no accomplishments in ministry as worthy of self-praise but only of the Lord's praise. However, Paul reminds the Corinthians once again that he is only playing the part of a fool. He disassociates himself personally from it because he does not morally approve of it.

11:18 Since many are boasting in the way the world does, I too will boast.

"Many" should not be taken as "most." Paul does not mean most of the Corinthians but all the false apostles in their midst. The term indicates that a substantial band of people make up this opposition group. The word "world" (savrx, sarx , actually "flesh") contains a sharp tone of disapproval. Paul has consistently used the word in antithesis to godly conduct in 2 Corinthians (1:17; 5:16; 10:2,3). Here, it stands as the opposite of boasting in the Lord. It is self-praise which focuses on externals which Paul has already indicated in 5:12 as characteristic of his rivals.

What is shocking is that Paul feels compelled to compete at the worldly level of his opponents in order to break the spell they seem to have over a number of the Corinthians. Essentially, he is announcing his determination to take the gloves off and fight at their level, even against his own spiritual scruples. This is the extent to which he is willing to go to win all the Corinthians back. It is an extraordinary demonstration of his love for them.

11:19 You gladly put up with fools since you are so wise!

The oft-repeated pejorative aphorism "suffer fools gladly" comes from the KJV rendering of the first half of this verse. Paul, of course, says it as a biting criticism of the Corinthians. "Fools" refers to Paul's rivals and their worldly manner of seeking to impress the Corinthians. A good portion of the Corinthians - enough, anyway, to warrant this letter - have been thoroughly taken in and continue to be so gullible, with no misgivings at all about these rivals, who are so obviously impostors from Paul's point of view. This is what terrifies Paul the most about this whole situation. But he will play the fool if need be to get their attention.

Calling these gullible Corinthians "wise" is scathingly sarcastic. They, of course, are the fools who are embracing fools so heartily. Thus, Paul's logic to play the fool as he is determined to do is not really so far-fetched. This is the language which communicates to them.

11:20 In fact, you even put up with anyone who enslaves you or exploits you or takes advantage of you or pushes himself forward or slaps you in the face.

The controlling verb, "put up with" (ajnevcomai, anechomai ), is a key word in 2 Corinthians 11, falling behind only "fool" and "foolish" in its importance. Not only is it used in this verse and in the previous one, Paul opens the chapter with it in 11:1 when he asks the Corinthians to "put up with a little foolishness" of his since they are so good at it with his rivals. Not so jokingly, in 11:4 he accuses the Corinthians of "putting up with" a false gospel. Now, he charges the Corinthians with being dangerously tolerant in many other ways. He pictures them as ridiculously benign in the face of a tyrant who has moved into their own house and taken over. Paul wishes to embolden them to throw the tyrant out. At the least, despite taking the low road of the fool like his rivals, he has not and will not abuse the Corinthians as they have.

The word "anyone" especially includes the false apostles. However, Paul continues to accentuate the Corinthians' gullibility in general which this situation only makes all too clear. Although understandably erased in translation, the word "anyone," preceded by the Greek word "if" (eij, ei ), rendered as "even" in the NIV, repeats in front of all five of the deprecating verbs which list the false apostles' abuses against the hapless Corinthians. This dramatizes even further the errors of the Corinthians as they hear the word "anyone" over and over each time.

Each of the five verbs can have literal applications. One commentator punctuates this point by turning each one into a descriptor of the false apostles: "slavers, gluttons, pocket-stuffers, swaggerers, and face-slappers." However, the major concern is to discern how Paul intended words to apply specifically to the Corinthian situation. Most likely, Paul envisages nonliteral understandings of these words. The Corinthians aren't literally slaves of the false apostles, but their tyrannical presence has solicited an unbelievable passivity to their ideas and demands.

Some suggest Paul's leading verb, "enslaves" (katadoulovw, katadouloô) refers to their introduction of Jewish legalism into the Corinthian scene. It is true that the only other NT use of this verb is in Gal 2:4 in which this is indisputably Paul's concern. When teamed with the fact that the only other use of "different gospel" other than in 2 Cor 11:4 is Gal 1:6, the point is well taken, even if Paul says nothing directly against Jewish law or circumcision in 2 Corinthians. However, even if Jewish legalism is a component in the Corinthian controversy, the situation seems to be more complicated than Galatians, as discussed in the Introduction.

The word "exploits" (katesqivw, katesthiô) usually refers to the animal kingdom in which certain species prey upon and consume other species. Birds are pictured as eating up all the seed that fell on the path in Jesus' Parable of the Sower (Matt 13:4; Mark 4:4; Luke 8:5). Yet, he also characterizes Jewish lawyers as devouring the houses of defenseless widows (Mark 12:40; Luke 20:47). Paul can even talk of rival factions in the church devouring one another (Gal 5:15). Here, the NIV correctly describes the false apostles as mooching off the starstruck Corinthians. This most likely not only includes being hosted for too long in their homes to the point of becoming a hardship but also their demand for payment for their "apostolic" teaching in the church. Paul distanced himself from this all too common exploitive activity in 11:7-12.

Normally, the verb translated "takes advantage of you" (lambavnw, lambanô) is more tame and neutral, simply "receive" or "take." It can be used in hunting or fishing situations in the sense of using the trickery of bait to catch or entrap the unwary fish or fowl. Here, the emphasis may still be on the Corinthians' polite hospitality toward the false apostles, but it probably also notes the naοve simpletons the Corinthians have allowed themselves to be in relation to these adept tricksters.

Again, the verb translated "pushes himself forward" (ejpaivrw, epairô) normally has a pretty benign sense, "lift up" one's eyes (John 4:35), head (Luke 21:28), hands (1 Tim 2:8), or voice (Acts 2:14). The first three senses often relate to prayer or worship of God. Here and in 2 Cor 10:5 are the only places in the NT which require the negative connotation of this word found often enough in Greek usage outside the NT of "putting on airs," "being presumptuous." These false teachers, Paul believes, have an overly high estimate of themselves that is not realistic. Based on this, they presume positions of authority and leadership over the Corinthian believers which are totally out of bounds.

The most debated word in the list is the last one, "slaps you in the face" (devrw, derô). Every other use of the word in the NT is taken physically and more harshly than "slap." The severe beating of servants (Mark 12:3), the public flogging of criminals, of Christians, and others by government and synagogue authorities (Acts 5:40; 16:37) are standard for this word. The commonness of those socially inferior being beaten by those socially superior in ancient Greek culture, leads some to suspect that Paul believes his opponents are literally beating some of the Corinthians into submission.

However, most likely Paul intends a sense of figurative hyperbole. He wants to jolt the Corinthians into seeing just how badly they are being treated by the false apostles. They're treated like slaves, servants. The NIV's "slap" is not likely intended to be taken literally but rather to suggest the insulting conduct of the false apostles toward the Corinthians.

11:21a To my shame I admit that we were too weak for that!

Virtually all versions and commentaries break this verse in half, viewing this part as a fitting conclusion, reeking with sarcasm, of his rationale for playing the fool for the Corinthians. The second part launches Paul into his fool's "boasting" which he has been leading to since 11:1.

The word "shame" (ajtimiva, atimia ) in Greek simply negates the Greek word for "honor" (timhv, timç). The verb "were weak" (ajsqenevw, astheneô) can mean to be physically ill (Matt 25:36; Jas 5:14) or disabled (John 5:3). It usually implies some sort of vulnerability whether physical, social, or even spiritual. This is the first of seven uses between 11:21 and 13:13. The noun cognate "weakness" (ajsqevneia, astheneia ) occurs an additional six times between 11:30 and 13:4. No other uses of either noun or verb form occur in 2 Corinthians. Clearly, this is a focus word which will frame much of Paul's perspective from this point on.

Paul's biting sarcasm is well reflected in the NIV's exclamation point at the end of the sentence. He is not at all ashamed of not mistreating the Corinthians. It's to his credit compared to his rivals. He is not at all embarrassed about being considered weak by some, most likely his rivals and their followers. What kind of leadership authority does someone really have if it is based on intimidation? It shows strength but not credibility. Such is antithetical to true apostolic authorization from God. What Paul means is that he will gladly have no part in the strong-arm tactics of his rivals, and the Corinthians will be smart to start to see through it as mirrors and smoke.

2. Ancestry and Hardships Listed (11:21b-29)

11:21b What anyone else dares to boast about-I am speaking as a fool-I also dare to boast about.

After much hand-wringing and a few diversions since 11:1, Paul comes to his last few words before launching into his "foolish boasting." That all this is a reaction to the boasting of his adversaries in Corinth is apparent. The word "anyone" has consistently been employed in reference to these adversaries (10:7; 11:20) and is so again here. Strikingly, his last use of the verb "dares to boast" (tolmavw, tolmaô) was in 10:12 where he announced that he wouldn't dare compare himself to his Corinthian adversaries, at least in the way they do it, comparing themselves with themselves. That his statement there is tongue-in-cheek comes out even more clearly now. He will dare to boast, if only to put his adversaries' boasts into meaningful perspective. Let's see how they measure up to a real apostle!

The word "dare to boast" usually just means to dare, take courage, or resolve to do something which would be easier to avoid but which must be done. Underneath its use must be Paul's pounding heart and the emotional trauma of overcoming the easier path of just keeping his mouth shut. His adversaries have already said he was a chicken in these matters (10:2), but he will be silent no longer. He will lay out the information from his personal history to allow them to be compared with him stride for stride and to show that they cannot keep up by half.

Paul interjects into his declared determination to "boast" a word which reflects his continuing emotional turmoil. Calling himself once again a "fool" (ajfrosunhv, aphrosynç) links his thoughts to those in 11:1, where he first labeled what he is about to do as "foolishness."

Despite his qualms, he will push ahead into the most exhaustive autobiographical sketch we have of Paul. Nothing told about him in Acts or anything Paul says elsewhere goes beyond the bounds of what he reveals here.

Though the list is unwieldy in places, it may broadly be grouped as including heritage (11:22), service record (11:23-25), dangers and deprivations (11:26-27), pastoral concerns (11:28), and beyond this section, daring escapades (11:31-33), and ecstatic experiences (12:1-6).

In basic outline, Paul's listing of "achievements" mirrors what is commonly found in Roman imperial res gestae , and interesting comparisons can be made between this list and that of Augustus. Even their purpose of proving a rightful claim over a group of people resonates with Paul's purpose with regard to the Corinthians. Indeed, Paul's rivals may have followed the well-known convention themselves with the same end in mind.

However, Paul's list is filled with hardship, suffering, and what most Greeks would view as failures illustrative of weakness. His list is not boasting; it is antiboasting. As some commentaries correctly observe, it is really a parody of achievement lists because it turns everything inside out. Enduring hardships for the sake of the gospel becomes the "achievements," not the number of churches planted, nor even people converted. Paul expects his adversaries to be mortified by his antilist. They will be the ones left feeling foolish in Paul's wake.

11:22 Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are they Israelites? So am I. Are they Abraham's descendants? So am I.

Paul's three expressions of heritage at first may look like they all say the same thing: he's Jewish (somewhat surprisingly not included). They certainly are intended to have a rhetorical impact, each phrased identically in Greek. Yet, Paul probably has a slightly different emphasis in mind for each.

Identifying himself as Hebrew most likely relies on the fact that he is full-blooded Hebrew, that his primary language was Aramaic (derivative of Hebrew), not Greek (which characterized Hellenistic Jews dispersed around the Mediterranean), and that he grew up in Palestine (despite his connections to Tarsus). In other words, his Hebrew genetic and behavioral influences couldn't be more solid.

Including himself as an Israelite underlines his cultural heritage. He has been raised in the traditional Jewish religious observances and continues to practice them. Because of Paul's continual social contact with Gentiles in his role as evangelist and church planter, most likely out of the three expressions regarding his Jewish heritage, this is the one most under attack by his opponents in Corinth and the one to which he is most vulnerable. How much of the Jewish food and Gentile contact restrictions does he disregard in order to relate to Gentiles in his mission? The news back home in Jerusalem, anyway, according to Acts 21:21, is that Paul's evangelistic activity includes encouraging devout Jews to abandon their cultural heritage in order to become Christians. It is to prove that he lives according to Jewish law and that he encourages other Jews around the world to do so, that he agrees to underwrite the Nazirite vows of four men.

Asserting that his ancestral line can be traced to Abraham says more than that both his parents are Hebrew. It highlights the purity of his genetic stock. His genealogy can be traced to father Abraham. Yet, Paul may mean to move into a more theological arena with this reference since he already emphasized bloodline with "Hebrew." If anything he will later write in Romans is at all in his mind, this is not a difficult conclusion to draw. After all, especially in Romans 4, he details his position that uncircumcised Gentiles who have faith like Abraham are more his true children than circumcised Jews who do not.

Paul's repeated, dramatic response to his own questions, "So am I" (kajgwv, kagô) presumes that his opponents have made all these three claims of fine Jewish heritage for themselves. His assertions, despite what some may be saying about him, are emphatic that he is at least equal to whatever claims they may be making. The natural climax surrounding the third expression and the theological swirl around who is truly descendent from Abraham may be Paul's way of registering a measure of superiority over his rivals, especially if he believes their "apostolic" message is false and their apostolic claims bogus.

11:23 Are they servants of Christ? (I am out of my mind to talk like this.) I am more.

Designating himself a servant of Christ functions in two ways. In one way, it is the fourth, and thereby the most important of the qualifications he began listing in 11:22. Sure, Jewish heritage has its significance. However, what is far more important is being a loyal and true servant of Christ. He particularly has in mind his apostolic calling and his dedication to fulfilling that calling. Although Paul's question may seem to allow for the fact that his opponents are also servants of Christ, he only gives this away for the sake of the question. He has already called them servants of Satan in 11:15. Here, we must assume they call themselves "servants of Christ" but that Paul doesn't really consider them so.

The designation "servant of Christ" also headlines the long, autobiographical list of events which unfolds through 12:10. Fundamentally, he wishes to show by this antiboast list what being a servant of Christ really involves and that his rivals do not fit the description. Presumably, they laud themselves with grandiose lists of self-achievements, not lists of suffering, pain, and heartache, such as this.

When Paul offers the aside of being "out of my mind," this reaction is probably due to two conflicts he is having difficulty holding together. The first, already explained, is that he has just allowed himself to call his opponents servants of Christ for the sake of this discussion. This must strike him nearly as an utterance of profanity against Christ since he is convinced these people are servants of Satan. The second conflict once again is just the idea that he has actually put himself in this position of boasting, even if it is "antiboasting," over against his rivals. He is extremely uncomfortable with this, but he is about to proceed anyway.

The actual Greek word (parafronevw, paraphroneô) is only used here in all the NT. It means to be "beside oneself, or "to set to the side one's good senses," (fronevw, phroneô) meaning "think." Since the word is followed by the word "speak" or "say," (levgw, legô), in current English vernacular, we could translate the two together as "I am talking crazy!"

What clearly sets this fourth designation apart from the first three is Paul's declaration which follows: "I am more." Equality with regard to being a servant of Christ is not sufficient for his purposes. They have tried to diminish his apostolic credibility in the eyes of the Corinthians for the sake of exalting their own. This must be reversed. He wishes the Corinthians to wind up recognizing, as he has, that his opponents are not just lesser servants of Christ, or lesser apostles. By showing that they cannot even stand on the same platform as Paul while claiming they are superior, it is made obvious they are not true servants or apostles at all.

I have worked much harder, been in prison more frequently, flogged more severely, and been exposed to death again and again.

By adding a subject, "I," the NIV has smoothed out what is a series of four bumpy, prepositional phrases with plural objects modified by adverbs, which more literally read, "in toils, more, in jails, more, in blows, beyond counting, in deaths, often." These four general categories of hardships will be filled out with specific numbers and instances in the catalogue which begins in 11:24.

The word "worked," "toils" (kovpo", kopos ) is used three other times in 2 Corinthians. In 6:5, it appears in a mini-list of hardships, probably referring to Paul's work as a tentmaker. In 10:15, it refers to missionary activity in general. In 11:27, again in a list, it most likely refers to his tentmaking work. The fact that the word usually describes physical labor and that Paul's tentmaking has already been raised as an issue in 11:7-9 makes many commentators lean toward this being the idea here. Yet, it is in a list that headlines general categories. Perhaps, his use here does include tentmaking in his mind, but that, especially since it is plural, includes other real, physically taxing labors involved in his apostolic ministry that are not necessarily related to his trade.

Paul's reference to multiple imprisonments goes beyond what is known from Acts, which up to this point in Paul's career, only accounts for the one night in jail at Philippi (Acts 17:23-40) from which he was miraculously released. The early church document of 1 Clement (5:6) numbers Paul's imprisonments at seven.

As with any historical account, Acts is not and does not claim to be exhaustive. This point about imprisonments and other instances in Paul's autobiographical listing here, which will go beyond what is known from Acts, should serve as an ample reminder of the selectivity involved. It also should be noted that a period of 11 to 14 years after Paul's conversion and initial period of preaching in Jerusalem and Damascus, up until being recruited by Barnabas to work in Antioch (Acts 11:25), is virtually unaccounted for. The only exceptions are for the brief mention in Gal 1:21 that he was in Syria and Cilicia and Acts 9:30 that he was in Tarsus. Paul's hardships listed may very well include situations which occurred during these so-called silent years.

Being "flogged" served as a fairly common form of punishment in ancient cultures. Paul will stipulate at least two forms of such public beatings in 11:24, with whips and with rods. The only detailed beating in Acts is at Philippi (Acts 17:23-40).

As with the four designations in 11:22-23b, these four hardship listings increase in significance, in this case in intensity, until the climax is reached with the fourth. In Greek, the word "deaths" comes as a jolt, not only in the fact that it jumps up suddenly, the ultimate hardship, but that it is plural. How does one do this twice? As the NIV and most translations recognize, Paul must mean instances in which punishment inflicted, or more likely mob action, resulted in his being brought to the point of death from which he was rescued by God and/or eventually recovered. Paul makes other references to such situations earlier in 2 Cor 1:9-10; 4:11; 1 Cor 15:32; and Rom 8:36.

11:24 Five times I received from the Jews the forty lashes minus one.

Notably, in Matt 10:17 and Mark 3:9, Jesus warns that his disciples would be flogged in the synagogues. Paul, who makes it a point to begin his evangelistic thrust by visiting the synagogues in each city he enters (Acts 9:20; 13:5,14; 14:1; 17:1-2,10,17; 18:4,19,26; 19:8), regularly exposes himself to the danger of this punishment should the reaction against the gospel be severe. Reading between the lines, this could have occurred at Pisidian Antioch (Acts 13:45,50) or certainly during those silent years, but neither Acts nor any of Paul's epistles specifically account for any official flogging of Paul.

The punishment follows clear legal warrant in Deut 25:1-3 which notes the number of lashes to be determined by the crime, but no crime deserving more than forty. Rabbinic sources speak of punishable offenses as including various sexual misconduct, false witnessing (especially against a priest), entering ritually unclean into the synagogue, and even tattooing, as deserving of synagogal flogging. Paul's contact with Gentiles may have gotten him in trouble in regard to ritual cleanliness, but his gospel message could have been perceived as offensive, even as Stephen's was (Acts 7).

The flogging procedure is described as involving binding the offender's hands on a post, tearing his shirt, then administering a three-hide thong with 26 lashes to the back and 13 to the chest. The "minus one" most likely came about as a precautionary measure to prevent, in the case of miscounting, the offender receiving more than 40 lashes, thus breaking the law.

No doubt the vigilant love of Paul for his own people, so adamantly expressed in Rom 9:3, kept him going into these Jewish synagogues flung across the Roman empire, despite the danger of flogging. He never considered himself other than a loyal Jew, even as his theology of Christianity blossomed. As one commentator puts it, he would rather be reckoned (unjustifiably) an "erring" member of Judaism by blinded synagogue leaders than no member at all.

11:25 Three times I was beaten with rods, once I was stoned,

Acts 16:22-23 provides at least one instance of Paul, along with Silas, receiving a public beating, this occurring in Philippi. Official beatings of this sort occurred in the public square before the judgment seat of the magistrates. They are administered by specially designated men called "lictors" who swung heavy birchwood rods onto the bared upper torso of the offenders. Such punishment was common but was not to be applied to Roman citizens, a point which Paul raises to the chagrin of the Philippian town officials in Acts 16:35-40. Other violations of this rule, however, are known from Greek sources.

The stoning Paul likely refers to is chronicled in Acts 14:19. This occurred as a roving mob of irate Jews (and probably Gentiles) came into Lystra from nearby Pisidian Antioch and Iconium, towns Paul and Barnabas had only recently left. Clearly, this was not an official synagogue stoning since the Lystrian synagogue doesn't seem to have had anything to do with it, and Gentiles were also probably involved. Also, it was not a stoning to the death, stoning being the official and most prevalent form of capital punishment among the Jews.

Stoning is the most common form of execution mentioned in the Bible and is the well-founded procedure for such offenses as child sacrifice (Lev 20:2), functioning as a spiritual medium (Lev 20:27), blasphemy (Lev 24:12), enticing someone toward idolatry (Deut 13:10), practicing idolatry (Deut 17:5), committing rape or consensual adultery (Deut 22:22-24).

three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and a day in the open sea,

The only shipwreck recorded in Acts occurs in chapter 27 during Paul's transfer as a prisoner to Rome well after he had written 2 Corinthians. Paul did move more frequently by sea than is sometimes realized: Seleucia to Cyprus (Acts 13:4), Paphos to Perga (Acts 13:13), Attalia to Antioch (Acts 14:25-26), Troas to Neapolis (Acts 16:11), Macedonia to Athens (Acts 17:14-15), Corinth to Ephesus to Caesarea (Acts 18:18-22), Ephesus to Achaia (Acts 18:27).

The potential for sea mishaps was always rife. The mortal threat was also high since lifeboats were rarely carried nor life-preserving precautions taken on ancient vessels. Shipwreck meant grabbing floating portions of the wreckage and hanging on until rescue or death. Paul says he experienced on one occasion at least a 24-hour period in this most perilous situation on the sea. This and the stoning incident must be among the specific near-death experiences he had in mind in 11:23.

11:26 I have been constantly on the move.

The phrase is much more succinct in the Greek, consisting of just a noun and an adverb. The noun (oJdoiporiva, hodoiporia ) usually refers to a walking journey, as it is used in John 4:6 of journeying to Samaria. It makes sense that Paul would use this terminology to headline his next list of problems, after just listing risks involved at sea. He did walk through Asia Minor on more than one occasion and other places as well. For the most part, this presumption holds true until Paul gets to the last two items out of eight on his list, where he notes problems at sea (again) and with false brothers.

I have been in danger from rivers, in danger from bandits,

The point of bringing up his movement is that this made him vulnerable in a number of ways from a variety of sources. The key word binding this eightfold list together is "danger" (kivnduno", kindynos ), repeated before each item and dutifully represented by the NIV. Amazingly, the word, which simply refers to a hazard of any kind, is only used one other time in the NT outside of the eight times it occurs in this passage (Rom 8:35). The effect of Paul's list is that he perceives himself as in constant danger of a variety of sorts. His life of danger is not sufficiently accounted for by listing beatings and the like. It is around him all the time, and he feels it.

Paul pairs the first four items on his list. These first two, rivers and bandits, clearly depict life on the road. Fording rivers in the days of few bridges was a necessary danger that always involved risks of losing valuable supplies, of sickness from disease, of harm from creatures in the water, of drowning in the current itself. Although Roman presence did create some security on the main highways, small travelling groups in particular were still vulnerable, especially as they moved on minor routes.

in danger from my own countrymen, in danger from Gentiles;

This pair includes two races of people. As depicted in Acts, his fellow Jews were the most constant and violent threat to Paul as he brought the gospel from place to place entering the synagogues first (Acts 9:23,29; 13:8,45; 14:2,19; 17:5; 18:6,12; 20:3,19; 21:11,27). Gentiles were less often antagonistic. Both in Philippi (Acts 16:19-21) and in Ephesus (Acts 19:23-41) their violent reaction was due to the economic impact of the gospel of God on pagan-driven cultural industries, such as soothsaying and idol manufacturing.

in danger in the city, in danger in the country, in danger at sea;

In terms of geography, these three cover all there is. The first two distinguish land features, inhabited and uninhabited areas, the third, everything else, covered by water. Their general nature helps them function as a general summary of Paul's escapades throughout the Roman Empire which he has already described so far.

and in danger from false brothers.

This last item draws special notice for a number of reasons. It is the only one in this list without a match. It is the last in the list and thus the climax. It alone describes a hazard that is internal rather than external. It is the worst danger of all because it comes from those who are unsuspected, fellow believers in the church. Their danger amounts to treachery. This threat is not so much to Paul's person as to the body of Christ. Having described his Corinthian rivals as false apostles in 11:12, one suspects Paul hopes the Corinthians will cringe at how their tolerance of such people contributes a risk to the church and yet another drag on Paul's apostolic energy.

The only other place Paul uses the word "false brothers" (yeudavdelfo", pseudadelphos ) is in Gal 2:4 to refer to those who somehow reported to others that Titus was not circumcised. These tend to be associated with Judaizers, Jewish Christians who believed Jewish legal distinctions should not be erased by the gospel. Such folks, it appears, followed Paul into areas like Galatia in which he had established Jewish-Gentile churches which celebrated freedom from Jewish law, at least for the Gentiles. As noted in the introduction and elsewhere, those Paul combats in this very letter of 2 Corinthians may be disrupting the Corinthian church with the same sort of Jewish interests. The fact that these people may trail Paul in his movements causes their mention to fit into this eightfold listing.

11:27 I have labored and toiled and have often gone without sleep;

Again, the NIV has supplied the subject and verb as it does through 11:28. The Greek simply has dative nouns, some preceded by the preposition "in" (ejn, en ), others not. The adverb "often" (pollavki", pollakis ) follows "without sleep" and "without food" which supplies a certain rhythm to the first six items which the NIV rendering duplicates nicely.

The word "have labored" (kovpo", kopos ) is the same word Paul already used in 11:23, translated "have worked" there. Its presence likely signals Paul's intention to elaborate on that aspect of his apostolic hardship. Its pairing with "toiled" (movcqo", mochthos ) functions as the headline of a new set of listings. That word only appears elsewhere in the NT following kopos in 1 Thess 2:9 and 2 Thess 3:8. The two are synonyms, kopos emphasizing physical labor and mochthos emphasizing the mental and physical stress created by hard work. Between the two of them, Paul probably intends to cover not only his labor as a tentmaker but other physically draining aspects of his apostolic life.

The stress created by being an apostle is highlighted by the mention of sleepless nights. Is he up late working on his trade, teaching and discipling his converts, or is he tossing and turning out of worry for his converts, his mission, his following of God's leading? Probably, he has in mind all of these and more since he says this occurs "often" (pollavki", pollakis ).

I have known hunger and thirst and have often gone without food;

Some read this as a possible description of Paul voluntarily fasting for the spiritual strength to endure his hard life. If this was voluntary, then it more likely involves situations as with the Corinthians (2 Cor 11:9) where he decided not to rely on financial or other assistance from communities of new believers. The occasional nature of his trade might very well leave him short on funds. However, deprivation of food and water might be even more frequent when he is traveling, by road or sea. Finding food and water, carrying it along, would not be so easy on long trips as it is today. Again, though, this falls under the rubric of his own choice since he has chosen to carry on in the missionary service to which Christ has called him, regardless of the obstacles and hardships. Note that he emphasizes his deprivation of food occurs "often".

I have been cold and naked.

This pairing is out of rhythm with the two three-part phrases which Paul has employed so far in this series of deprivations. With no third part modified by "often," it seems to come to an unexpected stop. If planned by Paul, this roughness reinforces the stark hardship it describes. The word "naked" (gumnovth", gymnotçs) is likely an exaggeration to reinforce "cold" (yu'co", psychos ). Imprisonment and shipwreck could put one in such conditions but so could Paul's constant travels. Not having the proper clothing for unknown and changing climactic situations could be a recurring problem for Paul. Note his request in 2 Tim 3:13 for Timothy to bring him his cloak which had been left at Troas. Feeling the effects of cold and inadequate clothing can also be exacerbated by deprivation of food, mentioned earlier, whereas the inability to sleep could be triggered by this condition.

11:28 Besides everything else, I face daily the pressure of my concern for all the churches.

Paul's opening interjection (cwriÉ" tw'n parektov", chôris tôn parektos) is taken two different ways in translation. Most, as the NIV, take it as something of an aside to the many other hardships Paul could list that he chooses not to. In other words, it is a signal that the detailed listing he has given is not exhaustive, but he has decided to end it at this point. This seems to make the most sense. Other translations, such as NASB, NEB, and KJV, suggest that Paul is labeling all that he listed so far as "external" hardships before he goes on to deal with internal, spiritual pressures. However, this translation of the Greek word parektos has no linguistic support in any Greek sources outside this passage in 2 Corinthians.

The only threat Paul has mentioned so far which relates to the church has been "false brothers." To his mind, that is not so much a burden from within the church since he would not consider such people part of the true church. Yet, no doubt, one of his chief worries for the churches connected to his apostolic ministry is internal tampering from those with less than virtuous motives as well as dangerous ideas about the gospel message.

The word "pressure" (ejpivstasi", epistasis ) conveys the effect of feeling responsible for a situation or a group of people. One who superintends others can get hammered with daily problems to deal with. Not surprisingly, then, the word can also refer to obstacles which must be overcome. Paul's emphasis on "all the churches" reveals the extent of his difficulties. With churches flung all over Asia Minor and Greece at this point, all with their own problems, it is not likely an exaggeration to say that each day he contemplates decisions and pastoral care involving one church or another.

This is the only context in which Paul uses the word "concern" (mevrimna, merimna ). Normally translated "worries" or "anxieties," it is thought of in a negative light, particularly by Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt 6:25-34; Luke 12:22-34). His disciples are encouraged not to worry about the daily cares of life because God can be trusted to take care of them. To his credit, it is not the daily provisions Paul worries about. That he has made clear in his list, particularly in the previous verse, 11:27. His worry is for others, new converts and disciples in the churches.

He is concerned about their ability to withstand the pressures and temptations from their pagan cultures and unsympathetic relatives, friends, and neighbors. He worries about their safety from violent forces which rise up against them. He fears the influence of false teaching. He desires to aid in doctrinal and behavioral maturity, in commitment to Christ, so that nothing will deter fulfillment of their justification. That's an enormous burden on Paul's plate and here he acknowledges how difficult it all is.

Paul's concern for a church can't be any more evident than what he displays for the Corinthians: their reception of a minimum of four letters, the long list of questions he fields in 1 Corinthians, anguish generating the harsh third letter (2 Cor 12-13; 7:5-7), and the obvious heart-wrenching going on over the Corinthians, even as he writes these very words in 2 Corinthians. Awareness of Paul's deep concern for them should cause a tinge of sorrow and regret by at least some of the Corinthians at this point.

11:29 Who is weak, and I do not feel weak?

Paul's question intends to serve as an elaboration of the kind of pressure he feels on behalf of the churches under his pastoral care. His return to the issue of weakness initiated in 11:21a provides framing for everything in between these uses of the verb "weak" (ajsqenevw, astheneô). Everything he has listed in his antiboast list stands as a weakness from a worldly, human perspective. The very reason that Paul lists these kinds of things, which he has endured through God's strength, suggests he believes these to be true, apostolic strengths. Strength through weakness is God's way, even as displayed on the cross in Jesus Christ. This is a paradox Paul understands and will dwell on further in 12:5-10 and 13:3-4,9, in which six uses of the noun "weakness" and four uses of the verb "weak" occur.

Because Paul feels his weaknesses every day through a variety of hardships as he has listed, he finds it relatively easy to identify with others who are weak, but especially Christians under his care who are beaten down by life around them, doubters, denigrators, or just hard economic conditions, or even illness that has nothing directly to do with their faith. It is also true that the energy Paul expends in caring for the weaknesses in others further drains his own stamina, physically, emotionally, and spiritually. But that's all right. It is all part of being a true apostle, as far as he is concerned.

Paul's views on weakness should be well-known to the Corinthians since in 1 Corinthians he uses the verb twice (8:11,12), the noun twice (2:3; 15:43), and the adjective an incredible eleven times (1:25,27; 4:10; 8:7,9,10; 9:22 - three times; 11:30; 12:22). There, he provides his views on God's embracing of what the world considers weaknesses and his philosophy of identifying with those who are weak in order to win them to Christ. His identification with the weak in relationship to the churches should not strike the Corinthians as a startling new development in Paul's thinking since it extends and incorporates earlier ideas.

Who is led into sin, and I do not inwardly burn?

Paul expresses yet another rhetorical question to illustrate the worrisome effect of pastoral ministry. With this question, he shares how deeply grieved he is when individual believers under his care embrace sinful behavior. Such people actively pursue patterns of behavior and thought Paul has warned against in his preaching, teaching, and writing. How can he react any other way, if he loves Christians toward whom he feels pastoral and leadership responsibility?

The word "led into sin" (skandalivzw, skandalizô) is a common NT word for sin which derives from its nonbiblical background as "stumble" or "fall." In the NT, while it can refer to an especially grievous sin, it very often describes a falling away from faith entirely (Matt 24:10). The word presumes that there is a cause which precipitates sin; it does not necessarily presume this is another person. The NIV's translation "led" presumes this and that Paul's burning is against the second party. This interpretation, however, is not mandatory. Paul is just as likely to hold sinners accountable for themselves and his fire burn not against them, but out of an intense desire to see them reunited with Christ through repentance and confession.

With this question, Paul may again have a glinting eye on the Corinthians themselves, particularly those enamored by the false teachers. Does not this whole procedure of 2 Corinthians reflect the intense desire of Paul to rescue these believers from a potentially disastrous fall away from Christ?

3. Weakness Boasted (11:30-33)

11:30 If I must boast, I will boast of the things that show my weakness.

Paul now labels what he has been doing in 11:21b-29. He admits it is a kind of boasting but not the normal kind. His list is full of painful, humiliating, harmful, dangerous, and depressing things. Most Greeks would brand such things as a wall of shame, not of honor. Yet, Paul knows something full well that most Greeks don't, including many of the Corinthians who seem to have been taken in by the false apostles. Honor in serving Christ is not based in self-achievement but in expending oneself totally for others as Christ himself did. Thus, an antiboasting list as Paul has presented suits a true apostle like Paul just fine. Even this makes him a little squeamish, but he does it because the situation in Corinth requires it. The conditional ("if") for this clause conveys this reality.

11:31 The God and Father of the Lord Jesus, who is to be praised forever, knows that I am not lying.

Supportive oath formulas are more prevalent in 2 Corinthians than in any of his other writings, found three other times, in 1:18,23; 11:10. This probably reflects more than the normal defensiveness on his part because of the attacks on his credibility by his opponents. This particular formula is beefed up with the paternal description of God as well as the mention of both God and Jesus. This suggests that the pertinence of this oath is not just regarding the Damascus event which will be described in 11:32-33 but probably looks backward up the hardship list. Everything on the list is factual.

It is interesting that the closest oath formula to this one in Paul's letters occurs in Gal 1:20, only two verses from where he makes a reference to his visits to Damascus. No mention of the specific event described in 11:32-33 appears there. Perhaps, this early, relatively obscure, aspect of his Christian life was a matter of unfounded speculation in the early church, which made Paul a bit touchy when he told the stories from his personal perspective.

11:32 In Damascus the governor under King Aretas had the city of the Damascenes guarded in order to arrest me.

Located 60 miles northeast of Galilee, Damascus is one of the oldest cities of the world, continuously occupied since 2000 B.C. It was on his way to Damascus to round up renegade Jews called Christians, as described in Acts 9:1-4, that Paul met Jesus Christ and became a disciple of Christ himself. The trouble Paul describes here in 2 Corinthians is also described in Acts 9:19-25. There, it melds together Paul's experiences in Damascus. Galatians 1:17 suggests that Paul spent three years in Arabia (possibly Nabatea) and then returned to Damascus. The problems more likely occurred during this second visit to Damascus. Paul may even have created a reputation for being a troublemaker there before coming back to Damascus. At any rate, his successful debates with the Jews in the synagogues "proving that Jesus is the Christ" (Acts 9:22) apparently caused a great stir.

The Acts account does not mention the governor's involvement, just a crowd of Jews. However, patrolling the city gate (Acts 9:24), surely a matter under government control, does suggest some role of the government in the actions of the Jews. Perhaps, as in other cities later in Paul's journeys, like Thessalonica (Acts 17:1-9) and indeed Corinth (Acts 18:1-17), because the Jewish community became incensed by Paul's provocation with the gospel, they were able to draw the authorities' attention to the fact that he was a "troublemaker."

The name of the actual governor over Damascus during the period when Paul might have been there is not known. It's even possible that the governor, as an "ethnarch," was only one major official over a large ethnic group of the population, like the Nabateans or even the Jews.

More is known about Aretas. This would have been Aretas IV who reigned over Nabatea, which occupied northern Arabia and the area east of the Jordan, from 9 B.C. to A.D. 40. His daughter was the wife of Herod Antipas, governor of Galilee and Perea during Jesus' day. She is the one he divorced to marry his brother Philip's wife. It was John the Baptist's public denunciation of the tawdry affair that landed him in prison, which eventually led to his being beheaded (Mark 14:3-12). In fact, Aretas went to war with Antipas over this situation.

What is not known for certain, at least from secular history, is how Aretas could have had enough political clout to have governance over Damascus, fairly far north from his territory. It is possible that the Roman emperor Caligula (reigning from A.D. 37-41) could have given someone like Aretas IV authority over just the city-state of Damascus apart from the region surrounding it.

The verb "guarded" (frourevw, phroureô) in Greek is imperfect, emphasizing ongoing action of some sort. This verbal suggestion that people were on the watch for many days corresponds with the statement in Acts 9:24 that the gates were watched "day and night" for a period of time.

11:33 But I was lowered in a basket from a window in the wall and slipped through his hands.

Acts 9:25 does not say Paul escaped through a "window" but rather "through an opening." However, similarities in this account, including the window, are striking with regard to Rahab's allowing the two Hebrew spies to escape Jericho (Josh 2:15) and even Michal's helping David escape Saul (1 Sam 19:11-12). The word for "basket" (sargavnh, sarganç) is unique in the NT. It was perhaps more like a large bag made of braided rope. Such flexible "baskets" could be used for carrying fish but also large amounts of hay, straw, or wool. Acts 9:25 uses a different Greek word for basket (spuriv", spyris ), the same word used in the account of the feeding of the four thousand (Matt 15:37; 16:10; Mark 8:8,20).

Why Paul has moved from his poetically cadenced listings to the telling of this incident is difficult to know for certain. It does have an impact from being described as a real event rather than getting a label in a list. Possibly, Paul sees this as a true example of being "in danger from Gentiles; in danger in the city." Most likely, it stands out in his mind - possibly because it occurred so early in his service career - as the epitome of weakness.

The feeling of being so utterly dependent on God in that basket may have seared itself into Paul's emotional and spiritual memory bank. Maybe, he relays it also as an incident people in Corinth and in the other churches don't really know about, a glimpse into his personal life. Whatever the case, the impact on the Corinthians - and maybe even Paul's rivals - must have been incredible when they read this. Who would admit to this kind of humiliating weakness except a genuine apostle?

Paul's story involving his memorable encounter with a city wall might trigger memories in some of his Corinthian readers with military background. One of the most highly prized Roman military honors, available only to centurions, was awarded to the one who was the first up and over the wall of a fortified city. This award for valor was an actual gold crown fashioned to resemble a turreted wall. Given that Corinth was a popular retirement area for Roman soldiers (see Introduction), perhaps these might even be seen on the heads of old men as one walked through the city.

Paul's "war story" is the opposite of military might and power. It is not about storming the wall at the head of hundreds of comrades, but rather sneaking down the wall secretly with enemies on the watch. It is not an act of pride but of shame. It is not an image of Paul's personal strength but of his weakness and total dependence on the strength of God's will for his life.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

McGarvey: 2Co 11:28

Besides those things that are without, there is that which presseth upon me daily, anxiety for all the churches . [Besides the things which I have already mentioned -- trials which come from external circumstances -- there are others which attack me daily; I mean the wranglings, disputes, backslidings and apostasies of all the churches which are constantly brought to my attention that I may instruct, arbitrate or discipline according as the cases may demand. This verse may also be taken to mean that there were trials other than those mentioned, which came upon Paul from without.]

Lapide: 2Co 11:1-33

CHAPTER 11

SYNOPSIS OF THE CHAPTER

i. After declaring his love for the Corinthians, he proceeds (ver. 4) to defend his apostleship against the false apostles, pointing out that they had bestowed no more of the Spirit, nor given more Christian doctrine than S. Paul.

ii. He says, moreover (ver. 7), that they preached the Gospel for the sake of gain, but he freely.

iii. He insists (ver. 22) on his being equally with them a Hebrew, and what they were not, a minister of Christ. He then enumerates the marks of his apostleship, his labours for Christ, his persecutions, scourgings, sufferings, anxieties, and the care of all the Churches, and in them all he glories.

Ver. 1 . — Would to God ye could bear with me a little in my folly. In my boasting, which sounds like folly. It is, however, a mark of the highest wisdom on my part, for I do it out of zeal to protect the faith of the Gospel against the false apostles (Chrysostom and Anselm).  S. Paul anticipates an objection: he is about to praise himself, and he meets beforehand any charge of vainglory or self-seeking. The last clause, "and indeed bear with me," may be also indicative, and then it is a correction to his request for forbearance: "I need hardly make such a request: you do indeed bear with me."

At the commencement of his self-praise he thrice excuses himself: (1.) by saying, "Would ye could bear with me;" (2.) by calling himself foolish; (3.) when he says. "I am jealous over you"—he takes such pains to excuse himself that the Corinthians may see the violence he does to his feelings when he descends to self-praise. Chrysostom says: " Just as a horse, when about to leap some deep and precipitous ravine, collects its strength, as though it would cross it at a bound, but when it looks down on the yawning gulf refuses the leap; then, under the spur of the rider, approaches again and admits its ability to leap and the necessity of it by standing still for a time, till at last it takes courage, and of its own accord boldly makes the attempt; so too S. Paul, like one about to throw himself over a precipice, when going to sing his own praises, retreats once, twice, and thrice, and at length falls to the task of praising himself."

Ver. 2. — For I am jealous over you with a godly jealousy. I cannot endure any rivals, such as these false apostles, who seek to seduce you. Paul calls his great and unbounded love "jealousy," implying that he seeks to be first in the affections of the Corinthians.  S. Chrysostom remarks on this jealousy being a jealousy of God, which implies that Paul does not seek the bride for himself but for Christ and God—not for his own glory, pleasure, or gain. Christ is the Bridegroom, he is but the paranymph.

For I have espoused you to one husband. "I have fitted you" (Augustine, contra Manich. lib. ii.); "I have prepared you" (Ambrose); "I have united you " (Theophylact). The Greek verb may well bear the three meanings of, "I have invited you," "I have betrothed you," I have united you in wedlock." The three duties of the paranymph are: (1.) to gain the maiden's affections for the bridegroom, and to do all he can to get her to be the wife of his friend; (2.) to see that she is espoused to him; and, (3.) when betrothed, to unite them in marriage. S. Paul says in effect: I, as the paranymph of a spiritual marriage, have by my preaching betrothed you to one husband, Christ, and by betrothing you I have persuaded you to present yourselves to Christ as His espoused bride. Or better still, with Anselm and Theophylact: I have now espoused you to Christ through baptizing you into the Christian faith, that I may show you, or present you in the day of judgment, as virgins, i.e., pure in faith, hope, and charity, fitted for the nuptial couch of the glory of Christ.

Chrysostom remarks that the betrothal takes place in this life, the union in the next, when the espoused Church, i.e., all the elect, shall be brought to the marriage of the Lamb and the eternal kingdom (Rev. xxi. 2).

The Church of Corinth is described by S. Paul as the virgin spouse of Christ, whose paranymph he is. Then he transfers to himself the jealous love of the Bridegroom, and protests against Christ's bride being stolen by false apostles, and handed over to the tender mercies of heretics. Just as true Apostles and preachers are paranymphs of Christ and His Church (S. Joh 3:29), so, on the other hand, false preachers are Satan's panders.

This passage of the espousal of the Church and each faithful soul is famous and full of consolation. It has been commented on beautifully by most of the Fathers, and still is frequently treated in pulpits and elsewhere. That it may be clearly and fully understood, let us then dwell on it a little more at length.

Observe, then, firstly, that this espousal takes place by faith and hope and other virtues. For, as S. Augustine says ( Tract. xiii . in Johan.), " the mind's virginity consists in perfect faith, well-grounded hope, and unfeigned love." On the other hand, the soul becomes an adulteress or prostitute when she consents to unbelief, to sin, to the suggestions and wiles of the devil. " If, therefore," says Origen ( Hom. 12 in Lev. ii.), " you have admitted an adulterous devil into the chamber of your soul, then your soul has committed fornication with the devil. If there has entered there the spirit of anger, envy, pride, uncleanness, and you have welcomed in and listened to its words, and taken pleasure in its suggestions, then you have committed fornication with him."

Secondly, this betrothal makes the goods of each common to both, and therefore endows the Church and each faithful soul with the abundant riches of Christ. Hence, since the Bridegroom is a King, He makes His bride, even if she be a slave, however lowly and poor she be, a queen. S. Basil ( de Vita Virgin.) says, quoting Ps. xlv. " Upon thy right hand did stand the queen, in a vesture of gold wrought about with divers colours. Wherefore, she who now is counted vile for her sordid dress and servile habit, is ennobled by her station at the King's hand, and found in the kingdom of heaven to be a queen. Let her, then, despise all visible things, and with open face beholding her Spouse, let her be filled with His love, and make all her faculties His handmaidens. In no respect should a virgin be an adulteress, not in tongue, in ears, eyes, or any other sense, no, nor yet in thought; but let her keep her body as a temple, or bride-chamber ready for her Spouse. No unfaithfulness can escape the eye of Him of whom it is said, 'He that planted the ear, shall He not hear; or He that made the eye, shall He not see."

S. Bernard ( Serm. 2, Domin. 1, post Epiph.) thus describes the election, dignity, and glory of this bride: " For the sake of that Ethiopian woman, the Son of God came from afar to espouse her to Himself. Moses, indeed, married an Ethiopian wife, but her colour he could not change; but Christ, loving the Church, who till then was contemptible and foul, presented her to Himself, not having spot or wrinkle, or any such thing. Whence, 0 human soul, whence comes this to thee? Whence is the inestimable glory of meriting to be His spouse on whom the angels desire to gaze? Whence is it to thee that thou art the spouse of Him, whose beauty sun and moon wonder at, at whose will all things are changed? . . . What reward, then, will you give unto the Lord for all the benefits that He hath done unto you, in making you a sharer of His table, of His Kingdom, of His chamber? See with what arms of love should He be in turn lovingly embraced, who has thought so much of you, and made you so great. Leave all carnal affections, forget all worldly ways, undo all evil habits. For what thinkest thou? Does not the angel of the Lord stand ready to cut thee asunder, if perchance, which may He prevent, thou admittest any other lover?" Then he goes on to describe the nuptial feast: " Now thou art espoused to Him, now the wedding feast is being celebrated, for the banquet is prepared in heaven. There the wine will not fail for we shall be inebriated with the fulness of the house of Gad, and shall drink of the torrent of His pleasure. For that marriage, truly, there is got ready a river of wine, which maketh glad the heart, an impetuous stream, which maketh glad the city of God."

Thirdly, be it observed that from this betrothal and union of the soul to God, the fairest offspring are born. Origen ( Hom. 20 in Num. xxv.) thus Describes them. " When the soul, therefore, clings to her Spouse, and listens to His voice, and embraces Him, she doubtless receives from Him seed, even as He said: 'Of Thy fear, 0 Lord, have I conceived in the womb, and brought forth, and caused on the earth the spirits of Thy salvation.' Thence will proceed a noble offspring—thence will be born chastity, righteousness, patience, meekness, and charity, and a fair family of all the virtues. . . . But if the unhappy soul forsakes the chaste embraces of the Divine Word, and surrenders herself to the devil's adulterous endearments, without a doubt she will bring forth children, but they will be such as those of whom it is written: 'The adulterous children shall be imperfect, and the seed of the wicked bed shall be destroyed.' All sins, therefore, are children of adultery and fornication."

Fourthly, although this espousal is brought about by any virtues, yet the chief agent among them is charity. Charity carries with it towards God all the powers and affections of the soul, so much so that the more charity increases in a soul, the more closely is that soul united to God. Hence those whose souls are on fire with charity, and who are ever exercising themselves in it, enjoy the bliss of betrothal to God and the possession of His nuptial gifts of Divine joys. For charity is a marriage-union, the welding of two wills, the Divine and human, into one, whereby God and man mutually agree in all things. Hence springs familiar intercourse between the soul and God, hence spring peace and a wondrous delight of the soul. So great becomes the thirst for the Divine love that all other affections of the soul are absorbed in it and lost in God. S. Bernard ( Serm. 38 Cantic.) says: " Such conformity weds the soul to the Word, that, though naturally like Him, she none the less exhibits that likeness in the will, by loving as she has been loved. If, then, she loves perfectly, she is wedded to Him. What is more pleasant than this conformity? what more to be longed for than this charity? By it it comes to pass that you are not content, 0 my soul, to rest on human teaching, but you boldly approach the Word, and cling closely to Him, hang lovingly on His lips, and consult Him on everything. You are as bold in your longings will allow. Surely this is a holy and spiritual wedding contract. Contract, do I say?—nay, it is an embrace; for where the same will to have or not have is, where one spirit is made out of two, there there must have been an embrace. Nor need we fear that the disparity of the persons can make this union of wills imperfect, for love knows no fear. Love is self-sufficient: wherever he comes he draws to himself and makes prisoners all the other affections. Therefore she loves what he loves, and knows nought else. There is a bride and there is a bridegroom. What other relation or connection do you seek between them that are wedded than that of loving and being loved?"

If you say that the soul is so far inferior to God in its nature and love as to make it impossible for friendship to exist between them, and much less betrothal and marriage union, all of which can only be between equals, then S. Bernard replies: " It is true that there is not the same copious flow in the soul that Loves as in Love Himself, in the soul as in the Word, and in the bride as in the Bridegroom, in the creature as in the Creator, ably more than there is the same in him that is athirst and the spring that quenches his thirst. But what of that? Are we therefore to lose and see destroyed utterly the devotion of her that is about to wed, the desire of the longing soul—the eagerness of the lover, the confidence of one that boldly draws near—just because a dwarf cannot run on equal terms with a giant, because sweetness cannot rival honey, gentleness cannot compare with a lamb, whiteness with the lily, brightness with the sun, charity with Him who is charity? No, for though the creature's love is less because it is itself less, yet if it loves with all its might, it withholds nothing, and its love is entire. Therefore have I said, 'So to love is to be wedded already,' unless any one doubt that the soul is first loved and more loved by the Word. But truly He prevents and surpasses the soul in love. Happy the soul that has merited to be prevented with the blessings of goodness."

Fifthly, it follows that this espousal is most perfectly brought about by virginity and vows of chastity and religion.  S. Augustine ( Tract. 9 in Johan.) says: " They who vow to God virginity, although they may hold a higher position of honour and dignity in the Church, yet are they not without nuptials; for they belong to those nuptials in which the whole Church is united to Christ as her Bridegroom." And the reason is, that as a bride gives her heart and all her goods to her husband, so does a virgin, or a religious, consecrate herself and all that she has to Christ. Hence religion is called and is a state of perfection, or of perfect charity. Moreover, as a bride in contracting matrimony says. "I take thee for mine," so does a religious say: "I vow to God poverty, chastity, obedience," and by these she is bound to Christ as a wife to her husband. Hence Tertullian ( de Veland. Virgin. c. 16) says: " Thou hast been wedded to Christ, thou hast committed to Him thy body; thou hast betrothed to Him the bloom of thy life; walk, therefore, according to the will,of thy Spouse." For this reason S. Jerome ( Ep. 27) dared to call the mother of a virgin consecrated to God, "God's mother-in-law," and for this he was found fault with hypercritically by Ruffinus. A ring used to be given to virgins, in token that by it they were betrothed to Christ. "He gave me a ring," says S. Agnes (Ambrose, Serm. 90), "as an earnest of my betrothal to His faith." For this virgins were given veils, even as those who are married to husbands, and that solemnly, by priests, on appointed days alone, as Gelasius says ( ad Episc. Lucaniæ, c. 14), and Optatus Milevit. ( lib. 6). He says: " Spiritual wedlock is of this kind. In will and profession they had already come to be betrothed to their spouse; and to show that they had abjured all secular nuptials, they had cut off their hair for their spiritual Bridegroom, and had already celebrated their heavenly nuptials." Ambrose ( ad Virg. Lapsam ) says: " She who has betrothed herself to Christ, and received the sacred veil, is already wedded, is already united to an immortal husband; and if she now wishes to marry under the common law, she commits adultery, and is made the handmaiden of death." S. Cyprian too ( Ep. 62) calls such lapsed virgins adulteresses. From all this it is evident, whatever Marloratus may say, that the Church applies this passage of the Apostle to virgins, and reads it as the Epistle in the Mass of Holy Virgins.

Let these virgins ponder this, and recognise their dignity, so as to religiously keep these nuptials pure, and give themselves wholly to their one Bridegroom, Christ.  S. Jerome says to Eustochius: " Hear, 0 daughter, and consider, and incline thine ear; forget also thine own people and thy father's house, and then shall the King take pleasure in thy beauty. It is not enough for thee to leave thy land, unless thou also forget thy own peop1e and thy father's house, and, despising the flesh, yield thyself to the embraces of thy spouse. You will say perhaps: 'I have come from the house of my shame; I have forgotten the house of my father; I am born again in Christ. What reward for this am I to receive?' It tells you: 'So shall the King have pleasure in thy beauty.' This then is a great sacrament: there-fore shall a man leave his father and mother, and shall cling to his wife, and they twain shall be not one flesh but one spirit. Thy Spouse is not haughty; He has married an Ethiopian woman. As soon as you desire to hear the wisdom of the true Solomon and come to Him, He will tell you all that He knows; He will as a King lead you into His chamber, and thy colour being wondrously changed, the words will apply to you, 'Who is this that cometh up all white?' . . . The bride of Christ is, like the Ark of the Covenant, covered within and without with gold, the guardian of the law of the Lord. As in it there was nothing save the tables of the law, so in thee let there be no other thought. Over this mercy-seat, as upon the cherubim, the Lord wills to sit. The Lord wishes to set you free from earthly cares, that leaving the bricks and straw of Egypt, you may follow Moses in the wilderness and enter the Promised Land. Whenever in your virgin breast there rages anxiety about earthly business, immediately the veil of the temple is rent in twain, your Bridegroom rises in wrath and says: 'Your house is left unto you desolate' . . . Do thou once for all cast aside every burden of the world, sit at the feet of thy Lord, and say: 'I have found Him in whom my soul delighteth; I have held Him fast; I will not let Him go.' He will answer: 'My dove, any undefiled, is but one.' Let the secret places of thy chamber ever keep thee, let thy Spouse ever play with thee within. When thou prayest thou speakest to thy Spouse. When thou readest He speaks to thee; and when sleep oppresses thee, He will come behind the wall; and when thou art awakened thou wilt say: 'I am sick with love,' and in return thou wilt hear Him say: 'A garden enclosed is My sister, My spouse.'"

That I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ. There is something strange in such a marriage. "In the world," says Theophylact after Chrysostom, "brides do not remain virgins after marriage. But Christ's brides, as before marriage they were not virgins, so after marriage they become virgins most pure in faith, whole, and uncorrupt in life. So is the whole Church a virgin." " The virginity of the flesh," says S. Augustine ( in Senten. 79), " is an undefiled body; the virginity of the soul is uncorrupted faith."

S. Paul converted to Christ at Iconium that most illustrious virgin Thecla: he drew her from marriage and espoused her to Christ.  S. Gregory of Nyssa is our authority for this. He says ( Hom. 4 in Cantic.): " Such myrrh did Paul once pour from his mouth, mingled with the pure lily of chastity, into the ears of a holy virgin. That virgin was Thecla, who, as the drops fell from the lily into her soul, to her salvation put to death the outward man and quenched the heat of lust within." S. Epiphanius too ( Hæres. 78) says: " Thecla fell in with S. Paul, and was by him set free from wedlock, though she had a husband at once surpassingly handsome, rich, nobly-born, and famous." S. Augustine ( contra Faustum, lib . xxx. c. 4) says: " This Saint in her lifetime despised all earthly things, that she might gain possession of things heavenly, and, though bound in wedlock, she was kindled by the eloquence of S. Paul with love of life-long virginity." Through this Thecla overcame fire, lions, bulls, and serpents, and when thrown for her virginity into the midst of flames, she, like asbestos, remained unharmed. So did S. Paul arm the harlot Poppæa and virgins against the blandishments of Nero, to despise his embraces and dedicate themselves to Christ. For this he was condemned by Nero to the sword, and obtained the martyr's and virgin's crown, and therefore from his neck there flowed, when his head was cut off, a stream of white milk instead of red blood.

Ver. 3. — But I fear lest by any means . . . your minds should be corrupted from the simplicity that is in Christ. Beware of the false apostles, who are panders of Satan, adulterers of the genuine doctrine of Christ, and therefore of the Church and of your souls.

Ver. 4.— For if he that cometh preacheth another Jesus. Christ is here put for Christianity and its perfection. If the false apostles should preach any other doctrine concerning Christ than that which I have preached, as though my preaching were insufficient for salvation and Christian perfection, then, &c. He speaks a few words further on of the same thing as another Gospel. But, in Gal. i. 8, he orders that any one who should preach another Gospel was not only not to be tolerated, but was even not to be listened to, and was to be anathematised. Hence by the phrase here another Gospel, he means a clear and more spiritual explanation of the Gospel.

Or if ye receive another Spirit. If you should receive other gifts of the Holy Spirit from the false apostles besides those that you received from me, you might well suffer them. He is censuring the pride of the false apostles, who boasted that they had more to give than S. Paul (Theophylact). Where, he asks, is that other Spirit, or those other gifts of which they boast? They do not appear. I call you then to witness that you have received from them nothing but empty words.

Ver. 5. — For I suppose I was not a whit behind the very chiefest Apostles. Beza says: "If Paul was in no way inferior to the chiefest Apostles, therefore Peter was not his superior in power and authority, and consequently he is not the Prince of the Apostles and of the Church." I answer that Paul yielded to none in any of the things just mentioned, such as in preaching Christ, in the gifts of the Spirit, in the genuineness of his Gospel, in the labours he bore, and in apostolical gifts in general. The question of power and primacy, therefore has no place here. Were he here to claim it for himself, it would be a sign of the most foolish ambition. Moreover, although by the phrase the very chiefest Apostles, Chrysostom, Theophylact, Œcumenius, understand Peter, James, and John, and this interpretation seems more simple and true, yet very many later writers understand it to refer to the false apostles, who boasted of their greatness. In this case S. Paul is speaking ironically.

Ver. 6. — Rude in speech. Unskilled in the polished and rhetorical eloquence of the Greeks, such as we find in Isocrates, Demosthenes, Lucian. Hence we find in S. Paul so many sudden transitions, ellipses, and solecisms (Chrysostom and Theophylact). S. Jerome ( Ep. 151 ad Algas. qu. 10) says: " I have frequently said and I repeat it now, that when S. Paul spoke of himself as being 'rude in speech yet not in knowledge,' he was not merely using the language of humility, but was speaking from a consciousness of the truth. For in his writings there are many profound passages unexplained in words, dealing, with truths evident enough to himself, but incapable of being conveyed to others." He says the same in his epistle to Hedibia, where he adds that for this reason Paul kept Titus by him, who was a Greek scholar, just as S. Peter had S. Mark. Cf. 1Co 2:1-4, notes. On the other hand, S. Augustine ( de Doct. Christ. lib. iv. c. 7) thinks that Paul calls himself here rude in speech, not as giving his own opinion but that of his detractors.  S. Augustine there dwells at length on the eloquence of the Apostle, and shows that he has his own lively and nervous style, and an orderly arrangement of his materials. This is true. The Apostle's rhetoric was not mere wordiness, but was earnest, persuasive, manly, Divine, and therefore he was "rude," not so much in rhetoric as in grammatical niceties. It was evident to all that the Apostle by his eloquence stirred the hearts of all who heard him, smote them with the fear of God, and with wonderful skill almost drove them to faith, godliness, and mercy, and wheresoever he wished to lead them.

S. Augustine ( Senten. No . 266) says beautifully: " It is an evident token of a good disposition when the truth contained in the words of controversialists is loved, and not the mere words themselves. For what is the use of a golden key if it cannot accomplish our desire and open the door, or why should we think less of a key because it is of wood? All that we want is to have that opened which was shut. "

Ver. 7. — Have I committed an offence? Do you find fault with that very thing which is a cause of glory to me and an instance of large-heartedness, that I humiliated myself to the manual labour of tent-making to support myself and not be a burden to you? (Anselm). This is the language of sarcasm. He charges the Corinthians to their face with ingratitude, in that while he might have claimed from them the means to support himself, he did not do so, but, while preaching and working at Corinth, preferred to be supported by poorer churches. In spite of this, however, as he says, the Corinthians undervalued the kindness of S. Paul, and lent an ear more readily to his rivals, the false apostles, who drained their purses.

Ver. 8. — I robbed other churches. He uses a strong expression, in order to make a strong impression on them. You see my continence and charity. I have, as it were, despoiled other churches that were poor, in order to spare you and to enrich you, that you might not think, as rich merchants like you Corinthians are apt to think, that I was seeking yours instead of you, and also that I might shut the mouths of the false apostles. Acknowledge me, then, as your true and genuine Apostle.

Ver. 9.— I was chargeable to no man.— TheGreek word for chargeable is derived from a word denoting torpor and inactivity, which are apt to be burdensome to others. The ray-fish called torpedo derived its Greek name from the same word.  S. Paul says that he did not by his inactivity depend on another for support, but he worked hard with his hands without neglecting his duty of preaching. He gave himself to the work of teaching warning, and advising, just as diligently as if he were under no necessity of supporting himself.

Ver. 10 . — As the truth of Christ is in me. I speak in the truth of Christ; I call His truth to witness; I swear to you in truth and holiness by Christ ("under the testimony of Christ," Ambrose) that I wilt take nothing from you for my support (Theophylact).

No man shall stop me of this boasting. Or, this boasting shall not be stopped in me. This liberty and liberality of mine shall not be stopped, nor therefore my boasting of it. It is a metaphor, taken from springs and rivers, which no barriers can stop.

Secondly, it is better to suppose that S. Paul, following a Hebrew usage, employs the simple verb denoting to seal up for the compound verb unseal (σφραγίζω for α̉νασφραγίζω ). "I have determined," he then would say, "to receive nothing from you; and I have so confirmed that determination by the strong seal of my oath, that I shall not open this seal, or break my purpose, whatever need or necessity may lay upon me."

Ver. 12. — Which desire occasion. Of finding fault with me for not bringing anything peculiar to myself more than others.

That wherein they glory they may be found even as we. They boast that in their preaching they are equal to me, when they are inferior; for I preach freely, they for the sake of gain. Cf., ver. 21 (Anselm, Chrysostom, Theophylact).

Ver. 13. — Transforming themselves into the Apostles of Christ. From this it appears that these detractors of Paul were not believers who were impelled by mere vanity or by envy of Paul, but were heretics; for, in ver. 15, he calls them false apostles and ministers of Satan.

Secondly, he censures their hypocrisy in that, in order that they might impose on the Christians, they took to themselves the appearance and name of the Apostles of Christ, as though they were of Christ, and preachers of the Christian faith. The Calvinists of the present day are of the same kind, for they deform and profane everything sacred—our rites, sacraments, churches, monasteries, sanctuaries, altars, all true worship, religion, and godliness-and yet wish to be looked upon and spoken of as reformers.

Ver. 14 . — For Satan himself is transformed into an angel of light. He says of light, because good angels, being blessed, are wont, when they show themselves to men, to appear full of light and glory. Secondly, of light refers to the light of truth, righteousness, and godliness. Satan assumes these virtues, promises them to those men before whose eyes he appears in visible form, or into whose imagination he insinuates himself and his counsels, when really he is an angel of darkness, inasmuch as he suggests nothing but what is sinful, erroneous, and false. To unmask him and recognise his wiles there is nothing better, as the Fathers, and holy men, and experience itself teach, than to disclose your thoughts and suggestions to some prudent, pious, and learned man, preferably your Superior or Confessor, and to follow his advice. But Satan hates the light, and therefore dissuades and prevents his followers from doing this. From neglecting this counsel many, even hermits, have been by him most terribly deceived. In the lives of the Fathers there are extant many sad instances of this, e.g., in the case of that monk whom the devil persuaded to throw himself headlong into a well, by declaring that he would find that God, for his merits, would most gloriously deliver him. S. Epiphanius, Irenæus, and Augustine tell us the dreadful and abominable delusions instilled by the devil into such heretics as the Ophites, the Artotyritæ, and the Circumcelliones.

Under the form of a good angel the devil attempted to deceive the hermit S. Abraham, as S. Ephrem records in his Life. While he was singing psalms at midnight, a light like that of the sun suddenly shone in his cell, and a voice was heard saying: "Blessed art thou, Abraham: none is like thee in fulfilling all my will." But the humility of the Saint recognised the fraud of the devil, and exclaimed: "Thy darkness perish with thee, thou full of all fraud and falsehood; for I am a sinful man; but the name of my Lord, Jesus Christ whom I have loved and do love, is a wall to me, and in it I rebuke thee, thou unclean dog." And then the devil vanished from his sight as smoke.

Similarly, the devil appeared in splendour, with horses of fire and a chariot of fire, near the column on which was S. Symeon Stylites, and said to him: "The Lord hath sent me, His angel, to carry thee off as I carried Elijah. Ascend, therefore, with me into the chariot, and let us go into heaven. The holy angels, the Apostles, martyrs, and prophets, and Mary the Mother of the Lord long to see thee." When S. Symeon was lifting his right foot to get into the chariot he made the sign of the Cross, on which the devil disappeared. This is recorded by Antony, his disciple, in his Life.

Another, on hearing from the devil, "I am Christ," shut his eyes and said: "I would not see Christ in this life but in the next." Hence the Fathers used to warn people, saying: "Even if an angel really appear to you, do not readily receive him, but humble yourself and say: 'I am not worthy, while I live in my sins, to see an angel.'"

S. John, who foretold to the Emperor Theodosius his victory over the tyrants, saw devils like an army and chariots of fire, saying to him: "In all things, 0 man, you have borne yourself well. Now worship me, and I will take you up like Elias." John answered: "God is my Lord and King: Him I ever worship; thou art not my King." Then the devil vanished. Palladius gives this ( Lausiac. c 46).

The devil appeared to Pachomius in the form of Christ, saying: "Pachomius, I am Christ, and I come to thee, my faithful friend." Pachomius knew by Divine inspiration the fraud, and thought within himself: "The coming of Christ gives tranquillity; but I am now fiercely assailed by conflicting thoughts." Then, making the sign of the Cross, and breathing on him, he said: "Depart from me, 0 devil, for accursed art thou with thy vision and treacherous wiles; there is no place for you among the servants of God." Then, leaving a horrible stench, he departed, saying: "I should have gained thee, had not the surpassing power of Christ hindered me. Nevertheless, so far as I can, I will not cease to trouble thee." Cf. Dionysius, in Vita Pachomii.

The monk Valens was frequently deceived by the devil under the form of an angel. From this Valens became swollen with pride, because of his intimacy with angels. At length the devil appeared to him, feigning that he was Christ, accompanied by a thousand angels holding lights and a fiery wheel. One of them said to him: "Christ has loved thy free and confident life, and has come to see thee; come out, therefore, and worship Him." Then he went out and worshipped the devil as Christ. This so unhinged his mind that he went into the church and said: "I have no need of communion. I have seen Christ to-day." The Fathers, therefore, bound him and threw him into fetters. Cf. Palladius, c. 31.

Ver. 16 . — If otherwise, yet as a fool receive me. If I can obtain from you nothing else, then receive me as a fool, only that I may have license to glory somewhat. As Cato says: "Neither praise nor blame thyself; leave this to fools, whom empty glory vexes." Notice how S. Paul hesitates, and paves the way for self-praise, to show how unwillingly he was driven to it (Chrysostom).

Ver. 17. — That which I speak. The praises of myself, that I propose to utter directly.

I speak it not after the Lord. If regarded by itself. But it will be after God if charity and necessity be taken into account, the necessity, that is, of preventing you from despising me, and glorifying the false apostles.

In this confidence of boasting. In this substance (Latin version). In this subject-matter of boasting, i.e., my works, of which I am now going to speak.

Ver. 18. — Seeing that many glory after the flesh. In things merely outward and carnal, as, e.g., in birth, riches, wisdom, circumcision, having Hebrew parents—of all which these false apostles boast. Hence I too will glory in them (Chrysostom). Cf. x. 2, note

Ver. 19 . — For ye suffer fools gladly, seeing ye yourselves are wise. Irony. You have foolishly suffered the boastings of these vain-glorious false apostles; I hope that you will suffer me to glory wisely and usefully among them that are wise. Theophylact, however, and Anselm think that this is said seriously, in the way of exaggerated rebuke. Since you are wise in Christ, you ought to have exploded the folly of the false apostles. Why, then, do you gladly suffer them?

Ver. 20. — For ye suffer if a man bring you into bondage. This is aimed at the insatiable arrogance, avarice, and tyranny of the false apostles. You suffer false apostles, who imperiously treat you as slaves, who devour you by extorting from you your goods, who are exalted by their self-praise, who smite you in the face, not with the palms of their hands, but with insults. Hence he adds: "I speak as concerning reproach." These words, therefore, contain a sharp rebuke. These men squander your money, take away your freedom and honour, load you with taunts, as though you were slaves; but 1 have borne myself humbly, have lived at my own expense, have wished to put upon you the easy yoke of Christ. Yet you prefer them to me, as though, when compared with these, your imperious lords, nay, tyrants, I was not sufficiently well-born, or powerful, or eloquent. S. Bernard ( de Consid. lib. i. c. 3) says: " When you may be free there is no virtue in the patience which lets you become a slave. Do not conceal the slavery into which you are being daily led, while you know it not. It is the mark of a dull and heavy heart not to feel its own continual trouble. Trouble gives to the hearing understanding, provided it be not excessive. If it is, it gives not understanding, but carelessness."

Let superiors and prelates console themselves by the example of S. Paul, when they duly do their duty, and are despised by those under them, and see others preferred before them. It has ever been the custom of the world, and ever will be till the end, as Salmeron notices here, to obstinately resist the servants of God, to murmur, and, meeting rebuke, on the least occasion, to complain of even moderate severity; to spurn all discipline; to submit servilely to impostors, libertines, and false apostles; to entrust everything to them; to bear patiently whatever burden they may choose to impose. The Israelites, e.g., despised the holy and gentle Samuel, and preferred to bear the yoke of a self-willed and tyrannical king (1 Sam. viii.).

Ver. 21.— I speak as concerning reproach. This belongs to the preceding. The "smiting on the face" spoken of is here explained to be mental, not physical—consisting in the ignominy and revilings cast, as it were, in their faces by the false apostles. This "smiting" is no less wrong than if they had been beaten like slaves. Others, however, interpret these words to mean: "I say this to your shame." This, however, would require πρὸς instead of κατὰ.

As though we had been weak. Refer this to the words, ye suffer. You suffer these bold and imperious false apostles; me you do not, but rather despise me as weak and timid, as though I could not have acted more imperiously than I have done, I could, indeed, have done so, but I would not, through humility, modesty, and abounding charity (Chrysostom).

Whereinsoever any is bold. If any one ventures to boast foolishly, I too can do the same.

Ver. 22. — Are they Hebrews? so am I. The word Hebrew is derived either (1.) from a Hebrew word denoting "across the stream," in allusion to their descent from Abraham, who crossed the Euphrates from Chaldæa to dwell in Palestine. Hebrews in this sense would mean (to coin a word) transamnine, as we speak of transmarine or transalpine. Abraham, after crossing the Euphrates, is the first to be called Hebrew (Gen. xiv. 13). The LXX and Aquila render the word here "crosser;" S. Augustine (qu. 29 in Gen.) renders it "transfluvial." So Chrysostom, Origen, Theodoret understand the word. (2.) Or the Jews were called Hebrews as being descended from Heber, Abraham's forefather, the only man who with his family, after the confusion of tongues at Babel, retained the primeval Hebrew tongue, together with true faith, religion, and piety. (Cf. Gen 10:21, and Gen 11:1, et seq.) Those, then, are wrong who suppose that Hebræi is derived from Abrahæi. S. Augustine, it is true, at one time held this opinion ( de Consens. Evang. lib. 1. c. 14), but in his Retractations (lib. ii. c. 14) he gave it up. The meaning of the Apostle, at all events, is this: These false apostles glory in their birth—in their being, as Hebrews, descendants of Heber, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; in their possession of the holy religion of their ancestors, and the primeval tongue. But I also am a Hebrew and descendant of Abraham—like him in stock, tongue, faith, and religion.

Ver. 23. — Are they ministers of Christ? The Latin version takes this in the indicative, and supposes S. Paul to concede, for the sake of argument, that the false apostles were ministers of Christ. Be it so, but I am much more truly such than they.

In labours more abundant. Let prelates and doctors take notice from this, that they should base their influence, as S. Paul did, not on external show, but on labours and mode of life. The Fourth Council of Carthage (c. 5) says: " Let a bishop have a sordid dress, a scanty table, and poor living, and let him seek to have his high office revered through his faith and the merits of his life."

S. Bernard, quoting this passage in his work, De Consideratione, addressed to Pope Eugenius, says, (lib. ii. c. 6): " How excellent a ministry is this! What king holds a more glorious office? If you must needs glory, the life of the Saints is put before your eyes, the glorying of the Apostles is set forth. Seems that to you a little matter? Would that one would give to me to be like the Saints in their glorying! The Apostle exclaims God forbid that I should glory, save in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ.' Recognise thy heritage in the cross of Christ, in abundant labours. Happy the man who would say: "I have laboured more than they all.' This is glorying indeed, but there is nothing in it empty, slothful, or effeminate. If labour terrifies, the reward beckons us onward. Though he laboured more than all, yet he did not elaborate the whole work, and yet there is room. Go into the field of the Lord, and notice carefully how the ancient curse holds sway in an abundant crop of thorns and thistles. Go forth, I say, into the world; for the field is the world, and it has been entrusted to you. Go into it, not as a lord but as a steward, who will one day be called on to give an account."

In stripes above measure. More than can be told or believed.

In deaths oft. In dangers of death, when my companions, or others, were wounded or slain, as, e.g., by robbers, or in popular out-breaks. Cf. 2Co 1:10, and 1Co 15:31.

Ver. 24. — Forty stripes save one. The Lord had ordered, in Deut. xxv. 3, that the number of stripes should not exceed forty. The Jews, to make sure of obedience to this precept, used to inflict on criminals one less.

Ver. 25.— I have been in the deep. The Greek word for the deep may refer to a well or a prison, as well as the sea. Hence (1.) some think, says Theophylact, that that well is meant in which Paul is said to have lain concealed after escaping from the attack made on him by the people of Lystra (Acts xiv. 18). (2.) Baronius ( Annals, A.D. 58), following Bede and Theodoret, thinks that the Cyzicenum, that deep and loathsome dungeon, like the Barathrum at Athens and the Tullianum at Rome, into which Paul was thrown, is here meant. (3.) It is better to understand the deep to be the sea, and to be an explanation of the hardships of his shipwreck: " A night and a day I have been in the deep." In other words, he says: I was tossed about by so violent a tempest that I seemed to be days and nights in the depths of the sea (Maldonatus Not. Manusc.). Or it may be that he means to say that after his shipwreck he spent a day and a night tossed by the waves, not in a boat or on a raft, but swimming in the deep, i.e., on the open sea (Theophylact, Ambrose, S. Thomas). Haymo says that this latter explanation of S. Paul's rescue alive from the belly of the deep, like another Jonah, is the tradition of the Fathers.

Of these scourgings and this shipwreck there is no record in the Acts of the Apostles. The shipwreck at Melita, narrated in Acts xxvii., happened long after this, when Paul was sent a prisoner to Rome. Only one scourging is mentioned, that in Acts xvi., and only one stoning, that in Acts xiv.  S. Luke, it is evident, therefore, is silent on many details of S. Paul's life.

Ver. 26.— In perils by my own countrymen. Through the plots that the Jews often entered into against him (Anselm).

In painfulness. Ærumna (Latin version), which, says Cicero, is laborious toil, as, e.g., when one that is tired out is forced, for the sake of rest, to undertake fresh toils.

The things in which the Apostle glories are those that not only many Christians now-a-days but many clergy would be ashamed of, as S. Bernard laments when commenting on the words, "Lo, we have left all." Whither have we drifted? Where has the apostolic Spirit gone? Whither are fled the humility, labours, sufferings, and zeal of the primitive Church? The Apostles, the princes of the Church, Christ's lieutenants, do not rejoice in their palaces, their carriages, their silken robes, in an attending crowd of noblemen, domestics, soldiers, horses, and hounds; in banquets and dinners; in fat benefices, in an effeminate, luxurious, and sumptuous life; but they exult and glory in hunger, thirst, painfulness, and weariness; cold and nakedness; in continual journeying to barbarous nations; in persecution, preaching, scourgings, beatings, stonings, death, martyrdom, fatigues by day and night; they are made all things to all men; they scorn no one; they are fathers of the poor and the afflicted; those that are barbarous, ignorant, and poor they teach: they preach to them the Gospel, comfort them, give them alms. This was the calling of the Apostles; this was the high dignity of the princes of the Church, of which Paul here boasts; this was the spirit of the early Christians, both clergy and people. Nor has this spirit, God be thanked, died out in this age. Our age has had, and still has its Borroméo, Pius, Xavier, Menesius, Gaspar, Hosius, and others like minded.

Be not ashamed then, 0 Bishop, or prior, or doctor, or pastor, to imitate these men—to visit the poor after their example, to enter hospitals and prisons, to bear the confessions of peasants, to give counsel to the unhappy, to instruct the simple and ignorant, to be made all things to all men, to zealously seek the salvation of all. In these works do not shrink from toil, fatigue, and sorrow, even unto death; in this cause be pleased and delighted to suffer scoffs and even blows. So Christ did and suffered, so did S. Paul, so did the Apostles in general. In this consisted their virtue, holiness, and apostleship. In that last day of the world, when the Chief Shepherd and great Doctor shall sit as judge, to examine the deeds of each one and to pass on each one sentence of an eternity of bliss or an eternity of woe, He will not ask you how many benefices, what wealth, or servants, or knowledge you had, but how you used them—how many by them you converted, how many poor you fed or gave drink to, how many you visited in prison, how far you spread His Gospel and extended His glory; what labours, dangers, ridicule, and persecutions you bore for Him; what hunger, and thirst, and weariness. These things God has done; and, while we have time, let us think on these things, let us do these things, that we may stir up in ourselves and in all men the spirit of the primitive Church and of the Apostles, that we may follow Christ our Leader, and the Apostles His princes, and so by our zeal and burning charity, set on fire a world now growing old and stiffening with cold. Then shall we in due time hear with the Apostles: "Verily I say unto you, that ye who have followed Me, in the regeneration, when the Son of Man shall sit on the throne of His glory, then shall ye also sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel."

Listen to what S. Chrysostom has to say of these sufferings and victories, and the courage of S. Paul ( Hom. 25, 26): " Paul, as a champion athlete, against the world contends in every kind of contest, and conquers in all. This was his apostolic character, and by these contests he spread the Gospel. Just as a flame of inextinguishable fire, if it falls into the ocean and is swallowed by the waves, emerges again as bright as ever—so too S. Paul, though pressed on all sides, was not oppressed; not knowing how to yield. Suffering but left him the more glorious victor and martyr a thousand times over."

S. Chrysostom ( Hom. 2) says again: " Paul, through the abundance of his devotion, somehow did not feel the sufferings that he underwent in the cause of virtue; nay, he thought virtue itself its own reward. Daily he rose higher and more ardent; in every attack he rejoiced and gained the victory; when suffering under blows and injuries he counted it triumph. He sought death before life, poverty before riches; he longed for toil more than others rest; he counted cities, nations, provinces, and power as of as little account as the sand. He regarded nothing bitter and nothing sweet, as men commonly regard things. He looked on tyrants as moths; on death, tortures, a thousand sufferings as mere child's play, provided that he might endure something for Christ. He was as adamant, nay, harder and stronger than adamant. Like a bird he flew over the whole world to teach it, and, as though hampered by no body, he despised all sufferings and dangers. So thoroughly did he despise all earthly things that heaven might seem already his."

Ver. 28.— Beside those things that are without, that which cometh upon me daily. The weight of business that daily presses upon me. The Greek word here used denotes, says Budæus, to collect a band, to call together a meeting, as, e.g., when the mob assembles and makes an attack on the aristocracy and the magistrates. So the Apostle here uses the word to denote those manifold cares which, as it were, formed a band and rushed upon him from every side, and almost overwhelmed him, and this not once only but continuously. Chrysostom, Theophylact, and Ephrem understand it to mean that factious conspiracies, seditions, tumults, popular outbreaks, and plots were being always set in motion against him. This is, indeed, the literal meaning of the Greek; but S. Paul has already mentioned those troubles in ver. 26. The former meaning is, therefore, the better. Then next clause, "the care of all the churches," is explanatory of this. Anselm and Theophylact say beautifully: " Everywhere Paul teaches, but he also suffers greatly. He endures his own sufferings, and at the same time bears the sufferings of others. He bears the infirmities of individuals, and at the same time is anxious about the salvation of all. "

S. Chrysostom here ( Hom. 18) teaches us beautifully, by his example, that nothing is sweeter than this anxiety, thought, labour, and grief of a good pastor for the Church. " A mother too," he says, " in the in midst of deep grief for her child has pleasure; in the midst of anxiety she has joy. Though her anxiety be a source of bitterness, yet her devotion gives her great happiness." Let great men, and those that are ministers of Christ, desire to be ever in motion as the heart is, or like the heavens, and, as Suetonius says of Vespasian, to die standing. Pacatus says, in his Panegyric of Theodosius: " Divine things delight in continual motion, and at the same time eternity feeds itself on movement, and your nature delights too in what we men call labour. As the heavens revolve with unfailing rotation, and the waves of the sea are ever in motion, and the sun never stands still, so are you, 0 Emperor, always engaged in matters of business that seem to return in a regular cycle."

Ver. 29. — Who is weak and I am not weak? Who is weak, or grieves, or is afflicted, and I am not with him weak, grieved, or afflicted? Who is offended and I am not on fire, both with grief, because the evil that my neighbour suffers when he is scandalised is mine, and with zeal also, to remedy his trouble and remove the cause of offence?

S. Gregory ( Hom. 12 in Ezek 4: 3), on the words, "Take thou unto thee an iron pan," thinks that by the pan is meant the mind of Ezekiel, who, on seeing the overthrow of Jerusalem, was, as it were, roasted in a pan with compassion. Of this God puts him in mind by ordering him to place a pan between himself and the city. Such, too, was S. Paul when he said: "Who is offended and I burn not?" " Paul had set on fire his heart," says S. Gregory, " with zeal for souls, and so had made it a pan in which, from love of virtue, he flamed against vice."

Ver. 30 . — Of the things which concern mine infirmities. I will glory of the afflictions, blows, persecutions, and sufferings that I have borne for Christ. Through them I seem weak, i.e., despicable, mean, and worthless (Chrysostom). Observe that Paul glories not in his miracles but his infirmities, because in them there shines forth the effectual power of God's grace, and also because in these he surpassed the false apostles, and thirdly, because they are the tokens of real virtue and of an Apostle.

Ver. 32 . — The governor under Aretas the king. This satrap of King Aretas was, says Theophylact, the father-in-law of Herod. Josephus says that Herod Antipas, who put to death John the Baptist, married the daughter of Aretas.

Ver. 33 . — And through a window in a basket was I let down. This escape of S. Paul from Damascus happened in the year 39 (Act 9:25), when, as Josephus says, Aretas, King of Arabia and of the country near Damascus, waged war against Herod, because Herod had repudiated his wife, the daughter of Aretas, for the purpose of marrying Herodias. In this war Herod was worsted, and slain by Aretas. This brought on Aretas the vengeance of Tiberius Cæsar, who sent Vitellius, governor of Syria, to take or slay Aretas (Josephus, Ant. lib. x. c. 7). Using the opportunity, the Jews, enraged with S. Paul, seem to have accused him before the prefect of Aretas of disturbing the people under a pretext of preaching the Gospel, and so drawing them away from heathenism, and consequently from Aretas. They wished to show that this would end in his betraying Damascus to the Jews and to Vitellius. Hence the prefect sought to take Paul, but he, being warned, escaped by being let down by the wall in a basket. Cf. Baronius ( Annals, vol. i. p. 304).

Introduction / Outline

Robertson: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

Second Corinthians

From Macedonia a.d. 54 Or 55

By Way of Introduction

The Pauline authorship is admitted by all real scholars, though there is doubt by some as to the unity of the Epistle. J.H. Kennedy ( The Second and Third Letters of St. Paul to the Corinthians , 1900) has presented the arguments in a plausible, but not wholly convincing, manner for the plea that chapters 2 Corinthians 10-13 really represent a separate and earlier letter, the one referred to in 2Co_2:3, which was later tacked on to chapters 1-9 as part of the same Epistle. This theory does explain the difference in tone between chapters 1 to 7 and 10 to 13, but that fact is sufficiently clear from the stubborn minority against Paul in Corinth reported by Titus after the majority had been won to Paul by First Corinthians and by Titus (2Co_2:1-11). There are in fact three obvious divisions in the Epistle. Chapters 1 to 7 deal with the report of Titus about the victory in Corinth and Paul’s wonderful digression on the glory of the ministry in 2 Corinthians 2:12-6:10; chapters 8 and 2Co_9:1-15 discuss the collection for the poor saints in Jerusalem already mentioned in 1Co_16:1. and which Titus is to press to completion on his return to Corinth; chapters 10 to 13 deal sharply with the Judaizing minority who still oppose Paul’s leadership. These three subjects are in no sense inconsistent with each other. The letter is a unity. Nowhere do we gain so clear an insight into Paul’s own struggles and hopes as a preacher. It is a handbook for the modern minister of inestimable value. One can hear Paul’s heart throb through these chapters. The syntax is often broken by anacolutha. The sentences are sometimes disconnected. Grammatical agreements are overlooked. But there is power here, the grip of a great soul holding on to the highest ideals in the midst of manifold opposition and discouragements. Christ is Master of Paul at every turn.

The date of the Epistle is clearly after I Corinthians, for Paul has left Ephesus and is now in Macedonia (2Co_2:13), probably at Philippi, where he met Titus, though he had hoped to meet him at Troas on his return from Corinth. At a guess one may say that Paul wrote in the autumn of a.d. 54 or 55 of the same year in the spring of which he had written I Corinthians, and before he went on to Corinth himself where he wrote Romans (Act_20:1-3; Rom_16:1).

The occasion for writing is the return of Titus from Corinth with mixed news of the Pauline majority and the minority in opposition. So Titus is sent back with this Epistle to finish the task while Paul waits awhile for matters to clear up (2Co_13:1-10).

It is not certain whether the letter mentioned in 2Co_2:3 is our I Corinthians or a lost letter like the one alluded to in 1Co_5:9. If it is a lost one, we know of four Corinthian Epistles (the one in 1Co_5:9, our I Corinthians, the one in 2Co_2:3, our II Corinthians), assuming the unity of II Corinthians. Few things in Paul’s ministry gave him more concern than the troubles in Corinth. The modern city pastor finds little in his work that Paul has not faced and mastered. There is consolation and courage for the preacher in the conduct and counsels of this greatest of all preachers.

JFB: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

THE following reasons seem to have induced Paul to write this Second Epistle to the Corinthians: (1) That he might explain the reasons for his having deferred to pay them his promised visit, by taking Corinth as his way to Macedonia (1Co 4:19; 2Co 1:15-16; compare 1Co 16:5); and so that he might set forth to them his apostolic walk in general (2Co 1:12, 2Co 1:24; 2Co 6:3-13; 2Co 7:2). (2) That he might commend their obedience in reference to the directions in his First Epistle, and at the same time direct them now to forgive the offender, as having been punished sufficiently (2Co 2:1-11; 2Co 7:6-16). (3) That he might urge them to collect for the poor saints at Jerusalem (2Co 8:1-9, 2Co 8:15). (4) That he might maintain his apostolic authority and reprove gainsayers.

The external testimonies for its genuineness are IRENÆUS [Against Heresies, 3,7,1]; ATHENAGORAS [Of the Resurrection of the Dead]; CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA [Miscellanies, 3, p. 94; 4, p. 101]; TERTULLIAN [On Modesty, 13].

The TIME OF WRITING was after Pentecost, A.D. 57, when Paul left Ephesus for Troas. Having stayed in the latter place for some time preaching the Gospel with effect (2Co 2:12), he went on to Macedonia, being eager to meet Titus there, having been disappointed in his not coming to Troas, as had been agreed on between them. Having heard from him the tidings he so much desired of the good effect produced on the Corinthians by his First Epistle, and after having tested the liberality of the Macedonian churches (2Co 8:1), he wrote this Second Epistle, and then went on to Greece, where he abode for three months; and then, after travelling by land, reached Philippi on his return at Passover or Easter, A.D. 58 (Act 20:1-6). So that this Epistle must have been written about autumn, A.D. 57.

Macedonia was THE PLACE from which it was written (2Co 9:2, where the present tense, "I boast," or "am boasting," implies his presence then in Macedonia). In Asia (Lydian Asia) he had undergone some great peril of his life (2Co 1:8-9), whether the reference be [PALEY] to the tumult at Ephesus (Acts 19:23-41), or, as ALFORD thinks, to a dangerous illness in which he despaired of life. Thence he passed by Troas to Philippi, the first city which would meet him in entering Macedonia. The importance of the Philippian Church would induce him to stay there some time; as also his desire to collect contributions from the Macedonian churches for the poor saints at Jerusalem. His anxiety of mind is recorded (2Co 7:5) as occurring when he came into Macedonia, and therefore must have been at Philippi, which was the first city of Macedonia in coming from Troas; and here, too, from 2Co 7:6, compared with 2Co 7:5, must have been the scene of his receiving the comforting tidings from Titus. "Macedonia" is used for Philippi in 2Co 11:9, as is proved by comparison with Phi 4:15-16. So it is probably used here (2Co 7:5). ALFORD argues from 2Co 8:1, where he speaks of the "grace bestowed on the churches (plural) of Macedonia," that Paul must have visited other churches in Macedonia, besides Philippi, when he wrote, for example, Thessalonica, Berea, &c., and that Philippi, the first on his route, is less likely to have been the scene of his writing than the last on his route, whichever it was, perhaps Thessalonica. But Philippi, as being the chief town of the province, was probably the place to which all the collections of the churches were sent. Ancient tradition, too (as appears from the subscription to this Epistle), favors the view that Philippi was the place from which this Epistle was sent by the hands of Titus who received, besides, a charge to prosecute at Corinth the collection which he had begun at his first visit (2Co 8:6).

The STYLE is most varied, and passes rapidly from one phase of feeling to another; now joyous and consolatory, again severe and full of reproof; at one time gentle and affectionate, at another, sternly rebuking opponents and upholding his dignity as an apostle. This variety of style accords with the warm and earnest character of the apostle, which nowhere is manifested more beautifully than in this Epistle. His bodily frailty, and the chronic malady under which he suffered, and which is often alluded to (2Co 4:7; 2Co 5:1-4; 2Co 12:7-9; compare Note, see on 2Co 1:8), must have been especially trying to one of his ardent temperament. But besides this, was the more pressing anxiety of the "care of all the churches." At Corinth, as elsewhere, Judaizing emissaries wished to bind legal fetters of letter and form (compare 2Co. 3:3-18) on the freedom and catholicity of the Church. On the other hand, there were free thinkers who defended their immorality of practice by infidel theories (1Co 15:12, 1Co 15:32-36). These were the "fightings without," and "fears within" (2Co 7:5-6) which agitated the apostle's mind until Titus brought him comforting tidings from Corinth. Even then, while the majority at Corinth had testified their repentance, and, as Paul had desired, excommunicated the incestuous person, and contributed for the poor Christians of Judea, there was still a minority who, more contemptuously than ever, resisted the apostle. These accused him of crafty and mercenary motives, as if he had personal gain in view in the collection being made; and this, notwithstanding his scrupulous care to be above the possibility of reasonable suspicion, by having others besides himself to take charge of the money. This insinuation was palpably inconsistent with their other charge, that he could be no true apostle, as he did not claim maintenance from the churches which he founded. Another accusation they brought of cowardly weakness; that he was always threatening severe measures without daring to execute them (2Co 10:8-16; 2Co 13:2); and that he was vacillating in his teaching and practice, circumcising Timothy, and yet withholding circumcision from Titus; a Jew among the Jews, and a Greek among the Greeks. That most of these opponents were of the Judaizing party in the Church, appears from 2Co 11:22. They seem to have been headed by an emissary from Judea ("he that cometh," 2Co 11:4), who had brought "letters of commendation" (2Co 3:1) from members of the Church at Jerusalem, and who boasted of his purity of Hebrew descent, and his close connection with Christ Himself (2Co 11:13, 2Co 11:23). His partisans contrasted his high pretensions with the timid humility of Paul (1Co 2:3); and his rhetoric with the apostle's plain and unadorned style (2Co 11:6; 2Co 10:10, 2Co 10:13). It was this state of things at Corinth, reported by Titus, that caused Paul to send him back forthwith thither with this Second Epistle, which is addressed, not to Corinth only (1Co 1:2), but to all the churches also in Achaia (2Co 1:1), which had in some degree been affected by the same causes as affected the Corinthian Church. The widely different tone in different parts of the Epistle is due to the diversity which existed at Corinth between the penitent majority and the refractory minority. The former he addresses with the warmest affection; the latter with menace and warning. Two deputies, chosen by the churches to take charge of the contribution to be collected at Corinth, accompanied Titus (2Co 8:18-19, 2Co 8:22).

JFB: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

• THE HEADING; PAUL'S CONSOLATIONS IN RECENT TRIALS IN ASIA; HIS SINCERITY TOWARDS THE CORINTHIANS; EXPLANATION OF HIS NOT HAVING VISITED THEM AS HE HAD PURPOSED. (2Co. 1:1-24)
• REASON WHY HE HAD NOT VISITED THEM ON HIS WAY TO MACEDONIA; THE INCESTUOUS PERSON OUGHT NOW TO BE FORGIVEN; HIS ANXIETY TO HEAR TIDINGS OF THEIR STATE FROM TITUS, AND HIS JOY WHEN AT LAST THE GOOD NEWS REACHES HIM. (2Co. 2:1-17)
• THE SOLE COMMENDATION HE NEEDS TO PROVE GOD'S SANCTION OF HIS MINISTRY HE HAS IN HIS CORINTHIAN CONVERTS: HIS MINISTRY EXCELS THE MOSAIC, AS THE GOSPEL OF LIFE AND LIBERTY EXCELS THE LAW OF CONDEMNATION. (2Co. 3:1-18) Are we beginning again to recommend ourselves (2Co 5:12) (as some of them might say he had done in his first Epistle; or, a reproof to "some" who had begun doing so)!
• HIS PREACHING IS OPEN AND SINCERE, THOUGH TO MANY THE GOSPEL IS HIDDEN. (2Co. 4:1-18)
• THE HOPE (2Co 4:17-18) OF ETERNAL GLORY IN THE RESURRECTION BODY. (2Co. 5:1-21)
• HIS APOSTOLIC MINISTRY IS APPROVED BY FAITHFULNESS IN EXHORTATION, IN SUFFERINGS, IN EXHIBITION OF THE FRUITS OF THE HOLY GHOST: HIS LARGENESS OF HEART TO THEM CALLS FOR ENLARGEMENT OF THEIR HEART TO HIM. EXHORTATIONS TO SEPARATION FROM POLLUTION. (2Co. 6:1-18)
• SELF-PURIFICATION THEIR DUTY RESULTING FROM THE FOREGOING. HIS LOVE TO THEM, AND JOY AT THE GOOD EFFECTS ON THEM OF HIS FORMER EPISTLE, AS REPORTED BY TITUS. (2Co. 7:1-16)
• THE COLLECTION FOR THE SAINTS; THE READINESS OF THE MACEDONIANS A PATTERN TO THE CORINTHIANS; CHRIST THE HIGHEST PATTERN; EACH IS TO GIVE WILLINGLY AFTER HIS ABILITY; TITUS AND TWO OTHERS ARE THE AGENTS ACCREDITED TO COMPLETE THE COLLECTION. (2Co. 8:1-24)
• REASONS FOR HIS SENDING TITUS. THE GREATER THEIR BOUNTIFULNESS, THE MORE SHALL BE THE RETURN OF BLESSING TO THEM, AND THANKSGIVING TO GOD. (2Co 9:1-15)
• HE VINDICATES HIS APOSTOLIC AUTHORITY AGAINST THOSE WHO DEPRECIATED HIM FOR HIS PERSONAL APPEARANCE. HE WILL MAKE HIS POWER FELT WHEN HE COMES. HE BOASTS NOT, AS THEY, BEYOND HIS MEASURE. (2Co. 10:1-18)
• THROUGH JEALOUSY OVER THE CORINTHIANS, WHO MADE MORE ACCOUNT OF THE FALSE APOSTLES THAN OF HIM, HE IS OBLIGED TO COMMEND HIMSELF AS IN MANY RESPECTS SUPERIOR. (2Co. 11:1-33)
• REVELATIONS IN WHICH HE MIGHT GLORY: BUT HE RATHER GLORIES IN INFIRMITIES, AS CALLING FORTH CHRIST'S POWER: SIGNS OF HIS APOSTLESHIP: HIS DISINTERESTEDNESS: NOT THAT HE IS EXCUSING HIMSELF TO THEM; BUT HE DOES ALL FOR THEIR GOOD, LEST HE SHOULD FIND THEM NOT SUCH AS HE DESIRED, AND SO SHOULD HAVE TO BE SEVERE AT HIS COMING. (2Co. 12:1-21) He proceeds to illustrate the "glorying in infirmities" (2Co 11:30). He gave one instance which might expose him to ridicule (2Co 11:33); he now gives another, but this one connected with a glorious revelation of which it was the sequel: but he dwells not on the glory done to himself, but on the infirmity which followed it, as displaying Christ's power. The oldest manuscripts read, "I MUST NEEDS boast (or glory) though it be not expedient; for I will come." The "for" gives a proof that it is "not expedient to boast": I will take the case of revelations, in which if anywhere boasting might be thought harmless. "Visions" refers to things seen: "revelations," to things heard (compare 1Sa 9:15) or revealed in any way. In "visions" their signification was not always vouchsafed; in "revelations" there was always an unveiling of truths before hidden (Dan 2:19, Dan 2:31). All parts of Scripture alike are matter of inspiration; but not all of revelation. There are degrees of revelation; but not of inspiration.
• HE THREATENS A SEVERE PROOF OF HIS APOSTOLIC AUTHORITY, BUT PREFERS THEY WOULD SPARE HIM THE NECESSITY FOR IT. (2Co 13:1-14)

TSK: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

The most remarkable circumstance in this Epistle, observes Mr. Scott, is the confidence of the Apostle in the goodness of his cause, and in the power of God to bear him out in it. Opposed as he then was by a powerful and sagacious party, whose authority, reputation, and interest were deeply concerned, and who were ready to seize on every thing that could discredit him, it is wonderful to hear him so firmly insist upon his apostolical authority, and so unreservedly appeal to the miraculous power which he has exercised and conferred at Corinth. So far from shrinking from the contest, as afraid of some discovery being made, unfavourable to him and the common cause, he, with great modesty and meekness indeed, but with equal boldness and decision, expressly declares that his opposers and despisers were the ministers of Satan, and menaces them with miraculous judgments, when as many of their deluded hearers had been brought to repentance and re-established in the faith, as proper means could in a reasonable time effect. It is inconceivable that a stronger internal testimony, not only of integrity, but of divine inspiration, can exist. Had there been anything of imposture among the Christians, it was next to impossible but such a conduct must have occasioned a disclosure of it. Of the effects produced by this latter epistle we have no circumstantial account; for the journey which St. Paul took to Corinth, after he had written it, is mentioned by St. Luke only in a few words (Act 20:2, Act 20:3). We know, however, that St. Paul was there after he had written this Epistle; that the contributions for the poor brethren at Jerusalem were brought to him from different parts to that city (Rom 15:26); and that, after remaining there several months, he sent salutations from some of the principal members of that church, by whom he must have been greatly respected, to the church of Rome (Rom 16:22, Rom 16:23). From this time we hear no more of the false teacher and his party; and when Clement of Rome wrote his epistle to the Corinthians, St. Paul was considered by them as a divine apostle, to whose authority he might appeal without fear of contradiction. The false teacher, therefore, must either have been silenced by St. Paul, by virtue of his apostolical powers, and by an act of severity which he had threatened (2Co 13:2, 2Co 13:3); or this adversary of the apostle had, at that time, voluntarily quitted the place. Whichever was the cause, the effect produced must operate as a confirmation of our faith, and as a proof of St. Paul’s divine mission.

TSK: 2 Corinthians 11 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

2Co 11:1, Out of his jealousy over the Corinthians, who seemed to make more account of the false apostles than of him, he enters into a forced commendation of himself, 2Co 11:5, of his equality with the chief apostles, 2Co 11:7, of his preaching the gospel to them freely, and without any charge to them; 2Co 11:13, shewing that he was not inferior to those deceitful workers in any legal prerogative; 2Co 11:23, and in the service of Christ, and in all kinds of sufferings for his ministry, far superior.

Poole: 2 Corinthians 11 (Chapter Introduction)

CORINTHIANS CHAPTER 11

MHCC: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

The second epistle to the Corinthians probably was written about a year after the first. Its contents are closely connected with those of the former epistle. The manner in which the letter St. Paul formerly wrote had been received, is particularly noticed; this was such as to fill his heart with gratitude to God, who enabled him fully to discharge his duty towards them. Many had shown marks of repentance, and amended their conduct, but others still followed their false teachers; and as the apostle delayed his visit, from his unwillingness to treat them with severity, they charged him with levity and change of conduct. Also, with pride, vain-glory, and severity, and they spake of him with contempt. In this epistle we find the same ardent affection towards the disciples at Corinth, as in the former, the same zeal for the honour of the gospel, and the same boldness in giving Christian reproof. The first six chapters are chiefly practical: the rest have more reference to the state of the Corinthian church, but they contain many rules of general application.

MHCC: 2 Corinthians 11 (Chapter Introduction)

(2Co 11:1-14) The apostle gives the reasons for speaking in his own commendation.

(2Co 11:5-15) Shows that he had freely preached the gospel.

(2Co 11:16-21) Explains what he was going to add in defence of his own character.

(2Co 11:22-33) He gives an account of his labours, cares, sufferings, dangers, and deliverances.

Matthew Henry: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians

In his former epistle the apostle had signified his intentions of coming to Corinth, as he passed through Macedonia (1Co 16:5), but, being providentially hindered for some time, he writes this second epistle to them about a year after the former; and there seem to be these two urgent occasions: - 1. The case of the incestuous person, who lay under censure, required that with all speed he should be restored and received again into communion. This therefore he gives directions about (ch. 2), and afterwards (ch. 7) he declares the satisfaction he had upon the intelligence he received of their good behaviour in that affair. 2. There was a contribution now making for the poor saints at Jerusalem, in which he exhorts the Corinthians to join (ch. 8, 2Co 9:1-15).

There are divers other things very observable in this epistle; for example, I. The account the apostle gives of his labours and success in preaching the gospel in several places, ch. 2. II. The comparison he makes between the Old and New Testament dispensation, ch. 3. III. The manifold sufferings that he and his fellow-labourers met with, and the motives and encouragements for their diligence and patience, ch. 4, 5. IV. The caution he gives the Corinthians against mingling with unbelievers, ch. 6. V. The way and manner in which he justifies himself and his apostleship from the opprobrious insinuations and accusations of false teachers, who endeavoured to ruin his reputation at Corinth, ch. 10-12, and throughout the whole epistle.

Matthew Henry: 2 Corinthians 11 (Chapter Introduction)

In this chapter the apostle goes on with his discourse, in opposition to the false apostles, who were very industrious to lessen his interest and reputation among the Corinthians, and had prevailed too much by their insinuations. I. He apologizes for going about to commend himself, and gives the reason for what he did (2Co 11:1-4). II. He mentions, in his own necessary vindication, his equality with the other apostles, and with the false apostles in this particular of preaching the gospel to the Corinthians freely, without wages (2Co 11:5-15). III. He makes another preface to what he was about further to say in his own justification (2Co 11:16-21). And, IV. He gives a large account of his qualifications, labours, and sufferings, in which he exceeded the false apostles (2Co 11:22 to the end).

Barclay: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO THE LETTERS TO THE CORINTHIANS

The Greatness Of Corinth

A glance at the map will show that Corinth was made for greatness. The southern part of Greece is very nearly an island. On the west the Corinthian Gulf deeply indents the land and on the east the Saronic Gulf. All that is left to join the two parts of Greece together is a little isthmus only four miles across. On that narrow neck of land Corinth stands. Such a position made it inevitable that it should be one of the greatest trading and commercial centres of the ancient world. All traffic from Athens and the north of Greece to Sparta and the Peloponnese had to be routed through Corinth, because it stood on the little neck of land that connected the two.

Not only did the north to south traffic of Greece pass through Corinth of necessity, by far the greater part of the east to west traffic of the Mediterranean passed through her from choice. The extreme southern tip of Greece was known as Cape Malea (now called Cape Matapan). It was dangerous, and to round Cape Malea had much the same sound as to round Cape Horn had in later times. The Greeks had two sayings which showed what they thought of it--"Let him who sails round Malea forget his home," and, "Let him who sails round Malea first make his will."

The consequence was that mariners followed one of two courses. They sailed up the Saronic Gulf, and, if their ships were small enough, dragged them out of the water, set them on rollers, hauled them across the isthmus, and re-launched them on the other side. The isthmus was actually called the Diolkos, the place of dragging across. The idea is the same as that which is contained in the Scottish place name Tarbert, which means a place where the land is so narrow that a boat can be dragged from loch to loch. If that course was not possible because the ship was too large, the cargo was disembarked, carried by porters across the isthmus, and re-embarked on another ship at the other side. This four mile journey across the isthmus, where the Corinth Canal now runs, saved a journey of two hundred and two miles round Cape Malea, the most dangerous cape in the Mediterranean.

It is easy to see how great a commercial city Corinth must have been. The north to south traffic of Greece had no alternative but to pass through her; by far the greater part of the east to west trade of the Mediterranean world chose to pass through her. Round Corinth there clustered three other towns, Lechaeum at the west end of the isthmus, Cenchrea at the east end and Schoenus just a short distance away. Farrar writes, "Objects of luxury soon found their way to the markets which were visited by every nation in the civilized world--Arabian balsam, Phoenician dates, Libyan ivory, Babylonian carpets, Cilician goatsair, Lycaonian wool, Phrygian slaves."

Corinth, as Farrar calls her, was the Vanity Fair of the ancient world. Men called her The Bridge of Greece; one called her The Lounge of Greece. It has been said that if a man stands long enough in Piccadilly Circus he will in the end meet everyone in the country. Corinth was the Piccadilly Circus of the Mediterranean. To add to the concourse which came to it, Corinth was the place where the Isthmian Games were held, which were second only to the Olympics. Corinth was a rich and populous city with one of the greatest commercial trades in the ancient world.

The Wickedness Of Corinth

There was another side to Corinth. She had a reputation for commercial prosperity, but she was also a byword for evil living. The very word korinthiazesthai, to live like a Corinthian, had become a part of the Greek language, and meant to live with drunken and immoral debauchery. The word actually penetrated to the English language, and, in Regency times, a Corinthian was one of the wealthy young bucks who lived in reckless and riotous living. Aelian, the late Greek writer, tells us that if ever a Corinthian was shown upon the stage in a Greek play he was shown drunk. The very name Corinth was synonymous with debauchery and there was one source of evil in the city which was known all over the civilized world. Above the isthmus towered the hill of the Acropolis, and on it stood the great temple of Aphrodite, the goddess of love. To that temple there were attached one thousand priestesses who were sacred prostitutes, and in the evenings they descended from the Acropolis and plied their trade upon the streets of Corinth, until it became a Greek proverb, "It is not every man who can afford a journey to Corinth." In addition to these cruder sins, there flourished far more recondite vices, which had come in with the traders and the sailors from the ends of the earth, until Corinth became not only a synonym for wealth and luxury, drunkenness and debauchery, but also for filth.

The History Of Corinth

The history of Corinth falls into two parts. She was a very ancient city. Thucydides, the Greek historian, claims that it was in Corinth that the first triremes, the Greek battleships, were built. Legend has it that it was in Corinth that the Argo was built, the ship in which Jason sailed the seas, searching for the golden fleece. But in 146 B.C. disaster befell her. The Romans were engaged in conquering the world. When they sought to reduce Greece, Corinth was the leader of the opposition. But the Greeks could not stand against the disciplined Romans, and in 146 B.C. Lucius Mummius, the Roman general, captured Corinth and left her a desolate heap of ruins.

But any place with the geographical situation of Corinth could not remain a devastation. Almost exactly one hundred years later, in 46 B.C. Julius Caesar rebuilt her and she arose from her ruins. Now she became a Roman colony. More, she became a capital city, the metropolis of the Roman province of Achaea, which included practically all Greece.

In those days, which were the days of Paul, her population was very mixed. (i) There were the Roman veterans whom Julius Caesar had settled there. When a Roman soldier had served his time, he was granted the citizenship and was then sent out to some newly-founded city and given a grant of land so that he might become a settler there. These Roman colonies were planted all over the world, and always the backbone of them was the contingent of veteran regular soldiers whose faithful service had won them the citizenship. (ii) When Corinth was rebuilt the merchants came back, for her situation still gave her commercial supremacy. (iii) There were many Jews among the population. The rebuilt city offered them commercial opportunities which they were not slow to take. (iv) There was a sprinkling of Phoenicians and Phrygians and people from the east, with their exotic customs and their hysterical ways. Farrar speaks of "this mongrel and heterogeneous population of Greek adventurers and Roman bourgeois, with a tainting infusion of Phoenicians; this mass of Jews, ex-soldiers, philosophers, merchants, sailors, freedmen, slaves, trades-people, hucksters and agents of every form of vice." He characterizes her as a colony "without aristocracy, without traditions and without well-established citizens."

Remember the background of Corinth, remember its name for wealth and luxury, for drunkenness and immorality and vice, and then read 1Co_6:9-10 .

Are you not aware that the unrighteous will not inherit the

Kingdom of God? Make no mistake--neither fornicators, nor

idolaters, nor adulterers, nor sensualists, nor homosexuals, nor

thieves, nor rapacious men, nor drunkards, nor slanderers, nor

robbers shall inherit the Kingdom of God--and such were some of

you.

In this hotbed of vice, in the most unlikely place in all the Greek world, some of Paulgreatest work was done, and some of the mightiest triumphs of Christianity were won.

Paul In Corinth

Paul stayed longer in Corinth than in any other city, with the single exception of Ephesus. He had left Macedonia with his life in peril and had crossed over to Athens. There he had had little success and had gone on to Corinth, and he remained there for eighteen months. We realize how little we really know of his work when we see that the whole story of that eighteen months is compressed by Luke into 17 verses (Act_18:1-17 ).

When Paul arrived in Corinth he took up residence with Aquila and Prisca. He preached in the synagogue with great success. With the arrival of Timothy and Silas from Macedonia, he redoubled his efforts, but the Jews were so stubbornly hostile that he had to leave the synagogue. He took up his residence with one Justus who lived next door to the synagogue. His most notable convert was Crispus, who was actually the ruler of the synagogue, and amongst the general public he had good success.

In the year A.D. 52 there came to Corinth as its new governor a Roman called Gallio. He was famous for his charm and gentleness. The Jews tried to take advantage of his newness and good nature and brought Paul to trial before him on a charge of teaching contrary to their law. But Gallio, with impartial Roman justice, refused to have anything to do with the case or to take any action. So Paul completed his work in Corinth and moved on to Syria.

The Correspondence With Corinth

It was when he was in Ephesus in the year A.D. 55 that Paul, learning that things were not all well in Corinth, wrote to the church there. There is every possibility that the Corinthian correspondence as we have it is out of order. We must remember that it was not until A.D. 90 or thereby that Paulcorrespondence was collected. In many churches it must have existed only on scraps of papyrus and the putting it together would be a problem: and it seems that, when the Corinthian letters were collected, they were not all discovered and were not arranged in the right order. Let us see if we can reconstruct what happened.

(i) There was a letter which preceded 1 Corinthians. In 1Co_5:9 Paul writes, "I wrote you a letter not to associate with immoral men." This obviously refers to some previous letter. Some scholars believe that letter is lost without trace. Others think it is contained in 2Co_6:14-18 and 2Co_7:1 . Certainly that passage suits what Paul said he wrote about. It occurs rather awkwardly in its context, and, if we take it out and read straight on from 2Co_6:13 to 2Co_7:2 , we get excellent sense and connection. Scholars call this letter The Previous Letter. (In the original letters there were no chapter or verse divisions. The chapters were not divided up until the thirteenth century and the verses not till the sixteenth, and because of that the arranging of the collection of letters would be much more difficult).

(ii) News came to Paul from various sources of trouble at Corinth. (a) News came from those who were of the household of Chloe (1Co_1:11 ). They brought news of the contentions with which the church was torn. (b) News came with the visit of Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus to Ephesus. (1Co_16:17 ). By personal contact they were able to fill up the gaps in Paulinformation. (c) News came in a letter in which the Corinthian Church had asked Paul guidance on various problems. In 1Co_7:1 Paul begins, "Concerning the matters about which you wrote..." In answer to all this information Paul wrote 1 Corinthians and despatched it to Corinth apparently by the hand of Timothy (1Co_4:17 ).

(iii) The result of the letter was that things became worse than ever, and, although we have no direct record of it, we can deduce that Paul paid a personal visit to Corinth. In 2Co_12:14 he writes, "The third time I am ready to come to you." In 2Co_13:1-2 , he says again that he is coming to them for the third time. Now, if there was a third time, there must have been a second time. We have the record of only one visit, whose story is told in Act_18:1-17 . We have no record at all of the second, but Corinth was only two or three daysailing from Ephesus.

(iv) The visit did no good at all. Matters were only exacerbated and the result was an exceedingly severe letter. We learn about that letter from certain passages in 2 Corinthians. In 2Co_2:4 Paul writes, "I wrote to you out of much affliction and anguish of heart and with many tears." In 2Co_7:8 he writes, "For even if I made you sorry with my letter, I do not regret it though I did regret it; for I see that that letter has grieved you, though only for a while." It was a letter which was the product of anguish of mind, a letter so severe that Paul was almost sorry that he ever sent it.

Scholars call this The Severe Letter. Have we got it? It obviously cannot be I Corinthians, because it is not a tear-stained and anguished letter. When Paul wrote it, it is clear enough that things were under control. Now if we read through 2 Corinthians we find an odd circumstance. In 2Cor 1-9 everything is made up, there is complete reconciliation and all are friends again; but at 2Cor 10 comes the strangest break. 2Cor 10-13 are the most heartbroken cry Paul ever wrote. They show that he has been hurt and insulted as he never was before or afterwards by any church. His appearance, his speech, his apostleship, his honesty have all been under attack.

Most scholars believe that 2Cor 10-13 are the severe letter, and that they have become misplaced when Paulletters were put together. If we want the real chronological course of Paulcorrespondence with Corinth, we really ought to read 2Cor 10-13 before 2Cor 1-9. We do know that this letter was sent off with Titus. (2Co_2:13 ; 2Co_7:13 ).

(v) Paul was worried about this letter. He could not wait until Titus came back with an answer, so he set out to meet him (2Co_2:13 ; 2Co_7:5 , 2Co_7:13 ). Somewhere in Macedonia he met him and learned that all was well, and, probably at Philippi, he sat down and wrote 2Cor 1-9, the letter of reconciliation.

Stalker has said that the letters of Paul take the roof off the early churches and let us see what went on inside. Of none of them is that truer than the letters to Corinth. Here we see what "the care of all the churches" must have meant to Paul. Here we see the heart-breaks and the joys. Here we see Paul, the shepherd of his flock, bearing the sorrows and the problems of his people on his heart.

The Corinthian Correspondence

Before we read the letters in detail let us set down the progress of the Corinthian correspondence in tabular form.

(i) The Previous Letter, which may be contained in 2Co_6:14-18 and 2Co_7:1 .

(ii) The arrival of Chloepeople, of Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus, and of the letter to Paul from the Corinthian Church.

(iii) 1 Corinthians is written in reply and is despatched with Timothy.

(iv) The situation grows worse and Paul pays a personal visit to Corinth, which is so complete a failure that it almost breaks his heart.

(v) The consequence is The Severe Letter, which is almost certainly contained in 2Cor 10-13, and which was despatched with Titus.

(vi) Unable to wait for an answer, Paul sets out to meet Titus. He meets him in Macedonia, learns that all is well and, probably from Philippi, writes 2Cor 1-9, The Letter of Reconciliation.

The first four chapters of 1 Corinthians deal with the divided state of the Church of God at Corinth. Instead of being a unity in Christ it was split into sects and parties, who had attached themselves to the names of various leaders and teachers. It is Paulteaching that these divisions had emerged because the Corinthians thought too much about human wisdom and knowledge and too little about the sheer grace of God. In fact, for all their so-called wisdom, they are really in a state of immaturity. They think that they are wise men, but really they are no better than babies.

FURTHER READING

2 Corinthians

F. F. Bruce, 1 and 2 Corinthians (NCB; E)

J. Hering, The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians (translated by A. W. Heathcote and P. J. Allcock)

A. Plummer, 2 Corinthians (ICC; G)

R. V. G. Tasker, The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians (TC; E)

Abbreviations

ICC: International Critical Commentary

MC: Moffatt Commentary

NCB: New Century Bible

TC: Tyndale Commentary

E: English Text

G: Greek Text

Barclay: 2 Corinthians 11 (Chapter Introduction)

The Peril Of Seduction (2Co_11:1-6)

Masquerading As Christians (2Co_11:7-15)

The Credentials Of An Apostle (2Co_11:16-33)

Constable: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Historical background

First Corinthians did not dispel the problems in the church at Corinth completely. While it resolved some of these, opposition to the Apostle Paul persisted and Paul's critics continued to speak out against him in the church. One man in particular seems to have been the ringleader of the opposition (10:7). He had rallied the support of a significant minority. The issue was Paul's apostolic authority. His critics were claiming authority equal with Paul's. This was in effect a claim to apostolic authority on their part or a denial of the full apostolic authority of Paul.

News of continuing problems in Corinth reached Paul in Ephesus during his prolonged stay there during his third missionary journey. He then made a brief visit to Corinth. However his efforts to resolve the conflicts fell through (2:1; 12:14; 13:1-2). Paul apparently suffered insult and lost face during that visit (2:5-8; 7:12). Consequently this was a painful visit for Paul. He then returned to Ephesus.

Paul's next step in dealing with the situation in Corinth was to send a severe letter from Ephesus by the hand of Titus and another unnamed brother (2:3-4; 7:8-12; 12:18). He apparently directed this letter, now lost, at the party opposed to him and particularly its leader. Some commentators believe that 2 Corinthians 10-13 contains part of this letter, but the evidence for this is not convincing.¹

Paul evidently intended to receive Titus' report concerning the effects of this severe letter in Ephesus. However, persecution there made it expedient for Paul to leave that city earlier than he had anticipated (Acts 20:1). He found an open door for the gospel to the north in Troas. Eager to meet Titus who was taking the land route from Corinth back to Ephesus Paul moved west into Macedonia (2:12-13). There Titus met him and gave him an encouraging report (7:6-16). Most of the church had responded to Paul's directives and the church had disciplined the troublemakers (2:5-11). Unfortunately some in the congregation still refused to acknowledge Paul's authority over them (10:1-13:10).

Paul rejoiced at the repentance of the majority. However his concern for the unrepentant minority and his desire to pick up the money the Corinthians had begun to collect for their poorer brethren in Jerusalem led him to write 2 Corinthians. Along with these primary motives Paul also felt compelled to refute the charge of fickleness leveled at him by his critics. He had changed his travel plans and had not come to see them as he had said he would.

The whole situation provided him an opportunity to clarify the nature of Christian ministry.

Paul wrote the Second Epistle to the Corinthians from Macedonia, perhaps Philippi, Thessalonica, or Berea, probably in the fall or winter of 56 A.D. A date a year earlier or later is possible.

Some commentators believe Paul wrote 1 Corinthians after his painful visit and after he wrote the severe letter.² I believe it is more probable that he wrote 1 Corinthians before these two events.³ It is very difficult to reconstruct the details of Paul's activities since the data available to us is incomplete.

Paul's Corinthian Contacts
Paul's founding visit	His "former letter"	The Corin-thians' letter to him	First Corin-thians	Paul's "painful visit"	His "severe letter"	Second Corin-thians	Paul's antici-pated visit

"2 Corinthians is very different from the letters between which it was written, 1 Corinthians and Romans. Whereas each of those letters is, in its own way, systematic and orderly, 2 Corinthians is, on the face of it, uneven and digressive. It is no surprise, therefore, that many scholars have suggested that 2 Corinthians is really a collection of letters put together later as a single letter."⁴

"Second Corinthians presents many inspiring texts and passages to the reader and teacher of God's Word. A quick survey reveals approximately eighty individual verses lending themselves to extended meditation and exposition, apart from the sixty or so constituent paragraphs of the letter. This letter is a rich lode for the edification of God's people."⁵

Message⁶

The subject of 2 Corinthians is ministry, the church's work of service in the world. This is the central concept Paul dealt with in this epistle. What did he say about ministry?

He spoke of ministry in two ways. There is ministry per se (philosophy of ministry), and there is ministry to the world (practice of ministry).

Let's consider first what Paul revealed about the ministry of the church per se. This is the way Paul spoke of ministry most often in 2 Corinthians. In 1 Corinthians there is more emphasis on the practice of ministry than on the philosophy of ministry.

Paul had a lot to say about the authority of the church's ministry. Jesus Christ is the church's authority. He is the One who assigns each believer particular ministry within the body of Christ (cf. 1 Cor. 12:11, 18, 28; Eph. 4:11-13). The Corinthian church was having a major problem because some in its company were failing to accept Paul's appointment by Christ as an apostle and their own appointment as non-apostles. This was a practical repudiation of Jesus Christ's authority in the church. We must bow to the authority of Christ in the church by recognizing and responding appropriately to those He has appointed to various roles in the body. We identify these people by their gifts (divinely given abilities) and by their offices (divinely given positions).

Paul also had a lot to say in this epistle about the resources of the church's ministry. He emphasized three primarily.

One important resource is the encouragement of God. Paul spoke of this in the first part of the epistle especially. We read "comfort" in our texts, but the Greek word paraklesis means comfort through encouragement. The same Greek root describes the Holy Spirit as our Paraclete in John 14-16. Paul both taught and demonstrated in this letter that God's encouraging comfort always exceeds our discouragement and distress in ministry. The secret to finding it sufficient is taking God's view of how our ministry is really proceeding. This viewpoint Paul revealed, too.

A second resource is divine revelation. Paul did not preach himself or a message that he had concocted. He preached what God had revealed. Thus, revelation constituted both Paul's public message and his personal encouragement. We, too, have received the same message to communicate as ambassadors of Christ. It is a message of reconciliation, and it is the source of our encouragement.

A third resource is the prayers of the saints. Paul called for and counted on the prayers of God's people to bring God's power into play through him as he ministered (1:11). He realized that his own prayers would not move God to work as well as the concerted prayers of many of God's children (cf. James 4:2). Lack of prayer is often a sign of confidence in self rather than confidence in God.

In addition to the authority and resources of our ministry, Paul also had a lot to say in this epistle about experience in ministry. Three features mark experience in ministry.

First, one thing that marks ministry is tribulation. Paul spoke extensively in 2 Corinthians about the afflictions he experienced during his ministry. Furthermore he revealed that these are part of ministry, anyone's ministry who is carrying it out as God has directed. Some people do not welcome the gospel. To them it is a death scent. We should expect to experience tribulation in ministry. We have all experienced this in witnessing to some extent.

Second, another thing that should mark our ministry is hope. God has revealed the end of our ministry. We will all stand before Jesus Christ and receive a reward one day (5:10). This hope is a certainty. The Christian who loses sight of his or her hope is going to drift and suffer discouragement rather than press toward the mark. The end of our ministry is constantly in view in this epistle.

Third, a mark of Christian ministry is triumph. Paul revealed and illustrated by his own attitude that no matter how response to our ministry may appear to us our ministry is always triumphant. The reason for this is that God is at work through His ministers. One of the problems Paul's critics in Corinth had and that we have is that they were evaluating ministry superficially rather than realistically. We need to evaluate ministry on the basis of what God has revealed is happening, not what appears to be happening.

Paul not only revealed much about ministry per se in 2 Corinthians, he also revealed a lot about the ministry of the church to the world. Three emphases predominate.

First, Paul revealed what the message of the church is: the Word of God. Ours is a ministry of the Word. By "the Word" Paul meant the revelation God has given us. In his day it consisted of the Old Testament Scriptures plus the revelations that he and the other New Testament prophets had received that were for all Christians. Paul contrasted his message and ours with the message of Moses and exulted in its superiority. God has removed the veil and we can now see His glory clearly revealed in the face of Jesus Christ.

Second, Paul revealed the church's equipment to carry on its ministry to the world. We are ready to minister only when we separate from the world's sins and conform to God's will. Paul contrasts with his critics in this letter in all these respects. As these characteristics mark us we, too, will be ready to minister.

Third, Paul revealed the exercise of the church's ministry to the world. In exercising its ministry the church does three things according to this epistle.

1. It exercises discipline to restore the erring to effective ministry. Paul's great concern in this epistle was the restoration of the rebellious critics in the Corinthian church to unity and usefulness.

2. The church also is to give no occasion of stumbling to others. Paul's concern was that the behavior of the Corinthian Christians would be an encouragement to other believers and a base from which the gospel could proceed even farther into unevangelized regions beyond.

3. Third, the church exercises the grace of giving. It seeks to facilitate the principle of equality that God has demonstrated throughout history, namely that those who have should share with those who have not. This applies not only to the gospel message but to the physical necessities of life (chs. 8-9).

From these emphases the message of the book emerges. The church needs to submit to revealed authority, to draw upon supernatural resources and equipment, and to experience triumph through tribulation as it executes its mission. As it does so it will effectively carry out its ministry of proclaiming the message of reconciliation to the world.

Constable: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

Outline

I. Introduction 1:1-11

A. Salutation 1:1-2

B. Thanksgiving for comfort in affliction 1:3-11

1. Thanksgiving for comfort 1:3-7

2. Thanksgiving for deliverance 1:8-11

II. Answers to insinuations about the sincerity of Paul's commitment to the Corinthians and to the ministry 1:12-7:16

A. Defense of his conduct with regard to his promised visit and the offender 1:12-2:17

1. The postponement of the intended visit 1:12-2:4

2. The treatment of the offender and the result of the severe letter 2:5-17

B. Exposition of Paul's view of the ministry 3:1-6:10

1. The superiority of Christian ministry to Mosaic ministry 3:1-11

2. The great boldness of the new ministers 3:12-4:6

3. The sufferings and supports of a minister of the gospel 4:7-5:10

4. The life of a minister of Christ 5:11-6:10

C. Appeal for restoration of the Corinthians' confidence in him 6:11-7:16

1. An appeal for large-heartedness and consistency 6:11-7:4

2. The encouraging response of the Corinthians so far 7:5-16

III. Instructions concerning the collection for the poor saints in Judea 8:1-9:15

A. The example of the Macedonians 8:1-7

B. The supreme motive for giving 8:8-15

C. The delegates of the churches 8:16-24

D. The anticipated visit of Paul 9:1-5

E. The benefits of generous giving 9:6-15

IV. Appeals concerning Paul's apostolic authority 10:1-13:10

A. Replies to charges made against Paul 10:1-18

1. Reply to the charge of cowardice 10:1-6

2. Reply to the charge of weakness 10:7-11

3. Reply to the charge of intrusion 10:12-18

B. Claims made by Paul 11:1-12:18

1. Paul's reasons for making these claims 11:1-6

2. Freedom to minister without charge 11:7-15

3. Paul's service and sufferings 11:16-33

4. Special revelations Paul received 12:1-10

5. Paul's supernatural miracles and paternal love 12:11-18

C. Exhortations in view of Paul's approaching visit 12:19-13:10

1. Paul's concerns 12:19-21

2. Paul's warnings 13:1-10

V. Conclusion 13:11-14

A. The exhortation 13:11-12

B. The salutation 13:13

C. The benediction 13:14

Constable: 2 Corinthians

2 Corinthians

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_____. "Who Are the Unbelievers (apistoi) in 2 Corinthians 6:14?" Bibliotheca Sacra 149:593 (January-March 1992):27-44.

Wenham, John. "The Identification of Luke." Evangelical Quarterly 63:1 (1991):3-44.

Whiteley, D. E. H. The Theology of St. Paul. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1964.

Wiersbe, Warren W. Be Encouraged. BE Books. Wheaton: Scripture Press Publications, Victor Books, 1985.

Wilkin, Bob. "Test Yourselves to See If You Are in the Faith: Assurance Based on Our Works? 2 Corinthians 13:5." Grace Evangelical Society News 4:10 (October 1990):2.

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Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

THE SECOND

EPISTLE OF ST. PAUL, THE APOSTLE,

TO THE CORINTHIANS.

INTRODUCTION.

The subject and design of this second Epistle to the Corinthians, is much the same as of the former. He comforts and congratulates with those who were now reformed by his admonitions. He blames the faulty with apostolical liberty; and being forced to justify himself and his proceedings against the upstart false teachers, he gives an ample account of his sufferings, and also of the favours and graces, which God had bestowed upon him. This Epistle was written not long after the first, (an. 57. [in the year 57.]) some months before that to the Romans, from some place in Macedonia, perhaps from Philippi, as marked at the end of divers Greek copies, though it is observed, that those subscriptions are not much to be relied upon. (Witham) --- In this Epistle St. Paul comforts those who are now reformed by his admonitions to them in the former, and absolves the incestuous man on doing penance, whom he had before excommunicated for his crime. Hence he treats of true penance, and of the dignity of the ministers of the New Testament. He cautions the faithful against false teachers, and the society of infidels. He gives an account of his sufferings, and also of the favours and graces which God hath bestowed on him. (Challoner) --- St. Paul, not being able to come to the Corinthians as soon as he had promised, writes this Epistle to inform them, that it was not through inconstancy, but on account of several weighty reasons, which had hitherto hindered him. Several other reasons, likewise, compelled him to write. For during his absence, several false teachers of the Jews had come amongst them, teaching them that it was necessary to observe the law of Moses, in order to be saved. St. Paul, therefore, first excuses himself, by saying, that the afflictions and troubles he had met with, had hindered him from coming to them. He next orders the fornicator to be restored to favour; after which, he extols his apostleship, forming a comparison between the law of Christ, and of Moses, wherein he blames the false teachers. He then subjoins an exhortation to a pious and holy life, with liberality in their alms, after the example of the Macedonians. As the false teachers had been very industrious in establishing their own reputation, by detracting from that of St. Paul, he enumerates his own sufferings, and the favours he had received from God, shewing that he had much more reason to glory than they; and concludes by exhorting them to correct those faults with which they still remained infected. (Estius) --- This letter may be justly appreciated as a perfect masterpiece of that animated and solid eloquence, which all interpreters so much admire in St. Paul. (Bible de Vence)

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Gill: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 2 CORINTHIANS

This epistle, according to the subscription at the end of it, was written from Philippi of Macedonia; and though the subscriptions annexed to the epistles are not always to be depended on, yet it seems very likely that this was written from thence; for the apostle not finding Titus at Troas, as he expected, went into Macedonia, where he met with him, and had an account from him of the success of his first epistle; of the state and condition of the church, and of the temper and disposition of mind in which the members of it were, and which gave him great satisfaction; upon which he immediately wrote this second epistle, and sent it by the same person to them; see 2Co 2:12, 2Co 7:5. It is very probable it might be written the year after the former; and so it is placed by Dr. Lightfoot in the year 56, as the former is in the year 55; though some place this in the year 60, and the other in 59. The occasion of this epistle was partly to excuse his not coming to them according to promise, and to vindicate himself from the charge of unfaithfulness, levity, and inconstancy on that account; and partly, since what he had wrote about the incestuous person, had had a good effect both upon him and them, to direct them to take off the censure that had been laid upon him, and restore him to their communion, and comfort him; likewise to stir them up to finish the collection for the poor saints they had begun; as also to defend himself against the calumnies of the false teachers, who were very industrious to sink his character and credit in this church; which he does by observing the doctrines of the Gospel he preached, which were far more glorious than, and abundantly preferable to, the ministration of the law of Moses, which those men desired to be teachers of; as likewise the success of his ministry in every place; the many sufferings he had underwent for the sake of Christ, and his Gospel; the high favours and privileges he had received of the Lord, as well as the signs, wonders, and miracles done by him in proof of his apostleship; and in which are interspersed many things useful and instructive.

Gill: 2 Corinthians 11 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 2 CORINTHIANS 11

In this chapter, the apostle continues his discourse concerning the false teachers; blames the Corinthians for their connivance at them, and subjection to them; gives a true and ample description of them; compares himself with them, and by various instances shows, that he was greatly superior to them: and whereas self commendation was necessary, and could not be avoided in this argument, and this might look like folly, and by some be deemed such, he entreats the Corinthians that they would bear with him in it, as well as in his reproofs and admonitions to them, 2Co 11:1 and assigns his godly jealousy over them, as the reason why he entered into this subject, and proceeded in such a way of reasoning on it; and the rather this might be bore with in him, since he had such a concern in espousing them to Christ; his end in which was, to present them a chaste virgin to him, 2Co 11:2 and what this jealousy was he explains, lest their minds should be corrupted by the false teachers, and they should forsake the pure and simple Gospel of Christ; which he exemplifies in the instance of Eve being deceived by the serpent, 2Co 11:3 and proceeds to blame them for preferring these false teachers to the faithful ministers of the word; seeing, put them in the best light they could, it was but the same Jesus they preached, and not another and a better Saviour; and it was but the same spirit of faith they received through their ministry, and not another and a better; and the same Gospel they brought, and did not come with better news, or more joyful tidings; had this been the case, there would have been some reason for extolling one above another, 2Co 11:4 for which there was not the least foundation, especially with respect to the Apostle Paul, who was not inferior to the chief of the true apostles of Christ, and therefore could not be at all behind these men, 2Co 11:5 and seeing it might be objected to him that he was rude in speech, when these were men of great eloquence, he allows it; but then affirms he was not so in knowledge, in which he exceeded them; for the truth of which, lie appeals to the Corinthians themselves, 2Co 11:6 and he suggests, that it was very ungrateful in them, that inasmuch as he humbled himself when among them, by working with his own hands, that they might be exalted, that they should despise him on that account, and prefer these avaricious men before him, 2Co 11:7 when that he might be able to preach the Gospel freely, he took of other churches, 2Co 11:8 and particularly was supplied by the Macedonian brethren, and so was not at all chargeable and burdensome to them, and he was determined ever to remain so, 2Co 11:9 and which he confirms by an oath, that no man should ever be able to prevail upon him to take anything of the churches in the region of Achaia, in which Corinth was, 2Co 11:10 and whereas it might be insinuated that such a resolution showed that he had no true affection for them, this he denies, and appeals to the omniscient God for the truth of his love to them, 2Co 11:11 but the true reason why he had so determined, was to prevent the false teachers having any opportunity to reproach him, and exalt themselves, 2Co 11:12 and this leads him on to a description of them, by their ambition and arrogance, in assuming a title that did not belong to them; by their crafty, cunning, and deceitful manner of working, and by their hypocrisy in mimicking the apostles of Christ, 2Co 11:13 nor need this seem strange to any, when Satan himself has been transformed into an angel of light, 2Co 11:14 and whom, the apostle suggests, these men imitated; whose ministers they were, though they looked like ministers of righteousness, and on whom the apostle denounces severe punishment, 2Co 11:15 and as he saw himself under a necessity of boasting, in order to stop the mouths of these men, to vindicate himself, and prevent mischief being done by them, he renews his entreaty in 2Co 11:1 that the Corinthians would not reckon him as a fool; or if they did, that they would bear with his folly, and suffer him to boast of himself a little, 2Co 11:16 and that the Christian religion, and the Gospel of Christ, might not come under any reproach and blame, for his conduct in this particular, he observes, that what he was about to say on this head of boasting, was not by any order or direction from the Lord, but of himself, and might have the appearance of folly in it, 2Co 11:17 and the rather he might be indulged in it, seeing many, even the false teachers, had gloried in a carnal way, and of outward things, and which made it necessary that he should glory also, 2Co 11:18 and which foolish boasting in them, even many of the Corinthians had bore with, and that with a great deal of pleasure; and therefore might suffer him, a single man, to boast a little of himself unto them, whom he ironically calls wise, 2Co 11:19 of which he gives instances, by being brought into bondage, devoured, pillaged, insulted, and abused, by the false teachers, 2Co 11:20 nor had they abused and reproached them only, but the apostle also, as weak and contemptible; but then he would not bear it, but would boldly engage and enter the lists with them, though this might be by some reckoned foolish boasting, 2Co 11:21 and then follows the comparison between him and them, by which it appears that he was upon an equal foot with them, on account of nation, descent, and parentage, 2Co 11:22 that he was superior to them as a minister of the Gospel, as was manifest by his more abundant labours in it, and by his sufferings for it, the dangers he was exposed unto on account of it, and the many hardships he endured in the ministration of it, of which he gives a variety of particulars, 2Co 11:23 to which he adds, besides these things, and all other outward ones, that the daily care of all the churches of Christ was upon him, 2Co 11:28 and such was his sympathy with all sorts of Christians, even the weak and offended brethren, that he was affected with them, bore their infirmities, and sought to reconcile and make them easy, which greatly increased the weight of business that was upon him, 2Co 11:29 and seeing there was a necessity of glorying, he chose to glory in his infirmities and sufferings, and on which he had mostly enlarged, 2Co 11:30 and for the glory of divine Providence, and to express his thankfulness for the mercy, he relates a particular instance of deliverance from imminent danger; for the truth of which he appeals to the God and Father of Christ, the eternally blessed One, 2Co 11:31 the danger he escaped, the manner and means of the escape, and the place where, are particularly mentioned, 2Co 11:32.

College: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION

Studying 2 Corinthians plunges the modern reader back to the real, tumultuous world of early Christianity. The simple ideals of sharing and goodwill described in Acts 2:42-47 seem to have little place among the diverse converts from this boomtown of Corinth where Paul chooses to anchor his Greek mission. Rather, this microcosm of the early church bickers and accuses, revels in disorder and confusion, reeks of unrenounced pagan practices, and uncritically pursues self-promotion and even disloyalty to Paul, its founder.

When we speak of restoring the NT church, the Corinthian church is not what we have in mind. But maybe this is where we should really start: a real community of believers struggling to understand and implement their Christian faith against the helter-skelter backdrop of values and principles they desired to leave behind. As we understand what Paul teaches this troubled church, we will learn badly needed principles to help bring to maturity our own, real churches which inherit the same struggle.

Second Corinthians stands in stark contrast to Paul's other NT writings in a number of ways. Other letters, like 1 Corinthians, Romans, Galatians, and Colossians are carefully ordered, easily outlined, logical, controlled, as Paul confidently responds to carefully gauged concerns. Methodically, he establishes crucial, theological principles as the basis for practical, behavioral appeals.

By contrast, 2 Corinthians is chaotic and disjointed. Digressions lead the reader far afield before returning to the point. So uneven is 2 Corinthians, that many scholars suggest it is a composite of four or five writings, even a number of conservative scholars admitting two. Intensity, emotion, defensiveness, and second-guessing rather than controlled reasoning bind this epistle together. We see Paul at his weakest, basest, most human. Yet seeing him work through the truth of the gospel in the midst of exasperating difficulties is enlightening.

To a certain extent, it is healthy for our lofty ideals of this giant to be punctured and brought down to reality, even as the Corinthian church does so for our view of the early church. Paul's relationship with the Corinthians at this historical juncture is ugly, and readers deserve to be warned about how disconcerting seeing this can be.

These features of 2 Corinthians make studying and understanding the text much more dependent than usual on grasping the historical circumstances behind and leading up to its writing. Without a clear grasp of the historic story, hopeless confusion will engulf efforts to interpret the text at a number of points.

So, study of 2 Corinthians must begin by seeking to understand the Corinth of Paul's day and Paul's relationship to the local church there before preceding to a reliable interpretation of the text.

THE CITY OF CORINTH

Fortunately, Corinth is a NT city we know a great deal about. It has been heavily excavated and was minutely described by classical writers like Strabo and Dio Chrysostom.

The city that Paul entered in A.D. 50 had been resurrected from the ashes of the old city burned to the ground by the Romans in 146 B.C. Having laid in ruins for 100 years, two years before his death in 44 B.C., Julius Caesar decreed that Corinth (and also Carthage) should be rebuilt. Although located just 60 miles from Athens on the narrow isthmus strategically joining the Greek mainland to the Peloponnesus, the new Corinth was built and organized as a Roman city. Its colonists were gleaned from freedmen, former slaves originating from Syria, Egypt, Judea, Greece, and from retiring Roman soldiers.

The city's layout and its buildings were Roman, as was its governmental organization and law. Its official language was Latin, although Greek was the common language for business and conversation. The people prized Roman articles, importing them in great quantities. In addition to the four magistrates elected each year and its city council, it was administrated by a proconsul appointed annually by the Roman senate.

Corinth's dominance over the five-mile wide isthmus insured economic vitality. Ships traveling between Italy and Asia Minor were happy to pay the fee to cross the isthmus rather than sail the extra 200 miles south around treacherous Cape Malae. Besides, Corinth had even constructed a grooved pavement, called the Diolkos, between the ports on either side of the isthmus on which smaller ships could be hauled in wheeled vehicles. For a larger ship, the goods were loaded on transport carts and reloaded onto another ship waiting at the other harbor.

Julius Caesar dreamed of increasing Corinth's stock by constructing a canal across the isthmus. Not until Nero, A.D. 67., was such a project begun. Actual completion, however was not achieved until modern times, in 1893.

With the two ports, Laechaeum, on the Corinthian Gulf, and Cenchraea, on the Saronic Gulf, Corinth thrived as a center for trade. The major land route between the Greek mainland and the Peloponnesus also went through it. Besides shipbuilding and repair, it hosted bronze, tile, and pottery factories, as well as the necessary warehousing for transportable goods. Corinth's market areas boasted hundreds of stalls filled with craftsmen plying their trade, locals selling merchandise and food, as well as visitors from throughout the empire hawking imported items. They even had places which sold drinks cooled by underground water systems. Paul himself, we know, took up a leather-working stall in this area for eighteen months (Acts 18:1-3).

New Corinth was an eclectic, international city from its inception. In Paul's day, it was a bustling, wide open, boomtown, with over 80,000 inhabitants, and growing every day. It had already outstripped Athens politically, replacing it as the capital of Achaia.

Corinth's prestige was further enhanced by its hosting of the Isthmian Games, second only in significance to the Olympics. Held every two years in Corinth since A.D. 3, these games drew thousands of tourists and lots of business. The city's most prestigious political official was the one responsible for administering the games, occupying a prominent year-round governmental office. The games were dedicated to the Greek sea god, Poseidon, and featured oratory, music, and drama, as well as athletic contests. A dramatic theater as well as a 20,000 seat stadium were used for these events.

Corinth's eclecticism revealed itself in an array of religious choices established by its multicultural inhabitants. Egyptians promoted the cults of Isis and Osiris. Isis was worshiped as a god for sailors because the myth tells of her enduring search on the seas for her betrayed and lost husband Osiris. Osiris is a god of afterlife, who after his death was resurrected to become head of the underworld.

Greeks and Romans honored Poseidon, god of the sea; Athena, goddess of war, the sea, cities and the arts; Aphrodite, goddess of love and fertility; Apollo, god of prophecy; Asklepios, god of healing; and emperors beginning with Julius Caesar. Prominent temples and statues are dedicated to all of these. Apollos often features prominently in colonized cities as an ode of good fortune. His famous Delphic oracle is only some 30 miles from Corinth. The much publicized report that Old Corinth's temple to Aphrodite housed over 1,000 sacred prostitutes is regarded as Athenian slander and is not so certain to still be functioning this way in Paul's day, although this does not mean to imply that Corinth was any more sexually pristine than any other seaport.

One of the busiest religious centers in Paul's day was the Asklepium. Comparable to a modern-day health club, people came here to bathe in its fountain, sleep (healing in their dreams), excercise, read, and dine (on sacrificial meat, cf. 1 Cor 8:10; 10:21). Replicas of body parts found in excavations were offered to the Asklepios by thankful beneficiaries of his healing.

Though not a god, Sisyphus, was considered one of the founding kings of ancient Corinth. Noted for his craftiness, in Greek mythology he was banished to Hades with the everlasting task of pushing a rock up a hill only to have it slip back down. For the Corinthian in Paul's day, he stands for successful cunning in business, but behind the temporary luster, perhaps, he signifies the emptiness of life's ambitions that lurked in the background of people's thoughts.

Judaism came with the early Jewish colonists and seems to have thrived. A dynamic synagogue certainly was functioning when Paul arrived, according to Acts 18:4-17. Also, a building inscription reading "Synagogue of the Hebrews" has been found by archaeologists along the Lechaeum road. Although the inscription is somewhat later than Paul's day, its location in the city center suggests the prominence of Judaism from the early days of New Corinth. Significant increases to the Jewish population likely occurred in A.D. 19 and in the late 40s when Tiberius and then Claudius expelled Jews from Rome. According to Acts 18:2, the latter purge is what brought Aquila and Priscilla and their tentmaking business to Corinth for the eighteen months Paul evangelized there. As Acts 18:8,17 indicate, the Jewish community probably had a certain amount of freedom to manage its own affairs and to appoint its own officials.

Due to Roman influence, Corinthians banded together into self-governing clubs and societies of 10 to 15 people which met in homes around the city. These clubs were delineated by individual trades or professions. Something like small unions, they provided vital social interaction and shared meals but even underwrote members' burial expenses from their kitty of dues. Although each had its sponsoring god, they were not religious in nature.

Most likely, the Corinthian church of Paul's day took on the pattern of these clubs as they met in various homes throughout the city. This helps explain the household factions decried in 1 Cor 1:10-12 and even the food-related problems of 1 Corinthians 8 and 11:17-34.

Corinth in the time of Paul was a city of wealth and prosperity. The families who had come a generation or two previously had worked hard. They had carved out successful lives by their own sweat and ingenuity. Like American immigrants, they were proud of their accomplishments, which they demonstrated in their proliferation of self-commending inscriptions around the city. But like the grandchildren of immigrants today, the Corinthians of Paul's day were noted for their superficial materialism and moral perversity. Such traits are epitomized by the fact that before the century was over, Corinth would become the first Greek city in the Roman Empire to hold bloodthirsty gladiatorial shows.

PAUL AND THE CORINTHIANS

Paul's rocky, seven-year relationship with the Corinthians begins in the fall of A.D. 50 as he enters Corinth on what becomes the last stop of his second missionary journey. Already on the road for a year, he had established churches in Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, and Athens, despite opposition from Gentiles, Jews, and intellectuals (Acts 16-17). As Acts 18 describes, he enters the din of Corinth alone but is quickly befriended by Aquila and Priscilla, who were probably already Christians when they came to Corinth from Rome. For eighteen months the three of them lived, worked, and spread the gospel together there, eventually joined by Silas and Timothy.

At first, Paul shared the gospel and fielded questions in the Jewish synagogue. It wasn't too long, however, before stiff opposition to his presence arose, and he was ejected. However, he took with him many new Christians from among the God-fearing Gentiles who attended the synagogue, as well as Jews including the head of the synagogue, Crispus. Boldly, they set up shop for the first church right next door in the home of Titius Justus. Presumably, they continued to meet there and in other homes around the city for the next eighteen months, since God had instructed Paul to remain in Corinth despite the risks of conflict.

Sparks did fly, and at one point the Jews pressed charges against Paul for breaking Jewish law before Gallio, the Roman proconsul. Quite rightly, Gallio rebuffed the Jewish accusations as being outside any Roman concern. Although this may seem like a relatively minor incident in the life of Paul, the mention of Gallio in Acts 18:14 emerges as the single most important event enabling us to date Paul's life with accuracy. The reason for this is that archaeologists have discovered a datable inscription about a boundary dispute from Emperor Claudius to Gallio which places Gallio's one-year term between A.D. 51 and 52. Anchored by Paul's encounter with Gallio being A.D. 51, the rest of Paul's life can be dated backward and forward from time periods provided in the Acts and his letters.

Upon leaving Corinth, Paul sailed to Syria, probably Antioch, before quickly setting out over land to revisit the previously established churches in Asia Minor and then settling in Ephesus for three years. While in Ephesus, he sent the Corinthians three letters and slipped across the Aegean Sea in a vessel for a brief, surprise visit.

The first letter, commonly known as the "previous letter," is mentioned in 1 Cor 5:9-11. Given the wild immorality of Corinth, it is not surprising that Paul emphasized separation from such people in this letter. However, it has never been found, although a few scholars believe 2 Cor 6:14-7:1 may have originally been part of it.

Next, Paul received a letter from the Corinthians asking various specific questions about Christian life and practice. He is also informed verbally from members of Chloe's household (1 Cor 1:11) about the factionalism that is hurting the church's witness. He responded with the letter we know of as 1 Corinthians. During this period, Timothy was dispatched to Corinth for a brief time (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10) as Paul's personal ambassador, perhaps to give further voice to Paul's teaching in 1 Corinthians or to other issues Paul anticipated. We have no indication as to how long Timothy stayed.

Paul's brief trip to Corinth in A.D. 54 and the letter on its heels upon his return are chief events which underlie Paul's writing of 2 Corinthians in A.D. 56. We don't know why Paul went. Maybe Timothy reported that Paul's personal presence was needed. Possibly, conservative agitators had followed Paul to Corinth as they previously had to Galatia and were stirring up trouble, causing the Corinthians to second-guess Paul's credibility (2 Cor 11:13). What we do know is that this trip, usually described as "the painful visit" (2 Cor 2:1), was a complete disaster. Paul left angry and humiliated. Apparently, he confronted the ringleader of the trouble (perhaps someone in the church who had been influenced by the outsiders) face to face but when the man insulted him, no one in the church came to Paul's defense.

Speculation regarding the accusations hurled at Paul include the illegitimacy of his authority over the Corinthians and his misuse of funds collected for the Jerusalem offering (1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 7:2; 8:11). This was not a theological issue so much as one of personal integrity. Paul speaks of his being hurt emotionally most by the fact that the church did not side with him (2 Cor 2:5-11).

Upon his return, Paul wrote a third letter to the Corinthians, "the severe letter" (2 Cor 2:4; 7:8). Although not existing today, as described in 2 Cor 2:4-11 and 7:5-13, it was undoubtedly the most emotional and strident of any of Paul's letters. Apparently, he unleashed his anger and disappointment, scolding the church for not supporting him and demanding that the majority of the church take charge and discipline the offender as well as apologize to him. The letter is so harsh that Paul seems genuinely afraid ("fears within" - 2 Cor 7:5) that it will drive the church farther away from him and from Christ. But he sees no choice; this situation can't be left like it is.

Titus received the formidable task of delivering this explosive letter into the charged atmosphere of the Corinthian church and carrying out its demands. Paul's anxieties over Titus's success seem to overwhelm him as he waits for news. Apparently, the arrangements with Titus were that they would meet in Troas after a set period of time, maybe as long as six months. Second Corinthians 2:12 tells us that Paul went by land up to Troas, probably in A.D. 55 but was crushed to find Titus was not there. Remaining for some time evangelizing, maybe a month or so, he crossed over to Macedonia, probably Philippi, desperate to find Titus there. Finally, Titus arrived with the great news that the Corinthians - or most of them - were back in the fold. Genuinely remorseful over their hurtful behavior toward Paul, they had, indeed, dealt with the offender and expressed their renewed devotion to him (2 Cor 7:7,11,12).

The letter we call 2 Corinthians historically comes as Paul's fourth letter to Corinth. Buoyed by Titus's positive report, Paul writes this highly emotional letter, sending it back with Titus (2 Cor 7:17), probably A.D. 56. The letter interacts over and over with the events of the Painful Visit and the Severe Letter. Paul gushes with joy over the Corinthians' response (2 Cor 7:7,13-16), even recommending that they lift the punishment on the person who offended him (2 Cor 2:7). However, the tone of the letter is extremely defensive as Paul squirms under pressure from the Corinthians (most likely as advised by Titus) to toot his own horn regarding his own apostolic credentials. Out of his love for them, but against his own convictions against boasting, he is willing to explain the superiority of his apostleship in terms the Corinthians seem to require. These terms - such as providing letters of recommendation (2 Cor 3:1) and lists of accomplishments (2 Cor 6:3-13; 11:16-12:10) - Paul regards as superficial and unnecessary (2 Cor 3:2-3; 10:7) and probably reflect the influence of the conservative agitators upon the Corinthians. Paul seems to know he must respond, however uncomfortable it is for him, in order to block any further inroads from these outsiders and thus reinforce his renewed relationship with the Corinthians.

Titus brought 2 Corinthians to Corinth armed with Paul's commendation within the letter to spur the church to complete its collection of the offering for the Jerusalem Christians (1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 8:10-24). Paul followed a few months later (2 Cor 12:14; Acts 20:3) and remained in Corinth three months. During this period, he wrote Romans, but we know nothing of his interaction with the Corinthian church. Presumably, he finalized the Corinthian offering, but he must have worked diligently to solidify this troubled church and contend personally with the outside agitators and their remaining pockets of influence. At any rate, once the various representatives from the Greek and Asian churches arrived in Corinth with their offerings (Acts 20:1-6), he tried to set sail with them to Syria but, discovering treachery from the Jewish community in Corinth, he and the others traveled first to Troas, and, then, set sail from there.

We have no certainty of further communication or visitation between Paul and the Corinthian church after this. Possibly, following release from his first Roman imprisonment, he returned to Corinth and other churches in Greece and Asia Minor, as the Pastoral epistles suggest (1 Tim. 1:3; 2 Tim. 4:20).

THE UNITY OF 2 CORINTHIANS

One may rightly comment that the literary unity of 2 Corinthians "cannot just be presupposed." Analyses which question whether various sections of 2 Corinthians are original to it have come long and hard during the past two centuries of critical scholarship. Second Corinthian's sharp shifts in content and uneven tone make it the most susceptible of all the NT books to patchwork theories despite the fact that none of the Greek manuscripts (dating back to the third century) give the slightest hint that 2 Corinthians was ever anything different than what we read today. Although the ebb and flow of research has sidelined many conjectures, questions still remain regarding some parts of 2 Corinthians. As many as nine sections of 2 Corinthians have been scrutinized. However, just five will be discussed here.

First, 2 Cor 2:14-7:4 has been noted as at one time existing separately from 2 Corinthians. Even a casual reader is jolted at the jump between the travelogue commentary in 2:12-13 and the military parade description of the gospel in 2:13-17 which opens a five-chapter philosophy of apostolic ministry. It is all the more noticeable when, beginning at 7:5, the travelogue picks up again and continues on until 7:16. However, upon closer perusal, scholars are increasingly reluctant to name this as part of a separate letter. Despite the abruptness between 2:13 and 2:14, the theme of human weakness and divine power in 2:12-17 connects to 1:8-10, and the theme of divine ownership connects 1:22 and 2:14. Despite the change of subject between 7:4 and 7:5, the verbal links supplied by "encouragement" (7:4,13), "joy" (7:4,7) and "troubles" (7:4,5) supply sturdy connections. Besides, the efforts to postulate yet another letter between 1 and 2 Corinthians or to connect this to the Severe Letter are unwarranted. More recent efforts to anaylze 2 Corinthians 1-7 through the eyes of Roman rhetoric as well as chiastic structure loudly confirm separation of 2:14-7:4 as ill-conceived. Certainly, it is a digression but not without purpose and point to the context as a whole.

Second, perhaps less obvious to the casual reader because it is such a short section is 2 Cor 6:14-7:1. Here, again, though, the careful reader observes an interruption between 6:13 ("Open wide your hearts also") and 7:2 ("Make room for us in your hearts"). Scholarly analysis of these six verses suggests that not only are they out of place, they don't sound like Paul, using six words he never uses elsewhere in his writings nor used by anyone else in the NT ( hapax legomenae ). Is this a snippet of something someone else said or wrote that Paul has adapted into his material, or is it something Paul wrote or spoke at another time and place that he decides to use here?

Despite some of the unusual language, Pauline themes do appear here: the church as the temple of God, the polarization of righteousness and unrighteousness as well as between light and dark. Also, plenty of characteristic Pauline language occurs: "living God" (2 Cor 3:3; 1 Thess 1:9), "unbeliever" (twelve other occurrences in 1 and 2 Cor), and "holiness" (Rom 1:4; 1 Thess 3:13). Although conclusions vary, many today incline toward this section being from Paul.

Eyeing the language of separation from unrighteousness, some have been tempted to conclude that 6:14-7:1 is part of the "previous" letter mentioned in 1 Cor 5:9. However, the point is explicitly different. Paul emphasizes that in the previous letter he urged separation from the immorality of believers not dissociation from unbelievers as emphasized in 6:14-7:1.

Most likely, then, Paul himself has inserted this pre-formed, self-contained unit of material from previous teaching, either oral or written, perhaps influenced by others. Interesting comparisons to Qumran materials as well as writings of Philo have been made. The placement exactly here in 2 Corinthians is so awkward as to be unlikely to come from anyone other than Paul. However, two points should be kept in mind. One is that Paul dictated this letter as he did all his letters. This fact enhances the potential for distraction, interruption, and loose digressions such as this. A second point is that although the section's relationship to the immediately previous verses is not obvious, as one backs up to 6:1 and reads of Paul's concern about receiving "God's grace in vain" or to 5:19 to see Paul's emphasis on people "no longer living for themselves but for him who died for them," Paul's emphasis on separation and holiness in 6:14-7:1 fits well.

Probably inconceivable to the casual reader is the suggestion that 2 Corinthians 8 and 2 Corinthians 9 both were not originally part of 2 Corinthians. Arguments regarding 2 Corinthians 8 - repetition of information about Titus (7:13-15; 8:16-17), presumption of knowledge about the two brothers coming with him (8:18,22), or even evidence that 2 Corinthians 8 as well as 2 Corinthians 9 are formal business letters - do not convince many. Arguments regarding 2 Corinthians 9, first proposed by Semler 200 years ago, that 2 Corinthians 9 was originally a letter sent to Christians outside Corinth, are more formidable, and give scholars more pause.

What pulls them up short is the language Paul uses to refer to the collection ("service") in 9:1, which, in Greek, reads like a first mention of the collection. In addition to that, the regional reference to Achaia in 9:2 and the repetition of information from chapter 8 in chapter 9 regarding the collection give added support to the idea of chapter 9 being originally independent.

On the other side of the question is the fact that Paul's reference to the collection in 9:1 is modified by ( men gar , "and for") which suggests a resumption of a previous subject perhaps after a brief pause in dictation. The repetition of details regarding the collection is probably emphatic, and the regional reference to Achaia seems unlikely to exclude Corinth. Tipping the scale against an independent chapter 9, as noted by Furnish, are two references in chapter 9 which presume information from chapter 8: the mention of the brothers (9:3; 8:18) and the emphasis on their completing the collection (9:4-5; 8:7-15).

Admittedly, this is a close call. However, the evidence does not demand that chapters 8 and 9 are two separate letters about the collection, one to Corinth, and one to Achaia. Rather, these are interdependent chapters in 2 Corinthians, chapter 8 dealing with the details of the collection project and chapter 9 emphasizing motivation for the project, as noted by Danker.

Fourth, without a doubt the most serious challenge to the unity of 2 Corinthians comes from chapters 10-13. As long ago as 1870, Hausrath broadcast his belief that in these chapters, he had discovered the missing "severe" letter to the Corinthians. No doubt, in chapters 10-13 Paul erupts into harsh tones of anger and disappointment which seem to undercut completely the exuberance and joy which he builds up to by chapters 7, 8, and 9.

But Hausrath looked closer and pointed to evidence that chapters 10-13 were written previous to chapters 1-9. Particularly he saw passages in chapters 1-9 written in the past tense which appear to allude to passages from chapters 10-13 written in future tenses, such as 1:23 which says that Paul "did not return" to them in order to spare them, corresponding to 13:2 in which Paul asserts that he "will not return" in order to spare them or when Paul says in 2:3-4 that he "wrote" them out of great distress and in 13:10 when he says "I write" so that I may not have to be harsh. Hausrath also contends that Paul's reference to Rome (west of Corinth) as "regions beyond you" in 2 Cor 10:16 makes much better sense if he is in Ephesus (east of Corinth), where he wrote the Severe Letter, rather than Macedonia (north of Corinth), where he wrote 2 Corinthians.

Criticism against Hausrath's identification of 2 Cor 10-13 with the "severe" letter has withered its persuasiveness among scholars. Primarily, chapters 10-13 do not contain something we know specifically was in the Severe Letter: Paul's demand that an individual who offended him be punished (2:5-6; 7:12). Also, chapters 10-13 promise a visit (12:14; 13:1), but the Severe Letter was sent in place of a Painful Visit (1:23; 2:1). Regarding "regions beyond you," the language need not be taken so literally and the Macedonian region should be recognized as much more culturally distinct from Achaia than it looks like on a map.

More appealing to scholars of all stripes, including many conservatives, is to view 2 Cor 10-13 as a separate, fifth letter, written after Titus returns with new, bad news after delivering 2 Corinthians 1-9. This position still takes into account Hausrath's future tense passages. It helps make sense of 2 Cor 12:18 which refers to Titus's visit in the past tense when it was in the planning stage in 2 Corinthians 7-9. Also, it explains the increased strident tones of chapters 10-13 as Paul's response to new, outside influences claiming some kind of rival apostolic authority to Paul's (11:13; 12:11) rather than to internal problems which seem to be his concern in chapters 1-9.

This way of viewing chapters 10-13 is attractive but is not demanded by the evidence. As Witherington points out, the past (aorist) tenses describing Titus's visit in 12:17-18 need not be real. Especially as Paul reaches the end of the book, they could well be epistolary (spoken from the standpoint of the audience reading the letter). The mention of the unnamed brother traveling with Titus does correspond with 2 Cor 8:18,22. Reading 12:17-18 this way opens up the very real possibility that Paul could have received new information about problems in Corinth before sending 2 Corinthians but after writing chapters 1-9. This could explain the gulf between chapters 10-13 as well as an entirely separate letter.

Other ways which account for the change of tone in chapter 10-13 have to do with how one reads the letter. Perhaps chapters 1-9 are directed to the majority of the church which has fallen into line with Paul after the Painful Visit, the Severe Letter, and Titus's hard work while chapters 10-13 are to the minority who are still under the sway of outside opposition to Paul. After all, 2 Cor 2:6 does speak of "the majority" which imposed discipline upon the offender named in the Severe Letter.

Perhaps, as a growing group of scholars are showing, Paul's heightened criticism of the Corinthians in chapters 10-13 concludes a calculated rhetorical plan employing counterattack ( synkrisis ) or strong emotional appeal ( peroratio ) to win his defense against the charges being leveled at him by the Corinthians. One must admit that Paul never relaxes from a defensive posture in 2 Corinthians from the beginning to the end. While Paul's harsh tones in chapters 10-13 following the lead up in chapters 7, 8, and 9 may seem abrupt, his concerns from early in the letter haven't really changed, just his emotionalism. The issue of his character raised in chapter 1 and of the legitimacy of his apostleship raised in chapter 3 remain the object of his defense in chapters 10-13.

The correspondence of these issues is enough to suggest that even though outside influence of "false apostles" (11:13) is not named earlier, they influence the minority of the Corinthian church and provide the ammunition against Paul observed in the earlier chapters. Who else would have brandished "letters of recommendation" (3:1)? Their earliest influences could even be in the background of Paul's problems associated with the Painful Visit.

As evident from 2 Cor 7:8-13, the offending individual merely became the pretext for the whole church failing to rally behind Paul until after the Severe Letter. Although Paul can be ecstatic that most of the church has recommitted themselves to him and to the gospel by the time he writes 2 Corinthians, nevertheless, pockets of opposition likely remain under the growing influence of the outside agitators. With chapters 10-13 Paul intends to level a decisive blow against this opposition not only to bring the remainder of the church back to the true gospel but also to shore up any lingering doubts from those who have pledged their loyalty.

Paul's transition to chapter 10 indeed is rocky but, as Danker points out, no more so than Phil 3 or Rom 9. In this commentary, therefore, we will treat 2 Corinthians as a unity and will treat chapters 10-13 as primarily aimed at responding to a vocal minority of the church who remain mesmerized by the outsiders' criticisms of Paul.

PAUL'S OPPONENTS

Second Corinthians resounds with the echo of outside voices filling the Corinthians' heads with notions geared to sever their relationship with Paul. Since Paul originally brought the gospel to Corinth and made it possible for people there to be reconciled with God through Christ and begin a vibrant church meeting in homes throughout the city, others have come to Corinth presenting themselves as superior in authority to the apostle Paul himself. Presuming the opponents in 2 Cor 10-13 and 1-9 are the same, they supposedly have letters of authentication from Jerusalem (3:1-3), Paul blasts them as "false apostles" (11:13) and sarcastically as "super apostles" in 12:11. Nevertheless, they have influenced and confused the Corinthians enough to force Paul to write 2 Corinthians and fill it with self-commendation regarding his integrity and his "superior" apostolic credentials over theirs. He does this because he feels he must in order to win the Corinthians back, but he finds doing so personally disturbing and repugnant.

Whereas Paul finds it difficult to boast about himself, self-commendation seems to be the chief characteristic of these outsiders. Clues from 2 Corinthians indicate that they were proud of their Jewish heritage (11:22), their "Christian" service (11:23), their oratorical skill (11:6), their self-confidence (1:15-17), and their charismatic experiences (12:12). They preached a different gospel than Paul's (11:4). They also accepted money from the Corinthians, unlike Paul who refused it (12:16). They may have viewed Paul's effort to collect money from the Corinthians for the Jerusalem Christians as cutting off their own purse strings and threatening their prosperity in Corinth.

Their heated, personalized efforts to undercut Paul sound like Paul's opposition in Galatians, commonly called Judaizers (Gal 4:17). However, no mention of the law or circumcision in 2 Corinthians clouds this identification and requires that, if these are the same people, they have changed their tune considerably since Galatians. The fact that they tout letters of recommendation - where else but from Jerusalem - makes it difficult to lay aside the picture of a band of renegade, conservative Jewish Christians who first followed Paul to Galatia and now to Corinth with the expressed purpose of replacing Paul's gospel and his authority to represent true Christianity (Gal 1:6-7).

It is going too far to say that their credentials were currently legitimate or that they were actual apostles since Acts 15:24 reports that a faction of Jewish Christians had gone out falsely representing the church to new, Gentile congregations. It is possible, though, that they do have apostolic credentials - perhaps even knew Jesus before his crucifixion - but now are misusing these credentials to subvert Paul's successful mission to Gentiles in Galatia and now also in Corinth and other churches as well.

The picture of these Corinthian opponents as ultraconservative Jewish Christians clashes with a considerable amount of the evidence which points to their Greek or even gnostic origins. Their connection to revelations and wonders, rhetorical skills, "worldly" wisdom, and just their overall egotistical posture must be reckoned with. Undermining at least the gnostic element is the positive use of "knowledge" in 2 Corinthians. Nevertheless, a typical result when these ingredients are combined emerges with a conclusion that they were "Hellenistic Jews who were propagating . . . a 'spiritual gnosticism.'"

However, it seems inconceivable that ultraconservative Jewish Christians coming out of Jerusalem could be pushing a gospel so infiltrated with Greek ideas as to be outside the bounds of Paul's own radicalized message which had stripped unnecessary Jewish elements. Could these Jewish agitators be so clever as to be able to manipulate the Corinthians against Paul by successfully incorporating elements from Greek culture into their opposition to Paul which they themselves don't believe? It doesn't seem likely, but then no identification satisfactorily combines the paradoxical elements of these opponents as currently gleaned from the information we have from 2 Corinthians and the first century. As one commentator astutely points out, any final resolution is also hampered considerably by the fact that 2 Corinthians provides no information about the doctrine or theology of these opponents. Most current discussion recognizes the limitations involved in this discussion and offers no more than conjectures as has been done here.

It's best, then, to keep in mind the characteristics of Paul's opponents available from reading 2 Corinthians without any adamant historical identification until better information becomes available. They were Jewish. They were Greek. They considered themselves Christians. They hated Paul. They hurt Paul, and he feared what more they could do. It was up to him to marshal all the strength and the skills he had to prevent them from doing any further damage. They had backed him into a corner, and he responds with ferocity and emotion in 2 Corinthians, compelled out of his deep love for the Corinthians and his commitment to true, saving Christianity and humble, self-sacrificing leadership.

RELEVANCE

Christians treat 2 Corinthians like the ugly twin sister of 1 Corinthians. First Corinthian's poignant theology about challenging issues attracts everyone's constant attention. Meanwhile, 2 Corinthians sits in the corner waiting for someone to ask it to dance. Yet, once we make some effort to get to know 2 Corinthians, we will be pleasantly surprised.

Today, as in the days of the early church, various outside forces threaten to sever people's loyalty to Christ and cut away at the fabric of the church. It might be a cult like Mormons or Jehovah's Witnesses. It might be cultural forces like the challenges of postmodernism or the mind-set of the so-called Generation X which questions absolutes like God and salvation in Christ alone. It might just be an obstinate person who envies the authority of the minister, elders, or deacons and questions their integrity and decision-making at every turn and who draws around him or her an anti-faction.

If you are someone who cares deeply about your local church and would do almost anything to maintain its success and its integrity as a body of Christian believers, then 2 Corinthians will speak to your heart and nourish your soul. You will relate to Paul's agony over this church , feel his compassion, and be engulfed by his intense emotion in this letter. You will take in the principles of genuine church leadership and apply them to your life responsibly to enable you to enrich the quality of your local church.

The comments which follow are intended to help you both to understand 2 Corinthians in its own historical context and to apply its key principles to your own personal context in the church today.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

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-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

ABBREVIATIONS

1 Clem 1 Clement

1QH The Thanksgiving Hymns (Dead Sea Scroll)

1QM The War Scroll (Dead Sea Scroll)

1QS Rule of the Community (Dead Sea Scroll)

2 Clem 2 Clement

AJP American Journal of Philology

ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der römishen Welt, ed. Temporini and Haase

AusBR Australian Biblical Review

AUSS Andrews University Seminary Studies

BA Biblical Archaeologist

BBR Bulletin for Biblical Research

BSac Bibliotheca Sacra

BT Bible Translator

BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CD The Damascus Document (Dead Sea Scroll)

DPL Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, ed. Hawthorne, Martin, and Reid

Ebr. De Ebrietate (Philo)

EvQ Evangelical Quarterly

ExpTim Expository Times

HBT Horizons in Biblical Theology

Heres Qui Rerum Divinarum Heres sit (Philo)

HTR Harvard Theological Review

ICC International Critical Commentary

Int Interpretation

JB Jerusalem Bible

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JRH Journal of Religious History

JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament

JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JTS Journal of Theological Studies

LB Living Bible

NAB New American Bible

NASB New American Standard Bible

NEB New English Bible

Neot Neotestamentica

NICNT New International Commentary on the New Testament

NIDNTT New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, ed. Brown

NIV New International Version

NLT New Living Translation

NovT Novum Testamentum

NovTSupp Novum Testamentum Supplements

NRSV New Revised Standard Version

NTS New Testament Studies

RB Revue Biblique

ResQ Restoration Quarterly

RSV Revised Standard Version

SCJ Stone-Campbell Journal

SJT Scottish Journal of Theology

Spec.Leg. Philo, De Specialibus Legibus

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, ed. Kittel and Friedrich

TEV Today's English Version

T.Jos Testament of Joseph

T.Levi Testament of Levi

T.Naph Testament of Naphtali

TS Theological Studies

TynBul Tyndale Bulletin

WW Word and World

ZNW Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenshaft

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

College: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

OUTLINE

I. OPENING - 1:1-2

II. THANKSGIVING - 1:3-11

A. GOD COMFORTS - 1:3-7

B. GOD DELIVERS - 1:8-11

III. DEFENSE OF INTEGRITY - 1:12-2:13

A. CLARITY SOUGHT - 1:12-14

B. SECOND TRAVEL ITINERARY EXPLAINED - 1:15-17

C. CANDOR DEMANDED - 1:18-22

D. THIRD TRAVEL ITINERARY DEFENDED - 1:23-2:4

E. THE OFFENDER FORGIVEN - 2:5-11

F. ACTUAL TRAVEL DESCRIBED - 2:12-13

IV. DEFENSE OF APOSTOLIC MINISTRY IN PRINCIPLE - 2:14-7:4

A. SUFFICIENT FOR MINISTRY - 2:14-3:6

1. The Aroma of Christ Spread - 2:14-17

2. A Living Letter of Recommendation Sent - 3:1-3

3. A Personal Reference Provided - 3:4-6

B. SUPERIOR TO THE OLD COVENANT - 3:7-18

1. Glory Unsurpassed 3:7-11

2. Glory Unobstructed 3:12-18

C. TENACIOUS DESPITE SHORTCOMINGS - 4:1-5:10

1. Christ Preached Plainly - 4:1-6

2. Hardships Overcome because of Jesus' Death - 4:7-12

3. Increasing Multitudes Brought to Life - 4:13-15

4. Driven by Unseen, Eternal Reward - 4:16-18

5. Confident in Eternal Home - 5:1-10

a) Permanent Home Guaranteed - 5:1-5

b) Pleasing the Lord Prioritizes Life - 5:6-10

D. PREACHING RECONCILIATION THROUGH CHRIST - 5:11-6:2

1. Motivated by Christ's Love - 5:11-15

2. Christ's Message of Reconciliation Delivered - 5:16-6:2

E. HARDSHIPS IN MINISTRY - 6:3-10

F. AN APPEAL FOR OPENNESS AND RECONCILIATION - 6:11-7:4

1. Paul's Heart Opened - 6:11-13

2. Holiness Demanded - 6:14-7:1

3. Paul's Trust Expressed - 7:2-4

V. ENCOURAGING NEWS: RELATIONSHIP FULLY RESTORED - 7:5-16

A. TITUS REPORTS LOVE FOR PAUL - 7:5-7

B. TRUE REPENTANCE DEMONSTRATES INNOCENCE - 7:8-13a

C. TITUS EXPRESSED DEEP AFFECTION - 7:13b-16

VI. PREPARATION FOR THE COLLECTION - 8:1-9:15

A. INCENTIVES TOWARD GENEROSITY - 8:1-15

1. Excel Like the Macedonians - 8:1-7

2. Give Like Christ - 8:8-9

3. Complete Your Offering - 8:10-12

4. Achieve Equity - 8:13-15

B. TITUS PLUS TWO OTHERS SENT TO CORINTH TO HELP - 8:16-9:5

1. Criticism to Be Thwarted - 8:16-21

2. Measure Up to Expectations - 8:22-24

3. Follow Through on What Was Begun - 9:1-5

C. MORE INCENTIVE TO BE GENEROUS - 9:6-15

1. God Will Be Generous - 9:6-11

2. God Will Be Praised - 9:12-15

VII. FINAL DEFENSE OF MINISTRY - 10:1-13:10

A. LAUNCH OF A MASSIVE COUNTERATTACK - 10:1-18

1. Powerful Weapons Employed - 10:1-6

2. Forceful Personal Presence Warned - 10:7-10

3. God's Expansion of the Gospel Boasted - 10:12-18

B. COMPARISON TO FALSE APOSTLES MADE - 11:1-15

1. True Message of Jesus Preached - 11:1-6

2. No Money Accepted - 11:7-12

3. The False Apostles Serve Satan - 11:13-15

C. BOASTING AS A "FOOL" - 11:16-33

1. Rationale Provided - 11:16-21a

2. Ancestry and Hardships Listed - 11:21b-29

3. Weakness Boasted - 11:30-33

D. MORE BOASTING - 12:1-10

1. A Vision Divulged - 12:1-6

2. An Irremovable Thorn Remains - 12:7-10

E. "BOASTING" RETROSPECTIVE - 12:11-13

F. PREPARATION FOR THE THIRD VISIT - 12:14-13:10

1. No Exploitation Tactics Employed - 12:14-18

2. More Trouble Feared - 12:19-21

3. Harsh Treatment for Sinners Warned - 13:1-4

4. Faith-testing Evidences Paul's Strength - 13:5-10

VIII. CLOSING REMARKS - 13:11-14

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV