Text -- Philippians 2:14 (NET)

2:14 Do everything without grumbling or arguing,

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Robertson: Phi 2:14

Without murmurings ( chōris goggusmōn ).

See note on Act 6:1 for this late onomatopoetic word from gogguzō , to mutter, to grumble.

Robertson: Phi 2:14

Disputings ( dialogismōn ).

Or questionings as in Luk 24:38. The grumblings led to disputes.

Vincent: Phi 2:14

Murmurings ( γογγυσμῶν )

See on Jud 1:16; see on Joh 6:41. Compare 1Co 10:10.

Vincent: Phi 2:14

Disputings ( διαλογισμῶν )

See on Mar 7:21. It is doubtful whether disputings is a legitimate meaning. The kindred verb διαλογίζομαι is invariably used in the sense of to reason or discuss , either with another or in one's own mind, Mat 16:7; Mat 21:25; Mar 2:6; Luk 12:17. The noun is sometimes rendered thoughts , as Mat 15:19; Mar 7:21; but with the same idea underlying it, of a suspicion or doubt, causing inward discussion. See 1Ti 2:8. Better here questionings or doubtings . See on Rom 14:1. The murmuring is the moral , the doubting the intellectual rebellion against God.

Wesley: Phi 2:14

Not only without contention, Phi 2:3, but even without murmurings and disputings - Which are real, though smaller, hinderances of love.

JFB: Phi 2:14

Secret murmurings and complaints against your fellow men arising from selfishness: opposed to the example of Jesus just mentioned (compare the use of the word, Joh 7:12-13; Act 6:1; 1Pe 4:9; Jud 1:16).

JFB: Phi 2:14

The Greek is translated "doubting" in 1Ti 2:8. But here referring to profitless "disputings" with our fellow men, in relation to whom we are called on to be "blameless and harmless" (Phi 2:15): so the Greek is translated, Mar 9:33-34. These disputings flow from "vain glory" reprobated (Phi 2:3); and abounded among the Aristotelian philosophers in Macedon, where Philippi was.

Clarke: Phi 2:14

Do all things without murmurings - Γογγυσμων, και διαλογισμων· Without grumblings and altercations. Be patient in, and contented with, your work; and see that ye fall not out by the way.

Calvin: Phi 2:14

14.Without murmurings. These are fruits of that humility to which he had exhorted them. For every man that has learned carefully to submit himself to God, without claiming anything for himself, will also conduct himself agreeably among men. When every one makes it his care to please himself, two faults prevail: First, they calumniate one another; and secondly, they strive against one another in contentions. In the first place, accordingly, he forbids malignity and secret enmities; and then, secondly, open contentions. He adds, thirdly, that they give no occasion to others to complain of them — a thing which is wont to arise from excessive moroseness. It is true that hatred is not in all cases to be dreaded; but care must be taken, that we do not make ourselves odious through our own fault, so that the saying should be fulfilled in us, They hated me without a cause. (Psa 35:19.) If, however, any one wishes to extend it farther, I do not object to it. For murmurings and disputations spring up, whenever any one, aiming beyond measure at his own advantage, ¹²⁶ gives to others occasion of complaint. ¹²⁷ Nay, even this expression may be taken in an active sense, so as to mean — not troublesome or querulous. And this signification will not accord ill with the context, for a querulous temper (μεμψιμοιρία) ¹²⁸ is the seed of almost all quarrels and slanderings. He adds sincere, because these pollutions will never come forth from minds that have been purified.

Defender: Phi 2:14

To "murmur" means to "complain or grumble" (1Co 10:10). "Disputing" means "arguing." The Christian, in working out his inward salvation, is thus commanded never to complain or argue, but rather to accept the difficulties in life willingly, confident that the Lord is allowing them for good reason, as He is preparing him or her for the age to come."

TSK: Phi 2:14

without : Phi 2:3; Exo 16:7, Exo 16:8; Num 14:27; Psa 106:25; Mat 20:11; Mar 14:5; Act 6:1; 1Co 10:10; Jam 5:9; 1Pe 4:9; Jud 1:16

disputings : Pro 13:10, Pro 15:17, Pro 15:18; Mar 9:33, Mar 9:34; Act 15:2, Act 15:7, Act 15:39; Rom 12:18, Rom 14:1, Rom 16:17; 1Co 1:10-12, 1Co 3:3-5; 2Co 12:20; Gal 5:15, Gal 5:26; Eph 4:31, Eph 4:32; 1Th 5:13, 1Th 5:15; 1Ti 6:3-5; Heb 12:14; Jam 1:20, Jam 3:14-18, Jam 4:1; 1Pe 3:11

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: Phi 2:14

Do all things without murmurings and disputings - In a quiet, peaceful, inoffensive manner. Let there be no brawls, strifes, or contentions. The object of the apostle here is, probably, to illustrate the sentiment which he had expressed in Phi 2:3-5, where he had inculcated the general duties of humbleness of mind, and of esteeming others better than themselves, in order that that spirit might be fully manifested, he now enjoins the duty of doing everything in a quiet and gentle manner, and of avoiding any species of strife; see the notes at Eph 4:31-32.

Poole: Phi 2:14

Do all things without murmurings the apostle here subjoins to his exhortation to condescension and humility, a dissuasive from the opposite vices, moving them to do all that was incumbent on them as Christians without private mutterings, secret whisperings, and complainings, which might argue their impatience under the yoke of Christ, while put upon doing or suffering such things; either reflecting on God’ s providence, as the Israelites of old, Num 11:1 , &c.; 1Co 10:10 ; reckoning they had hard measure: or rather, (here considering the context), grudging at others, as the Greeks and Jews had done, Luk 5:30 Joh 6:41,42 Ac 6:1 ; yea, and some of the disciples were found guilty of this ill temper against their Master, Joh 6:61 . Christian charity disallows grudgings, 1Pe 4:9 Jud 1:10 ; and also disputings; hot and eager contests and quarrellings about those things wherein the life and main business of religion is not concerned, but the unity of the Spirit of holiness is opposed, Mat 18:1 Mar 9:33 Luk 9:46 Rom 14:1 2Co 12:20 , with 1Ti 1:6 2:8 .

Gill: Phi 2:14

Do all things,.... Not evil things, these are to be abhorred, shunned, and avoided, even all appearance of them, they are not to be done, even the sake of good; nor all indifferent things at all times, and under all circumstances, when the peace and edification of others are in danger of being hurt by so doing; but all good things, all that are agreeable to the righteous law and good will of God; all those good things which accompany salvation, as hearing the word, and attendance on ordinances: all church affairs relating to public worship, private conference, everything at church meetings, and which concern the discipline and laws of Christ's house; and all things that are civilly, morally, spiritually, and evangelically good; even all things that God would have done, or we would desire should be done to us by fellow creatures and fellow Christians: let all these be done

without murmurings; either against God and Christ, as if anything hard and severe was enjoined, when Christ's yoke is easy, and his burden light, Mat 11:30, and none of his commands grievous; and because their presence is not always enjoyed, and that communion and comfort in ordinances had, which may be desired: or against the ministers of the Gospel, in whose power it is not to give grace, comfort, and spiritual refreshment; any more than it was in Moses and Aaron to give bread and water to the Israelites in the wilderness, for which they murmured against them, and in so doing against God himself, Exo 16:2; or against one another, because of superior enjoyment in nature, providence, and grace; but all things, both of a moral, civil, and religious nature, with respect to God, and one another, should be done readily, freely, cheerfully, and heartily; and also without

disputings; or "without hesitations", as the Vulgate Latin, Arabic, and Ethiopic versions render it. Whatever appears to be agreeable to the will of God, should be done at once without dispute upon it, or hesitation about it, however disagreeable it may be to carnal sense and reason; the will of God is not to be disputed, nor flesh and blood to be consulted, in opposition to it; nor should the saints enter into any carnal reasonings, and contentious disputations, either at their public or private meetings, but do all they do decently, and in order, and in the exercise of brotherly love.

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

Geneva Bible: Phi 2:14

^{( 6 )} Do all things without murmurings and disputings:

^{( 6 )} He describes modesty by the contrary effects of pride, teaching us that it is far both from all malicious and secret or inward hatred, and also from open contentions and brawlings.

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: Phi 2:1-30

1 Paul exhorts them to unity, and to all humbleness of mind, by the example of Christ's humility and exaltation;

12 to a careful proceeding in the way of salvation, that they be as lights to the wicked world,

16 and comforts to him their apostle, who is now ready to be offered up to God.

19 He hopes to send Timothy to them, and Epaphroditus also.

Maclaren: Phi 2:14-16

Copies Of Jesus

Do all things without murmurings and disputings; 15. That ye may be blameless and harmless, children of God without blemish in the midst of a crooked and perverse generation, among whom ye are seen as lights in the world, 16. Holding forth the word of life.'--Phil. 2:14-16 (R.V).

WE are told by some superfine modern moralists, that to regard one's own salvation as the great work of our lives is a kind of selfishness, and no doubt there may be a colour of truth in the charge. At least the meaning of the injunction to work out our own salvation may have been sometimes so misunderstood, and there have been types of Christian character, such as the ascetic and monastic, which have made the representation plausible. I do not think that there is much danger of anybody so misunderstanding the precept now. But it is worthy of notice that there stand here side by side two paragraphs, in the former of which the effort to work out one's own salvation is urged in the strongest terms, and in the other of which the regard for others is predominant. We shall see that the connection between these two is not accidental, but that one great reason for working out our salvation is here set forth as being the good we may thereby do to others.

I. We Note The One Great Duty Of Cheerful Yielding To God's Will.

It is clear, I think, that the precept to do all things without murmurings and disputings' stands in the closest connection with what goes before. It is, in fact, the explanation of how salvation is to be wrought out. It presents the human side which corresponds to the divine activity, which has just been so earnestly insisted on. God works in us willing and doing,' let us on our parts do with ready submission all the things which He so inspires to will and to do.

The murmurings' are not against men but against God. The disputings' are not wrangling with others but the division of mind in one's self-questionings, hesitations, and the like. So the one are more moral, the other more intellectual, and together they represent the ways in which Christian men may resist the action on their spirits of God's Spirit, willing,' or the action of God's providence on their circumstances, doing.' Have we never known what it was to have some course manifestly prescribed to us as right, from which we have shrunk with reluctance of will? If some course has all at once struck us as wrong which we had been long accustomed to do without hesitation, has there been no murmuring' before we yielded? A voice has said to us, Give up such and such a habit,' or such and such a pursuit is becoming too engrossing': do we not all know what it is not only to feel obedience an effort, but even to cherish reluctance, and to let it stifle the voice?

There are often disputings' which do not get the length of murmurings.' The old word which tried to weaken the plain imperative of the first command by the subtle suggestion, Yea, hath God said?' still is whispered into our ears. We know what it is to answer God's commands with a But, Lord.' A reluctant will is clever to drape itself with more or less honest excuses, and the only safety is in cheerful obedience and glad submission. The will of God ought not only to receive obedience, but prompt obedience, and such instantaneous and whole-souled submission is indispensable if we are to work out our own salvation,' and to present an attitude of true, receptive correspondence to that of God, who works in us both to will and to do of His own good pleasure.' Our surrender of ourselves into the hands of God, in respect both to inward and outward things, should be complete. As has been profoundly said, that surrender consists in a continual forsaking and losing all self in the will of God, willing only what God from eternity has willed, forgetting what is past, giving up the time present to God, and leaving to His providence that which is to come, making ourselves content in the actual moment seeing it brings along with it the eternal order of God concerning us' (Madame Guyon).

II. The Conscious Aim In All Our Activity

What God works in us for is that for which we too are to yield ourselves to His working,' without murmurings and disputings,' and to co-operate with glad submission and cheerful obedience. We are to have as our distinct aim the building up of a character' blameless and harmless, children of God without rebuke.' The blamelessness is probably in reference to men's judgment rather than to God's, and the difficulty of coming untarnished from contact with the actions and criticisms of a crooked and perverse generation is emphasised by the very fact that such blamelessness is the first requirement for Christian conduct. It was a feather in Daniel's cap that the president and princes were foiled in their attempt to pick holes in his conduct, and had to confess that they would not find any occasion against him, except we find it concerning the laws of his God.' God is working in us in order that our lives should be such that malice is dumb in their presence. Are we co-operating with Him? We are bound to satisfy the world's requirements of Christian character. They are sharp critics and sometimes unreasonable, but on the whole it would not be a bad rule for Christian people, Do what irreligious men expect you to do.' The worst man knows more than the best man practises, and his conscience is quick to decide the course for other people. Our weaknesses and compromises, and love of the world, might receive a salutary rebuke if we would try to meet the expectations which the man in the street' forms of us.

Harmless' is more correctly pure, all of a piece, homogeneous and entire. It expresses what the Christian life should be in itself, whilst the former designation describes it more as it appears. The piece of cloth is to be so evenly and carefully woven that if held up against the light it will show no flaws nor knots. Many a professing Christian life has a veneer of godliness nailed thinly over a solid bulk of selfishness. There are many goods in the market finely dressed so as to hide that the warp is cotton and only the weft silk. No Christian man who has memory and self-knowledge can for a moment claim to have reached the height of his ideal; the best of us, at the best, are like Nebuchadnezzar's image, whose feet were iron and clay, but we ought to strain after it and to remember that a stain shows most on the whitest robe. What made David's sin glaring and memorable was its contradiction of his habitual nobler self. One spot more matters little on a robe already covered with many. The world is fully warranted in pointing gleefully or contemptuously at Christians' inconsistencies, and we have no right to find fault with their most pointed sarcasms, or their severest judgments. It is those that bear the vessels of the Lord' whose burden imposes on them the duty be ye clean,' and makes any uncleanness more foul in them than in any other.

The Apostle sets forth the place and function of Christians in the world, by bringing together in the sharpest contrast the children of God' and a crooked and perverse generation.' He is thinking of the old description in Deuteronomy, where the ancient Israel is charged with forgetting Thy Father that hath bought thee,' and as showing by their corruption that they are a perverse and crooked generation.' The ancient Israel had been the Son of God, and yet had corrupted itself; the Christian Israel are' sons of God' set among a world all deformed, twisted, perverted. Perverse' is a stronger word than crooked,' which latter may be a metaphor for moral obliquity, like our own right and wrong, or perhaps points to personal deformity. Be that as it may, the position which the Apostle takes is plain enough. He regards the two classes as broadly separated in antagonism in the very roots of their being. Because the sons of God' are set in the midst of that crooked and perverse generation' constant watchfulness is needed lest they should conform, constant resort to their Father lest they should lose the sense of sonship, and constant effort that they may witness of Him.

III. The Solemn Reason For This Aim.

That is drawn from a consideration of the office and function of Christian men. Their position in the midst of a crooked and perverse generation' devolves on them a duty in relation to that generation. They are to appear as lights in the world.' The relation between them and it is not merely one of contrast, but on their parts one of witness and example. The metaphor of light needs no explanation. We need only note that the word, are seen' or appear,' is indicative, a statement of fact, not imperative, a command. As the stars lighten the darkness with their myriad lucid points, so in the divine ideal Christian men are to be as twinkling lights in the abyss of darkness. Their light rays forth without effort, being an involuntary efflux. Possibly the old paradox of the Psalmist was in the Apostle's mind, which speaks of the eloquent silence, in which there is no speech nor language, and their voice is not heard,' but yet their line has gone out through all the earth, and their words unto the end of the world.'

Christian men appear as lights by holding forth the word of life.' In themselves they have no brightness but that which comes from raying out the light that is in them. The word of life must live, giving life in us, if we are ever to be seen as lights in the world.' As surely as the electric light dies out of a lamp when the current is switched off, so surely shall we be light only when we are' in the Lord.' There are many so-called Christians in this day who stand tragically unaware that their lamps are gone out.' When the sun rises and smites the mountain tops they burn, when its light falls on Memnon's stony lips they breathe out music, Arise, shine, for thy light has come.'

Undoubtedly one way of holding forth the word of life' must be to speak the word, but silent living blameless and harmless' and leaving the secret of the life very much to tell itself is perhaps the best way for most Christian people to bear witness. Such a witness is constant, diffused wherever the witness-bearer is seen, and free from the difficulties that beset speech, and especially from the assumption of superiority which often gives offence. It was the sight of your good deeds' to which Jesus pointed as the strongest reason for men's glorifying your Father.' If we lived such lives there would be less need for preachers. If any will not hear the word they may without the word be won.' And reasonably so, for Christianity is a life and cannot be all told in words, and the Gospel is the proclamation of freedom from sin, and is best preached and proved by showing that we are free. The Gospel was lived as well as spoken. Christ's life was Christ's mightiest preaching.

The word was flesh and wroughtWith human hands the creed of creeds.'

If we keep near to Him we too shall witness, and if our faces shine like Moses' as he came down from the mountain, or like Stephen's in the council chamber, men will take knowledge of us that we have been with Jesus.'

MHCC: Phi 2:12-18

We must be diligent in the use of all the means which lead to our salvation, persevering therein to the end. With great care, lest, with all our advantages, we should come short. Work out your salvation, for it is God who worketh in you. This encourages us to do our utmost, because our labour shall not be in vain: we must still depend on the grace of God. The working of God's grace in us, is to quicken and engage our endeavours. God's good-will to us, is the cause of his good work in us. Do your duty without murmurings. Do it, and do not find fault with it. Mind your work, and do not quarrel with it. By peaceableness; give no just occasion of offence. The children of God should differ from the sons of men. The more perverse others are, the more careful we should be to keep ourselves blameless and harmless. The doctrine and example of consistent believers will enlighten others, and direct their way to Christ and holiness, even as the light-house warns mariners to avoid rocks, and directs their course into the harbour. Let us try thus to shine. The gospel is the word of life, it makes known to us eternal life through Jesus Christ. Running, denotes earnestness and vigour, continual pressing forward; labouring, denotes constancy, and close application. It is the will of God that believers should be much in rejoicing; and those who are so happy as to have good ministers, have great reason to rejoice with them.

Matthew Henry: Phi 2:14-18

The apostle exhorts them in these verses to adorn their Christian profession by a suitable temper and behaviour, in several instances. 1. By a cheerful obedience to the commands of God (Phi 2:14): " Do all things, do your duty in every branch of it, without murmurings. Do it, and do not find fault with it. Mind your work, and do not quarrel with it."God's commands were given to be obeyed, not to be disputed. This greatly adorns our profession, and shows we serve a good Master, whose service is freedom and whose work is its own reward. 2. By peaceableness and love one to another. "Do all things without disputing, wrangling, and debating one another; because the light of truth and the life of religion are often lost in the heats and mists of disputation."3. By a blameless conversation towards all men (Phi 2:15): " That you may be blameless and harmless, the sons of God, without rebuke; that you be not injurious to any in word or deed, and give no just occasion of offence."We should endeavour not only to be harmless, but to be blameless; not only not to do hurt, but not to come under the just suspicion of it. Blameless and sincere; so some read it. Blameless before men, sincere towards God. The sons of God. It becomes those to be blameless and harmless who stand in such a relation, and are favoured with such a privilege. The children of God should differ from the sons of men. Without rebuke - Amōmēta . Momus was a carping deity among the Greeks, mentioned by Hesiod and Lucian, who did nothing himself, and found fault with every body and every thing. From him all carpers at other men, and rigid censurers of their works, were called Momi. The sense of the expression is, "Walk so circumspectly that Momus himself may have no occasion to cavil at you, that the severest censurer may find no fault with you."We should aim and endeavour, not only to get to heaven, but to get thither without a blot; and, like Demetrius, to have a good report of all men, and of the truth, 3Jo 1:12. In the midst of a crooked and perverse generation; that is, among the heathens, and those who are without. Observe, Where there is no true religion, little is to be expected but crookedness and perverseness; and the more crooked and perverse others are among whom we live, and the more apt to cavil, the more careful we should be to keep ourselves blameless and harmless. Abraham and Lot must not strive, because the Canaanite and Perizzite dwelt in the land, Gen 13:7. Among whom you shine as lights in the world. Christ is the light of the world, and good Christians are lights in the world. When God raises up a good man in any place, he sets up a light in that place. Or it may be read imperatively: Among whom shine you as lights: compare Mat 5:16, Let your light so shine before men. Christians should endeavour not only to approve themselves to God, but to recommend themselves to others, that they may also glorify God. They must shine as well as be sincere. - Holding forth the word of life, Phi 2:16. The gospel is called the word of life because it reveals and proposes to us eternal life through Jesus Christ. Life and immortality are brought to light by the gospel, 2Ti 1:10. It is our duty not only to hold fast, but to hold forth the word of life; not only to hold it fast for our own benefit, but to hold it forth for the benefit of others, to hold it forth as the candlestick holds forth the candle, which makes it appear to advantage all around, or as the luminaries of the heavens, which shed their influence far and wide. This Paul tells them would be his joy: " That I may rejoice in the day of Christ; not only rejoice in your stedfastness, but in your usefulness."He would have them think his pains well bestowed, and that he had not run in vain, nor laboured in vain. Observe, (1.) The work of the ministry requires the putting forth of the whole man: all that is within us is little enough to be employed in it; as in running and labouring. Running denotes vehemence and vigour, and continual pressing forward; labour denotes constancy and close application. (2.) It is a great joy to ministers when they perceive that they have not run in vain, nor laboured in vain; and it will be their rejoicing in the day of Christ, when their converts will be their crown. What is our hope, or joy, or crown of rejoicing? Are not even you in the presence of our Lord Jesus Christ at his coming? For you are our glory and joy, 1Th 2:19, 1Th 2:20. The apostle not only ran and laboured for them with satisfaction, but shows that he was ready to suffer for their good (Phi 2:17): Yea, and if I be offered upon the sacrifice and service of your faith, I joy and rejoice with you all. He could reckon himself happy if he could promote the honour of Christ, the edification of the church, and the welfare of the souls of men; though it were not only by hazarding, but by laying down, his life: he could willingly be a sacrifice at their altars, to serve the faith of God's elect. Could Paul think it worth while to shed his blood for the service of the church, and shall we think it much to take a little pains? Is not that worth our labour which he thought worth his life? If I be offered, or poured out as the wine of the drink-offerings, spendomai . 2Ti 4:6, I am now ready to be offered. He could rejoice to seal his doctrine with his blood (Phi 2:18): For the same cause also do you joy and rejoice with me. It is the will of God that good Christians should be much in rejoicing; and those who are happy in good ministers have a great deal of reason to joy and rejoice with them. If the minister loves the people, and is willing to spend and be spent for their welfare, the people have reason to love the minister and to joy and rejoice with him.

Barclay: Phi 2:12-18

Paul's appeal to the Philippians is more than an appeal to live in unity in a given situation; it is an appeal to live a life which will lead to the salvation of God in time and in eternity.

Nowhere in the New Testament is the work of salvation more succinctly stated. As the Revised Standard Version has it in Php 2:12-13: "Work out your own salvation with fear and trembling; for God's at work in you, both to will and to work for his good pleasure." As always with Paul, the words are meticulously chosen.

Work out your own salvation; the word he uses for work out is katergazesthai (2716), which always has the idea of bringing to completion. It is as if Paul says: "Don't stop halfway; go on until the work of salvation is fully wrought out in you." No Christian should be satisfied with anything less than the total benefits of the gospel.

"For God is at work in you both to will and to do of his good pleasure." The word Paul uses for work and do is the same, the verb energein (1754). There are two significant things about it; it is always used of the action of God, and it is always used of effective action. God's action cannot be frustrated, nor can it remain half-finished; it must be fully effective.

As we have said, this passage gives a perfect statement of the work of salvation.

(i) Salvation is of God. (a) It is God that works in us the desire to be saved. It is true that "our hearts are restless till they rest in him," and it is also true that "we could not even begin to seek him unless he had already found us." The desire for the salvation of God is not kindled by any human emotion but by God himself The beginning of the process of salvation is awakened by God. (b) The continuance of that process is dependent on God. Without his help there can be no progress in goodness; without his help no sin can be conquered and no virtue achieved. © The end of the process of salvation is with God, for its end is friendship with God, in which we are his and he is ours. The work of salvation is begun, continued and ended in God.

(ii) There is another side to this. Salvation is of man. "Work out your own salvation," Paul demands. Without man's co-operation, even God is helpless. The fact is that any gift or any benefit has to be received. A man may be ill and the doctor able to prescribe the drugs that will cure him; but the man will not be cured until he takes them and he may stubbornly refuse all persuasion to take them. It is so with salvation. The offer of God is there; without it there can be no such thing as salvation. But no man can ever receive salvation unless he answers God's appeal and takes what he offers.

There can be no salvation without God, but what God offers man must take. It is never God who withholds salvation; it is always man who deprives himself of it.

Barclay: Phi 2:12-18

When we examine the chain of thought in this passage, we see that Paul sets down five signs of salvation, as we may call them.

(i) There is the sign of effective action. The Christian must give continual evidence in his daily life that he is indeed working out his own salvation; day by day it must be more fully accomplished. The great tragedy of so many of us is that we are never really any further on. We continue to be victims of the same habits and slaves of the same temptations, and guilty of the same failures. But the truly Christian life must be a continual progress, for it is a journey towards God.

(ii) There is the sign of fear and trembling. This is not the fear and trembling of the slave cringing before his master; nor fear and trembling at the prospect of punishment. It comes from two things. It comes, first, from a sense of our own creatureliness and our own powerlessness to deal with life triumphantly. That is to say, it is not the fear and trembling which drives us to hide from God, but rather the fear and trembling which drives us to seek God, in the certainty that without his help we cannot effectively face life. It comes, second, from a horror of grieving God. When we really love a person, we are not afraid of what he may do to us; we are afraid of what we may do to him. The Christian's great fear is of crucifying Christ again.

(iii) There is the sign of serenity and certainty. The Christian will do all things without murmurings and questionings. The word which Paul uses for murmurings (goggusmos, 1112) is unusual. In the Greek of the sacred writers it has a special connection. It is the word used of the rebellious murmurings of the children of Israel in their desert journey. The people murmured against Moses (Exo 15:24; Exo 16:2; Num 16:41). Goggusmos (1112)--pronounced gongusomos--is an onomatopoetic word. It describes the low, threatening, discontented muttering of a mob who distrust their leaders and are on the verge of an uprising. The word Paul uses for questionings is dialogismos (1261) which describes useless, and sometimes ill-natured, disputing and doubting. In the Christian life there is the serenity and the certainty of perfect certainty and perfect trust.

(iv) There is the sign of purity. Christians, as the Revised Standard Version has it, are to be blameless and innocent and without blemish. Each of these words makes its contribution to the idea of Christian purity.

(a) The word translated blameless is amemptos (273) and expresses what the Christian is to the world. His life is of such purity that none can find anything in it with which to find fault. It is often said in courts of law that the proceedings must not only be just but must be seen to be just. The Christian must not only be pure, but the purity of his life must be seen by all.

(b) The word translated innocent is akeraios (185), and expresses what the Christian is in himself. Akeraios (185) literally means unmixed, unadulterated. It is used, for instance, of wine or milk which is not mixed with water and of metal which has no alloy in it. When used of people, it implies motives which are unmixed. Christian purity must issue in a complete sincerity of thought and character.

© The word which is translated without blemish is amomos (299) and describes what the Christian is in the sight of God. This word is specially used in connection with sacrifices that are fit to be offered on the altar of God. The Christian life must be such that it can be offered like an unblemished sacrifice to God.

Christian purity is blameless in the sight of the world, sincere within itself, and fit to stand the scrutiny of God.

(v) There is the sign of missionary endeavour. The Christian offers to all the word of life, that is to say, the word which gives life. This Christian missionary endeavour has two aspects: (a) It is the proclamation of the offer of the gospel in words which are clear and unmistakable. (b) It is the witness of a life that is absolutely straight in a world which is warped and twisted. It is the offer of light in a world which is dark. Christians are to be lights in the world. The word used for lights (phosteres, 5458) is the same as is used in the creation story of the lights (the sun and the moon) which God set in the firmament of the heavens to give light upon the earth (Gen 1:14-18). The Christian offers and demonstrates straightness in a twisted world and light in a dark world.

Barclay: Phi 2:12-18

This passage concludes with two vivid pictures, which are typical of Paul's way of thinking.

(i) He longs for the Christian progress of the Philippians so that at the end of the day he may have the joy of knowing that he has not run or laboured in vain. The word he uses for to labour is kopian (2872). There are two possible pictures in it. (a) It may paint a picture of the most exacting toil. Kopian (2872) means to labour to the point of utter exhaustion. (b) It may be that kopian (2872) describes the toil of the athlete's training and that what Paul is saying is that he prays that all the discipline of training that he imposed upon himself may not go for nothing.

One of the features of Paul's writing is his love of pictures from the life of the athlete. And there is little wonder. In every Greek city the gymnasium was far more than a physical training-ground. It was in the gymnasium that Socrates often discussed the eternal problems; it was in the gymnasium that the philosophers and the sophists and the wandering teachers and preachers often found their audience. In any Greek city the gymnasium was not only the physical training-ground but also the intellectual club of the city. In the Greek world there were the great Isthmian Games at Corinth, the great Pan-Ionian Games at Ephesus, and, greatest of all, the Olympic Games, held every four years. The Greek cities were often at variance and frequently at war; but when the Olympic Games came round, no matter what dispute was raging, a month's truce was declared that there might be a contest in fellowship between them. Not only did the athletes come, but the historians and the poets came to give readings of their latest works, and the sculptors, whose names are immortal, came to make statues of the winners.

There can be little doubt that, in Corinth and in Ephesus, Paul had been a spectator of these games. Where there were crowds of men, Paul would be there to seek to win them for Christ. But, apart from the preaching, there was something about these athletic contests which found an answer in the heart of Paul. He knew the contests of the boxers (1Co 9:26). He knew the foot-race, most famous of all the contests. He had seen the herald summoning the racers to the starting-line (1Co 9:27); he had seen the runners press along the course to the goal (Phi 3:14); he had seen the judge awarding the prize at the end of the race (2Ti 4:8); he knew of the victor's laurel crown and of his exultation (1Co 9:24; Phi 4:1). He knew the rigorous discipline of training which the athlete must undertake, and the strict regulations which must be observed (1Ti 4:7-8; 2Ti 2:5).

So his prayer is that he may not be like an athlete whose training and effort have gone for nothing. For him the greatest prize in life was to know that through him others had come to know and to love and to serve Jesus Christ.

(ii) But in Phi 2:17Paul has another picture. He had a special gift for speaking in language that people could understand. Again and again he took his pictures from the ordinary affairs of the people to whom he was speaking. He has already taken a picture from the games; now he takes one from heathen sacrifice. One of the commonest kinds of heathen sacrifice was a libation, which was a cup of wine poured out as an offering to the gods. For instance, every heathen meal began and ended with such a libation, as a kind of grace before and after meat. Paul here looks upon the faith and service of the Philippians as a sacrifice to God. He knows that his death may not be very far away, for he is writing in prison and awaiting trial. So he says, as the Revised Standard Version has it, that he is quite ready "to be poured as a libation upon the sacrificial offering" of their faith. In other words what he is saying to the Philippians is: "Your Christian fidelity and loyalty are already a sacrifice to God; and if death for Christ should come to me, I am willing and glad that my life should be poured out like a libation on the altar on which your sacrifice is being made."

Paul was perfectly willing to make his life a sacrifice to God; and, if that happened, to him it would be all joy, and he calls on them not to mourn at the prospect but rather to rejoice. To him every call to sacrifice and to toil was a call to his love for Christ, and therefore he met it not with regret and complaint but with joy.

Constable: Phi 1:27--4:10

III. Partnership in the gospel 1:27--4:9

Paul had been saying he hoped to be able to revisit Philippi and to minister to his original readers again in person. However, he was not sure that he could do that. This uncertain state of affairs led him to exhort them now that he had the opportunity. Whether he came to them or not, their duty was the same. In the following verses he emphasized the importance of certain qualities essential to conduct worthy of the Lord. He did this so his readers would perceive the importance of these traits and give them proper attention.

Constable: Phi 2:1-30

1. Walking in unity ch. 2

In expounding on the importance of unity and steadfastness as essential for partnership in the work of the gospel, Paul dealt first with the importance of walking in unity.⁵¹ He explained the basis for unity and illustrated this basis with the example of Christ. He then clarified the believers' responsibility and further illustrated with his own example and that of two of his fellow workers.

Constable: Phi 2:12-16

The responsibility of the believer 2:12-16

"The detailed attention just given to the Christ-hymn must not obscure the fact that vv 12-18 are part of a larger parenetic section--1:27-2:18. Exhortation is resumed again through the frequent use of the imperative mood, or through the use of participles with the force of the imperative."⁷⁹

2:12 The Philippian Christians had been obedient to the Lord and to His servant Paul in the past (cf. 1:27). Even though Paul was no longer with them and might be unable to return to them, he wanted them to continue to obey. The Greek word translated "obey" (hypakouein) contains the ideas of hearing, especially the divine word as proclaimed (cf. 2 Thess. 1:8), and submitting to what is heard.⁸⁰ It was even more important that they purpose to obey with Paul absent since his presence among them provided a measure of external motivation for them.

Specifically they were to work out their salvation. Note that Paul did not say "work for your salvation." We obtain salvation by receiving it as a gift (Eph. 2:8), but having received it freely we have a responsibility to perfect it. The apostle had in mind the present aspect of our salvation, sanctification, in which we are laborers together with God (1 Cor. 3:9; cf. Titus 3:8).⁸¹ In justification and glorification, God does all the work (Eph. 2:9; Jude 24). We work out our salvation by keeping in step with the Holy Spirit who leads us in the will of God (Gal. 5:16). In the context the particular aspect of sanctification in view involves achieving unity through humility.

"Paul is not here concerned with the eternal welfare of the soul of the individual. The individual believer is not now being called to self-activity, to the active pursuit of the will of God . . . to a personal application of salvation' (Müller). Rather the context suggests that this command is to be understood in a corporate sense. The entire church, which had grown spiritually ill (2:3-4), is charged now with taking whatever steps are necessary to restore itself to health and wholeness."⁸²

As we work out our own sanctification, we must remember certain things. We serve a holy God, we have a strong and wise adversary, and we are weak and dependent on God for all that we need. Such an awareness will produce the attitude of fear and trembling that Paul advocated. This attitude is not inconsistent with joy and confidence in the Lord.

2:13 In the preceding context Paul had been urging his readers to do right even though he was not in Philippi to motivate and enable them to do so (1:27; 2:12). Here he reminded them that God was at work not just with them but in them to provide motivation and enabling strength (Gr. energein, from which we get the word "energy"). He would enable them to work out their own salvation. God carries out this work through the indwelling Holy Spirit, and His main tool is the Word of God.

"God does not work and has not worked . . . because man has worked. . . . The contrary is true: because God works and has worked, therefore man must and can work."⁸³

This verse is one of the most comforting in the New Testament. Sometimes we want to do right but seem to lack the energy or ability. This verse assures us that God will help us. At other times we cannot even seem to want to do right. Here we learn that God can also provide the desire to do His will when we do not have it. If we find that we do not want to do right, we can ask God to work in us to create a desire to do His will. This verse gives us confidence that God desires both to motivate and to enable us.

2:14 The first word in this verse in the Greek text is "all things" (NASB) or "everything" (NIV), which by its position indicates the writer's emphasis. Most of us can learn to grumble and argue less than we do now, but such activities should be totally absent from our lives.

The first of these words looks at the initial activity and the second what results from the first (cf. 1 Cor. 10:10; Phil. 2:2; 4:2). The great warning of what complaining and disputing can lead to is Israel's 10 instances of complaining in the wilderness. That behavior culminated in the Israelites' refusal to enter and occupy the Promised Land from Kadesh-barnea (Num. 13-14). We frustrate God's work of producing unity, which He does by reproducing the mind of Christ in us (i.e., humility), when we complain and argue (cf. 1:19, 28).

2:15 By working out their own salvation with fear and trembling rather than with grumbling and disputing, the Philippians would show themselves to be blameless and innocent (pure, NIV). "Blameless" (Gr. amemptos) means without blame (cf. 3:6). It does not mean unblemished (Gr. amomos) nor unblameable (Gr. anegkletos and anepileptos).⁸⁴ "Innocent" or "pure" (Gr. akeraioi) means unadulterated, unmixed with anything defiling (cf. Rom. 16:19).

Paul then added the idea of being unblemished (Gr. amomos). The children of God are to be free from defilement and so not chargeable with justifiable criticism even though we live in the midst of a twisted and perverted generation (cf. Deut. 32:5). The word "generation" (Gr. geneas) can refer to a group of people several generations long, not just to one generation of people. Here it probably refers to unbelievers as a whole.

Christians are lights in a dark world (Matt. 5:14; cf. Dan. 12:3). The Light of the World now indwells us (John 8:12). Paul wanted his readers to bear a strong witness rather than having their light shaded by sin or uncleanness (cf. Matt. 5:15-16).

2:16 "There is a break in thought at this point. Paul continues his appeal to the Philippians, to be sure, but he shifts the basis of appeal from the example of Jesus (2:3-15) to himself and to the judgment he must face at the day of Christ. Therefore, he now asks them to do something for his sake."⁸⁵

Believers are also to hold out the word of life, the gospel (John 6:68), as the Statue of Liberty holds out her torch. This is another way in which we are lights in a dark world. In view of the context, however, it seems more likely that Paul was urging his readers to hold fast to the word rather than to hold forth the word. The former interpretation is possible, nonetheless.

Paul wanted the Philippians to continue serving as he explained so when he stood before the judgment seat of Christ (cf. 1:6, 10) he would have legitimate cause for justifiable pride (cf. 1:26). His investments in their lives would not have been in vain. Running pictures all of Paul's energetic activity as a Christian, and toiling highlights the hard labor that he expended.⁸⁶

College: Phi 2:1-30

PHILIPPIANS 2

B. ATTITUDES PRODUCING UNITY (2:1-4)

¹ If you have any encouragement from being united with Christ, if any comfort from his love, if any fellowship with the Spirit, if any tenderness and compassion, ² then make my joy complete by being like-minded, having the same love, being one in spirit and purpose. ³ Do nothing out of selfish ambition or vain conceit, but in humility consider others better than yourselves. ⁴ Each of you should look not only to your own interests, but also to the interests of others.

In verse 1, Paul gives four motivations, followed in verse 2 by the desired result - unity. Verse 3 prohibits acting from selfish ambition or vain conceit, but rather commands humility in placing others above self. The fourth verse counsels concern for the interests of others, in addition to concern for one's own interests.

The exhortations begun in 1:27 continue here. There unity was discussed in relation to facing external difficulties. Here the call is to internal unity within the church. The reader is still not aware of the exact contours of the Philippians' disunity, but we may suppose the addressees had no doubt as to Paul's meaning. A specific case of two women will surface in 4:2, but whether the problem had further dimensions is unknown. It is possible Paul may have counseled these Christians so they would avoid problems he had seen arise in other churches, but which may have been only beginning in Philippi.

2:1 If you have any encouragement from being united with Christ, if any comfort from his love, if any fellowship with the Spirit, if any tenderness and compassion,

A fourfold motivation in verse 1 is balanced by a fourfold result (though some say threefold) in verse 2. The fourfold "if" (eij , ei ) is somewhat ironic. It was not meant to express doubt. Rather the implication was that they possessed the highest sort of motivation. To "if," the appropriate response would be a resounding, "Of course there are such motivations!"

Following Paul's usual procedure, exhortation is preceded by motivation (cf. the schemes of Eph, Col). Following Christ was a relationship in which divine realities existed, not just a rule-keeping religion. The Philippians, examining their own experience, could see the reality of what Paul was saying. Thus they should act in a way which was harmonious with what God had done for them. Paul's words put the matter of their behavior in as serious a light as they could imagine.

The words translated "encouragement" and "comfort" in the NIV carry the ideas of consolation or strengthening. On this reading the idea was that God would supply the strength necessary to acquire the characteristics listed in verse 2. It is also possible to understand both terms as being exhortations, thus implying the idea of command. Consequently, there could be no greater authority than the one calling them to unity. We prefer the first alternative, however.

There is no agreement about a theological progression in the sections of this verse. It is difficult to distinguish shades of difference in the meanings of the words translated "encouragement" (paravklhsi" , paraklçsis ) and "comfort" (paramuvqion , paramythion ).

"United with Christ" is literally "in Christ." But the idea was that people in union with the Lord must surely be united with each other. For this not to be the case would be monstrous.

"The Spirit" (pneu'ma , pneuma ) is generally held to be the Holy Spirit. Since the references to Christ and the Spirit both refer to what God had done, we may assume that "love" ("his" is not in the Greek) refers to God's love, though some would see it as Paul's love for the Philippians.

"Fellowship in the Spirit" could mean the fellowship which the Spirit created, or could refer to the possession of the Spirit by all believers. Possession of the Spirit was used as an argument against salvation by the law in Galatians 3:2, and as a strong reason for unity in Ephesians 4:4. On this view, which we favor, disunity was seen as destroying the unity which God created by his indwelling presence. Certainly the Spirit would not fight itself!

"Tenderness" (splavgcna , splanchna ) and "compassion" (oijktivrmoi , oiktirmoi ) are seen by some as two qualities, and by others as parallel statements of the same quality. Splanchna was rendered "affection" in 1:8. The terms could refer to the qualities in God which made salvation possible, or to the call for the saved to have the like qualities. In Christian terms, however, the Christian qualities are impossible without the divine qualities; and with the divine qualities, the Christian qualities become essential characteristics of redeemed persons.

2:2 then make my joy complete

The cluster of expressions used here leaves no doubt of Paul's desire for unity among the Philippians. In addition to the motivations of verse 1, the apostle also anticipated the completion of his joy by their obedience. Already, in 1:4, he had expressed joy because of them. Note also his references to rejoicing in 1:18 (twice) and see the discussion at 1:4.

by being like-minded, having the same love,

"Like-minded" and "purpose" are from the same Greek root (frovn- , phron ). It was translated "feel" in 1:7, and is found often in the rest of Philippians (see the notes at 1:7). The terms express intent and disposition. More than intellectual agreement, Paul called them to commit to one another, as they were committed to Christ. In verse 5 he will describe this "attitude" as the same as that which was found in Christ Jesus. Certainly there would be disagreements in Philippi, as there will always be when humans interrelate. But their unity on the basis of their relation to Christ was to transcend any differences. Their love for each other was their response to Christ's love for them.

being one in spirit and purpose.

"One in spirit" translates a single Greek word (suvmyucoi , sympsychoi ). "Purpose," as indicated, shows the basic direction of their lives, individually and communally.

2:3 Do nothing out of selfish ambition or vain conceit,

The power of this exhortation is carried by two negative terms ("selfish ambition" [ejriqeiva , eritheia ] and "vain conceit" [kenodoxiva , kenodoxia ]) and one positive one ("humility" [tapeinofrosuvnh , tapeinophrosynç ]). Eritheia was employed previously in 1:17 of those who preached Christ from unworthy motives. His own experience gave Paul ample insight into the dangers of this attitude, and gave an added edge to his exhortation here. Cf. also condemnation of this sin in 2 Corinthians 12:20 (factions) and Galatians 2:20. Kenodoxia is found only here in the New Testament. Both "selfish ambition" and "vain conceit" are stock words found in ancient catalogues of vices. "Vain conceit" has the root idea of "empty opinion, error." Thus it could depict a person who, though conceited, had no reason for it.

but in humility consider others better than yourselves.

In Christ, however, conceit was never appropriate. Though tapeinophrosynç was an uncomplimentary term to the Greek mind, the attitude of Christ had sanctified it and made it one of the most significant of Christian virtues. Humility was not a sense of worthlessness, but rather was manifested in concern for others. The last part of the verse "consider . . . yourselves" defines the term. By adopting this perspective and by drawing from the reality of Christ's deeds, "selfish ambition" and "vain conceit" could be overcome.

2:4 Each of you should look not only to your own interests,

The thought of the last of verse 3 continues here. As the NIV reads, the text does not forbid a measure of self-interest. But it does call for a dedicated concern for others when seen in the light of verse 3. Cf. what Paul says of Timothy in 2:21. The Christ hymn which follows, beginning in verse 6, shows the extremity to which Christ went in his concern for others - for humanity.

but also to the interests of others.

An alternate rendering of this verse omits the word "only," which is not in the Greek, and "also" (kaiΙ , kai ), which is not in some manuscripts. On this reading Paul did not give any legitimacy to one's own interests, but only to those of others. This interpretation argues, therefore, that Paul was calling for an observation and imitation of the good qualities of other Christians. They should not be so self-centered they failed to observe and be motivated by the virtues of others. In the general sense these things are true, but in view of what Paul will say in 2:5-11, it seems better to adopt the translation of the NIV, with the meaning discussed in the previous paragraph. O'Brien has shown that the idea of "only" can be assumed here on the basis of other Greek texts, and that there is adequate manuscript evidence to keep "also."

C. THE EXAMPLE OF CHRIST (THE CHRIST HYMN) (2:5-11)

⁵ Your attitude should be the same as that of Christ Jesus: ⁶ Who, being in very nature ^a God,

did not consider equality with God something to be grasped,

⁷ but made himself nothing, taking the very nature ^b of a servant,

being made in human likeness.

⁸ And being found in appearance as a man,

he humbled himself

and became obedient to death -

even death on a cross!

⁹ Therefore God exalted him to the highest place

and gave him the name that is above every name,

¹⁰ that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow,

in heaven and on earth and under the earth,

¹¹ and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord,

to the glory of God the Father.

^a 6 Or in the form of ^b 7 Or the form

It is generally agreed that these verses are a Christian hymn, inserted into the text here as a powerful enforcement of the epistle's call to humility (and thus to unity). Though it is more evident in the Greek, the form of these words differs from the surrounding text. There are certain stylistic characteristics which are not typical of the rest of the letter. More importantly, there is a significant heightening of theology here. Several important terms in these verses are not found elsewhere in the letter.

This is a christological statement unparalleled in the New Testament. The breadth of concept has led to reams of discussion by writers who have probed the meaning of various terms in the text. Nowhere else is the self-emptying of Christ described as it is here. Indeed, the theological profundity of the passage far outstripped the needs of Paul as he employed it. Thus it can be assumed that its full significance was in its original hymnic form, and Paul has employed it in a "reduced" usage. Were it composed by Paul only for this occasion, such exalted (and puzzling) concepts would not be necessary. Craddock well notes that the context shows Paul was not having a christological debate. He also observes that the hymn itself has no moral message (although it offers an excellent platform from which to give moral exhortation). Since Paul was advocating morality (humility) these words, if composed just for this letter, would certainly have included such a thrust.

We assume, then, that prior to the writing of Philippians these words stood in another context. Some have suggested they may have been a brief compend of Christian teaching, but the omission of something as basic as even a reference to the resurrection argues against that. Lohmeyer, who was the first scholar to demonstrate these words were a hymn, argued that the early church sang it at the Lord's Supper. Others have considered it a baptismal hymn. Whatever the case, we presume the effectiveness of its use in Philippians indicates it would be familiar to the readers, surely from church usage, and that it was considered to be true.

Where did the hymn originate? A variety of views have been offered. Some argue that it originated outside Christian sources, either from pagan, philosophical, or Jewish quarters. Then the original was "baptized" and made Christian. Others argue it originated entirely within Christian circles, and was ready to hand for use by Paul. Hawthorne, for example, believes the foot washing episode in John 13 formed the conceptual background. He grants that linguistic similarities with John 13 are few, but contends there are numerous contacts in subject matter.

Others believe Paul himself was the author. Objectors to this view point out the absence of certain Pauline themes (e.g. the resurrection) but respondents contend that hymns were not meant to be complete theological statements. Paul's hymn to love in 1 Corinthians 13, if original with him, does demonstrate his talent as a hymn writer. Some advocating Pauline authorship say these words preceded Philippians, while others feel Paul composed the hymn just for this letter. In the latter case, however, it seems strange Paul would go so far beyond the purpose and needs of the epistle. It should be noted, though, that the hymn does connect smoothly with 2:1-4, and it also prepares for the thought of 3:20f.

If, as seems most likely, the hymn preexisted its use here, was there any modification of the original in order to make it fit the present context? Here again many suggestions have been made, dealing largely with the strophic arrangement of the text (two stanzas or three?; where are the divisions?). Special attention has been given to "even death on a cross" (v. 8), since it seems to violate the previous literary structure of the hymn. These analyses are complicated, however, by lack of knowledge of what the form of a hymn should be , as no set form of a hymn has been discovered to which comparison can be made. We are concerned to interpret the text as it stands, whatever may have been its prehistory.

Whatever the truth, once the hymn did not exist, and then it did. The realities described were made known to the church by what God did in Christ and through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. The descriptive language used, which, as we shall see, poses many perplexing problems, may spring from the fact that such realities can only be expressed in ways that leave considerable latitude for the mystery of divine being and action.

There are certain pitfalls to avoid in interpreting these verses in the context of Philippians . One can easily become intrigued with exploring the meaning of the various statements about Christ ("very nature," "equality," "grasped," "made nothing," etc.) and thus forget the practical use to which Paul was putting these words. Another pitfall is the opposite. Preoccupation with the Pauline application can ignore the lofty theology of the text. A third pitfall is to expend all one's interpretive energy in trying to fathom the place of this hymn in early church life, considered as a text giving insight to early Christian worship. All of these inquiries have their place, but we must remember that we are primarily interpreting Philippians. We will be periodically presented with the problem of the original meaning of an expression in the hymn as compared to Paul's meaning.

Though some would analyze the text in terms of Christ's preexistence, his earthly life and his glorification, a simpler and more obvious division has verses 6-8 as one section, and verses 9-11 as a second.

2:5 Your attitude should be the same as that of Christ Jesus:

These words are not a part of the hymn, but introduce it and form a link with verses 1-4.

"Attitude" is from the same root ( phron ) as "minded" and "purpose" in verse 2 (cf. notes at 1:7). Any uncertainty about Paul's meaning there is now to be marvelously clarified. Further, "humility" of verse 3 is what verses 6-8 describe so powerfully.

The literal translation of these Greek words would be something like "think this among yourselves which also in Christ Jesus." Because this expression is somewhat vague, two distinct views of the verse have emerged. One contends that "in Christ Jesus" means "in union with Christ Jesus" or "in the church" or "as Christians." Paul reminded the Philippians of their conversion, and in his exhortation called them back to that commitment. Thus the focus was a call to reaffirmation of the new life. This view gives more emphasis to the meaning of the hymn as it existed outside Philippians.

A second interpretation, commonly known as the ethical view, considers Christ as a model to be followed. The NIV translation implies this meaning, but we must remind ourselves that any translation of the verse is somewhat interpretive. On this understanding Paul was not simply saying "remember and imitate" Christ, for in verse thirteen he said it was "God who works in you . . . ." Cf. other calls to imitate Christ in Romans 15:1-7; 1 Corinthians 11:1; 2 Corinthians 8:9; and 1 Thessalonians 1:6.

These two possibilities continue to be debated. The first has been more popular in recent years, though not universally accepted. The reader may well ask if, in the long run, there is that much difference between the new life in Christ Jesus and a personal imitation of Christ. The question is well asked, considering the ultimate nature of Paul's appeal.

The form of "your" (ejn uJmi'n , en hymin , "in/among you") indicates Paul was thinking of the attitude of the Philippians to one another. The verb fronevw (phroneô , "think" or "be intent upon") has been rendered by some passively ("let this mind be" - KJV; compare the NIV), and by many more recent translations actively ("think this" [way]). Paul described the actions of humility on Jesus' part, but he was even more concerned with the inner thoughts that produced such actions. Of course no one can truly "get inside the mind" of Jesus, but certain things can be safely assumed, as in the present verses.

2:6 Who, being in very nature God,

On the christological level, the interpretive dilemmas here concern the meaning of "nature" and the meanings of "equality" and "grasped." The sort of subtle analysis demanded in interpreting these words is fascinating, but is probably also considerably more complicated than was Paul's hortatory intent in using them.

Though interpreters generally consider this a picture of the preexistent Jesus, some suggest the earthly Jesus may be in view here as well. "Being" is an indefinite term, so it cannot settle the time of which the text speaks. However the sense of emptying and humiliation seems more powerful if we assume Christ's preexistence is what is considered.

"Nature" translates the Greek morfhv (morphç ). The term is found elsewhere in the New Testament only in 2:7 and in Mark 16:12 (the resurrected Jesus appeared in a different "form"). The scarcity of references means there is no other New Testament evidence on the basis of which to interpret the present text. Numerous meanings for the term have been offered and refuted. They include: (1) the essential nature of God; (2) the glory of God; (3) the image of God, as in Gen 1:27; (4) a mode of being for God; (5) and position or status vis-a-vis God. Without wading through all these conjectures, we believe Paul is saying, however cautiously, that Christ was God! We should remember, too, the parallel with verse 7. Whatever the basic meaning of morphç in the one place, the same should be said of the other. Thus he was God (here) and he was a servant (v. 7).

did not consider equality with God something to be grasped,

Many interpretations (one author has surveyed over 20) have been offered of this text. We assume equality was already the possession of Christ Jesus, not something to which he aspired. "Grasp" (from aJrpavzw , harpazô ) means to snatch or seize, and in the passive sense indicates a prize; i.e., the thing seized. Christ did not use the equality to escape service and humiliation. It might be supposed that divinity would avoid the destiny described in the next two verses. But the idea seems to be the opposite. The servant God, because he was God and because his love and power made it possible, gave/emptied himself. His self-emptying was not a "contradiction" of God's nature, but a demonstration of it. This is surprising and wonderful. Hawthorne suggests the point could be made clearer if the first of the verse were translated "Precisely because he was in the form of God . . . ."

In interpreting this verse we come into deep waters. If these suggestions are not correct, we think something more marvelous is. The more one meditates on the reality expressed by these words, the richer the divine care for man appears. Any reader sensing the power of this exhortation should surely be moved to humility and service.

2:7 but made himself nothing, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness.

The double level of interpretation certainly forces its attention on the reader here. At the christological level questions arise like "what did he give up when he 'made himself nothing'?"; "to what or whom did he make himself a servant?"; "what is the background of the word 'servant'?"; "is 'servant' the same as 'human likeness' or does it imply more?"; and "does 'likeness' imply full acceptance of and identification with humanity?" These issues lead one into the loftiest realms of human thought. Conjectured solutions must often say "about such mysteries we cannot be sure."

At the practical level, however, we must recall that Paul was making a point about human behavior. It was not his main purpose here to explore loftier issues of exact christological definition. We cannot know the depth of insight of the hymn. But we do know that Philippians is a practical, not a speculative, letter.

We have noted that the self-emptying of Christ showed the love and condescension of the "servant God." It is clear from these words ("made himself") that Christ's action was voluntary, not coerced. We assume this verse describes the incarnation itself, not Christ's actions once he became man. Those are described in verse eight.

The verb translated "made himself nothing" is ejkevnwsen (ekenôsen ). From it we derive the word "kenotic." The kenotic theory maintains that at the incarnation Christ gave up his omnipresence, omniscience, and omnipotence. He retained, however, qualities such as holiness, love, and righteousness. This view, though worthy, is probably asking more of this text than it says. But it does indicate how scholars have labored to understand what it was that Christ gave up when he "made himself nothing." Suggestions include divesting himself of his glory; or of his exercise of authority as God; or of his majesty; or of equality with God. Does it mean he gave up whatever kept him from being subject to the circumstances and vicissitudes of being human? Whatever the ultimate truth, Paul is more concerned with what God became, than with exactly what the specifics of that transition involved. His emptying is more fully defined in verse 8. As O'Brien says, he poured himself out totally for man's sake - whatever that meant! Again, we must marvel at the magnitude of the divine mercy! How can God, who is everything, make himself nothing? If this consideration does not carry one into the regions of awe, what can?

"Nature" is the Greek morfhv (morphç ), the term also used in verse 6 (see notes there). "Servant" is from the Greek dou'lo" ( doulos ), which means "slave" (see 1:1). This is the only place this term is used of Jesus in the New Testament. Other texts describing him as a servant use a different Greek word. One could see "slavery" as standing in opposition to deity, as if Christ went from one situation to its contradictory opposite. But we have argued that doulos defines an aspect of the divine nature, rather than being a contradiction of it (see John 13:3ff).

Two views are taken of the relation of "servant" to "human likeness." One holds them to be parallel. The other sees a progression from the first to the second. We hold to the first view. Servanthood, on this premise, was basic both to the nature of God, and to the human condition. The former was voluntary; the latter involuntary. God chose to serve. Man, though he may not recognize it, can be no other than a servant (including service to death, as the next verse shows). One might say, in paradoxical fashion, that "nothing is less like God than being a slave" and "nothing is more like God than being a slave."

What is the background from which the term "servant" is drawn? Some suggest Isaiah 53, but this view is open to objection for various reasons, including the fact that the word for "servant" there is pai'" ( pais ), not doulos . Another suggestion understands the text against the background of slavery in the society of Jesus' day.

"Being made" implies the conception and birth process. Birth and infancy are themselves risks, so they suggest again the helplessness to which Christ submitted himself. "Likeness" reiterates his complete identification with humanity.

The last line of verse 7, in the Greek, has been transferred to the first of verse 8 in the NIV.

2:8 And being found in appearance as a man, he humbled himself

The first part of the hymn concludes with this verse. To the power of the description "servant" in verse 7 is added the impact of "humbled" and "death on a cross." Paul's appeal to the Philippians was made with one powerful point after another.

Verse 7 described the fact of incarnation, and this verse depicts the nature of the incarnate life. "Now that the impossible has happened, and he is man, what will we see?" The answer is - humility! The very fact of practicing humility, so basic to the Christian lifestyle, and so contrary to the impulses of sinful and ego-centered man, is one men find exceedingly challenging and difficult. But Christ's way of living spoke volumes to the weakness of humans, and to the nature of the new life.

and became obedient to death -

To be human was to be subject to "death." But Paul added another marvel by reference to "death on a cross." From one perspective, how vast the contrast with "being in very nature God" of verse 6 and with "Lord" of verse 11. Jesus knew to be human was to die, but his obedient humanity led to the most disgraceful of deaths, as a despised criminal, intentionally humiliated, and subjected to intense sufferings. Elsewhere Paul, stressing the shame of such a death, identified it with death on a tree, which was done to one accursed by God (Deut 21:23, quoted in Gal 3:13). Of course, Christ was not accursed by God, but it could seem that way because of how he died.

"Obedient" to whom? The text does not say, but we presume the meaning is obedience to God, which led to his terrible fate. Nor does the text indicate the benefit of Christ's deed on the cross for humanity. But the church would know it well, whether it were specifically stated or not.

even death on a cross!

The role of the cross in this context prepares us for 3:18, where Paul speaks of "enemies of the cross of Christ." Whatever their exact identity, this text helps us see the enormity of their sin.

"Even death on a cross" seems to break the metric structure of the hymn. Was it original, or was it added here? Both views have been taken. Our task, however, is to understand the passage as it stands.

2:9 Therefore God exalted him to the highest place

The style of Greek changes in verses 9-11 from that of verses 6-8. One difference is the increased number of Old Testament constructions and allusions.

If the story had ended with "death on a cross" we would wonder at the intent of such voluntary divine humiliation. The dramatic reversal is saluted by the words "Therefore God." To this point Christ was the active party. Now he is passive, and the Father is active. The humiliated one becomes the exalted one. The slave becomes the Lord (vv. 9 and 11 - "name" and "Lord").

The contrast with verses 6-8 makes the reader gasp with amazement. The Greek makes the point as strong as possible with "exalted . . . highest place." The term ujperuyovw (hyperypsoô ), used only here in the New Testament, goes beyond the usual word for exaltation. One author has suggested the meaning "super exalted," or "raised to the loftiest heights." The nature of the exaltation is described in the next two verses. The christological inquiries here have asked what aspect of Christ was exalted (contrast "made nothing" in v. 7) but Paul has not enlightened us on such issues.

The power of the exaltation is also conveyed by the contrast between the decisive totality of this description compared to the stages with which the humiliation was described.

and gave him the name that is above every name,

"Gave" is from a verb (carivzomai , charizomai ) which is cognate to the word for grace. The gracious divine bestowal was a name - and a reality. The name was not Jesus, for that would represent no advance on Christ's earthly status. Rather it was Lord (v. 11). He was named Lord because he was Lord.

So humiliation led in God's economy to exaltation. In the application Paul was not urging humility on the Philippians so they would be exalted. But exaltation would be the result. Jesus taught the same thing often during his ministry (cf. Luke 11:14; 14:11). Obedience to the admonition of 2:3 would lead to exaltation. Where would disobedience lead?

2:10 that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow,

At the pinnacle of all creation Jesus is to receive the homage of all that exists. Made triumphant by God, he receives universal worship. All will know of the great reversal. "The name of Jesus" means Jesus himself. Paul borrowed the language of Isaiah 45:23 in his references to every knee bowing and every tongue confessing. There are two views about this submission. One says that all creatures would gladly make such an acknowledgment in submission to him. The second says some would submit willingly, and others would acknowledge his Lordship without submission. Thus not all who bowed and confessed would be saved (cf. Rev 9:20f; 16:9,11). But no one would escape the mastery of his Lordship. Ultimately he would not be successfully resisted.

in heaven and on earth and under the earth,

There have been numerous attempts to define the nature of "heaven," "earth," and "under the earth." One writer said they were first invisible powers, then those alive now, and then the dead, respectively. Others have suggested angels, humans, and demons; and still others have suggested spirit powers thought to rule these three realms. Whether any of these views is elected, or some other, the point is that nothing is outside the sovereignty of Jesus. As a practical application Paul's readers should beware lest their divisiveness, selfish ambition and vain conceit (in attitude and deed) put them outside the realm of those freely acknowledging Jesus' Lordship.

2:11 and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father.

"Jesus is Lord" is held to be the earliest Christian confession (1 Cor 12:3; Rom 10:9; Col 2:6). Paul's words here reminded the church of the powerful realities lying behind that confession, and of the great obligation which making it imposed.

The climax is the "glory of God." This is the result of Christ's Lordship. It would also be the result of the acknowledgment of that Lordship in the "attitude" (v. 5) of the Philippians.

D. EXHORTATION TO OBEDIENCE (2:12-18)

1. Work Out Salvation (2:12-13)

¹² Therefore, my dear friends, as you have always obeyed - not only in my presence, but now much more in my absence - continue to work out your salvation with fear and trembling, ¹³ for it is God who works in you to will and to act according to his good purpose.

Here Paul makes further application to the Christ hymn, calling for an obedient response from the Philippians while he was absent just as they had obeyed when he was present. This continued working out of their salvation, to be done with fear and trembling, would be energized by God. Both their wills and actions would be so empowered according to the divine purpose.

2:12 Therefore, my dear friends,

Paul has described the behavioral needs of the church (1:27f; 2:2-4) and has offered the highest possible motivation. Now, building on this most impressive foundation he urges utmost seriousness and energy in their obedience. It must be kept in mind that these much-discussed verses are to be seen in context. They are part of the hortatory section that began in 1:27, and are the "invitation to action" following the hymn. The call was to humility and service, to unity and unselfishness (vv. 2-4). That was the apostle's focus, so that he is not here simply giving a general statement about the whole of the Christian life.

C.S. Lewis has observed how these verses tie human effort and divine empowering together in one text. The words warn against a view that says "salvation" comes solely by human effort. But they also warn against holding that divine grace is so overwhelming that humans need not exert the greatest effort in God's service. Glorious grace does not excuse from work. If work could earn salvation, the in-working of God would be unnecessary. If grace alone were sufficient, there would be no call for human effort. The mandate of verse 12 would be a frightening one (and has been for many) were it not for the promise of verse 13.

"Dear friends" indicates again the affection already expressed in 1:3-11. The reference to obedience is made more powerful by an understanding of Christ's obedience described in verse 8. How could a disciple of Christ, reminded of the wonder of the Lord's obedience, refuse to obey? And how could a disciple, commended for obedience, not feel the great compliment in view of Christ's obedience? The obedience, of course, would be to the injunctions stated in 1:27-2:5, but would also look forward to further exhortations within the letter.

as you have always obeyed - not only in my presence, but now much more in my absence -

When Paul spoke of his "presence" or "absence," he could have referred to the past or to the future, depending on how the Greek is understood. It is more important to know that they were responding to Christ, and this response did not depend on the presence or absence of any human being, including Paul.

continue to work out your salvation

"Salvation" has been the subject of considerable discussion. There are two views most often advocated. An older view holds that this was individual salvation. Since the work of J.H. Michael in 1924, however, others have maintained that the reference is sociological. Since the word swthriva (sôtçria ) rendered "salvation" can also mean "wholeness" or "health," it is argued that the call was to seek the spiritual well being of the church. Hawthorne takes the latter position. O'Brien, without denying the emphasis on the entire church, argues that individual salvation cannot be excluded. It seems that Paul's call to unity in verses 2-4 must involve the whole community and its health. But how can one separate what the church is from the salvation of its members? Perhaps Melick best states the essence of the matter when he observes that Paul was telling them to act like Christians should! But the primary thrust of Paul, we maintain, was for the welfare of the Christian community.

with fear and trembling,

The word fovbo" ( phobos ) translated "fear" is the root of our "phobia," and that rendered "trembling" (trovmo" , tromos ) of our "trauma." The expression is frightening. But Paul was not speaking of apprehension about the final judgment. His intent was not to produce anxiety, but to promote seriousness and maximum dedication to the task. If we took "fear and trembling" to refer to apprehension of being eternally lost, this would seem to imply that the divine energizing of verse 13 would be of very little help. Hawthorne thinks the expression carries the sense of "obediently work." How could one not practice such exertion, given the great reality described in verses 5-11?

2:13 for it is God

To those who found the task of being Christian seemingly impossible, verse 13 offered glad news. Paul told his readers God had already been at work in them, and would continue to do so. Here the theme of growth, introduced in 1:6, resurfaces. "You can," because "God is." Thus, though maximum effort was demanded, doubt could be cast aside. Salvation does not depend solely on human effort. God calls men to his tasks, but then he works in them to realize the call. Also, they did not need Paul's presence to work, for they had God's presence.

who works in you to will and to act

"Work" in verse 13 (two times) is from the verb (ejnergevw , energço ) which yields our word "energy." Paul used the word eighteen times, of twenty uses in the New Testament. The divine energy provoked the human work. The process was one initiated by God. Human work was responsive to divine energy. God's activity affected both intent (will) and action.

according to his good purpose.

Since "his" is not in the Greek, some have suggested that "good purpose" refers to men, with a meaning such as "good will" or "good understanding." Thus, God works to produce good will in the church. This is linguistically possible, though we prefer to think that God's purpose to save man is the sense here.

2. Become Faultless Children (2:14-18)

¹⁴ Do everything without complaining or arguing, ¹⁵ so that you may become blameless and pure, children of God without fault in a crooked and depraved generation, in which you shine like stars in the universe ¹⁶ as you hold out ^a the word of life - in order that I may boast on the day of Christ that I did not run or labor for nothing. ¹⁷ But even if I am being poured out like a drink offering on the sacrifice and service coming from your faith, I am glad and rejoice with all of you. ¹⁸ So you too should be glad and rejoice with me.

^a 16 Or hold on to

2:14 Do everything without complaining or arguing,

One might suppose that conceit and disunity in the church would produce "complaining" (goggusmov" , gongysmos ) or "arguing" (dialogismov" , dialogismos ). So, as Paul had attacked the spirit of the problem, and had urged great earnestness in meeting it, he now specifies concrete action - which was to cover all circumstances ("everything"). Little (nothing?) is said elsewhere in the book about complaint or argument, but one wonders how this relates to the disaffection between Euodia and Syntyche in 4:2? Since the next verse reflects the language of Deuteronomy 32:5, some turn to the Pentateuch for enlightenment here, suggesting that Paul's readers would think of the complaints of the Israelites in the wilderness. Concrete details about the implications of the these words elude us, but we do presume the complaints and arguments were directed against each other, not against God, since it is unity within the church which Paul addresses throughout Philippians.

2:15 so that you may become blameless and pure, children of God

The words "blameless and pure" (a[mempto" , amemptos , and ajkevraio" , akeraios ) echo Paul's prayer in 1:10. The terms doubtless had primary reference to the problems identified in 1:27-2:4, as well as to the previous verse. Paul had spoken previously of evangelism (1:12-14,15-18,27) and now he attacks the problems within the church that affected their outreach. He describes the world in two ways: as crooked and depraved; and as being in darkness. Children of God, if not blameless in the sense Paul described it, destroy the effectiveness of their main task - holding out the word of life (cf. John 17:20-23).

without fault in a crooked and depraved generation,

Why did Paul adopt the language of Deuteronomy 32:5 ("crooked and depraved" ) to describe the "outside" world? It is possible that the language had no special implications from the Old Testament. Since Deuteronomy describes Israel's transgression, however, and since the language was here applied to the world, perhaps Paul wished to contrast a blameless church with a blameworthy Israel. Was there any implication that Israel's call to impact the world for God had failed? Further, the church now constituted the children of God, and was the true Israel. These suggestions about Israel, however, do not catch up a main theme in the book, though they do bear some relation to what Paul said in 3:2-11.

in which you shine like stars in the universe

"Shine" suggests Jesus' teaching in Matthew 5:14-16 about his followers being the "light of the world." The term for "stars" (fwsth're" , phôstçres ) refers to any light-giving body, and is rendered "lights" and "stars" in different translations. "Stars" is based on usage of the term in the LXX (cf. Dan 12:3). If translated "lights" reference could be to certain literary allusions describing great Israelites as light bearers. Whatever the meaning, the world is to be enlightened by the church, and the church cannot do that if riddled by dissension.

2:16 as you hold out the word of life -

What do God's blameless children do? They "hold out" (or "hold on to") the "word of life." If the translation "hold out" is to be preferred, then the idea of mission and outreach was prominent. But "hold on to" (NIV footnote) is also a possible translation. In that case steadfastness was emphasized (cf. 1:27f). A good case could be made for either meaning, since both steadfastness and evangelism can be documented within the letter. (Cf. the notes on v. 15, as well as 1:6; cf. "stand firm" in 1:27).

in order that I may boast on the day of Christ

Paul returns to a personal reference - the first since 1:6 - in the last of this verse. "Boast" (kauvchma , kauchçma ) was a term Paul used frequently (46 of 50 New Testament references are Pauline). The idea focused more on the reason for boasting than on a boast itself. He had previously given the main motivations that should move them, but he cannot avoid a personal note. He did not intend to gloat, but in his great love for the church he indicated how severe his disappointment should be if that love had been for naught. The "day of Christ" was previously mentioned in 1:6 and 10; and is referred to in different language in 3:20 (see also 2:10f). Paul set their faith in the context of final judgment, which reinforced the seriousness called for in verse 12.

that I did not run or labor for nothing.

Paul used two words for his ministry here. "Run" describes an athlete, an idea picked up in 3:12f. (cf. also Gal 2:2; 1 Cor 9:24-27). "Labor" (kopiavw , kopiaô , "toil, work intensively") may modify "run," indicating the exertion involved, or it may be drawn from his work as a tentmaker. Both show how fully he had exerted himself on the behalf of the Philippians. He had nearly exhausted himself for their sake (cf. Col 1:29; 1 Tim 4:10).

2:17 But even if I am being poured out like a drink offering on the sacrifice and service coming from your faith, I am glad and rejoice with all of you.

If Paul's boast in verse 16 were misunderstood, here he "subordinates" his work to their "sacrifice and service." In so doing he gives another demonstration of his servant role, of which he had spoken in 1:25f, and which further carries the point made by the Christ hymn. His concern for their salvation was so intense that he found joy in whatever he had done to enhance it. He was the "man for them." This was the positive side, set in opposition to "for nothing" in verse 16.

The term for "poured out" (spevndomai , spendomai ) is found as well in 2 Tim 4:6, where Paul contemplated his death. It is commonly believed the same meaning is found here. In verse 24 Paul speaks of hope for release, and in view of that we think the reference to death here describes the intensity of his dedication, not a possible death penalty from prison. He not only ran and labored, but he would die ("but even if"). Were he to be judicially executed that would be no benefit to the Philippians' "sacrifice and service," but his intense dedication would benefit them.

A drink offering would accompany a sacrifice, being poured atop it or at the foot of the altar (cf. 2 Kings 16:13; Jer 7:18; Hos 9:4). So whatever Paul endured for their sake completed their faith, as the libation completed the sacrifice. "Sacrifice and service" compliments the readers. Paul skillfully urged them to greater holiness by alternating compliment and command. "You are good, but you must be better." A libation was not significant if made alone, and Paul's work for them would lose its purpose if they did not continue to grow in obedience.

2:18 So you too should be glad and rejoice with me.

"Rejoice with" indicates either their joy in service, or joy over Paul's concern for them, or both. The first option seems most likely, since verse eighteen may be a call from Paul to rejoice in his work for them.

Some suggest the rejoicing of the Philippians in verse 17 was because of something different from that in which they were bidden to rejoice in verse 18. If so, we can only conjecture what it might have been. Perhaps, as suggested above, they and Paul found joy in their service, and now he called them to rejoice with him in his work as well. It is at points like this, however, that we should beware of being overly subtle in our interpretations.

IV. PAUL'S CO-WORKERS (2:19-30)

A. REGARDING TIMOTHY (2:19-24)

¹⁹ I hope in the Lord Jesus to send Timothy to you soon, that I also may be cheered when I receive news about you. ²⁰ I have no one else like him, who takes a genuine interest in your welfare. ²¹ For everyone looks out for his own interests, not those of Jesus Christ. ²² But you know that Timothy has proved himself, because as a son with his father he has served with me in the work of the gospel. ²³ I hope, therefore, to send him as soon as I see how things go with me. ²⁴ And I am confident in the Lord that I myself will come soon.

Paul has referred to himself in verses 12-18. The next main personal section of this letter begins here and extends through 3:14. These biographical details, valuable to us for the detail about Paul, were not simply informational. Paul also used them for exhortation. In this passage about Timothy the basic information can be derived from verses 19, 23, and 24. Verses 20-22 compliment Timothy, but also further Paul's case for humility and service to others - a case already made in the Christ hymn (2:5-11) and by Paul's example (1:24-26; 2:17f). In the subsequent paragraph, dealing with Epaphroditus, Paul augments the basic information by noting Epaphroditus's humility and service (vv. 25,29f). Thus these two paragraphs, which some dismiss as insignificant personal data, are freighted with considerable hortatory significance.

This is the case, in fact, with all of the "personal" sections in Philippians, and may explain why Paul intersperses such material throughout the letter, rather than saving it to the end, as he sometimes does (cf. Romans, Colossians).

2:19 I hope in the Lord Jesus to send Timothy to you soon,

Paul hopes (ejlpivzw , elpizô ) to send Timothy (cf. 1:1), and in verse 24 he is confident (a different Greek word, pevpoiqa , pepoitha [from peivqw , peithô , "persuade"]) he would come himself. Both statements place the events "in the Lord." The statement was not essential to the information, so why did Paul make it? Perhaps it was an affirmation of his faith that all plans of life are in God's hands, and thus he yielded to the divine purposes ("if the Lord wills"). He may have wished to avoid seeming to plan his plans apart from reliance on Christ. This would be especially true with the more tenuous possibility of his release implied by verse 24.

that I also may be cheered when I receive news about you.

Timothy was to be sent, apparently, to gather news about the Philippians and then return with it to Paul. We presume that in addition to personal information Paul would be greatly concerned that the problems of the church he addressed in the letter had been resolved. Very likely Timothy could be expected to contribute to such resolution, and perhaps to encourage the church in other ways. This seems implied by Paul's reference to Timothy's "genuine interest" in their welfare (v. 20). Further, Timothy could bring news to them of any further developments in Paul's case since they had received his letter. On other missions of Timothy for Paul see 1 Thessalonians 3:1-5; 1 Corinthians 4:17; 16:10; and cf. Acts 17:14f; 19:22.

"Cheered" is from a Greek word (eujyucevw , eupsychço ) that was often found on graves as a final wish for the dead. This is its only use in the New Testament.

2:20 I have no one else like him,

Timothy was with Paul when the church began in Philippi, and paid later visits to the city (Acts 19:21f; 20:3-6). His firsthand knowledge would at least partly account for his "genuine interest." This may be the significance of "no one else like him," i. e., no one else knows the church as he does. Yet we must keep in mind the words of verse 21.

who takes a genuine interest in your welfare.

"Take interest" (merimnavw , merimnaô ) is the same term translated "be anxious" in 4:6. Obviously the meaning can be positive, as here, or negative, depending on context. The word is a strong one, implying that Timothy's concern bore heavily upon him.

2:21 For everyone looks out for his own interests, not those of Jesus Christ.

It is tempting to link these words with 2:3,4, which exhorted concern for the interests of others (cf. also the negative example of 1:15-17). If we make the connection it would seem Paul was criticizing those around him for failing to display the virtues he was urging. The problem was both in his locale and in Philippi.

Paul may have been scoring selfishness here, but a case can be made for a less harsh reading of the text. Some of those around Paul had been complimented for their evangelism (1:14). If Paul were in Rome, we know from Col 4:10,14 and Phlm 24 that he was accompanied by Aristarchus, Luke, Mark and others (unless some had departed by the time Philippians was written). Surely they would not be criticized for selfishness. On the basis of this evidence, it is held by some that of those "qualified" (knowing the church and having a personal concern) to go (a formidable mission) only Timothy was a possibility. Or that others had other work, not necessarily unworthy, that occupied them. We do not have sufficient information to determine the exact force of Paul's words. It may be some could not go for legitimate reasons, and others would not go because of a lack of real concern. We need not assume all of those who looked out for their own interests were of the same stripe. Yet in the final analysis "not those of Jesus Christ" seems decisively uncomplimentary, though the things of Jesus Christ would be primarily the needs of the church in Philippi, not the entire Christian life.

2:22 But you know that Timothy has proved himself,

If verse 21 were meant as a criticism, Paul did not elaborate, but returns to discuss Timothy. Their knowledge of him would be based, at least partly, on his earlier presence with them (cf. Acts 19:21f; 20:3-6). Why did Paul find it necessary to commend Timothy here? Was it just Christian appreciation for a faithful servant? Could the Philippians have previously seen Timothy as "second fiddle" to Paul, and the apostle wished to ensure they would see him as more than a subordinate? We prefer this latter alternative.

because as a son with his father he has served with me in the work of the gospel.

Paul uses two images to indicate Timothy's worth. First, "father" and "son" indicate the family and the closeness of those bonds (see 1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tim 1:2). Second, "served" (from douleuvw , douleuô ) is from the same root as the word for "slave," so Timothy's slavery to God showed his dedication (cf. 1:1). "With me" indicates Paul did not consider Timothy his slave, but God's slave.

2:23 I hope, therefore, to send him as soon as I see how things go with me.

These words modify "soon" of verse 19. But what is implied by "things go with me?" A natural assumption would be that Paul's trial was the issue, though he expresses confidence in verse 24. Others hold that Paul had other things in mind, perhaps personal needs or concerns for the church. We must recall that Paul at this time was probably in his seventh or eighth decade of life, with physical problems, and might need assistance a younger man could forego. Further, he needed someone to do what he in prison was not free to do. Apparently his concerns did not fall in the same category as those of the ones who looked out for their own interests, in verse 21.

Whatever his concern, Paul expected it to be dealt with before long, and Timothy to be sent on his way.

2:24 And I am confident in the Lord that I myself will come soon.

We have previously discussed (1:18b-26) the question of Paul's expectations of release. He has indicated his yearning for them in 1:8, and has referred to the possibility of coming in 1:26f and 2:12. This is his most optimistic statement yet in the letter and is the last statement on the subject. Whatever his case, he placed it in the Lord's hands. But we suspect he had some indication or strong suspicion of good news. But even if he should not come, Timothy would offer the church the ministry Paul wished them to have.

The word tacevw" (tachços ) translated "soon" is literally "immediately," but the term is qualified by the implied situation after Timothy's trip to Philippi and return to Paul. The language may be used to emphasize that they need not wait long for Timothy to arrive.

B. REGARDING EPAPHRODITUS (2:25-30)

²⁵ But I think it is necessary to send back to you Epaphroditus, my brother, fellow worker and fellow soldier, who is also your messenger, whom you sent to take care of my needs. ²⁶ For he longs for all of you and is distressed because you heard he was ill. ²⁷ Indeed he was ill, and almost died. But God had mercy on him, and not on him only but also on me, to spare me sorrow upon sorrow. ²⁸ Therefore I am all the more eager to send him, so that when you see him again you may be glad and I may have less anxiety. ²⁹ Welcome him in the Lord with great joy, and honor men like him, ³⁰ because he almost died for the work of Christ, risking his life to make up for the help you could not give me.

Now Epaphroditus is introduced. All we know of him is drawn from this paragraph and from 4:18. His name, a common one, is similar to Aphrodite, and means "lovely, charming, amicable." Some suggest, because of the similarity with Aphrodite, that he was a Gentile convert from a family which worshiped that goddess.

Paul continues his call to humility and service by presenting another example of such commitment. He compliments Epaphroditus five ways in verse 25, and then speaks further of his dedication in verses 29 and 30. A person who risked his life offered a strong contrast to those who were selfish and conceited, and who selfishly pursued their own interests, heedless of others (cf. 2:3f).

Though it is not stated specifically some scholars have assumed that it was the intent of Epaphroditus and of the Philippian church for him to be Paul's permanent helper. That plan was thwarted, however, by his sickness, and then by his subsequent and severe homesickness. We agree with this conjecture and with the view that Paul here was dealing with a delicate matter. Thus he gave generous commendation and comment on Epaphroditus's situation so that he would be received home with honor, rather than with criticism.

It is generally believed that Epaphroditus bore this letter to the Philippians. It is also possible, although less likely, that the letter was sent first by an unknown messenger, and that Epaphroditus came later. On the first view we see in verses 19-30 a threefold "mission" to Philippi. First Epaphroditus, then Timothy, and finally Paul. This speaks strongly of the apostle's great love and concern for this church.

2:25 But I think it is necessary to send back to you Epaphroditus,

"Send back" is in a form indicating complete action. Paul spoke from the viewpoint of the readers, to whom the return was an accomplished fact. "Back" is not in the Greek, so no assumption should be made from the English text that Paul had previously planned for Epaphroditus to return.

my brother, fellow worker and fellow soldier, who is also your messenger,

Epaphroditus is described in three ways that indicate his relation to Paul (cf. the words about Timothy in 1:22) and in two that indicate his relation to the church. "Fellow worker" (sunergovn , synergon ) is a Pauline expression (12 of 13 New Testament references). The obvious reference was to efforts with Paul in the latter's imprisonment. Perhaps Paul also had in mind previous joint efforts in Philippi itself. "Fellow soldier" (sustratiw'th" , systratiôtçs ) may imply conflict and even suffering. "Messenger" (ajpovstolo" , apostolos ) is literally "one sent" - the same word as "apostle." Compare a similar use of the term in 2 Corinthians 8:23. Though commonly used only of the twelve the term had broader senses and was therefore also used to describe others in the New Testament who were engaged in various missions. "Minister" translates a term the Jews applied to the priesthood. In that sense it may relate to the description of the gift Epaphroditus brought to Paul as a "sacrifice" (4:18).

whom you sent to take care of my needs.

The "needs" will be described more fully in 4:10-18, though if Epaphroditus was sent as a permanent minister/ assistant for Paul, they could be even broader than that text indicates.

2:26 For he longs for all of you and is distressed because you heard he was ill.

Philippians is full of expressions of strong affection of Christians for each other (cf. 1:7f,25f; 4:1) and the relation between Epaphroditus and the Philippian church was a case in point.

The illness of Epaphroditus would be the subject of the following verses. But the present verse could be understood as implying homesickness. If that were true, and since Paul knew of it, it might have been a pressure on him in addition to the anxiety (v. 28) he felt regarding Epaphroditus's physical health. "All of you," as with "all" in 1:1,4, may depict Epaphroditus as a man who was above the Philippian divisions. That may have been a further reason Paul sent him home - to help heal the breaches in the church.

Word of Epaphroditus's illness had reached Philippi, and then word of their concern had come back to Paul and Epaphroditus. This could imply an illness of considerable length, or that it had been some time since Epaphroditus had recovered. "Distressed" (ajdhmonevw , adçmonço ) is the same term used of Jesus' agony in Gethsemane. Epaphroditus was concerned about their concern. As for the illness itself, which was extremely serious (vv. 27,30), it may have been contracted on his journey to Paul, or during his stay with him. Some suggest he became sick on the journey, but pressed on heedless of his condition, which only worsened his state.

2:27 Indeed he was ill, and almost died.

Paul may have mentioned Epaphroditus's brush with death (literally "a near neighbor to death") because the Philippians were not aware of just how serious the case was. These words prepare for the praise of Epaphroditus in verse 30, in which a powerful exhortation to sacrificial service is implied.

But God had mercy on him, and not on him only but also on me, to spare me sorrow upon sorrow.

Epaphroditus's healing is attributed to God's mercy. The exact implications of this (miracle?) cannot be determined, but the text is another example of Paul's remarkable God- and Christ-centeredness (cf. 1:19,24,29). Had Epaphroditus died, which apparently had seemed quite possible, Paul's sorrow at his own incarceration would have borne the additional burden of grief at his friend's death (sorrow upon sorrow).

2:28 Therefore I am all the more eager to send him, so that when you see him again you may be glad and I may have less anxiety.

Because of the mutual feeling of Epaphroditus and the church for one another, and for Paul's own relief, Paul was "more eager." This and the next two verses could easily be understood to conceal some anxiety felt by Paul regarding the reception of Epaphroditus (cf. the discussion prior to v. 25). Thus he made his case as strongly as he did. Epaphroditus's return would produce a joy beyond the news he was well. "Less anxiety" (ajlupovtero" , alypoteros ) is from the same root as "sorrow" in verse 27.

2:29 Welcome him in the Lord with great joy, and honor men like him,

"In the Lord" picks up the words of verses 19 and 24. Paul may mean "welcome him as Christians should," manifesting the spirit of humility and service. "Honor" will be explained in the next verse. We presume there would be a welcome in any event, but Epaphroditus's dedication deserved special consideration. Note the joy language in this and the preceding verse. On joy see the notes at 1:4.

2:30 because he almost died for the work of Christ,

This verse is the climax of the passage, adding the final important details to Paul's praise of Epaphroditus and offering a word of inspiration to the readers. Not only did Epaphroditus do Christ's work as a bringer of the gift of love, but he also demonstrated the self-renouncing spirit so powerfully shown by Christ.

risking his life

No previous usage of the word translated "risked" (paraboleuvw , paraboleuô ) has been discovered in any Greek text. One suggestion is that Paul employed a play on a gambling term. Epaphroditus risked for Christ's work, and won, because God had mercy. He did not let danger or hardship deter him from the task. It is even possible that the term may have implied some difficulties beyond the illness of Epaphroditus.

to make up for the help you could not give me.

Regarding the "help" (leitourgiva , leitourgia , the same Greek term as "take care" in v. 25) which had not been given, see 4:10,14,18. No criticism was implied in Paul's words. One has the sense of a messenger, commissioned with a great responsibility of love, determined to complete his mission, whatever the cost.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

Introduction / Outline

Robertson: Philippians (Book Introduction)

The Epistle to the Philippians

From Rome About a.d. 61

By Way of Introduction

There is something to be said for the idea that Paul wrote the Epistle to the Philippians while a prisoner in Ephesus if he ever was a prisoner there. All that can be said for that view has been presented by Professor George S. Duncan in St. Paul’s Ephesian Ministry (1930). But, when all is considered carefully in the light of the facts in the Acts and the Epistles, the best that one can say is that a possible case is made out with many difficulties remaining unexplained. The argument is more ingenious than convincing. It is not possible here to review the arguments pro and con that convince me that Paul was in Rome when he wrote this letter to Philippi. It is not clear whether it was written before the three that went together (Philemon, Colossians, Ephesians) or afterwards. Probably there was no great difference in time, but there was time for Epaphroditus to come to Rome, to fall sick, for the news to reach Philippi and for Epaphroditus to hear of their concern about him. The church in Philippi was Paul’s joy and pride and they had helped him before as they did this time.

The Epistle is a beautiful expression of gratitude for the love and gifts of the Philippian saints. He is a prisoner of hope in Rome with possible death before him, but with the note of joy running through all that Paul says. He hopes to be set free and to see them again.

Meanwhile he tells the Philippians about the difficulties and triumphs in Rome. The Judaizers have followed Paul here and there is an echo in chapters Philippians 1; 3 of their opposition. But Paul rises to full stature in the great Christological passages in chapters Philippians 2; 3 which prepare the way for the controversy with the Gnostics over the Person of Christ in Colossians and Ephesians.

JFB: Philippians (Book Introduction)

The INTERNAL EVIDENCE for the authenticity of this Epistle is strong. The style, manner of thought, and doctrine, accord with Paul's. The incidental allusions also establish his authorship. PALEY [Horæ Paulinæ, ch. 7] instances the mention of the object of Epaphroditus' journey to Rome, the Philippian contribution to Paul's wants, Epaphroditus' sickness (Phi 1:7; Phi 2:25-30; Phi 4:10-18), the fact that Timothy had been long with Paul at Philippi (Phi 1:1; Phi 2:19), the reference to his being a prisoner at Rome now for a long time (Phi 1:12-14; Phi 2:17-28), his willingness to die (compare Phi 1:23, with 2Co 5:8), the reference to the Philippians having seen his maltreatment at Philippi (Phi 1:29-30; Phi 2:1-2).

The EXTERNAL EVIDENCE is equally decisive: POLYCARP [Epistle to the Philippians, 3; 11]; IRENÆUS [Against Heresies, 4.18.4]; CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA [The Instructor, 1.1, p. 107]; EUSEBIUS [The Epistle of the Churches of Lyons and Vienne, in Ecclesiastical History, 5. 2]; TERTULLIAN [On the Resurrection of the Flesh, 23]; ORIGEN [Against Celsus, 1.3, p. 122]; CYPRIAN [Testimonies against the Jews, 3.39].

Philippi was the first (that is, the farthest from Rome, and first which met Paul in entering Macedonia) Macedonian city of the district, called Macedonia Prima (so called as lying farthest eastward). The Greek (Act 16:12) should not be translated "the chief city," as English Version, but as above [ALFORD]. Not it, but Thessalonica, was the chief city of the province, and Amphipolis, of the district called Macedonia Prima. It was a Roman "colony" (Act 16:12), made so by Augustus, to commemorate his famous victory over Brutus and Cassius. A colony was in fact a portion of Rome itself transplanted to the provinces, an offshoot from Rome, and as it were a portrait of the mother city on a small scale [AULUS GELLIUS, Attic Nights, 16.13]. Its inhabitants were Roman citizens, having the right of voting in the Roman tribes, governed by their own senate and magistrates, and not by the governor of the province, with the Roman law and Latin language.

Paul, with Silas and Timothy, planted the Gospel there (Act 16:12, &c.), in his second missionary journey, A.D. 51. Doubtless he visited it again on his journey from Ephesus into Macedonia (Act 20:1); and Act 20:3, Act 20:6, expressly mentions his third visit on his return from Greece (Corinth) to Syria by way of Macedonia. His sufferings at Philippi (Act 16:19, &c.) strengthened the Christian bond of union between him and his Philippian converts, who also, like him, were exposed to trials for the Gospel's sake (1Th 2:2). They alone sent supplies for his temporal wants, twice shortly after he had left them (Phi 4:15-16), and again a third time shortly before writing this Epistle (Phi 4:10, Phi 4:18; 2Co 11:9). This fervent attachment on their part was, perhaps, also in part due to the fact that few Jews were in Philippi, as in other scenes of his labors, to sow the seeds of distrust and suspicion. There was no synagogue, but merely a Jewish Proseucha, or oratory, by the riverside. So that there only do we read of his meeting no opposition from Jews, but only from the masters of the divining damsel, whose gains had been put an end to by her being dispossessed.

Though the Philippian Church was as yet free from Judaizing influence, yet it needed to be forewarned of that danger which might at any time assail it from without (Phi 3:2); even as such evil influences had crept into the Galatian churches. In Phi 4:2-3 we find a trace of the fact recorded in the history (Act 16:13-14), that female converts were among the first to receive the Gospel at Philippi.

As to the state of the Church, we gather from 2Co 8:1-2 that its members were poor, yet most liberal; and from Phi 1:28-30, that they were undergoing persecution. The only blemish referred to in their character was, on the part of some members, a tendency to dissension. Hence arise his admonitions against disputings (Phi 1:27; Phi 2:1-4, Phi 2:12, Phi 2:14; Phi 4:2).

The OBJECT of the Epistle is general: not only to thank the Philippians for their contribution sent by Epaphroditus, who was now in returning to take back the apostle's letter, but to express his Christian love and sympathy, and to exhort them to a life consonant with that of Christ, and to warn them against existing dissensions and future possible assaults of Judaizers from without. It is remarkable in this Epistle alone, as compared with the others, that, amidst many commendations, there are no express censures of those to whom it is addressed. No doctrinal error, or schism, has as yet sprung up; the only blemish hinted at is, that some of the Philippian Church were somewhat wanting in lowliness of mind, the result of which want was disputation. Two women, Euodias and Syntyche, are mentioned as having erred in this respect (Phi 4:2-3). The Epistle may be divided into three parts: (1) Affectionate address to the Philippians; reference to his own state as a prisoner at Rome, and to theirs, and to his mission of Epaphroditus to them (the first and second chapters). Epaphroditus probably held a leading office in the Philippian Church, perhaps as a presbyter. After Tychicus and Onesimus had departed (A.D. 62), carrying the Epistles to the Ephesians, Colossians, and Philemon, Paul was cheered in his imprisonment by the arrival of Epaphroditus with the Philippian contribution. That faithful "brother, companion in labor, and fellow soldier" (Phi 2:25), had brought on himself by the fatigues of the journey a dangerous sickness (Phi 2:26, Phi 2:30). But now that he was recovered, he "longed" (Phi 2:26) to return to his Philippian flock, and in person to relieve their anxiety on his behalf, in respect to his sickness; and the apostle gladly availed himself of the opportunity of writing to them a letter of grateful acknowledgments and Christian exhortations. (2) Caution against Judaizing teachers, supported by reference to his own former and present feeling towards Jewish legalism (Phi. 3:1-21). (3) Admonitions to individuals, and to the Church in general, thanks for their seasonable aid, and concluding benedictions and salutations (Phi. 4:1-23).

This Epistle was written from Rome during the imprisonment, the beginning of which is related in Act 28:16, Act 28:20, Act 28:30-31. The reference to "Cæsar's household" (Phi 4:22), and to the "palace" (Phi 1:13, Greek, "Prætorium," probably, the barrack of the Prætorian bodyguard, attached to the palace of Nero) confirms this. It must have been during his first imprisonment at Rome, for the mention of the Prætorium agrees with the fact that it was during his first imprisonment he was in the custody of the Prætorian Prefect, and his situation, described in Phi 1:12-14, agrees with his situation in the first two years of his imprisonment (Act 28:30-31). The following reasons show, moreover, that it was written towards the close of that imprisonment: (1) He, in it, expresses his expectation of the immediate decision of his cause (Phi 2:23). (2) Enough time had elapsed for the Philippians to hear of his imprisonment, to send Epaphroditus to him, to hear of Epaphroditus' arrival and sickness, and send back word to Rome of their distress (Phi 2:26). (3) It must have been written after the three other Epistles sent from Rome, namely, Colossians, Ephesians, and Philemon; for Luke is no longer with him (Phi 2:20); otherwise he would have been specified as saluting them, having formerly labored among them, whereas he is mentioned as with him, Col 4:14; Phm 1:24. Again, in Eph 6:19-20, his freedom to preach is implied: but in Phi 1:13-18, his bondage is dwelt on, and it is implied that, not himself, but others, preached, and made his imprisonment known. Again, in Phm 1:22, he confidently anticipates his release, which contrasts with the more depressed anticipations of this Epistle. (4) A considerable time had elapsed since the beginning of his imprisonment, for "his bonds" to have become so widely known, and to have produced such good effects for the Gospel (Phi 1:13). (5) There is evidently an increase in the rigor of his imprisonment implied now, as compared with the early stage of it, as described in Acts 28:1-31; compare Phi 1:29-30; Phi 2:27. History furnishes a probable clue to account for this increase of vigor. In the second year of Paul's imprisonment (A.D. 62), Burrus, the Prætorian Prefect, to whose custody he had been committed (Act 28:16, "the captain of the guard"), died; and Nero the emperor having divorced Octavia, and married Poppoea, a Jewish proselytess (who then caused her rival, Octavia, to be murdered, and gloated over the head of her victim), exalted Tigellinus, the chief promoter of the marriage, a monster of wickedness, to the Prætorian Prefecture. It was then he seems to have been removed from his own house into the Prætorium, or barrack of the Prætorian guards, attached to the palace, for stricter custody; and hence he writes with less hopeful anticipations as to the result of his trial (Phi 2:17; Phi 3:11). Some of the Prætorian guards who had the custody of him before, would then naturally make known his "bonds," in accordance with Phi 1:13; from the smaller Prætorian bodyguard at the palace the report would spread to the general permanent Prætorian camp, which Tiberius had established north of the city, outside of the walls. He had arrived in Rome, February, 61; the "two whole years (Act 20:30) in his own hired house" ended February, 63, so that the date of this Epistle, written shortly after, evidently while the danger was imminent, would be about spring or summer, 63. The providence of God averted the danger. He probably was thought beneath the notice of Tigellinus, who was more intent on court intrigues. The death of Nero's favorite, Pallas, the brother of Felix, this same year, also took out of the way another source of danger.

The STYLE is abrupt and discontinuous, his fervor of affection leading him to pass rapidly from one theme to another (Phi 2:18, Phi 2:19-24, Phi 2:25-30; Phi 3:1, Phi 3:2-3, Phi 3:4-14, Phi 3:15). In no Epistle does he use so warm expressions of love. In Phi 4:1 he seems at a loss for words sufficient to express all the extent and ardor of his affection for the Philippians: "My brethren dearly beloved and longed for, my joy and crown, so stand fast in the Lord, my dearly beloved." The mention of bishops and deacons in Phi 1:1 is due to the late date of the Epistle, at a time when the Church had begun to assume that order which is laid down in the Pastoral Epistles, and which continued the prevalent one in the first and purest age of the Church.

JFB: Philippians (Outline)

• INSCRIPTION. THANKSGIVING AND PRAYERS FOR THE FLOURISHING SPIRITUAL STATE OF THE PHILIPPIANS. HIS OWN STATE AT ROME, AND THE RESULT OF HIS IMPRISONMENT IN SPREADING THE GOSPEL. EXHORTATION TO CHRISTIAN CONSISTENCY. (Phi. 1:1-30)
• CONTINUED EXHORTATION: TO UNITY: TO HUMILITY AFTER CHRIST'S EXAMPLE, WHOSE GLORY FOLLOWED HIS HUMILIATION: TO EARNESTNESS IN SEEKING PERFECTION, THAT THEY MAY BE HIS JOY IN THE DAY OF CHRIST: HIS JOYFUL READINESS TO BE OFFERED NOW BY DEATH, SO AS TO PROMOTE THEIR FAITH. HIS INTENTION TO SEND TIMOTHY: HIS SENDING EPAPHRODITUS MEANTIME. (Phi. 2:1-30) The "therefore" implies that he is here expanding on the exhortation (Phi 1:27), "In one Spirit, with one mind (soul)." He urges four influencing motives in this verse, to inculcate the four Christian duties corresponding respectively to them (Phi 2:2). "That ye be like-minded, having the same love, of one accord, of one mind"; (1) "If there be (with you) any consolation in Christ," that is, any consolation of which Christ is the source, leading you to wish to console me in my afflictions borne for Christ's sake, ye owe it to me to grant my request "that ye be like-minded" [CHRYSOSTOM and ESTIUS]: (2) "If there be any comfort of (that is, flowing from) love," the adjunct of "consolation in Christ"; (3) "If any fellowship of (communion together as Christians, flowing from joint participation in) the Spirit" (2Co 13:14). As Pagans meant literally those who were of one village, and drank of one fountain, how much greater is the union which conjoins those who drink of the same Spirit! (1Co 12:4, 1Co 12:13) [GROTIUS]: (4) "If any bowels (tender emotions) and mercies (compassions)," the adjuncts of "fellowship of the Spirit." The opposites of the two pairs, into which the four fall, are reprobated, Phi 2:3-4.
• WARNING AGAINST JUDAIZERS: HE HAS GREATER CAUSE THAN THEY TO TRUST IN LEGAL RIGHTEOUSNESS, BUT RENOUNCED IT FOR CHRIST'S RIGHTEOUSNESS, IN WHICH HE PRESSES AFTER PERFECTION: WARNING AGAINST CARNAL PERSONS: CONTRAST OF THE BELIEVER'S LIFE AND HOPE. (Phi. 3:1-21)
• EXHORTATIONS: THANKS FOR THE SUPPLY FROM PHILIPPI: GREETING; AND CLOSING BENEDICTION. (Phi. 4:1-23) "Wherefore"; since we have such a glorious hope (Phi 3:20-21).

TSK: Philippians (Book Introduction)

The Church at Philippi in Macedonia was planted by the Apostle Paul about ad 53 (Acts 16:9-40); and it appears he visited them again, ad 60, though no particulars are recorded concerning that visit (Act 20:6). The Philippians were greatly attached to St. Paul, and testified their affection by sending him supplies, even when labouring for other churches (Phi 4:15, Phi 4:16; 2Co 11:9); and when they heard that he was under confinement at Rome, they sent Epaphroditus, one of their pastors, to him with a present, lest he should want necessaries during his imprisonment (Phi 2:25; Phi 4:10, Phi 4:14-18). The more immediate occasion of the Epistle was the return of Epaphroditus, by whom the apostle sent it as a grateful acknowledgment of their kindness; which occurred towards the close of his first imprisonment, about the end of ad 62, or the commencement of 63.

TSK: Philippians 2 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

Phi 2:1, Paul exhorts them to unity, and to all humbleness of mind, by the example of Christ’s humility and exaltation; Phi 2:12, to a careful proceeding in the way of salvation, that they be as lights to the wicked world, Phi 2:16. and comforts to him their apostle, who is now ready to be offered up to God; Phi 2:19, He hopes to send Timothy to them, and Epaphroditus also.

Poole: Philippians 2 (Chapter Introduction)

CHAPTER 2

MHCC: Philippians (Book Introduction)

The Philippians felt a very deep interest for the apostle. The scope of the epistle is to confirm them in the faith, to encourage them to walk as becomes the gospel of Christ, to caution them against judaizing teachers, and to express gratitude for their Christian bounty. This epistle is the only one, among those written by St. Paul, in which no censures are implied or expressed. Full commendation and confidence are in every part, and the Philippians are addressed with a peculiar affection, which every serious reader will perceive.

MHCC: Philippians 2 (Chapter Introduction)

(Phi 2:1-4) Exhortations to a kind, humble spirit and behaviour.

(Phi 2:5-11) The example of Christ.

(Phi 2:12-18) Diligence in the affairs of salvation, and to be examples to the world.

(Phi 2:19-30) The apostle's purpose of visiting Philippi.

Matthew Henry: Philippians (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The Epistle of St. Paul to the Philippians

Philippi was a chief city of the western part of Macedonia, prōtē tēs Makedonias polis , Act 16:12. It took its name from Philip, the famous king of Macedon, who repaired and beautified it, and it was afterwards made a Roman colony. Near this place were the Campi Philippici, remarkable for the famous battles between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great, and that between Augustus and Antony on one side and Cassius and Brutus on the other. But it is most remarkable among Christians for this epistle, which was written when Paul was a prisoner at Rome, a.d. 62. Paul seems to have had a very particular kindness for the church at Philippi, which he himself had been instrumental in planting; and, though he had the care of all the churches, he had, upon that account, a particular fatherly tender care of this. To those to whom God has employed us to do any good we should look upon ourselves both as encouraged and engaged to study to do more good. He looked upon them as his children, and, having begotten them by the gospel, he was desirous by the same gospel to nourish and nurse them up. I. He was called in an extraordinary manner to preach the gospel at Philippi, Act 16:9. A vision appeared to Paul in the night: There stood a man of Macedonia, and prayed him, saying, Come over into Macedonia, and help us. He saw God going before him, and was encouraged to use all means for carrying on the good work which was begun among them, and building upon the foundation which was laid. II. At Philippi he suffered hard things; he was scourged, and put into the stocks (Act 16:23, Act 16:24); yet he had not the less kindness for the place for the hard usage he met with there. We must never love our friends the less for the ill treatment which our enemies give us. III. The beginnings of that church were very small; Lydia was converted there, and the jailer, and a few more: yet that did not discourage him. If good be not done at first, it may be done afterwards, and the last works may be more abundant. We must not be discouraged by small beginnings. IV. It seems, by many passages in this epistle, that this church at Philippi grew into a flourishing church, and particularly that the brethren were very kind to Paul. He had reaped of their temporal things, and he made a return in spiritual things. He acknowledges the receipt of a present they had sent him (Phi 4:18), and this when no other church communicated with him as concerning giving and receiving (Phi 4:15); and he gives them a prophet's, an apostle's reward, in this epistle, which is of more value than thousands of gold and silver.

Matthew Henry: Philippians 2 (Chapter Introduction)

The apostle proceeds to further exhortations to several duties, to be like-minded, and lowly-minded, which he presses from the example of Christ (Phi 2:1-11), to be diligent and serious in the Christian course (Phi 2:12, Phi 2:13), and to adorn their Christian profession by several suitable graces (Phi 2:14-18). He then concludes with particular notice and commendation of two good ministers, Timothy and Epaphroditus, whom he designed to send to them (Phi 2:19-30).

Barclay: Philippians (Book Introduction)

A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE LETTERS OF PAUL

The Letters Of Paul

There is no more interesting body of documents in the New Testament than the letters of Paul. That is because of all forms of literature a letter is most personal. Demetrius, one of the old Greek literary critics, once wrote, "Every one reveals his own soul in his letters. In every other form of composition it is possible to discern the writercharacter, but in none so clearly as the epistolary." (Demetrius, On Style, 227). It is just because he left us so many letters that we feel we know Paul so well. In them he opened his mind and heart to the folk he loved so much; and in them, to this day, we can see that great mind grappling with the problems of the early church, and feel that great heart throbbing with love for men, even when they were misguided and mistaken.

The Difficulty Of Letters

At the same time, there is often nothing so difficult to understand as a letter. Demetrius (On Style, 223) quotes a saying of Artemon, who edited the letters of Aristotle. Artemon said that a letter ought to be written in the same manner as a dialogue, because it was one of the two sides of a dialogue. In other words, to read a letter is like listening to one side of a telephone conversation. So when we read the letters of Paul we are often in a difficulty. We do not possess the letter which he was answering; we do not fully know the circumstances with which he was dealing; it is only from the letter itself that we can deduce the situation which prompted it. Before we can hope to understand fully any letter Paul wrote, we must try to reconstruct the situation which produced it.

The Ancient Letters

It is a great pity that Paulletters were ever called epistles. They are in the most literal sense letters. One of the great lights shed on the interpretation of the New Testament has been the discovery and the publication of the papyri. In the ancient world, papyrus was the substance on which most documents were written. It was composed of strips of the pith of a certain bulrush that grew on the banks of the Nile. These strips were laid one on top of the other to form a substance very like brown paper. The sands of the Egyptian desert were ideal for preservation, for papyrus, although very brittle, will last forever so long as moisture does not get at it. As a result, from the Egyptian rubbish heaps, archaeologists have rescued hundreds of documents, marriage contracts, legal agreements, government forms, and, most interesting of all, private letters. When we read these private letters we find that there was a pattern to which nearly all conformed; and we find that Paulletters reproduce exactly that pattern. Here is one of these ancient letters. It is from a soldier, called Apion, to his father Epimachus. He is writing from Misenum to tell his father that he has arrived safely after a stormy passage.

"Apion sends heartiest greetings to his father and lord Epimachus.

I pray above all that you are well and fit; and that things are

going well with you and my sister and her daughter and my brother.

I thank my Lord Serapis [his god] that he kept me safe when I was

in peril on the sea. As soon as I got to Misenum I got my journey

money from Caesar--three gold pieces. And things are going fine

with me. So I beg you, my dear father, send me a line, first to let

me know how you are, and then about my brothers, and thirdly, that

I may kiss your hand, because you brought me up well, and because

of that I hope, God willing, soon to be promoted. Give Capito my

heartiest greetings, and my brothers and Serenilla and my friends.

I sent you a little picture of myself painted by Euctemon. My

military name is Antonius Maximus. I pray for your good health.

Serenus sends good wishes, Agathos Daimonboy, and Turbo,

Galloniuson." (G. Milligan, Selections from the Greek Papyri,

36.)

Little did Apion think that we would be reading his letter to his father 1800 years after he had written it. It shows how little human nature changes. The lad is hoping for promotion quickly. Who would Serenilla be but the girl he left behind him? He sends the ancient equivalent of a photograph to the folk at home. Now that letter falls into certain sections. (i) There is a greeting. (ii) There is a prayer for the health of the recipients. (iii) There is a thanksgiving to the gods. (iv) There are the special contents. (v) Finally, there are the special salutations and the personal greetings. Practically every one of Paulletters shows exactly the same sections, as we now demonstrate.

(i) The Greeting: Rom_1:1 ; 1Co_1:1 ; 2Co_1:1 ; Gal_1:1 ; Eph_1:1 ; Phi_1:1 ; Col_1:1-2 ; 1Th_1:1 ; 2Th_1:1 .

(ii) The Prayer: in every case Paul prays for the grace of God on the people to whom he writes: Rom_1:7 ; 1Co_1:3 ; 2Co_1:2 ; Gal_1:3 ; Eph_1:2 ; Phi_1:3 ; Col_1:2 ; 1Th_1:1 ; 2Th_1:2 .

(iii) The Thanksgiving: Rom_1:8 ; 1Co_1:4 ; 2Co_1:3 ; Eph_1:3 ; Phi_1:3 ; 1Th_1:3 ; 2Th_1:3 .

(iv) The Special Contents: the main body of the letters.

(v) Special Salutations and Personal Greetings: Rom 16 ; 1Co_16:19 ; 2Co_13:13 ; Phi_4:21-22 ; Col_4:12-15 ; 1Th_5:26 .

When Paul wrote letters, he wrote them on the pattern which everyone used. Deissmann says of them, "They differ from the messages of the homely papyrus leaves of Egypt, not as letters but only as the letters of Paul." When we read Paulletters we are not reading things which were meant to be academic exercises and theological treatises, but human documents written by a friend to his friends.

The Immediate Situation

With a very few exceptions, all Paulletters were written to meet an immediate situation and not treatises which he sat down to write in the peace and silence of his study. There was some threatening situation in Corinth, or Galatia, or Philippi, or Thessalonica, and he wrote a letter to meet it. He was not in the least thinking of us when he wrote, but solely of the people to whom he was writing. Deissmann writes, "Paul had no thought of adding a few fresh compositions to the already extant Jewish epistles; still less of enriching the sacred literature of his nation.... He had no presentiment of the place his words would occupy in universal history; not so much that they would be in existence in the next generation, far less that one day people would look at them as Holy Scripture." We must always remember that a thing need not be transient because it was written to meet an immediate situation. All the great love songs of the world were written for one person, but they live on for the whole of mankind. It is just because Paulletters were written to meet a threatening danger or a clamant need that they still throb with life. And it is because human need and the human situation do not change that God speaks to us through them today.

The Spoken Word

One other thing we must note about these letters. Paul did what most people did in his day. He did not normally pen his own letters but dictated them to a secretary, and then added Ws own authenticating signature. (We actually know the name of one of the people who did the writing for him. In Rom_16:22 Tertius, the secretary, slips in his own greeting before the letter draws to an end). In 1Co_16:21 Paul says, "This is my own signature, my autograph, so that you can be sure this letter comes from me." (compare Col_4:18 ; 2Th_3:17 .)

This explains a great deal. Sometimes Paul is hard to understand, because his sentences begin and never finish; his grammar breaks down and the construction becomes involved. We must not think of him sitting quietly at a desk, carefully polishing each sentence as he writes. We must think of him striding up and down some little room, pouring out a torrent of words, while his secretary races to get them down. When Paul composed his letters, he had in his mindeye a vision of the folk to whom he was writing, and he was pouring out his heart to them in words that fell over each other in his eagerness to help.

THE LETTER TO THE PHILIPPIANS

Introduction To The Letter To The Philippians

We are fortunate in one thing in our study of Philippians--there are practically no critical problems involved; for no reputable New Testament critic has ever doubted its genuineness. We can accept Philippians as undoubtedly an authentic letter of Paul.

Philippi

When Paul chose a place wherein to preach the gospel, he always did so with the eye of a strategist. He always chose one which was not only important in itself but was also the key point of a whole area. To this day many of Paulpreaching-centres are still great road centres and railway junctions. Such was Philippi which had at least three great claims to distinction.

(i) In the neighbourhood there were gold and silver mines, which had been worked as far back as the time of the Phoenicians. It is true that by the time of the Christian era they had become exhausted, but they had made Philippi a great commercial centre of the ancient world.

(ii) The city had been founded by Philip, father of Alexander the Great, and it is his name that it bears. It was founded on the site of an ancient city called Krenides, a name which means The Wells or Fountains. Philip had founded Philippi in 368 B.C. because there was no more strategic site in all Europe. There is a range of hills which divides Europe from Asia, east from west and just at Philippi that chain of hills dips into a pass so that the city commanded the road from Europe to Asia, since the road must go through the pass. This was the reason that one of the great battles of history was fought at Philippi; for it was here that Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius, and thereby decided the future of the Roman Empire.

(iii) Not very long after, Philippi attained the dignity of a Roman Colony. The Roman Colonies were amazing institutions. They were not colonies in the sense of being outposts of civilization in unexplored parts of the world. They had begun by having a military significance. It was the custom of Rome to send out parties of veteran soldiers, who had served their time and been granted citizenship, to settle in strategic road centres. Usually these parties consisted of three hundred veterans with their wives and children. These colonies were the focal points of the great Roman road systems which were so engineered that reinforcements could speedily be sent from one colony to another. They were founded to keep the peace and to command the strategic centres in Romefar-flung Empire. At first they had been founded in Italy; but soon they were scattered throughout the whole Empire, as the Empire grew. In later days the title of colony was given by the government to any city which it wished to honour for faithful service.

Wherever they were, these colonies were little fragments of Rome and their pride in their Roman citizenship was their dominating characteristic. The Roman language was spoken; Roman dress was worn; Roman customs were observed; their magistrates had Roman titles, and carried out the am ceremonies as were carried out in Rome itself. They were stubbornly and unalterably Roman and would never have dreamt of becoming assimilated to the people amidst whom they wert set. We can hear the Roman pride breathing through the charge against Paul and Silas in Ac 16:20-21: "These men are Jews, and they are trying to teach and to introduce laws and customs which it is not right for us to observe--for we are Romans."

"You are a colony of heaven" (King James Version), Paul wrote to the Philippian Church (Phi_3:20 ). Just as the Roman colonist never forgot in any environment that he was a Roman, so they must never forget in any society that they were Christians. Nowhere were men prouder of being Roman citizens than in these colonies; and such was Philippi.

Paul And Philippi

It was on the second missionary journey, about the year A.D. 52, that Paul first came to Philippi. Urged on by the vision of the man of Macedonia with his appeal to come over and help us, Paul had sailed from Alexandrian Troas in Asia Minor. He had landed at Neapolis in Europe, and thence made his way to Philippi.

The story of Paulstay in Philippi is told in Ac 16 ; and an interesting story it is. It centres round three people--Lydia, the seller of purple; the demented slave-girl, used by her masters to tell fortunes; and the Roman jailor. It is an extraordinary cross-section of ancient life. These three people were of different nationalities. Lydia was an Asiatic, and her name may well be not a proper name at all but simply "the Lydian lady." The slave-girl was a native Greek. The jailor was a Roman citizen. The whole Empire was being gathered into the Christian Church. But not only were these three of different nationalities; they came from very different grades of society. Lydia was a dealer in purple, one of the most costly substances in the ancient world, and was the equivalent of a merchant prince. The girl was a slave, and, therefore, in the eyes of the law not a person at all, but a living tool. The jailor was a Roman citizen, member of the sturdy Roman middle-class from which the civil service was drawn. In these three the top, the bottom and middle of society are all represented. No chapter in the Bible shows so well the all-embracing faith which Jesus Christ brought to men.

Persecution

Paul had to leave Philippi after a storm of persecution and an illegal imprisonment. That persecution was inherited by the Philippian Church. He tells them that they have shared in his bonds and in his defence of the gospel (Phi_1:7 ). He bids them not to fear their adversaries for they are going through what he himself has gone through and is now enduring (Phi_1:28-30 ).

True Friendship

There had grown up between Paul and the Philippian Church a bond of friendship closer than that which existed between him and any other Church. It was his proud boast that he had never taken help from any man or from any Church, and that, with his own two hands, he had satisfied his needs. It was from the Philippians alone that he had agreed to accept a gift. Soon after he left them and moved on to Thessalonica, they sent him a present (Phi_4:16 ). When he moved on and arrived in Corinth by way of Athens, they alone again remembered him with their gifts (2Co_11:9 ). "My brethren whom I love and long for," he calls them, "my joy and crown in the Lord" (Phi_4:1 ).

The Occasion Of The Writing Of The Letter

When Paul wrote this letter he was in prison in Rome, and he wrote it with certain definite objects.

(i) It is a letter of thanks. The years have passed; it is now A.D. 63 or 64 and once again the Philippians have sent him a gift (Phi_4:10-11 ).

(ii) It has to do with Epaphroditus. It seems that the Philippians had sent him not only as a bearer of their gift, but that he might stay with Paul and be his personal servant. But Epaphroditus had fallen ill. He was sick for home; and he was worried because he knew that the people at home were worried about him. Paul sent him home, but he had the unhappy feeling that the people in Philippi might think Epaphroditus a quilter, so he goes out of his way to give him a testimonial: "Receive him with all joy, and honour such men, for he nearly died for the work of Christ" (Phi_2:29-30 ). There is something very moving in the sight of Paul, himself in prison and awaiting death, seeking to make things easier for Epaphroditus, when he was unexpectedly and unwillingly compelled to go home. Here is the peak of Christian courtesy.

(iii) It is a letter of encouragement to the Philippians in the trials which they are going through (Phi_1:28-30 ).

(iv) It is an appeal for unity. It is from that, that there rises the great passage which speaks of the selfless humility of Jesus Christ (Phi_2:1-11 ). In the Church at Philippi there were two women who had quarrelled and were endangering the peace (Phi_4:2 ); and there were false teachers who were seeking to lure the Philippians from the true path (Phi_3:2 ). This letter is an appeal to maintain the unity of the Church.

The Problem

It is just here that the problem of Philippians arises. At Phi_3:2 there is an extraordinary break in the letter. Up to Phi_3:1 everything is serenity and the letter seems to be drawing gently to its close; then without warning comes the outburst: "Beware of dogs; beware of evil workers; beware of the concision." There is no connection with what goes before. Further, Phi_3:1 looks like the end. "Finally, my brethren," says Paul, "rejoice in the Lord" and having said finally he begins all over again! (That, of course, is not an unknown phenomenon in preaching).

Because of this break many scholars think that Philippians, as we possess it, is not one letter but two letters put together. They regard Phi_3:2-21 and Phi_4:1-3 as a letter of thanks and warning sent quite early after the arrival of Epaphroditus in Rome; and they regard Php 1 - 2; Phi_3:1 and Phi_4:4-23 as a letter written a good deal later, and sent with Epaphroditus when he had to go home. That is perfectly possible. We know that Paul almost certainly did, in fact, write more than one letter to Philippi, for Polycarp, in his letter to the Philippian Church, says of him, "when he was absent he wrote letters to you."

The Explanation

And yet it seems to us that there is no good reason for splitting this letter into two. The sudden break between Phi_3:1 and Phi_3:2 can be otherwise explained in one of two ways.

(i) As Paul was writing, fresh news may have come of trouble at Philippi; and there and then he may have interrupted his line of thought to deal with it.

(ii) The simplest explanation is this. Philippians is a personal letter and a personal letter is never logically ordered like a treatise. In such a letter we put things down as they come into our heads; we chat on paper with our friends; and an association of ideas which may be clear enough to us may not be so obvious to anyone else. The sudden change of subject here is just the kind of thing which might occur in any such letter.

The Lovely Letter

For many of us Philippians is the loveliest letter Paul ever wrote. It has been called by two titles. It has been called The Epistle of excellent Things--and so indeed it is; and it has been called The Epistle of Joy. Again and again the words joy and rejoice recur. "Rejoice," writes Paul, "again I will say rejoice," even in prison directing the hearts of his friends--and ours--to the joy that no man can take from us.

FURTHER READINGS

Philippians

J. B. Lightfoot, Saint PaulEpistle to the Philippians (MmC; G)

R. P. Martin, The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians (TC; E)

J. H. Michael, The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians (MC; E)

M. R. Vincent, Philippians and Philemon (ICC; G)

Abbreviations

CGT: Cambridge Greek Testament

ICC: International Critical Commentary

MC: Moffatt Commentary

MmC: Macmillan Commentary

TC: Tyndale Commentary

E: English Text

G: Greek Text

Barclay: Philippians 2 (Chapter Introduction)

The Causes Of Disunity (Phi_2:1-4)

The Cure Of Disunity (Phi_2:1-4 Continued)

True Godhead And True Manhood (Phi_2:5-11)

Humiliation And Exaltation (Phi_2:5-11 Continued)

All For God (Phi_2:5-11 Continued)

Co-Operation In Salvation (Phi_2:12-18)

The Signs Of Salvation (Phi_2:12-18 Continued)

The Pictures Of Paul (Phi_2:12-18 Continued)

The Faithful Henchman (Phi_2:19-24)

The Courtesy Of Paul (Phi_2:25-30)

Constable: Philippians (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Historical background

The name of the city of Philippi was originally Krinides (lit. springs). It stood about 10 miles inland from the Aegean Sea in the Roman province of Macedonia. In 356 B.C. Philip II, king of Macedonia and father of Alexander the Great, renamed the town after himself and enlarged it.

In 42 B.C. the Romans Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus defeated Brutus and Cassius in a battle fought just west of Philippi. After that battle Philippi became a military colony. Subsequent battles in 42 and 31 B.C. resulted in Philippi receiving even higher status. The citizens enjoyed autonomous government, immunity from taxes, and treatment as if they lived in Italy.¹ Some commentators have seen indications of the pride the Philippians took in their city in Acts 16:20-21 and Philippians 1:27 and 3:20. Luke's description of Philippi as a "leading city of the district of Macedonia" (Acts 16:12) probably refers to its colonial status since it was the only colony in the area. Amphipolis was the capital of the district, and Thessalonica was the capital of the province.

The Via Egnatia, the main highway from Rome to the east, ran through Philippi and brought much commerce and many travelers to Philippi. Also the nearby Gangites (modern Angitis) River was another natural advantage since it constituted another ancient thoroughfare (cf. Acts 16:13).

The story of the founding of the church in Philippi appears in Acts 16. Philippi was the first town in which Paul preached after he crossed the Aegean Sea from Troas and entered Europe. Then (50 A.D.) the city had few Jewish residents and the first converts were Lydia, a Gentile businesswoman from Thyatira in the province of Asia Minor, and the Philippian jailer. The church evidently met in Lydia's home at first (Acts 16:15). Paul's companions on his first visit to Philippi included Silas, Timothy, and Luke. Luke may have stayed in Philippi to establish the new converts when the other members of Paul's missionary team moved on to Thessalonica.² The Philippian Christians sent financial support to Paul in Thessalonica more than once (Phil. 4:15-16).

Probably Paul visited Philippi again during his third missionary journey in 57 A.D. He travelled from Ephesus to Corinth by land and then from Corinth back to Miletus mostly by land. From there he took a ship to Jerusalem. The land route he took on both occasions would have led him through Philippi.

No serious question about the Pauline authorship of this epistle arose until the nineteenth century. Paul claimed to have written it (Phil. l:1), and the references to his acquaintances, events in his life, and his way of thinking all point to him as the writer.

The apostle was a prisoner when he penned this letter (Phil. 1:7, 13, 16). References to the palace guard (1:13) and Caesar's household (4:22) have led most interpreters to conclude that Paul wrote from Rome rather than from Caesarea (cf. 1:19-24; 2:24).³ The Marcionite Prologue (c. 170 A.D.) also refers to Paul writing Philippians from Rome. Evidently he did so during his first Roman imprisonment (60-62 A.D.) during which time he also wrote Ephesians, Colossians, and Philemon, the other Prison Epistles.⁴

The primary purpose Paul had in mind in writing this epistle seems to have been to reassure the Philippians. Epaphroditus, whom they had sent with a gift for Paul and to minister to his needs in prison, had recovered from a serious illness and was about to return to Philippi. Paul built up Epaphroditus in the eyes of his readers (2:25-30), which suggests that they may not have appreciated him adequately for some reason. Secondary reasons for sending this letter include expressing thanks for the Philippians' gift to Paul in prison (4:10-14) and announcing Timothy's approaching visit (2:19). Paul also wanted to explain his desire to revisit his readers (2:24) and to deal with the problem of the two women in the church who needed to reconcile (4:2). One commentator identified the genre of this epistle as a letter of friendship and moral exhortation.⁵

Of all Paul's epistles Philippians is the most consistently positive and personal. It reflects a joyful spirit.⁶ Paul did not rebuke this church sharply nor did he refer to any major problems in it. His warnings are of a precautionary nature. His occupation with Jesus Christ also stands out. In 104 verses there are 51 references to the Lord Jesus by name.

". . . what is most noticeable in this letter is the general paucity of Paul's more specialized theological vocabulary and the infrequency of the explanatory for,' which is always a dead giveaway that Paul is involved in heavy argumentation."⁷

Message⁸

The Philippian Christians were special favorites of the apostle Paul. Their response to the gospel and their subsequent progress in the faith were exemplary. However the connections between Paul and Philippi that the New Testament records, both in Acts and in this letter, reveal an interesting paradox.

In both books there is a lot about prison and a lot about rejoicing. Paul ended up in prison when he first evangelized Philippi. Yet in prison Paul and Silas sang praises to God. When Paul wrote Philippians he was in prison, this time in Rome. However the dominant emotion that he projected in this book was rejoicing.

The paradox of a man in prison rejoicing lies at the root of what this book is all about. Such an attitude demonstrates an unusual view of life. It is a uniquely Christian view of life. It demonstrates the mind of Christ, which is the key to this epistle.

The theme of the epistle is participation in the gospel. Everything in this letter deals with that subject in some way, as I have pointed out in the notes. By participation in the gospel I mean the fellowship that Paul and the Philippians shared in the work of disseminating the gospel. This is the work in which all Christians should participate as well. Paul, the Philippians, and we are all partners in the work of the gospel. The key to working together effectively as partners in the gospel is having the mind of Christ. Therefore in this overview of the book I would like to emphasize this fundamental attitude about which Paul had so much to say in this book.

The key revelation in this epistle is that of the Christian attitude, or viewpoint, or consciousness. Note some of the references to the mind or attitude in this epistle: 1:7; 2:2, 3, 5; 3:15, 19; 4:2, 10. This is a key word in this book, and it indicates the emphasis of Philippians.

Paul revealed what the mind of Christ was in the Savior. We find this revelation in 2:5-11, one of the greatest Christological passages in the Bible. The Gospels reveal Jesus' words and works, but this passage unveils His mind.

Notice first the mental attitude of our Savior in 2:6. He did not regard His privileged position as something that He needed to retain. He did not value His position for the sake of the position. He laid it aside and stooped to unbelievable depths to lift those who needed redemption out of ruin.

This attitude resulted in certain activity, which we read of in verses 7 and 8. Jesus Christ selflessly gave up what was in His own best interests for the sake of the betterment of others. He left the heights of heaven for the lowliness of earth. He who was sovereign became a servant. Instead of becoming the highest of servants, an angel, he became a lowly servant, a man. He could have lived a life of ease, but He submitted to shame and death. He might have died in comfort and private surrounded by those who loved Him. Instead He died in agony and shame in public surrounded by those who hated Him. He could have died appreciated, but instead he died hated and misunderstood. This is the mind of Christ, a lowly mind, a loving mind.

This activity resulted in an award: verses 9-11.

Paul also revealed what the mind of the saints who are in Christ should be. We too should have a certain attitude that expresses itself in specific activity, which God will just as surely reward.

Our attitude should be that our love abounds increasingly and that we are sincere and void of offense (1:9-10). Christ's love is to be our love. His attitude is to be our attitude. Regardless of the present privileged position we may occupy we must not retain it as a prize.

Paul had this attitude. We can see it clearly in the statement he made in Romans 9:1-3. Just before he wrote these words, Paul wrote that nothing could separate him for the love of God in Christ Jesus. Yet he did not count that secure position something to retain for his own benefit. He was willing to give it up for the welfare of the Jews. You may remember that Moses voiced a similar sentiment in Exodus 32:32.

What is the activity that should flow out of this attitude?

Look first at 1:27. Our life should be worthy of the gospel. This was one of Paul's favorite ways to describe our conduct responsibility as Christians (cf. Eph. 4:1; Col. 1:10; 1 Thess. 2:12). Worthy conduct is not just morally upright behavior. It is conduct that the gospel drives, conduct that aims at proclaiming the gospel, making it known. It is conduct that responds appropriately to God's gift of grace to us.

Notice also 2:14-15. We are to be blameless in our relationship to God. Moreover we are to be harmless in our relationships with people, not doing them harm but good. Our Lord's example of humble service to the point of death is our model. How much do we know about emptying ourselves, humbling ourselves, becoming obedient to death, even the death of the cross?

What is the award that will follow this attitude and this activity? It is twofold.

There is present victory over circumstances. This whole epistle is a revelation of Paul's triumph over circumstances that would have defeated many people. The pioneer missionary to the regions beyond sat confined in prison. Rather than saying everything was against him, Paul rejoiced that God's program was advancing. In all the Prison Epistles, Paul viewed himself not as the prisoner of Nero but of Jesus Christ. He believed the Lord had placed him where he was for the best purpose. Anyone can sing when he or she escapes from prison, but Paul sang in prison.

Second, there is also future reward. Throughout this epistle Paul had the judgment seat of Christ in view (1:6, 10-11, 20; 2:16; 3:8-9, 14; 4:1, 5). God will reward the mind of Christ in the saints just as He has rewarded the mind of Christ in the Savior. We should strive to gain that prize, not to glorify ourselves in heaven but to have a crown to lay down at Jesus' feet in worship in heaven (cf. Rev. 4:10).

We have seen that the mind of Christ is the key to this epistle. We have also seen that Paul revealed this mind in the Savior and in the saints. What did he say about this mind or attitude? He said, "Have this mind in you" (2:5).

What is the resource for this kind of thinking? Where do we find what it takes to have the mind of Christ in us? We find it in Christ. Specifically we find it when we orient our lives with Him at the center. Paul put it this way: "To me, to live is Christ" (1:21). For some people to live is finances. For others it is fame. For some it is family. For others to live is fun. Life is whatever we put at the center of living. Paul put Christ there. Consequently he viewed God as Christ did. He saw people as Christ did. He viewed his purpose as Christ did. He established his priorities as Christ did. He conducted his daily affairs as Christ did. His life was Christ.

What is our responsibility with this attitude? It is to work out our own salvation in response to God's working in us (2:12-13). We work out what God works in. How do we do this? We do this by forgetting what is past and by pressing on to God's goal for us. Paul used the same Greek word to describe his persecution of Christians (3:6) and his pressing toward his new goal (3:14; dioko). He pursued both goals zealously. He transferred all the passion and fervor that he once expended on tearing down the church into building it up. Our responsibility is absolute dedication and unfailing endeavor to the goal of building the church.

What are the rules we must follow with this attitude? Primarily we must rejoice in the Lord (3:1; 4:4). Rejoicing is not only a privilege, but it is a duty for the Christian. God has commanded us to rejoice. To do this we need to focus our thinking on what God is really doing as He has revealed this in His Word. We must also be forbearing toward all men rather than antagonistic (4:5). We must also give ourselves to prayer rather than to anxiety (4:6). These are the basic rules we need to follow.

By way of application, what does adopting the mind of Christ mean?

For the church the measure of her authority is the measure of her conformity to the mind of Christ. The church, the corporate body of believers, depends on many different things today to give it authority: political power, charismatic leaders, social influence, etc. Yet the church's real authority today is the same as Jesus Christ's authority was when He walked this earth, His humble attitude of submissiveness and obedience to His Father. The essence of the mind of Christ is love. Its consciousness is joy. Its expression is sacrifice. If love, joy, and sacrificial service characterize the church, it will have authority in the world.

For the individual Christian the application is that we should allow Jesus Christ to master us completely. We should view ourselves as His captives, His prisoners (cf. 1:1). It is only by entering into bondage to the Savior that we can find true liberty. His ideal must become our ideal. His power should be what we depend on to fulfill that ideal. Furthermore the certainty of His ultimate victory and ours now and in the future should be the inspiration for our ceaseless song. The present joy of our lives should come from our comradeship with Him day by day. Sharing the mind of Christ will teach us how to love, to serve, and to sing as we live the Christian life.

Constable: Philippians (Outline)

Outline

I. Salutation 1:1-2

II. Prologue 1:3-26

A. Thanksgiving 1:3-8

B. Prayer 1:9-11

C. Progress report 1:12-26

1. Paul's present imprisonment 1:12-18

2. Paul's anticipated deliverance 1:19-26

III. Partnership in the gospel 1:27-4:9

A. A worthy walk 1:27-30

B. Unity and steadfastness 2:1-4:1

1. Walking in unity ch. 2

2. Walking in steadfastness 3:1-4:1

C. Specific duties 4:2-9

1. Restoring unity 4:2-3

2. Maintaining tranquillity 4:4-9

IV. Epilogue 4:10-20

A. The recent gift 4:10-14

B. The previous gifts 4:15-20

V. Greetings and benediction 4:21-23

Constable: Philippians

Philippians

Bibliography

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Constable, Thomas L. "Analysis of Bible Books--New Testament." Paper submitted for course 686 Analysis of Bible Books--New Testament. Dallas Theological Seminary, January 1968.

_____. "What Prayer Will and Will Not Change." In Essays in Honor of J. Dwight Pentecost. Edited by Stanley D. Toussaint and Charles H. Dyer. Chicago: Moody Press, 1986.

Conybeare, W. J. and Howson, J. S. The Life and Epistles of St. Paul. New ed. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1964.

Dahms, John V. "The Subordination of the Son." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 37:3 (September 1994):351-64.

Dalton, William J. "The Integrity of Philippians." Biblica 60:1 (1979):97-102.

Darby, John Nelson. Synopsis of the Books of the Bible. 5 vols. Revised ed. New York: Loizeaux Brothers Publishers, 1942.

Deissmann, Adolf. Light from the Ancient East. Translated by Lionel R. M. Strachan. Revised and reprinted ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1965.

Dictionary of the Apostolic Church. Edited by James Hastings. 1915 ed. S.v. "Philippians, Epistle to the," by D. Mackenzie.

Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by James Hastings. 1910 ed. S.v. "Philippians, Epistle to the," by J. Gibb.

Dillow, Joseph C. The Reign of the Servant Kings. Miami Springs, Fl.: Schoettle Publishing Co., 1992.

Duncan, George B. The Life of Continual Rejoicing. Chicago: Moody Press, 1965.

Duncan, G. S. "A New Setting for Paul's Epistle to the Philippians." Expository Times 43 (1931-32):7-11.

Eadie, John. A Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to the Philippians. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1894; reprint ed. Minneapolis: James and Klock Christian Publishing Co., 1977.

Fee, Gordon D. Paul's Letter to the Philippians. New International Commentary on the New Testament series. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1995.

_____. "Philippians 2:5-11: Hymn or Exalted Pauline Prose?" Bulletin for Biblical Research 2 (1992):29-46.

A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament. By C. G. Wilke. Revised by C. L. Wilibald Grimm. Translated, revised, and enlarged by Joseph Henry Thayer, 1889.

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Hawthorne, Gerald F. Philippians, Word Biblical Commentary series. Waco: Word Books, 1983.

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_____. "The Epistolary Thanksgiving and the Integrity of Philippians." Novum Testamentum 12:1 (January 1970):40-53.

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_____. "Philippians." In Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament, pp. 647-66. Edited by John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck. Wheaton: Scripture Press Publications, Victor Books, 1983.

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Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: Philippians (Book Introduction)

THE

EPISTLE OF ST. PAUL, THE APOSTLE,

TO THE PHILIPPIANS.

INTRODUCTION.

Philippi, a considerable city in Macedonia, so called from Philip, father of Alexander the Great. St. Paul had preached there. (Acts xvi.) Those people had a great veneration for him, and supplied his wants when he was at Corinth, and again when he was a prisoner at Rome, sending to him by Epaphroditus, who is thought to have been the bishop of Philippi. St. Paul sent this letter by him to the Philippians, (written during his imprisonment) from Rome; but whether during his first or second imprisonment, is uncertain. (Witham) --- It is generally believed that St. Paul wrote it about the year 62, in his first confinement. In it he testifies to the faithful his most tender gratitude and acknowledgement for the assistance they had sent him, and a zeal the most ardent for their salvation. He felicitates them on their courage under sufferings for the cause of Jesus Christ, on their good works also, and forcibly excites them to confidence and joy. --- The Philippians were the first among the Macedonians converted to the faith. St. Paul, in this epistle, recommends charity, unity, and humility; and warns against false teachers, whom he calls dogs, and enemies of the cross of Christ. He also returns thanks for their benefactions. It was written about twenty-nine years after our Lord's ascension. (Challoner)

====================

Gill: Philippians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO PHILIPPIANS

Philippi was a Roman colony, and the chief city of one part of Macedonia, Act 16:12, it is by Appianus called Datos which was its original name; and by Diodorus Siculus it is called Crenidae ^a, from, the fountains about it; and it took its name Philippi, from Philip king of Macedon, father of Alexander the great, who rebuilt and fortified it; near this place a famous battle was fought, and a victory obtained by Augustus Caesar and Mark Antony, over Brutus and Cassius; it is now called Chrixopolis, properly Chrysopolis, from the plenty of golden mines near it: here the apostle was directed by a vision, to go and preach the Gospel; and which was succeeded, to the conversion of Lydia, and the jailer, and their families; which laid the foundation of a Gospel church in this place, to whom this epistle is written; and which was written by the apostle when he was a prisoner at Rome, as many things in it show; for he more than once makes mention of his bonds, and of these being made manifest in Caesar's palace, and of some of Caesar's household sending their Christian salutations to this church: Dr. Hammond makes the date of this epistle to be the year 59, and Dr. Lightfoot places it in the year 60, and the sixth of Nero; the occasion of it was this, the Philippians, to whom the apostle was very dear, he being the first preacher of the Gospel to them, and the instrument of their conversion, hearing that he was a prisoner at Rome, send their minister and pastor Epaphroditus to him, to visit him, and by him a present to support him under his afflicted circumstances, and who related to him the case of this church; and at his departure he sent by him this letter; the design of which is, to express his love and affection to them; to give them an account of his bonds, and the usefulness of them, and how he was supported under them; to encourage them under all the afflictions and persecutions, they endured for the sake of Christ; to excite them to love, unity, and peace, among themselves; to caution them against false teachers, judaizing Christians, that were for joining Moses and Christ, law and Gospel, works and grace together, in the business of salvation; to exhort them to a holy life and conversation, and to return them thanks for their kind present.

Gill: Philippians 2 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO PHILIPPIANS 2

This chapter contains several exhortations to unity, love, and concord, to humility, and lowliness of mind, and to a becoming life and conversation; and concludes with commendations of two eminent ministers of Christ, Timothy and Epaphroditus. The arguments engaging to harmony and mutual affection, are taken from the consolation that is in Christ, the comfort there is in love, the fellowship of the Spirit, and the bowels and mercies which become saints, Phi 2:1, as also from the joy this would fill the apostle with; and the things exhorted to are expressed by likeness of mind, sameness of love, and unity of soul, Phi 2:2, and the manner directed to for the preservation of such a spirit, is to do nothing in a contentious and vainglorious way, but in an humble and lowly manner, having a better opinion of others than themselves; and observing their superior gifts and graces, and so submit things unto them, Phi 2:3, and which humble deportment is further urged, from the instance and example of our Lord Jesus Christ, Phi 2:5, which is illustrated by the dignity of his person, the glorious divine form in which he was, and his indisputable equality with his Father, Phi 2:6, and yet such was his great condescension, that he became man, appeared in the form of a servant, and was humbled to the lowest degree, even to die the death of the cross, Phi 2:7, nevertheless God exalted him as man, and gave him superior honour to all creatures; and will oblige all to be subject to him, and acknowledge his dominion over them, to the glory of his divine Father, Phi 2:9, hereby suggesting, that in like manner, though not to the same degree, such who are humble and lowly minded shall be exalted by the Lord; and then with the greatest affection to the Philippians, and with high commendations of them, the apostle renews his exhortation to do all the duties of religion with humility and modesty; knowing that all the grace and strength in which they performed them was owing to the internal operation of divine power in them, Phi 2:12, and therefore should be done without murmuring against God, or disputings among themselves, Phi 2:14, and next he proceeds to exhort to an unblemished and inoffensive life and conversation, as the end and issue of a modest and humble behaviour; and this he enforces on them, from the consideration of their relation to God, being his children, which would appear hereby; and from the wickedness and perverseness of the people they lived among; and therefore should be careful, lest they be ensnared by them, to the dishonour of God, and the grief of themselves; and from their character as lights in the world, whose business it was to hold forth the word of life; and also from this consideration, that it would be the joy of the apostle in the day of Christ, that his labours among them had not been fruitless, Phi 2:15, yea, such was his love to them, that if even he was to die on their account, it would be matter of joy and gladness to him; and he desires they would express the same joy with him, Phi 2:17, and though he could not be with them in person, he hoped in a little time to send Timothy, for this end, that he might know how things stood with them; which if well, would be a comfort to him, Phi 2:19, the reasons why he picked Timothy as a messenger to them were, because there were none like him, for the sincere regard he had for their spiritual good, Phi 2:20, and which is illustrated by the contrary disposition and conduct of others, who sought themselves, and not Jesus Christ, his honour and interest, Phi 2:21, and besides, they themselves were witnesses of his filial affection to the apostle, and of his faithful service with him in the Gospel, Phi 2:22, and then he repeats his hopes of sending him quickly, as soon as ever he knew how it would go with him, whether he should be released or suffer, Phi 2:23, the former of which he had some confidence of, and that he should be able to see them himself in a little time, Phi 2:24, however, in the mean while he thought it proper to send Epaphroditus to them, whom he commends as a brother of his, a co-worker, a fellow soldier, a messenger of theirs, and a minister to his wants, Phi 2:25, the reasons of sending him were, because he longed to see them, and because he was uneasy that they had heard of his sickness; which was not only true that he had been sick, but his sickness was very dangerous, and threatened with death; however, through the mercy of God to him, he was recovered; and which was a mercy also to the apostle, who otherwise would have had an additional sorrow; wherefore another reason of sending him was, that upon the sight of him they might be filled with joy, and the apostle himself have less sorrow, Phi 2:26, and then he exhorts them, that when he was returned to them, they would gladly receive him, and highly esteem of him; and the rather, since the dangerous illness he was attended with was brought upon him through his labours in the service of Christ, and also of the apostle, which he performed in their stead, even to the neglect of his health and life, Phi 2:29.

College: Philippians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION

THE CITY

When Paul bypassed the seaport at Neapolis and moved eight miles inland to Philippi, he did so because Philippi, though small, was a city of some importance. The history of the city stretched back several centuries. A small village, known as Krenides, was captured by Philip of Macedon and annexed to his empire in 356 B.C. The area was attractive because of the many springs in the vicinity, and because of the nearby gold mines. Hence Philip named the city after himself, i.e., Philippi.

The city remained insignificant until conquered by the Romans almost two centuries later (168, 167 B.C.). The area was made a Roman province, and included in the first of the four districts into which the Romans divided Macedonia.

The most significant event of the pre-Pauline city took place in 42 B.C. There, on the plain of Philippi, the forces of Brutus and Cassius (Caesar's assassins) clashed with the armies of Antony and Octavian, only to go down in defeat. Thus Philippi was the spot at which the destiny of the Roman empire was set for some time to come.

Later (31 B.C.) Octavian defeated Antony. As a result of the battles of 42 and 31 B.C. a number of military veterans, from both the victors and the vanquished, were settled there. In 31 B.C. the name of the town was enhanced to honor Octavian (Caesar Augustus), its conqueror.

Philippi was made a Roman colony, a high privilege indeed for a provincial city within the empire. Rights of the citizenry included Roman citizenship, the right to own and transfer property, and exemption from certain taxes. The city was in municipal pattern and architecture modeled on Rome, as well as in legal and administrative detail. The citizens wore Roman dress, had coinage with Roman inscriptions, and used (though not exclusively) the Latin language. Roman citizens had certain rights under Roman law, a fact that stood to Paul's advantage when he came to Philippi (Acts 16:37ff).

The city was located on the Via Egnatia, one of the major Roman roads of the time. Some evidence indicates the road in this area was in bad condition during the time of Paul's visit, so that visitors to Philippi may have used the sea route (as Paul did) with greater frequency. However, bad roads, though an inconvenience to travel, did not stop it completely. When Paul left the city it was by road toward the west.

Residents of the city would have included a core of veterans of the Roman wars or their descendants. Also in residence were Greeks, descendants of the native Thracian population, and some Jews. Some read the story of the conversion of Lydia in Acts 16 to indicate there were not enough male Jews in the city to constitute a synagogue. But others argue that there was a synagogue built by the river to which Paul went to preach.

ORIGINS OF THE CHURCH

The origins of this church are recorded in Acts 16:6-40. Compare the commentary by Dennis Gaertner in this series for detailed comments. The following should be noted.

First, it was by divine impulse that the mission to Philippi and Europe was undertaken. A vision, coupled with earlier prohibitions, spurred Paul on his way (Acts 16:6-10). Paul traveled with Silas, Timothy (who had joined the party earlier), and, by assumption, Luke, who is identified by "we" in Acts 16:10. This is based on the view that Acts was written by Luke. When Paul and Silas left the city, Luke was apparently left with the fledgling church, to be picked up by Paul when he passed through Philippi on his third journey (Acts 20:5).

Second, the initial convert in the city was Lydia (Acts 16:13-15), an open-minded God-fearer, whose profession (a dealer in purple cloth) and hospitality lead to the conclusion she was a person of some means. Though she is not mentioned in Philippians, two of the four specific names of Philippian Christians given in the letter are women, and it is generally thought that the women exercised significant roles in the church.

Third, a slave girl was exorcised, and this good deed destroyed her commercial advantage to her owners. In retaliation they inflamed a crowd, with the result that Paul and Silas were beaten and imprisoned in the most miserable of conditions (Acts 16:16-24).

Fourth, this incarceration served to make the faith of Paul and Silas shine more brightly, as they sang praises to God from their cell, rather than uttering the groans of pain that might have been expected. An earthquake so devastated the prison that the prisoner's cells were opened and their bonds loosed. The jailer, contemplating suicide because he thought his prisoners would have escaped, was reassured by Paul and Silas that they were all still there. More importantly, he found Christ, and he and his family became Christians in what is one of the remarkable conversions of the New Testament (Acts 16:23-34).

Finally, the release of Paul and Silas from prison and the embarrassment of the Philippian officials when they learned they had afflicted Roman citizens is told with a touch of humor. Paul and Silas, apparently taking their time, finally left the city, no doubt much to the relief of the city authorities (Acts 16:35-40). But their companion Luke stayed behind, with a group of believers whose ties to Paul through the years were especially affectionate. Though the first convert was a God-fearer, evidence indicates the church was composed predominantly of Gentiles who had not necessarily been sympathetic to Judaism. The date for these events is generally considered to be from A.D. 49-52.

PAUL'S LOCALE

Paul nowhere in this letter names the place of his imprisonment. A long held tradition, dating as early as the second century, identifies Rome as his locale. In recent years two other main options have been advanced: Ephesus and Caesarea. In considering this issue there are basic data to be kept in mind.

(1) Paul was a prisoner (1:7) and did not know the outcome of his trial (1:19f; 2:17).

(2) The place from which Paul wrote was also populated by those of "Caesar's household" (4:22).

(3) Timothy was with Paul (1:1; 2:19ff).

(4) The Christians in Paul's locale were engaged in evangelism (1:14ff).

(5) Paul hoped to visit Philippi if circumstances allowed (2:24).

(6) There was frequent communication between Philippi and Paul. The Philippians had heard Paul was in prison and sent Epaphroditus, who became ill. This news reached Philippi, and their anxiety reached back to Paul. The letter Paul wrote would be sent to Philippi, to be followed by visits from Timothy, and later (if possible) Paul himself (2:19-28).

A theoretical Ephesian imprisonment meets some of these criteria, but founders on others. Most telling is the fact that though Acts says Paul was in Ephesus for some time (Acts 19:8, 10) there is no record of an imprisonment there.

Paul was imprisoned for at least two years at Caesarea (Acts 24:27), but again that imprisonment does not account for all the statements in Philippians. One of the reasons for objection to Rome as the place of origin was that the distance between Rome and Philippi was too great for all the trips indicated by Philippians. But the distance was just as great to Caesarea. Actually the journey from Rome to Philippi took about forty days. Thus a major objection to a Roman imprisonment, and justification for a Caesarean, is removed.

Two major objections to Rome have to do with the amount of time needed for travel, just discussed, and the change in Paul's travel plans from his announced intention to visit Spain (Rom 15:24, 29) to his intent to visit Philippi (Phil 1:25-27; 2:24). Given Paul's unexpected changes in circumstances due to his arrest and imprisonment (Acts 21), a change of intent should not be found too surprising.

Though Rome cannot be proved to be the place from which Paul wrote, it does seem to fit the circumstances better than the alternatives. If from Rome, the date of writing was probably the early 60s. While holding this view, students still should not close themselves to evidence suggesting other possibilities. Despite the details in Acts and his biographical statements in the letters, there is still a great deal we do not know about Paul's activities.

REASONS FOR WRITING

Hawthorne lists a number of reasons Paul wrote this letter. From his list we may select the following as the most obvious.

First, there was the matter of Epaphroditus and the gift sent to Paul by his hand. Paul wished to respond to their generosity (4:10-20). He also wished to allay their apprehensions about Epaphroditus (2:25-30), with whom he doubtless sent the letter.

Second, he took the opportunity to share certain news about himself and his situation. He especially told them of a problem he faced because some brethren hoped to create trouble for him by preaching Christ out of envy and rivalry (1:14-18). At the same time he addressed the issue of his imprisonment and his possible future (1:19-30; 2:24).

Third, he wished to address a serious problem of division within the church. He names two women (4:2), but we suspect the problem was of wider dimension. There are touches throughout the book directed to this need, but it is addressed most powerfully in 2:1-11.

Fourth, Paul wished to warn about those he calls "dogs," "men who do evil," and "mutilators of the flesh" in 3:2. Later in the chapter he laments about "enemies of the cross" ( v. 18).

EMPHASES

In addition to these central purposes there are certain notes sounded throughout the book which can enrich pursuit by the serious student. The joy motif through the book has been often observed (cf. the reference at 1:4). Though some have argued the church was a joyful one, we believe that not to have been the case. Paul's repeated exhortations indicate their lack of joy, and we suppose that a capturing of the "joy of the Lord" would go far to resolving the Philippians' problems.

Another noteworthy emphasis is the repeated use of the forms of the root fron- ( phron ; references at 1:7). From examining these it can be discerned how Paul's call was for a whole approach to life, not just to superficial thought or action. Study of this term makes it clear that Christianity was a deep and total commitment to the Lord and to a way of life.

In addition the reader might examine the texts listed under "all" (1:1), "partnership" (1:5), and "in the Lord" (4:1).

DEVOTIONAL TEXTS

Some of the great devotional New Testament texts are found in Philippians (see 1:21; 2:5-11,12f; 3:7-11; 4:4-7,8f, and 11-13). Often these verses are taken out of context, and are given an independent existence. We note this to stress the fact that Paul did not write Philippians (or any letter) so it could be the subject of a commentary - though commentaries have real value. To follow Christ meant to live a life, not to judiciously make detailed observations about grammar, word meanings, syntax, etc. So if a commentary enhances understanding, that is a noble thing. But understanding may stop short of salvation. As Paul wrote to enhance discipleship, so this author hopes this work will have the same effect! To God be the glory!

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PHILIPPIANS

Beare, F.W. The Epistle to the Philippians . London: Adam and Charles Black, 1959.

Bruce, F.F. Philippians . Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1983.

Craddock, Fred. Philippians . Atlanta: John Knox, 1985.

Harrell, Pat. The Letter of Paul to the Philippians . Austin: Sweet, 1969.

Hawthorne, Gerald. Philippians . Waco: Word Books, 1983.

Martin, Ralph. Philippians . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987.

Melick, Richard. Philippians, Colossians, Philemon. Nashville: Broadman, 1991.

O'Brien, Peter. Philippians . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991.

Saunders, Ernest. First Thessalonians, Second Thessalonians, Philippians, Philemon . Atlanta: John Knox, 1981.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV