Text -- Romans 3:14 (NET)

3:14 “Their mouths are full of cursing and bitterness.”

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Wesley: Rom 3:14

Against God.

Wesley: Rom 3:14

Against their neighbour. Psa 10:7.

JFB: Rom 3:13-18

From generals, the apostle here comes to particulars, culling from different parts of Scripture passages which speak of depravity as it affects the different members of the body; as if to show more affectingly how "from the sole of the foot even to the head there is no soundness" in us.

JFB: Rom 3:13-18

(Psa 5:9); that is, "What proceeds out of their heart, and finds vent in speech and action through the throat, is like the pestilential breath of an open grave."

JFB: Rom 3:13-18

(Psa 5:9); that is, "That tongue which is man's glory (Psa 16:9; Psa 57:8) is prostituted to the purposes of deception."

JFB: Rom 3:13-18

(Psa 140:3): that is, "Those lips which should 'drop as an honeycomb,' and 'feed many,' and 'give thanks unto His name' (Son 4:11; Pro 10:21; Heb 13:15), are employed to secrete and to dart deadly poison."

JFB: Rom 3:14

(Psa 10:7): that is, "That mouth which should be 'most sweet' (Son 5:16), being 'set on fire of hell' (Jam 3:6), is filled with burning wrath against those whom it should only bless."

Clarke: Rom 3:14

Whose mouth is full of cursing, etc. - They never speak but in profane oaths, blasphemies, and malice.

Calvin: Rom 3:14

14. Then he says, that their mouth is full of cursing and bitterness ¹⁰¹ — a vice of an opposite character to the former; but the meaning is, that they are in every way full of wickedness; for if they speak fair, they deceive and blend poison with their flatteries; but if they draw forth what they have in their hearts, bitterness and cursing stream out.

Defender: Rom 3:14

See Psa 10:7."

TSK: Rom 3:14

Psa 10:7, Psa 59:12, Psa 109:17, Psa 109:18; Jam 3:10

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: Rom 3:14

Whose mouth - Psa 10:7. The apostle has not quoted this literally, but has given the sense. David in the psalm is describing his bitter enemies.

Cursing - Reproachful and opprobrious language, such as Shimei used in relation to David; 2Sa 16:5, 2Sa 16:7-8.

Bitterness - In the psalm, deceits. The word "bitterness"is used to denote severity, harshness, cruelty; reproachful and malicious words.

Poole: Rom 3:14

This last and very plain expression of the corruption of the tongue, is taken out of Psa 10:7 : See Poole on "Psa 10:7" .

Gill: Rom 3:14

Whose mouth is full of cursing and bitterness. These words are taken from Psa 10:7, by cursing is meant, cursing of God, which is sometimes internal with the heart, and sometimes external with the mouth, as here; and of all good men, though without cause, and to no purpose with respect to the persons they curse, since God has blessed them, and they are blessed, and greatly to their own detriment, for, in the issue, their curses will be turned against themselves. There is also a cursing of superiors, as parents, masters, magistrates, kings, and governors; which is a sore evil, and attended with bad consequences; likewise of themselves, and their fellow creatures: and "the mouth being full of it", denotes the frequency of the sin; scarce anything else comes out of it but cursing; which discovers the sad corruption of the heart; "for out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh", Mat 12:34. By "bitterness" is meant, either sin in general, which is "an evil and bitter thing", Jer 2:19, in its nature and effects; or sinful words, such as oaths, curses, imprecations, all wrathful and deceitful words.

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

NET Notes: Rom 3:14

¹ tn Grk “whose mouth is.” Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation.

² sn A quotation from Ps 10:7.

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: Rom 3:1-31

1 The Jews' prerogative;

3 which they have not lost;

9 howbeit the law convinces them also of sin;

20 therefore no flesh is justified by the law;

28 but all, without difference, by faith, only;

31 and yet the law is not abolished.

MHCC: Rom 3:9-18

Here again is shown that all mankind are under the guilt of sin, as a burden; and under the government and dominion of sin, as enslaved to it, to work wickedness. This is made plain by several passages of Scripture from the Old Testament, which describe the corrupt and depraved state of all men, till grace restrain or change them. Great as our advantages are, these texts describe multitudes who call themselves Christians. Their principles and conduct prove that there is no fear of God before their eyes. And where no fear of God is, no good is to be looked for.

Matthew Henry: Rom 3:1-18

I. Here the apostle answers several objections, which might be made, to clear his way. No truth so plain and evident but wicked wits and corrupt carnal hearts will have something to say against it; but divine truths must be cleared from cavil.

Object. 1. If Jew and Gentile stand so much upon the same level before God, what advantage then hath the Jew? Hath not God often spoken with a great deal of respect for the Jews, as a non-such people (Deu 33:29), a holy nation, a peculiar treasure, the seed of Abraham his friend: Did not he institute circumcision as a badge of their church-membership, and a seal of their covenant-relation to God? Now does not this levelling doctrine deny them all such prerogatives, and reflect dishonour upon the ordinance of circumcision, as a fruitless insignificant thing.

Answer. The Jews are, notwithstanding this, a people greatly privileged and honoured, have great means and helps, though these be not infallibly saving (Rom 3:2): Much every way. The door is open to the Gentiles as well as the Jews, but the Jews have a fairer way up to this door, by reason of their church-privileges, which are not to be undervalued, though many that have them perish eternally for not improving them. He reckons up many of the Jews' privileges Rom 9:4, Rom 9:5; here he mentions but one (which is indeed instar omnium - equivalent to all ), that unto them were committed the oracles of God, that is, the scriptures of the Old Testament, especially the law of Moses, which is called the lively oracles (Act 7:38), and those types, promises, and prophecies, which relate to Christ and the gospel. The scriptures are the oracles of God: they are a divine revelation, they come from heaven, are of infallible truth, and of eternal consequence as oracles. The Septuagint call the Urim and Thummim the logia - the oracles. The scripture is our breast-plate of judgment. We must have recourse to the law and to the testimony, as to an oracle. The gospel is called the oracles of God, Heb 5:12; 1Pe 4:11. Now these oracles were committed to the Jews; the Old Testament was written in their language; Moses and the prophets were of their nation, lived among them, preached and wrote primarily to and for the Jews. They were committed to them as trustees for succeeding ages and churches. The Old Testament was deposited in their hands, to be carefully preserved pure and uncorrupt, and so transmitted down to posterity. The Jews were the Christians' library-keepers, were entrusted with that sacred treasure for their own use and benefit in the first place, and then for the advantage of the world; and, in preserving the letter of the scripture, they were very faithful to their trust, did not lose one iota or tittle, in which we are to acknowledge God's gracious care and providence. The Jews had the means of salvation, but they had not the monopoly of salvation. Now this he mentions with a chiefly, prōton men gar - this was their prime and principal privilege. The enjoyment of God's word and ordinances is the chief happiness of a people, is to be put in the imprimis of their advantages, Deu 4:8; Deu 33:3; Psa 147:20.

Object. 2. Against what he had said of the advantages the Jews had in the lively oracles, some might object the unbelief of many of them. To what purpose were the oracles of God committed to them, when so many of them, notwithstanding these oracles, continued strangers to Christ, and enemies to his gospel? Some did not believe, Rom 3:3.

Answer. It is very true that some, nay most of the present Jews, do not believe in Christ; but shall their unbelief make the faith of God without effect? The apostle startles at such a thought: God forbid! The infidelity and obstinacy of the Jews could not invalidate and overthrow those prophecies of the Messiah which were contained in the oracles committed to them. Christ will be glorious, though Israel be not gathered, Isa 49:5. God's words shall be accomplished, his purposes performed, and all his ends answered, though there be a generation that by their unbelief go about to make God a liar. Let God be true but every man a liar; let us abide by this principle, that God is true to every word which he has spoken, and will let none of his oracles fall to the ground, though thereby we give the lie to man; better question and overthrow the credit of all the men in the world than doubt of the faithfulness of God. What David said in his haste (Psa 116:11), that all men are liars, Paul here asserts deliberately. Lying is a limb of that old man which we every one of us come into the world clothed with. All men are fickle, and mutable, and given to change, vanity and a lie (Psa 62:9), altogether vanity, Psa 39:5. All men are liars, compared with God. It is very comfortable, when we find every man a liar (no faith in man), that God is faithful. When they speak vanity every one with his neighbour, it is very comfortable to think that the words of the Lord are pure words, Psa 12:2, Psa 12:6. For the further proof of this he quotes Psa 51:4, That thou mightest be justified, the design of which is to show, 1. That God does and will preserve his own honour in the world, notwithstanding the sins of men. 2. That it is our duty, in all our conclusions concerning ourselves and others, to justify God and to assert and maintain his justice, truth, and goodness, however it goes. David lays a load upon himself in his confession, that he might justify God, and acquit him from any injustice. So here, Let the credit or reputation of man shift for itself, the matter is not great whether it sink or swim; let us hold fast this conclusion, how specious soever the premises may be to the contrary, that the Lord is righteous in all his ways, and holy in all his works. Thus is God justified in his sayings, and cleared when he judges (as it is Psa 51:4), or when he is judged, as it is here rendered. When men presume to quarrel with God and his proceedings, we may be sure the sentence will go on God's side.

Object. 3. Carnal hearts might hence take occasion to encourage themselves in sin. He had said that the universal guilt and corruption of mankind gave occasion to the manifestation of God's righteousness in Jesus Christ. Now it may be suggested, If all our sin be so far from overthrowing God's honour that it commends it, and his ends are secured, so that there is no harm done, is it not unjust for God to punish our sin and unbelief so severely? If the unrighteousness of the Jews gave occasion to the calling in of the Gentiles, and so to God's greater glory, why are the Jews so much censured? If our unrighteousness commend the righteousness of God, what shall we say? Rom 3:5. What inference may be drawn from this? Is God unrighteous, mē adikos ho Theos - Is not God unrighteous (so it may be read, more in the form of an objection), who taketh vengeance? Unbelieving hearts will gladly take any occasion to quarrel with equity of God's proceedings, and to condemn him that is most just, Job 34:17. I speak as a man, that is, I object this as the of carnal hearts; it is suggested like a man, a vain, foolish, proud creature.

Answer. God forbid; far be it from us to imagine such a thing. Suggestions that reflect dishonour upon God and his justice and holiness are rather to be startled at than parleyed with. Get thee behind me, Satan; never entertain such a thought. For then how shall God judge the world? Rom 3:6. The argument is much the same with that of Abraham (Gen 18:25): Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right? No doubt, he shall. If he were not infinitely just and righteous, he would be unfit to be the judge of all the earth. Shall even he that hateth right govern? Job 34:17. Compare Job 34:18, Job 34:19. The sin has never the less of malignity and demerit in it though God bring glory to himself out of it. It is only accidentally that sin commends God's righteousness. No thanks to the sinner for that, who intends no such thing. The consideration of God's judging the world should for ever silence all our doubtings of, and reflections upon, his justice and equity. It is not for us to arraign the proceedings of such an absolute Sovereign. The sentence of the supreme court, whence lies no appeal, is not to be called in question.

Object. 4. The former objection is repeated and prosecuted (Rom 3:7, Rom 3:8), for proud hearts will hardly be beaten out of their refuge of lies, but will hold fast the deceit. But his setting off the objection in its own colours is sufficient to answer it: If the truth of God has more abounded through my lie. He supposes the sophisters to follow their objection thus: "If my lie, that is, my sin"(for there is something of a lie in every sin, especially in the sins of professors) "have occasioned the glorifying of God's truth and faithfulness, why should I be judged and condemned as a sinner, and not rather thence take encouragement to go on in my sin, that grace may abound?"an inference which at first sight appears too black to be argued, and fit to be cast out with abhorrence. Daring sinners take occasion to boast in mischief, because the goodness of God endures continually, Psa 52:1. Let us do evil that good may come is oftener in the heart than in the mouth of sinners, so justifying themselves in their wicked ways. Mentioning this wicked thought, he observes, in a parenthesis, that there were those who charged such doctrines as this upon Paul and his fellow-ministers: Some affirm that we say so. It is no new thing for the best of God's people and ministers to be charged with holding and teaching such things as they do most detest and abhor; and it is not to be thought strange, when our Master himself was said to be in league with Beelzebub. Many have been reproached as if they had said that the contrary of which they maintain: it is an old artifice of Satan thus to cast dirt upon Christ's ministers, Fortiter calumniari, aliquid adhaerebit - Lay slander thickly on, for some will be sure to stick. The best men and the best truths are subject to slander. Bishop Sanderson makes a further remark upon this, as we are slanderously reported - blasphēmoumetha . Blasphemy in scripture usually signifies the highest degree of slander, speaking ill of God. The slander of a minister and his regular doctrine is a more than ordinary slander, it is a kind of blasphemy, not for his person's sake, but for his calling's sake and his work's sake, 1Th 5:13.

Answer. He says no more by way of confutation but that, whatever they themselves may argue, the damnation of those is just. Some understand it of the slanderers; God will justly condemn those who unjustly condemn his truth. Or, rather, it is to be applied to those who embolden themselves in sin under a pretence of God's getting glory to himself out of it. Those who deliberately do evil that good may come of it will be so far from escaping, under the shelter of that excuse, that it will rather justify their damnation, and render them the more inexcusable; for sinning upon such a surmise, and in such a confidence, argues a great deal both of the wit and of the will in the sin - a wicked will deliberately to choose the evil, and a wicked wit to palliate it with the pretence of good arising from it. Therefore their damnation is just; and, whatever excuses of this kind they may now please themselves with, they will none of them stand good in the great day, but God will be justified in his proceedings, and all flesh, even the proud flesh that now lifts up itself against him, shall be silent before him. Some think Paul herein refers to the approaching ruin of the Jewish church and nation, which their obstinacy and self-justification in their unbelief hastened upon them apace.

II. Paul, having removed these objections, next revives his assertion of the general guilt and corruption of mankind in common, both of Jews and Gentiles, Rom 3:9-18. " Are we better than they, we Jews, to whom were committed the oracles of God? Does this recommend us to God, or will this justify us? No, by no means."Or, "Are we Christians (Jews and Gentiles) so much better antecedently than the unbelieving part as to have merited God's grace? Alas! no: before free grace made the difference, those of us that had been Jews and those that had been Gentiles were all alike corrupted."They are all under sin. Under the guilt of sin: under it as under a sentence; - under it as under a bond, by which they are bound over to eternal ruin and damnation; - under it as under a burden (Psa 38:4) that will sink them to the lowest hell: we are guilty before God, Rom 3:19. Under the government and dominion of sin: under it as under a tyrant and cruel task-master, enslaved to it; - under it as under a yoke; - under the power of it, sold to work wickedness. And this he had proved, proētiasametha . It is a law term: We have charged them with it, and have made good our charge; we have proved the indictment, we have convicted them by the notorious evidence of the fact. This charge and conviction he here further illustrates by several scriptures out of the Old Testament, which describe the corrupt depraved state of all men, till grave restrain or change them; so that herein as in a glass we may all of us behold our natural face. The Rom 3:10, Rom 3:11, and Rom 3:12 verses are taken from Psa 14:1-3, which are repeated as containing a very weighty truth, Psa 53:1-3. The rest that follows here is found in the Septuagint translation of the 14th Psalm, which some think the apostle chooses to follow as better known; but I rather think that Paul took these passages from other places of scripture here referred to, but in later copies of the Septuagint they were all added in Psa 14:1-7 from this discourse of Paul. It is observable that, to prove the general corruption of nature, he quotes some scriptures which speak of the particular corruptions of particular persons, as of Doeg (Psa 140:3), of the Jews (Isa 59:7, Isa 59:8), which shows that the same sins that are committed by one are in the nature of all. The times of David and Isaiah were some of the better times, and yet to their days he refers. What is said Psa 14:1-7 is expressly spoken of all the children of men, and that upon a particular view and inspection made by God himself. The Lord looked down, as upon the old world, Gen 6:5. And this judgment of God was according to truth. He who, when he himself had made all, looked upon every thing that he had made, and behold all was very good, now that man had marred all, looked, and behold all was very bad. Let us take a view of the particulars. Observe,

1. That which is habitual, which is two-fold: -

(1.) An habitual defect of every thing that is good. [1.] There is none righteous, none that has an honest good principle of virtue, or is governed by such a principle, none that retains any thing of that image of God, consisting in righteousness, wherein man was created; no, not one; implying that, if there had been but one, God would have found him out. When all the world was corrupt, God had his eye upon one righteous Noah. Even those who through grace are justified and sanctified were none of them righteous by nature. No righteousness is born with us. The man after God's own heart owns himself conceived in sin. [2.] There is none that understandeth, Rom 3:11. The fault lies in the corruption of the understanding; that is blinded, depraved, perverted. Religion and righteousness have so much reason on their side that if people had but any understanding they would be better and do better. But they do not understand. Sinners are fools. [3.] None that seeketh after God, that is, none that has any regard to God, any desire after him. Those may justly be reckoned to have no understanding that do not seek after God. The carnal mind is so far from seeking after God that really it is enmity against him. [4.] They are together become unprofitable, Rom 3:12. Those that have forsaken God soon grow good for nothing, useless burdens of the earth. Those that are in a state of sin are the most unprofitable creatures under the sun; for it follows, [5.] There is none that doeth good; no, not a just man upon the earth, that doeth good, and sinneth not, Ecc 7:23. Even in those actions of sinners that have some goodness in them there is a fundamental error in the principle and end; so that it may be said, There is none that doeth good. Malum oritur ex quolibet defectu - Every defect is the source of evil.

(2.) An habitual defection to every thing that is evil: They are all gone out of the way. No wonder that those miss the right way who do not seek after God, the highest end. God made man in the way, set him in right, but he hath forsaken it. The corruption of mankind is an apostasy.

2. That which is actual. And what good can be expected from such a degenerate race? He instances,

(1.) In their words (Rom 3:13, Rom 3:14), in three things particularly: - [1.] Cruelty: Their throat is an open sepulchre, ready to swallow up the poor and innocent, waiting an opportunity to do mischief, like the old serpent seeking to devour, whose name is Abaddon and Apollyon, the destroyer. And when they do not openly avow this cruelty, and vent it publicly, yet they are underhand intending mischief: the poison of asps is under their lips (Jam 3:8), the most venomous and incurable poison, with which they blast the good name of their neighbour by reproaches, and aim at his life by false witness. These passages are borrowed from Psa 5:9 and Psa 140:3. [2.] Cheating: With their tongues they have used deceit. Herein they show themselves the devil's children, for he is a liar, and the father of lies. They have used it: it intimates that they make a trade of lying; it is their constant practice, especially belying the ways and people of God. [3.] Cursing: reflecting upon God, and blaspheming his holy name; wishing evil to their brethren: Their mouth is full of cursing and bitterness. This is mentioned as one of the great sins of the tongue, Jam 3:9. But those that thus love cursing shall have enough of it, Psa 109:17-19. How many, who are called Christians, do by these sin evince that they are still under the reign and dominion of sin, still in the condition that they were born in.

(2.) In their ways (Rom 3:15-17): Their feet are swift to shed blood; that is, they are very industrious to compass any cruel design, ready to lay hold of all such opportunities. Wherever they go, destruction and misery go along with them; these are their companions-destruction and misery to the people of God, to the country and neighbourhood where they live, to the land and nation, and to themselves at last. Besides the destruction and misery that are at the end of their ways (death is the end of these things), destruction and misery are in their ways; their sin is its own punishment: a man needs no more to make him miserable than to be a slave to his sins. - And the way of peace have they not known; that is, they know not how to preserve peace with others, nor how to obtain peace for themselves. They may talk of peace, such a peace as is in the devil's palace, while he keeps it, but they are strangers to all true peace; they know not the things that belong to their peace. These are quoted from Pro 1:16; Isa 59:7, Isa 59:8.

(3.) The root of all this we have: There is no fear of God before their eyes, Rom 3:18. The fear of God is here put for all practical religion, which consists in an awful and serious regard to the word and will of God as our rule, to the honour and glory of God as our end. Wicked people have not this before their eyes; that is, they do not steer by it; they are governed by other rules, aim at other ends. This is quoted from Psa 36:1. Where no fear of God is, no good is to be expected. The fear of God is would lay a restraint upon our spirits, and keep them right, Neh 5:15. When once fear is cast off, prayer is restrained (Job 15:4), and then all goes to wreck and ruin quickly. So that we have here a short account of the general depravity and corruption of mankind; and may say, O Adam! what hast thou done? God made man upright, but thus he hath sought out many inventions.

Barclay: Rom 3:9-18

In the last passage Paul had insisted that, in spite of everything, the Jew had a special position in the economy of God. Not unnaturally the Jewish objector then asks if that means that the Jews are out ahead of other peoples. Paul's answer is that Jew and Gentile alike, so long as they are without Christ, are under the dominion of sin. The Greek phrase that he uses for under sin is very suggestive, hupo (5259) hamartian (266). In this sense hupo (5259) means in the power of, under the authority of. In Mat 8:9the centurion says: "I have soldiers hupo (5259) emauton (1683), under me." That is, I have soldiers under my command. A schoolboy is hupo (5259) paidagogon (3807), under the direction of the slave who is in control of him. A slave is hupo (5259) zugon (2218), under the yoke of his master. In the Christless state a man is under the control of sin, and helpless to escape from it.

There is one other interesting word in this passage. It is the word in Rom 3:12which we have translated. "They have gone bad." The word is achreioo (889), which literally means to render useless. One of its uses is of milk that has gone sour. Human nature without Christ is a soured and useless thing.

We see Paul doing here what Jewish Rabbis customarily did. In Rom 3:10-18he has strung together a collection of Old Testament texts. He is not quoting accurately, because he is quoting from memory, but he includes quotations from Psa 14:1-3; Psa 5:9; Psa 140:3; Psa 10:7; Isa 59:7-8; Psa 36:1. It was a very common method of Rabbinic preaching to string texts together like this. It was called charaz (see charuwz, 02737), which literally means stringing pearls.

It is a terrible description of human nature in its Christless state. Vaughan has pointed out that these Old Testament quotations describe three things. (i) A character whose characteristics are ignorance, indifference, crookedness and unprofitableness. (ii) A tongue whose notes are destructive, deceitful, malignant. (iii) A conduct whose marks are oppression, injuriousness, implacability. These things are the result of disregard of God.

No one saw so clearly the evil of human nature as Paul did; but it must always be noted that the evil of human nature was to him, not a call to hopelessness, but a challenge to hope. When we say that Paul believed in original sin and the depravity of human nature, we must never take that to mean that he despaired of human nature or looked on it with cynical contempt. Once, when William Jay of Bath was an old man, he said: "My memory is failing, but there are two things that I never forget--that I am a great sinner and that Jesus Christ is a great Saviour."

Paul never underrated the sin of man and he never underrated the redeeming power of Jesus Christ. Once, when he was a young man, William Roby, the great Lancashire Independent, was preaching at Malvern. His lack of success drove him to despair, and he wished to leave the work. Then came a seasonable reproof from a certain Mr Moody, who asked him, "Are they, then, too bad to be saved?" The challenge sent William Roby back to his work. Paul believed men without Christ to be bad, but he never believed them too bad to be saved. He was confident that what Christ had done for him Christ could do for any man.

Constable: Rom 1:18--3:21

II. THE NEED FOR GOD'S RIGHTEOUSNESS 1:18--3:20

Paul began his explanation of the gospel by demonstrating that there is a universal need for it. Every human being needs to trust in Jesus Christ because everyone lacks the righteousness that God requires before He will accept us.

"Paul implicitly acknowledges that 1:18-3:20 is an interruption in his exposition of the righteousness of God by reprising 1:17 in 3:21 . . . Some think that the revelation of God's wrath' is a product of the preaching of the gospel, so that 1:18-3:20 is as much gospel' as is 3:21-4:25 . . . But, although Paul clearly considers warning about judgment to come to be related to his preaching of the gospel (2:16), his generally positive use of gospel' language forbids us from considering God's wrath and judgment to be part of the gospel.

"We must consider 1:18-3:20 as a preparation for, rather than as part of, Paul's exposition of the gospel of God's righteousness."³⁸

Constable: Rom 3:9-20

C. The guilt of all humanity 3:9-20

Having now proven all people, Jews and Gentiles, under God's wrath Paul drove the final nail in mankind's spiritual coffin by citing Scriptural proof.

3:9 The phrase "What then?" introduces a conclusion to the argument that all people are guilty before God. Paul identified himself with the Jews about whom he had recently been speaking. Jews are not better (more obedient) than Gentiles even though they received greater privileges from God. Being "under sin" means being under its domination and condemnation.

". . . the problem with people is not just that they commit sins; their problem is that they are enslaved to sin."⁸³

3:10-18 Paul was writing to a primarily Gentile congregation so he concluded rather than began his argument with an appeal to Scripture.⁸⁴ The collection of passages Paul used both affirmed the universality of sin (vv. 10-12) and showed its pervasive inroads into all areas of individual and corporate life (vv. 13-18).

In verses 10-12 statement of the universality of sin opens and closes the passage. Sin has affected human intellect, emotions, and volition. Note the repetition of "none" as well as "all" and "not even one," all universal terms. In verses 13-18 Paul described the words (vv. 13-14), acts (vv. 15-17), and attitudes (v. 18) of man as tainted by sin.

This passage is one of the most forceful in Scripture that deals with the total depravity of man. Total depravity does not mean that every person is as bad as he or she could be. It means that sin has affected every part of his or her being and consequently there is nothing anyone can do to commend himself or herself to a holy God.

"Depravity means that man fails the test of pleasing God. He [sic] denotes his unmeritoriousness in God's sight. This failure is total in that (a) it affects all aspects of man's being, and (b) it affects all people."⁸⁵

The statement that "there is none who seeks after God" (v. 11) means that no one seeks God without God prompting him or her to do so (cf. John 6:44-46). It does not mean that people are constitutionally incapable of seeking God. People can and should seek God (Acts 17:26-27), and they are responsible for not doing so.

"Paul's portrayal of the unrighteous person may seem overly pessimistic to many contemporaries. After all, do we not all know certain individuals who live rather exemplary lives apart from Christ? Certainly they do not fit the description just laid out. Although it may be true that many of our acquaintances are not as outwardly wicked as the litany would suggest, we must remember that they are also benefactors of a civilization deeply influenced by a pervasive Judeo-Christian ethic. Take away the beneficent influence of Christian social ethics and their social behavior would be considerably different."⁸⁶

Verse 18 concludes the quotations by giving the root problem (cf. 1:18-32).

"It is no kindness, but a terrible wrong, to hide from a criminal the sentence that must surely overtake him unless pardoned; for a physician to conceal from a patient a cancer that will destroy him unless quickly removed; for one acquainted with the hidden pitfalls of a path he beholds someone taking, not to warn him of his danger!"⁸⁷

3:19-20 Paul added that whatever the law, here the Old Testament, says it addresses to those involved in it, namely all the Jews. He wrote this to take the ground out from under a Jewish reader who might try to say that the passages just quoted refer only to the godless. The result of its condemnation is that no one will be able to open his mouth in his own defense (cf. Rev. 20:11-14). "All the world" describes all of humanity again.

"Probably Paul is using an implicit from the greater to the lesser' argument: if Jews, God's chosen people, cannot be excluded from the scope of sin's tyranny, then it surely follows that Gentiles, who have no claim on God's favor, are also guilty."⁸⁸

The purpose of the law was not to provide people with a series of steps that would lead them to heaven. It was to expose their inability to merit heaven (Gal. 3:24). Jesus had previously said that no one carries out the law completely (John 7:19). Paul had more to say about the works of the law (i.e., works done in obedience to the law, good works) in Romans (cf. Gal. 2:16; 3:2, 5, 9-10). If someone breaks only one law, he or she is a lawbreaker. The law is similar to a chain. If someone breaks even one link, the chain cannot save. If someone wants to earn God's commendation of being perfectly righteous, he or she must obey God's law perfectly (cf. Matt. 5:48). It is impossible therefore to earn justification (a righteous verdict) by performing the works that God's law requires.⁸⁹ Verse 20 probably serves to confirm human accountability rather than giving a reason for it.⁹⁰

Every human being needs the gospel because everyone is a sinner and is under God's condemnation. In this first major section of Romans (1:18-3:20), Paul proved the universal sinfulness of humankind. He first showed the need of all people generally (1:18-32). Then he dealt with the sinfulness of self-righteous people particularly (2:1-3:8). He set forth three principles by which God judges (2:1-16), proved the guilt of Jews, God's chosen people (2:17-29), and answered four objections Jews could offer to his argument (3:1-8). Then he concluded by showing that the Old Testament also taught the depravity of every human being (3:9-20).

College: Rom 3:1-31

F. SUCH EQUAL TREATMENT OF JEWS AND GENTILES DOES NOT NULLIFY BUT RATHER MAGNIFIES

GOD'S RIGHTEOUSNESS (3:1-8)

This paragraph answers anticipated misunderstandings and objections especially from Jewish readers, objections growing out of the things said about the Jews in chapter 2, especially in vv. 25-29. Here Paul returns to a modified diatribe style, posing questions and disposing of them with answers that are emphatic and to the point. They are questions Paul (a former Pharisee) knows are bound to arise, or which perhaps have already been "flung at him" in earlier face-to-face discussions with his former brethren (Stott, 95).

The discussion begins with a question about the role of the Jews in God's plan (vv. 1-2), then quickly moves on to the issue of the character of God himself (vv. 3-4). The thought is that what Paul says about the Jews in chapter 2 seems to nullify the apparent Jewish privilege and exclusiveness enjoyed since Abraham's day, and this in turn calls into question the truthfulness and faithfulness of God. Paul's response leads to a series of somewhat frivolous questions which may be interpreted as one last desperate attempt at Jewish self-justification (vv. 5-8).

Paul deals with these issues very briefly, knowing that he will return to them in more detail in chapters 9-11.

3:1 What advantage, then, is there in being a Jew, or what value is there in circumcision? Here, as Dunn says (I:138), "The slightly agonized cry of Jewish self-identity responds in bewildered protest" to the teaching of chapter 2. The protester's thought is this: "If being a Jew gives us no advantage over the Gentiles on Judgment Day, then what's the big deal about being a Jew at all? Have we just been spinning our wheels for the last 2,000 years? Are the covenant and its special sign - circumcision - God's idea of a practical joke? Or is he just now changing his mind about the Jews? Is he going back on his word? What's the use of being a Jew, then?"

3:2 Paul's answer is brief: Much in every way! First of all, they have been entrusted with the very words of God. The Jews' basic problem was the assumption that their election to God's service gave them a kind of automatic pass to heaven. Chapter 2 shows that this was false. But here Paul explains that even though this was not the case, there were many great and glorious privileges shared by every person born into Abraham's covenant family, whether he will ultimately be saved or not. The Jews' advantage is "much in many a way" (Lard, 101).

How are we to understand "first of all"? Ordinarily the word "first" (prw'ton , prôton ) indicates the first of a series of events or the first item in a longer list, leading us to expect other items to follow. However, Paul mentions only this one advantage. This has caused some to interpret prôton to mean "first in importance, chiefly" (KJV; Calvin, 113). This seems inappropriate, though, since even what Paul mentions here could hardly exceed in importance the Jews' ultimate privilege of bringing the Messiah into the world (9:5). We conclude that Paul does intend to present a longer series of advantages, but decides not to list them at this point. He waits instead until 9:4-5.

The one advantage mentioned here is that the Jews "have been entrusted with the very words of God." It is important in this context to stress this point, even if reference to the others can be delayed until later. This is because of what Paul has just said about the Law of Moses in chapter 2, namely, that mere possession of this specially-revealed law was no basis for any Jew's personal salvation. Does this mean that the Jews' possession of God's special revelation was a trivial and inconsequential thing? No! On the contrary, it is a unique and glorious privilege, and one that is appropriately emphasized at this juncture.

What are the "very words of God" with which the Jews were entrusted? The Greek term is lovgion , ( logion ), used here in the plural with the definite article. (See also Acts 7:38; Heb 5:12; 1 Pet 4:11.) In classical Greek this term was used for divine utterances, or oracles supposedly spoken by the gods through their inspired messengers. This is surely the sense in which Paul is using it here to represent the inspired utterances of the true God. It is variously translated as "the oracles of God" (KJV, NEB, NASB, NRSV), "the words of God" (NAB), and "God's messages" (Phillips). It is basically equivalent to ho logos tou theou , "the word of God," and occurs in this sense often in the LXX, especially in Ps 119. The NIV translation is excellent. It is proper to understand it as referring to the entire written OT, the "Holy Scriptures" (1:2) as possessed by the Jews.

That ta logia tou theou is referring to the written OT is shown by Paul's assertion that these oracles were "entrusted" into the care of the Jews. Murray rightly says, "It is as Scripture that these oracles were committed to the Jews; only in this form could the Jews be said to have been entrusted with them" (I:93). To be entrusted with something means to be given possession of it in order to see that it is protected and put to proper use. That the Jews were "entrusted" with the OT means that God chose them to receive his special revelation in written form, and he charged them with being its guardians or custodians. They were God's chosen stewards of this exceedingly precious gift to mankind; they were "entrusted with the stewardship of safeguarding and preserving" it until the time for its fulfillment should come (Dunn, I:138).

To be entrusted with the oracles of God gave the Jews a privilege and an advantage that far surpassed anything enjoyed by the Gentiles, who knew the Creator and his law through general revelation only. (See Deut 4:8; Ps 147:19-20.) Because they had his special revelation also, the Jews knew God not just as Creator, Lawgiver, and Judge, but also as a loving Savior. They knew not only his law, but also his grace; and they had the blessed opportunity to believe in his promise of forgiveness.

Of special importance is the fact that the Jews knew God's intention to send a Messiah, a Redeemer. They possessed the many predictive prophecies of his coming, and they nurtured the hope for his appearing. Thus those who happened to be living at the time of his coming would be the first to know him and to have the opportunity to believe in him and receive his salvation (1:16). Who could ask for greater advantages than these?

3:3 But [w]hat if some did not have faith? Will their lack of faith nullify God's faithfulness? These questions reflect the fact that many if not most Jews did not in fact put their saving faith in God's gracious promises in Old Covenant times, and did not believe in their Messiah when he came. Some did have faith (and thus were true Jews in terms of 2:29), but most did not.

The words translated "did not have faith" and "lack of faith" can also mean "were unfaithful" and "unfaithfulness." Some (e.g., Dunn, I:131-132; Hendriksen, I:110) think the context favors the latter meaning. This would mean that (some) Jews were unfaithful to their covenant obligations; they were unfaithful to their duties as stewards of the oracles of God. However, others take these words in their more usual sense of "disbelieve" and "unbelief" (e.g., Cranfield, I:180; Murray, I:94). This latter view is preferred, since belief and unbelief are key themes in Romans.

The point is that the Jews through their stewardship of the logia of God had God's covenant promises all along, but many of them habitually, generation after generation, refused to put their heart's trust in these promises. Then when the prophecies and promises of the Messiah were fulfilled in Jesus Christ, many of Paul's Jewish contemporaries refused to believe in him.

This reality of Jewish unbelief raises the question or possible objection concerning God's faithfulness. Does the unbelief of some Jews mean that God's covenant purposes have failed? Does God's condemnation of the Jews who do not believe (strongly implied in the preceding chapters, especially in 1:5, 16; 2:28-29) mean that he is breaking his promise to them and thus proving to be unfaithful? As Morris (152) words the objection, "Since God has promised to bless his people, he must do this irrespective of what the Jews do"; otherwise he is not being faithful to his promise.

The word for God's "faithfulness" is pivsti" ( pistis ), which in reference to human beings can mean either faith or faithfulness. Since there is no legitimate sense in which God can be said to have faith, it is properly understood here as faithfulness. The word for "nullify" is katargevw , ( katargeô ), which has a strong meaning ("abolish, destroy"; see 1 Cor 6:13; 15:26; Eph 2:15), and a weaker meaning ("nullify, make ineffective, render powerless"; see 3:31; 4:14; 6:6). The latter is intended here, as the NIV has it.

The fact that Paul includes in this question the Greek particle mhv (mç ) shows that he expects a negative answer: "The unbelief of some Jews does not mean that God is unfaithful, does it?" Thus even before he gives his strong negative reply in v. 4, he shows what the answer will be. The sense of the verse as a whole, as Cranfield says (I:181), "is that it is unthinkable that God's faithfulness to his covenant with Israel should be rendered ineffective even by the Jews' unbelief."

3:4 Is God unfaithful? Not at all! This is Paul's first use of the strong negative expression, mhΙ gevnoito , (mç genoito ), literally, "May it not be!" It is usually translated with a strong English colloquialism, as in the NIV. This is an emphatic "No!" answer to the preceding question.

Let God be true, and every man a liar. The verb "be" is givnomai ( ginomai ), which usually means "to become." Since God's nature does not undergo change, we take this to mean, "Let it become evident or obvious that God is always true" (Lard, 102), or "Let God be recognized as true." God is always reliable, faithful and true to his word. He always keeps his promises, both for blessing and condemnation. Because of his very nature he cannot lie (Titus 1:2).

The NIV connects this clause to the next with the simple copulative, "and." This does not properly reflect the stated contrast. Instead it should read "though" (NASB), "although" (NRSV), "even though," or "even if." The idea is that we should always acknowledge that God is true, even if every human being turns out to be a liar (see Ps 116:11). This does not refer to some specific lie, such as the Jews' denial of Jesus' messiahship. It is rather a general principle about the susceptibility of all men to lying and unfaithfulness.

Paul then quotes the second half of Ps 51:4, following the Septuagint: As it is written: "So that you may be proved right when you speak and prevail when you judge." In the Psalm this statement follows David's confession of his sin with Bathsheba, "Against you, you only have I sinned and done what is evil in your sight . . . ." Why does the second half of the verse (quoted by Paul) begin with "so that"? Is David saying that the very purpose of his sin is to prove God to be true and just (Stott, 96)? Hardly. Rather, he is saying that the purpose of his confession is to prove that the sentence of condemnation God pronounced upon him (2 Sam 12:9-14) is justified (Hendriksen, I:111-112; Moo, I:198-199).

The word for "proved true" is dikaiovw (dikaioô ), usually translated "justified" (NASB) and a key word in the doctrine of salvation. Its use in this verse helps establish its precise meaning as "declared righteous" rather than "made righteous," since we cannot make God righteous though we can acknowledge and declare him to be righteous (see the parallel in Luke 7:29). "When you speak" is literally "in your words." In the Psalm David is saying that God cannot be faulted for his words of condemnation against him. Paul gives the statement a more general application, saying that whenever God speaks, he will be proved right and his words will be found true.

The last line in the verse is difficult, since the Hebrew for "judge" is active voice, while the LXX and Romans 3:4 appear to be passive. Thus the NIV (incorrectly) says, "when you judge," while the NASB says, "when Thou art judged." It is likely that neither is exactly correct, and that the verb (krivnesqai , krinesthai ) should be taken as being in the middle voice: "When you go to law" (Moo, I:187), "When you contend in a law-suit" (Cranfield, I:182). Thus the statement can apply both ways: God always prevails when he brings suit against another, as in the case of David; and he always prevails when someone brings suit against him, as his Jewish accusers are doing in this paragraph. As Bruce says (96), God always wins his case when he enters into judgment.

This verse has two main applications. First, we must not ignore its implications for the nature of God's word in general, and especially for the nature of the Bible. Because it is the Word of God, the Bible will always prove to be true. Critics are constantly taking God to court, as it were, accusing his word of containing errors. But they will always be proved wrong, and God's word will always be vindicated.

The more specific application is Paul's main point, that God's promises to Israel will be fulfilled even if every individual Jew is unfaithful to God. Even if every Jew rejects God and is condemned to hell, God will still be faithful and his covenant will be fulfilled. This is so because God's covenant purpose for Israel did not guarantee the salvation of individual Jews. The basic covenant promise was not to individuals as such, but to Israel as a nation . The promise was not that all Jews would be saved, but that through the nation the Messiah would come. God promised to bless and preserve the nation as a nation until the Messiah came, but not beyond that. (See GRe , 391-395.) This is exactly what he did, and thus he was true to his word and covenant in every way.

3:5 Beginning in this verse Paul sets forth and replies to several anticipated objections to (misunderstandings of, false inferences from) his point in 3:3-4, speaking from the standpoint of the Jewish objectors. Here is the first objection: But if our unrighteousness brings out God's righteousness more clearly, what shall we say? That God is unjust in bringing his wrath on us? "Our unrighteousness" is the Jews' unbelief (v. 3), though the point would apply in principle to the sin and unbelief of all men (see 1:18). "God's righteousness" in this case is not the gift of righteousness of which 1:17 speaks, but God's own righteous character in contrast with the unrighteous character of sinners. To say that God is righteous means that his deeds are always consistent with his nature and his words ( GRe , 194-196). This includes much more than his faithfulness to his covenant promises, and is not limited to his promises to bless and deliver his people. It also means God is true to his holy nature and to the ensuing necessity for punishing unbelievers.

The objector suggests that our unrighteousness "brings out more clearly" God's righteousness. This is an implication from v. 4a, "Let God be true, and every man a liar." The idea is that every sin of man forms a dark background upon which the corresponding divine virtue shines forth in contrasting brilliance and glory. This is definitely true, but "what shall we say" about it? That is, what conclusions might we draw from this? The false inference suggested by the Jewish objector is this: "If our sin magnifies God's righteousness, this is to his advantage and glory, and thus he really ought to reward us rather than condemn us. And if this is so, then God's condemnation of us is really unjust."

This question seems to reflect the Jews' refusal to come to grips with the point Paul made in chapter 2, that sinful Jews cannot be saved simply by being Jews, contrary to their misguided assumptions. It is another futile effort to avoid God's judgment, and one that has no merit whatsoever. This is shown by the way Paul words the question. He again uses the particle mç , anticipating a negative answer: "We really can't say that God is unrighteous when he inflicts wrath, can we?" This reflects the fact that all sinners know in their hearts that they really do deserve God's wrath.

(I am using a human argument.) Paul is here making it clear that he is not speaking for himself or for the Holy Spirit, and that he regards the question as the product of faulty human thinking. His statement is "a parenthetic apology for having presented . . . a thought which is all too human in its weakness and folly," and it underlines his own repudiation of the thought (Cranfield, I:184).

3:6 Paul then gives his standard emphatic reply, Certainly not! (mç genoito ), and words a brief reason for this answer: If that were so, how could God judge the world? What is his point here? One possibility is that he is stating a reductio ad absurdum argument. That is, if we grant the objection in the case of the Jews, we would have to grant it in the case of everybody ("the world"), since everyone else's sins also cause God's righteousness to stand out all the more. But this is absurd, because we know there will be a judgment, and that the wicked will be condemned. (See Lard, 104.)

A better understanding is that Paul is saying the question is absurd simply because "to impugn God's justice is to undercut his competence to judge" (Stott, 97). An unjust God is simply not worthy of judging the world. This is why the fact "that God who shall judge the world is just is a fundamental certainty of all theological thinking" (Cranfield, I:185). Abraham sums up this intuition: "Will not the Judge of all the earth do right?" (Gen 18:25; see Job 34:17). Indeed, if God were not just and righteous, why would he even want to judge the world? Thus the objection is worthless.

3:7 But the objector persists: Someone might argue, "If my falsehood enhances God's truthfulness and so increases his glory, why am I still condemned as a sinner?" This is basically a restatement of the objection in v. 5, as if the debater just refuses to give up on this point. The contrast between God's truthfulness and man's lies (see v. 4) is representative of the general contrast between the holy God and sinful man. The argument is still the same as before: "How can it be fair for a man to be blamed for his falsehood, when it has actually redounded to God's glory?" (Cranfield, I:185). Morris' comment is to the point: "We sinners display incredible ingenuity when we try to justify ourselves" (161).

3:8 Verse 8 asks another question: Why not say . . . "Let us do evil that good may result"? This can be taken two ways. Some see it as the Jewish objector's continuation of the point he tries to make in v. 7, as he presses it to its logical and general conclusion. This, says Moo (I:194-195), is the best understanding of the word "and" (kaiΙ , kai ), which begins the verse, though untranslated by the NIV. One problem with this view is that it leaves the objection basically unanswered, unless v. 6 serves as a reply to both v. 5 and vv. 7-8a (Murray, I:99). This would be somewhat obscure, though. Moo says the very absurdity of the suggestion shows it does not deserve a reply (I:195).

It is better to take this question in another way, namely, as Paul's own question, in which he states the logical yet absurd outcome of both v. 5 and v. 7. Thus the objection in v. 7 does have a response, and this is it (Cranfield, I:187). The force of the question is this: "Well, if that [v. 7] is the case, then we might just as well say, 'Let us do evil that good may result' - which we all know is absolutely ridiculous." Again, the question begins with the particle mç , which implies a negative answer.

This question is basically a statement of the principle that "the end justifies the means." This verse is a repudiation of that principle.

Paul notes parenthetically that he himself was being accused of teaching this lie: as we are being slanderously reported as saying and as some claim that we say . . . . A clear presentation of the gospel of grace sounds so radical to most people that they may indeed assume it implies a kind of indifference to obedience. As far as Paul himself was concerned, "experience had shown that his proclamation of the gospel could be perverted in an antinomian direction" (Thielman, Paul , 176). Here Paul calls this accusation slander or blasphemy. In chapter 6 he discusses this inference in more detail and clearly shows it is not validly derived from the gospel.

Their condemnation is deserved. Of whom is Paul speaking? Perhaps those (the "some") who are slandering him, but more likely those who are pressing the absurd objection voiced in vv. 5 and 7 (Murray, I:98). It is not enough that Paul ridicules their view by showing its logical yet absurd end; now he turns his indignation upon the objectors themselves.

This is a fitting conclusion to this subsection (2:1-3:8). In chapter 2 Paul declares that the Jews are without excuse before God. They assumed their possession and knowledge of the Law of Moses, plus their physical descent from Abraham marked by circumcision, would be sufficient to save them in the final judgment. Paul says no: God will not be partial to the Jews. Anyone counting on law as his mode of salvation can be saved only by perfect obedience, and the Jews are sinners like everyone else. Therefore under law they stand condemned like everyone else. Their convoluted arguments (3:1-7) do nothing to alter this judgment. If anything, such twisted thinking only serves to demonstrate the fact that their condemnation is quite deserved. As Dunn paraphrases this last statement, "They deserve what's coming to them" (I:137).

III. 3:9-20 - UNIVERSAL SINFULNESS AND

HOPELESSNESS UNDER LAW

Paul's main point in the first main section of Romans is to show that no one can be saved by law or law-keeping. Only a perfect person can hope to be accepted by God under the law system. The sad fact is that no such person exists. Every person is a law-breaker and is thus without hope under law.

In the first two main points of this section Paul has dealt with the two alleged exceptions to this rule: the Gentiles, or those without special revelation (1:18-32); and the Jews, or those who do have special revelation (2:1-3:8). Now in this final point (3:9-20) he pulls all of this together and draws his intended conclusion. He reaffirms the reality of universal sinfulness (v. 9), provides OT confirmation of it (vv. 10-18), and stresses the impotence of law as the result of it (vv. 19-20).

3:9 What shall we conclude then? Literally, "What then?" The NIV rightly takes this short phrase as introducing the conclusion of this section. Are we any better? Not at all! This brief passage of three Greek words is very difficult and is open to several interpretations. Three questions must be answered. First, whom is Paul including in the "we"? Does he mean "we Jews"? This is the most common understanding, and is based on the probability that the whole previous section (2:1-3:8) refers particularly to the Jews. Several interpreters believe Paul means "we Christians," however. Cranfield says it means "we human beings in general" (I:147).

Second, what does the verb (proecovmeqa , proechometha ) mean? In the active voice it means "surpass, excel, be superior to, have an advantage, have a head start." But here it is either middle or passive voice. Seen as passive, it would mean, "Are we surpassed? Are we at a disadvantage?" Seen as middle, it would mean, "Are we trying to excuse ourselves? Are we trying to put forward a defense?" Another possibility is that it has a middle form but an active meaning: "Do we excel? Are we any better (off)? Do we have any advantage?"

Third, how should we interpret the negative phrase, ouj pavntw" (ou pantôs )? Some say it is an emphatic negative: "Not at all! Certainly not! By no means!" But the word order lends itself to another interpretation: "Not entirely," or "Not in every respect."

It is obvious that the above variables could be combined in many ways. E.g., "Do we human beings have any defense? None whatsoever!" "Are we Christians any better off than the Jews and Gentiles? Not at all!" "Are we Jews at a disadvantage, then, in light of 3:4-8? No, you are still no worse off than the Gentiles." "Do we Jews have an advantage, then? In light of 3:1-2, you have an advantage in one way, but not in every way." "Do we Jews have an advantage, then? None at all!"

The fact is that any of these views is compatible with Paul's main point; but in light of the context and the flow of his argument, either of the last two views is preferred. As the next sentence shows, in this whole section Paul has been using the two categories of Jews and Gentiles as inclusive of the entire human race. Of these two groups, Paul naturally identifies himself with the former. Also, a comparison seems to be in view, i.e., between the two groups. Thus: "Are we Jews any better off than the Gentiles?"

This query is stimulated by 3:1-2, where Paul affirms that the Jews have a great advantage over the Gentiles, especially in their possession of the oracles of God. Just so no one will misunderstand, Paul asks this question in v. 9 so that he can reemphasize the point made in chapter 2. That is, no matter what privileges the Jews may have enjoyed in relation to their unique role as the people through whom the Messiah would come, in reference to sin and judgment and their standing before God, they have no advantage whatsoever.

Paul's next sentence shows that this is the main point: We have already made the charge that Jews and Gentiles alike are all under sin. Thus the Jews have no "superior standing of righteousness" in the eyes of God (Hendriksen, I:120). With reference to sin and guilt the Jews are on the same level as the Gentiles. Paul has already made this charge against the Gentiles in 1:18-32 and against the Jews in 2:1-29.

"Made the charge" is a legal term that refers to the act of filing charges against someone, or accusing them before a court of law. He has charged both Jews and Greeks (used in the sense of non-Jews, or Gentiles) of being "under sin." To be "under sin" is more than just committing sins; it is more than just being a sinner. It means to be under the power and dominion of sin. Sin is thus represented as a slave master, "a power controlling man" (Cranfield, I:191); and sinners are seen as "helpless slaves to the power of sin" (Moo, I:204). See 6:16-22 for further reflection on this idea.

The main point of this summary statement is the emphasis on universality . Paul says " both Jews and Gentiles are all under sin," with no exceptions. As Dunn says, this "sums up the overall conclusion of 1:18-3:8" (I:148). Thus we have "Paul's own comment on his purpose in this section of his letter" (Moo, I:203). He will draw his final conclusion from this universality of sin in vv. 19-20.

3:10 In v. 9 Paul says he has "made the charge" that all are under sin. Now in vv. 10-18 he offers proof of this charge in the form of citations from Scripture: As it is written . These words introduce a "quotation-chain" (Hendriksen, I:121) of fourteen short and sharp statements from several places in the OT. The first six (vv. 10-12) are general affirmations of the sinfulness of all men. The next four (vv. 13-14) reinforce these general statements by emphasizing sins of the tongue, or the spoken word. The next three (vv. 15-17) zero in on sins of violent acts. The last one (v. 18) gives the root cause of all such sins.

The quotations are not verbatim but are usually quite close to the LXX and give the general meaning of the texts cited. In their original OT contexts some of these statements had a limited application, but Paul applies them to all people in general. It is especially significant that he applies them to the Jews as well as to the Gentiles, since a major "object of these citations is to prove the undoubted guilt of the Jews" (Lard, 108).

"There is no one righteous, not even one . . . ." (From Eccl 7:20; see Ps 14:1.) Here the word "righteous" (divkaio" , dikaios ) is used in its basic sense of "conforming to a norm." The norm to which every human being must conform is the law of God, in whatever form it is available and relevant to him. This text says that no one is righteous; no one has conformed to this norm; everyone has broken God's law; everyone has sinned (3:23). That is, no one is righteous in an absolute sense, in the sense of sinless perfection, which is the only way we could be accepted by God on the basis of our own righteousness. Thus the need for the gift of righteousness revealed and offered in the gospel (1:17).

3:11 "there is no one who understands . . . ." (From Ps 14:2; 53:2.) No creature can have infinite knowledge and know all possible truth about God. However, God gives every human being sufficient knowledge of himself and his law, even through general revelation (1:18-21; 2:14-15). This is the kind of understanding to which this texts refers. The problem is that no one receives this knowledge with a pure and open heart (Jer 17:9); hardness of heart leads to darkened understanding and willful ignorance (Eph 4:18). We tend to suppress the truth in favor of foolish and futile speculations (1:18, 21), and exchange truth for lies (1:25). This is a universal problem; everyone is guilty of it to some degree.

There is "no one who seeks God." (From Ps 14:2; 53:2.) Since "seeking for God" presupposes a state of separation from God, it is something only sinners need to do. But the sinner's guilt causes him to run away from God (v. 12) and attempt to hide from him (Gen 3:8; Rev 6:15-17). In the light of 1:21-25, we understand that even the many false religions of the world are not efforts to seek God, but efforts to escape from him (MacArthur, I:184). Thus if any are to be saved, God must take the initiative and seek sinners, which he does through special providence, special revelation, and the redeeming work of Jesus Christ (Luke 19:10).

3:12 "All have turned away" from God. (From Ps 14:3; 53:3.) As previously mentioned, it is characteristic of sinners to turn from God rather than toward him. The verb (ejkklivnw , ekklinô ) means to avoid or to deliberately turn away, not just to accidentally lose one's way (Morris, 167). See 16:17; 1 Pet 3:11. "We all, like sheep, have gone astray, each of us has turned to his own way" (Isa 53:6).

"they have together become worthless . . . ." (From Ps 14:3; 53:3.) As sinners, all have become unprofitable or useless. The Greek word translates a Hebrew word used to describe milk that has turned sour and thus cannot be used for its intended purpose. Likewise sinners have lost their usefulness and cannot fulfill their intended purpose of bringing glory to God. They are like milk that has turned sour, fruit that has rotted, or meat than has gone bad.

"there is no one who does good, not even one . . . ." (From Ps 14:1, 3; 53:1, 3.) "Good" here refers to acts of obedience to God and acts of kindness toward one's fellow men. This does not mean that no one ever does acts of goodness; it means that no one always does them. There is no one who does good, and only good. The universality of this indictment is underscored by the addition of "not even one." This is an appropriate way to end the series of six quotations that emphasize this universality.

3:13 "Their throats are open graves . . . ." (From Ps 5:9.) After a series of statements about the general sinfulness of mankind, Paul now begins to cite OT verses that refer to specific representative sins as illustrations of the general point. This citation is the first of four that focus on "the sinfulness of human speech" (Moo, I:206). A grave contains the rotting and putrid remains of a corpse; when it is opened, it emits a horrible stench. The sinner's throat (lavrugx , larynx ) is like this grave. When he opens it to speak, all sorts of ugly, rotten, obscene words pour forth. (See Eph 4:29.) This follows Jesus' specific teaching in Matt 12:34: "Out of the overflow of the heart the mouth speaks" (see Matt 12:35; 15:18-20). Nothing reveals the state of the heart more consistently than how a person talks. A rotten heart produces rotten speech.

"their tongues practice deceit." (From Ps 5:9.) This reads "They smoothed their tongues" in the Hebrew, says Robertson (345). That is, their speech is filled with smooth, oily talk, "the deceptive flatteries of those who intend evil" (Moo, I:206). In Scripture the tongue is commonly linked with speech and especially with lying and evil talk (see Prov 6:17; 12:19; Micah 6:12; Jas 1:26; 3:1-12).

"The poison of vipers is on their lips." (From Ps 140:3.) Understanding this to refer to the Egyptian cobra, Robertson says, "The poison of the asp lies in a bag under the lips" (345). This vivid analogy refers to those who use their words to destroy others, e.g., through lies, false accusations, slander, or gossip. Such words are like the poisonous venom of a snake.

3:14 "Their mouths are full of cursing and bitterness." (From Ps 10:7.) To curse someone is to verbally call for harm to befall him. It usually springs from a heart that is full of bitterness or hostility or anger toward that person. The sinner's heart is "full of" such bitter curses, i.e., it is not just an exception but is typical of his lifestyle in general.

Some have suggested that v. 13 refers to evil speech directed against mankind, while this verse refers to evil speech directed against God. There is no real basis for such limitations, though. The "cursing" mentioned here is likely directed toward both, though the context of Ps 10:7 particularly refers to harm done to others.

3:15 "Their feet are swift to shed blood . . . ." (From Isa 59:7.) This and the next two citations stress sinners' evil deeds, even to the point of shedding blood in violent assault and murder. Here the focus shifts from the organs of speech to the feet, the means of mobility by which a person is able to put his purposes into action. Being "swift" to shed blood suggests that such evil is carried out with eagerness and perverse delight.

3:16 "ruin and misery mark their ways . . . ." (From Isa 59:7.) This highlights the depravity of the sinner's heart by describing the wreckage he leaves in his wake. He pursues his selfish desires and purposes with no concern for others and without caring how he may be harming them. The picture is that of a village devastated by a killer hurricane that has passed through. "Ruin" describes the shattered wreckage itself; "misery" refers to the pain and suffering experienced by those over whom the sinner has run roughshod. "Wherever they go, they leave behind them a trail of destruction and misery" (Cranfield, I:195).

3:17 "and the way of peace they do not know." (From Isa 59:8.) "Peace" here is not primarily a state of inner peace, or peace with God. In line with the previous citations, it seems to be talking about peace and harmony among men, or human beings getting along with each other. Living in peace is something sinners do not know how to do, says Paul. Their way is "discord and strife" (Lard, 110).

3:18 "There is no fear of God before their eyes." (From Ps 36:1.) The "fear of God" in the sense of reverence and awe toward the Creator should be the most fundamental attitude of the human heart. The "fear of God" in the sense of terror and dread before the Lawgiver and Judge should be the most immediate effect of sin upon the sinner's heart. But this citation says the sinner is characteristically devoid of both.

"Before their eyes" probably means the eyes of the heart (see Eph 1:18), or the spiritual consciousness. The analogy is appropriate, because as Cranfield says, by his eyes "a man directs his steps. So to say that there is no fear of God before his eyes is a figurative way of saying that the fear of God has no part in directing his life, that God is left out of his reckoning, that he is a practical, whether or not he is a theoretical, atheist" (I:195). "To be destitute of the fear of God is to be godless, and no indictment could be more inclusive and decisive," says Murray (I:104-105). It is "the very essence of their sinfulness" (Cranfield, I:195), "the root error that gives rise to the manifold sins of humanity" (Moo, I:207). Thus this indictment is appropriate as the conclusion of the list of quotations used by Paul to prove the universal sinfulness of man.

The total picture of mankind drawn here is very dark and somber indeed. But while it shows that every knowing person is definitely under the power of sin (v. 9), it does not mean that all individuals are equally guilty of all the vices here named (the same as for the Gentiles in 1:18-32). Nor does it provide support for the Calvinist doctrine of total depravity contrary to the claims of Stott (101). This passage demonstrates the reality of depraved behavior and depraved hearts, to be sure, but there is nothing here to suggest that even the worst of sinners cannot be convicted by the gospel and respond to it in repentant faith (1:17; 10:17). That and that alone would be the essence of total depravity.

3:19 Now we know that whatever the law says, it says to those who are under the law. . . . This verse and the next are crucial, since they draw the conclusion toward which the whole first section has been pointing. Also, a right understanding of this first half of v. 19 is crucial for a proper understanding of the two verses as a whole.

"We know" does not specify a particular group; it is simply a way of introducing an item of common knowledge, a generally-accepted principle. It is equivalent to "everybody knows." In this context it means "Everyone who is spiritually informed knows."

What is it that everybody knows? That whatever "the law" says is relevant only to those who are subject to that law. This is a general principle and applies to every sort of jurisdiction, large or small. The ordinances of one local township apply only to those who live or visit there. The building codes of one county do not apply in other counties. The laws of the U.S.A. apply to everyone who is within its borders.

What law or jurisdiction does Paul have in mind here? Many will immediately think of the Law of Moses, since Paul is especially concerned to demonstrate the sinfulness of the Jews. But most commentators take him to mean the OT in general, since he has just quoted from the wisdom literature and the prophets. Indeed, the same phrase (without the definite article) is used in 2:12 to refer to the special revelation given to the Jews.

In my opinion, though, the term "law" in this verse and the next has an even broader scope than this. Because of the absolute, universal language used in these two verses, I believe it refers to God's law in a very general sense, including (1) the demands and judgments of the OT as it speaks to the Jews; (2) the requirements of the "work of the law" written on the hearts of all, including the Gentiles; and (3) the requirements for holy living revealed in the NT Scriptures. This view is supported by the contrasting phrase in 3:21, "apart from law." There "law" cannot be equated with either the Mosaic Law or the OT as such, since it is distinguished from "the Law and the Prophets" (i.e., the OT).

What, then, does it mean to be "under the law"? The phrase is actually ejn novmw/ , (en nomô , see 2:12), which means "in the law, within the law, within the sphere of the law" (see Moo, I:200). A similar phrase is uJpo novmon , ( hypo nomon ), literally "under the law" (6:14-15; 1 Cor 9:20; Gal 3:23; 4:4-5, 21; 5:18). Only the context of each passage can determine if nomos means the OT law specifically or God's law more generally. Here, as we have seen, it means the latter. To be "within the sphere of God's law" in 3:19 basically means first of all to be subject to its commands and penalties. But more significantly it means to be under the system of law as a standard of judgment and a means of being right with God.

What group of people is meant, then, by "those who are under the law"? Since most interpreters say "law" here means the OT, they say Paul is referring only to the Jews. Murray (I:106-107) and Hendriksen (I:124) agree that "law" means the OT, but they declare that it applies to both Jews and Gentiles. This application is correct, but "law" here is God's law in any form (in the heart, in the OT, in the NT). Thus "those who are under the law" are indeed both Jews and Gentiles, or all people in general.

Thus "whatever the law says" is addressed to all. Exactly what does the law say to us? It is taken for granted that it speaks God's will in the form of commandments. It has been established that the law also says that commandment-breakers are worthy of death (1:32). Those who break the commandments will suffer the penalty of the law; those who keep the commandments will escape that penalty (2:7-10). In this immediate context Paul refers to the point made by the series of quotations in vv. 10-18, i.e., the law of God says that everyone - EVERYONE - is a sinner.

This is relevant to the Jews, to be sure, since they considered themselves as exceptions to the rule that no one can be saved by law. But they are not the only ones who need convincing on this point. The whole world has the tendency to view salvation in terms of making oneself acceptable to God by one's own efforts ( GRe , ch. 3). Thus this passage speaks out "against every attempt at self-salvation" (Stott, 104).

. . . so that every mouth may be silenced and the whole world held accountable to God. The word for "so that" is i{na ( hina ), which expresses purpose but also result. The reason why God's law stresses the reality of universal sinfulness is "so that every mouth may be silenced." The word for "silenced" evokes a courtroom scene in which the accused defendant is unable to respond to the charges brought against him (Cranfield I:196-197). See Ps 63:11; 107:42. When confronted by the evidence every person is "silenced by the indictment of being absolutely guilty and unable to make even the least defense" (Lenski, 241).

" Every mouth" means every individual, whether Jew or Gentile. Paul has already shown that the Gentiles (those with general revelation only) are "without excuse" (1:20), and that the Jews (those with special revelation also) are also "without excuse" (2:1). This is the sense in which every mouth is silenced. The same universal language is used in the next clause: the "whole world," without exception.

"Held accountable" translates uJpovdiko" , ( hypodikos ), used only here in the NT. "Accountable" is really too weak a translation, since it does not necessarily imply guilt. We are all accountable for our deeds, whether we actually do anything wrong or not. But hypodikos refers to someone who has done something wrong and has been brought before the court to answer for it. The picture, says Cranfield, is "of men standing at God's bar, their guilt proven beyond all possibility of doubt, awaiting God's sentence of condemnation" (I:197).

The law reveals that all are accountable "to God" or guilty "before God" (dative case). In secular Greek the dative is used after hypodikos "for the court one comes before or more commonly the person to whom the right of complaint belongs" (Maurer, "uJpovdiko" ," 557). In God's court, he is both the accuser (the One wronged) and the judge (Moo, I:208).

All in all, Paul represents all humanity as sinners under the law who are standing in a hopelessly terrifying situation. Why does he make this point? In order to show the universal need for grace, for the gift of God's righteousness.

3:20 Therefore no one will be declared righteous in his sight by observing the law . . . . Here Paul draws the conclusion toward which this whole section has been pointing: the impotence of the law as a way of being right with God. This is "the grand conclusion for which the Apostle has been preparing the mind of his readers" (Lard, 112). The word "therefore" (diovti , dioti ) refers back not just to v. 19 but to the whole section, 1:18-3:19. "Therefore," given what has been established in this section as a whole, it is plain that "no one will be declared righteous in his sight by observing the law." The only way to be saved by law-keeping is through perfect obedience, but all have sinned. Thus, as Bruce well puts it, "Because of the universal fact of sin, the way of acceptance with God by reason of our works of righteousness is closed - the notice is clearly worded: 'No Road This Way'" (98).

This part of v. 20 echoes Ps 143:2b, "For no one living is righteous before you." The universal language in v. 19 is continued; "no one" leaves room for no exceptions. The Greek actually says "no flesh," a Hebraic way of saying "no human being."

"Declared righteous" is from dikaiovw (dikaioô ), which is the word usually translated "justified" (see 2:13; 3:4). It is a courtroom term and thus follows naturally upon the previous verse. It refers to the judge's decision to drop the charges, and his declaration that the accused person may go free without suffering any penalty. In other words, it means to be declared righteous before the law. It does not mean "to make righteous," nor does it necessarily imply that the person is righteous. It simply means that the person is considered and declared to be right with the law.

"Observing the law" is a poor translation of the important expression "works of law" (e[rgwn novmou , ergôn nomou ). The word "law" should not be capitalized here, as if it means the Mosaic Law. As in the previous verse it means God's law in general, in all its forms. "Works of law" is also used in 3:28, another key verse in Romans. There is no article before either "works" or "law" in either verse. This expression refers to all responses to whatever commandments of God's law apply to any given person. Efforts to limit this phrase to the works required by the Law of Moses only, or to OT commandments only (as in Dunn, I:154-9), are seriously misguided and are a grave hindrance to a right understanding of Paul's main point in Romans and of grace in general. The same is true of efforts to limit this phrase to works done from wrong motives (as in Barrett, 70).

Paul's point is that no one will be declared right with God on the basis of his obedience to God's commands. This would require absolute perfection, which no one has achieved or will achieve. (See Moo, I:213; Cranfield, I:198.) The universal fact of sin absolutely rules out the law system as a way of justification. In theory such justification is possible, as 2:13 declares; but in reality it never occurs, as this verse affirms.

"Will be declared righteous [justified]" is future tense but does not refer just to some specific future event such as the final judgment. It is stated rather as a general principle. Because of sin no one will ever be justified before God on the basis of his own righteousness or works. Once sin enters a person's life, henceforward that door will be closed forever. See Murray, I:107.

. . . rather, through the law we become conscious of sin. "Rather" is not a good translation of the transitional word gavr ( gar ), which means "for" or "because." The latter well suits Paul's meaning here. No one will be justified by works of law because the law reveals all of us to be sinners. As Phillips translates, "Indeed it is the straight-edge of the Law that shows us how crooked we are." (See 5:20; 7:7.) The very law by which many assume they will be vindicated will actually be the instrument of their condemnation.

The point is that we need to use God's law for something that it can do rather than try to use it for something it can never do, which is to make any sinner right with God. It has other proper functions, to be sure, but one thing the law can do is show us how sinful we are and thus how much we need God's gift of righteousness through grace.

All in all the contents of this first main section of Romans are anything but gospel . From beginning (1:18) to end (3:20), the message is one long dirge of sin, wrath, and judgment. The essence of this section is as Hendriksen sums it up: "Man is doomed, doomed, doomed. His condition is one of thorough hopelessness and despair. And the law, with its demand of nothing less than moral and spiritual perfection . . . creates in him a dreadful, mortifying sense of sin; hence, a presentiment of doom, total and everlasting" (I:125).

"Good news"? Hardly. But the fact is that self-righteous, complacent people must be convinced of their desperate and hopeless plight under law before they can acknowledge their need for grace. Thus this section is a necessary prelude to the one that follows, which presents us with the way of grace as God's marvelous and powerful alternative to the impotent and futile way of law.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

3:21-5:21 - PART TWO

THE ALL-SUFFICIENCY OF GRACE

AS A WAY OF SALVATION

The first main section of Romans demonstrates the seriousness of the human predicament under law. A person could be saved under the law system if he obeyed God's law perfectly. But 1:18-3:20 shows conclusively that all have sinned; therefore no one can be justified by obedience to law. Under law there is only condemnation. For those who remain under law the holy side of God's nature, the "consuming fire" of his wrath (Heb 12:29), will prevail in the end. Indeed, "it is a dreadful thing to fall into the hands of the living God" (Heb 10:31).

But God is not only a consuming fire; he is also love (1 John 4:8); and out of his boundless love he has provided another way or system of salvation, the way of grace . Whereas the rules of the law system allow for the justification only of the sinless, the grace system allows God to justify the wicked (4:5). Indeed, it is the only way a sinner can be justified.

The purpose of this second main section of Romans (3:21-5:21) is thus to set forth the essence of grace as a way of salvation, a way provided by the love of God as an alternative to law. Saving grace is the free, unmerited gift of salvation to sinners who have no claim on it and who in fact deserve its opposite. It is "favor bestowed when wrath is owed" ( GRe , 375-377).

In reference to salvation from sin the term "grace" is used in several ways. First, grace is an attribute of the divine nature. It is the way God's love responds to sin. It is his willingness and desire to accept us in spite of our sin. It is his readiness to forgive (Ps 86:5) and his desire to "graciously give us all things" (8:32) - the very things we have forfeited through our sin. In his love he wants us back, even though we have sinned against him. This is the heart of God's nature as a gracious God.

Second, the term "grace" is used for the gift of salvation itself. The content of this gift of grace is actually a "double cure," which is God's remedy for the "double trouble" caused by sin. Sin affects the sinner externally or objectively, causing the legal problem of guilt and subjecting him to the penalty of the law. It also affects the sinner internally or subjectively, causing the heart to become evil, weak, depraved, and spiritually sick. The gift of grace includes justification or forgiveness of sins to resolve the former; it includes regeneration and sanctification to overcome the latter. The former is accomplished through the power of the redeeming blood of Christ; the latter is effected through the power of the indwelling Holy Spirit. In general this section of Romans deals with the former, while the next section (6:1-8:39) deals with the latter.

Finally the term "grace" is used for the system of salvation given by God as the alternative to law. "You are not under law [as a way of salvation], but under grace [as a way of salvation]" (6:14). The contrast between law and grace is striking; they are in fact opposites. In the introduction to 1:18-3:20 the rules of the law system were stated thus:

KEEP THE COMMANDMENTS, AND (THEREFORE)

ESCAPE THE PENALTY.

BREAK THE COMMANDMENTS, AND (THEREFORE)

SUFFER THE PENALTY.

But the rules of the grace system, i.e., the way to be "right with God" in terms of grace, may be stated as follows:

KEEP THE COMMANDMENTS, BUT SUFFER THE PENALTY.

BREAK THE COMMANDMENTS, BUT ESCAPE THE PENALTY.

Whereas the rules of the law system are set forth in 2:7-10, the rules of the grace system are stated succinctly in 2 Cor 5:21, "God made him who had no sin to be sin for us, so that in him we might become the righteousness of God."

Under the law system a person is treated with utter fairness; he gets exactly what he deserves. But the grace system is just the opposite. It is neither fair nor just; under grace a person gets the very opposite of what he deserves. The first half of the grace formula, of course, applies only to Jesus Christ, since he is the only one who will ever keep the commandments with sinless perfection. He "had no sin." But at the same time he suffered the penalty; it was God's plan for him "to be sin for us," and in our place to suffer the divine wrath we deserve because of our sin. This was the exact opposite of what he deserved.

This is what makes the second half of the grace formula possible, namely, the part that applies to us. Under the grace system we who have broken the commandments also receive the very opposite of what we deserve. Through our faith in Jesus "the righteousness of God" - Jesus' payment of the penalty for sin in our place - is counted as our own, enabling us to escape the penalty we deserve.

This grace system, God's wonderful alternative to law, is the main focus of this section of Romans, with special attention being given to the first part of the double cure, or justification. The rest of chapter 3 (vv. 21-31) is the actual explanation of grace as a way of salvation. Chapter 4 provides OT confirmation, with Abraham being set forth as a paradigm of grace. Chapter 5 deals with the most immediate practical result of a right understanding of grace, namely, assurance of salvation. The first part (vv. 1-11) explains the relation between justification by faith and assurance; the latter part (vv. 12-21) emphasizes the all-sufficiency of the death of Christ as the source of saving grace.

I. 3:21-31 - GRACE AS JUSTIFICATION BY CHRIST'S BLOOD THROUGH FAITH

Paul has just declared that the whole world has sinned and stands guilty before God (3:19). The fact of guilt raises the problem of justification. How can sinners be justified, or brought back into a right relationship with God and his law? Can a person work himself back into a proper relation with this law? Perhaps with a little extra effort, we can go "above and beyond the call of duty" and do enough good works to make up for our sins. Is this possible? No! In the parable of the unprofitable servant (Luke 17:7-10) Jesus teaches that every good work we can possibly do is already owed to God (required by his law) and therefore cannot be used to pay the debt incurred by our sin. There is no such thing as extra merit; this is why works of law cannot justify sinners.

What, then, can we do? How can we be justified, be counted righteous, be accepted by God, escape the wrath and condemnation we deserve? Does any provision of the law allow a sinner to go unpunished? Can we remain under law and still be justified? No! If we are to be justified, we must leave the framework of law and enter the sphere of grace. This subsection of Romans shows us what this means by explaining that sinners can be justified by the blood of Jesus Christ through their faith in him. We can be justified only by faith apart from works of law (3:28).

In establishing this point the Apostle Paul produces what Morris declares to be "possibly the most important single paragraph ever written" (173). He is referring to 3:21-26. This is, indeed, the "centre and heart" of the letter, as Cranfield says (I:199). In one compact manifesto Paul brings together the heavy theological concepts of the righteousness of God, faith, sin, justification, grace, redemption, propitiation, and the blood of Christ. By emphasizing the righteousness of God and faith, he elaborates on 1:17, the key verse in the epistle's introduction.

A. RIGHTEOUSNESS THROUGH FAITH

IS NOW FULLY REVEALED (3:21-23)

3:21 Paul's first words in this section emphasize the contrast between the two ways of salvation: But now a righteousness from God, apart from law, has been made known . . . . Under law, salvation is based on perfect human righteousness. Herein lies the impotence of the law system; 1:18-3:20 has shown man's righteousness indeed to be "filthy rags" (Isa 64:6) and futile for justification. But under grace, salvation is based on the righteousness of God , the meaning of which was discussed fully under 1:17 above. Here, as in 1:17, it does not mean God's own personal righteousness, the attribute of his nature that requires him always to be faithful to himself. It is rather the gift of righteousness that God gives to sinners, on the basis of which he accepts them as righteous. Specifically, it is Christ's satisfaction of the law's requirement that sinners be punished, which he accomplished in our place, as our substitute. This righteousness is bestowed upon us as a gift. The NIV reflects this interpretation when it translates the simple genitive "of God" as "from God."

The gift of God's righteousness is directly related to justification. These words have the same Greek root ( dikai -). "Righteousness" is dikaiosuvnh (dikaiosunç ), and "justification" is dikaivwsi" (dikaiôsis ). "To justify" means to count righteous or declare righteous (see 2:13, and 3:24 below). To say that the righteousness of God has been made known is to say that the means by which God justifies sinners has been manifested.

In what way has this righteousness been "made known"? This is the same idea as 1:17, namely, that the righteousness of God has now been revealed in the gospel. This refers not just to the spoken message of the gospel, but primarily to the saving events upon which that message is based. "Made known" is perfect tense, referring to the decisive past events of the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. See 3:26.

A key part of this sentence is the phrase "apart from law." "Apart from" is cwriv" (chôris ), a preposition indicating distinct separation from something. "Law" is the law system or the law of God in general, not specifically the Law of Moses. Thus the phrase means "without relation to the law system, without any connection to law." See 3:28.

Exactly what does this prepositional phrase modify? Some say it modifies the verb, "made known." I.e., while law can manifest God's righteousness in the sense of his personal purity and integrity, only the gospel can make known his righteousness in the sense of his gift to sinners. Thus it is revealed "apart from law." The other possibility is that it modifies "righteousness of God." I.e., the kind of divine righteousness on the basis of which sinners are justified is not a righteousness measured by law but one that is defined and established outside the law system. It can be understood only in relation to a totally different way of salvation, the way of grace. While both views are possible, the latter is preferred. This righteousness that is apart from law is God's gracious alternative to the unattainable righteousness that comes by works of law (3:20).

Paul says this righteousness of God that is apart from law has been made known "now." The main question here is whether this "now" has a logical or a temporal, chronological sense. If the former, it is just a rhetorical device meaning something like "on the other hand." If the latter, it is setting up a contrast between what was known in the OT era and what has been manifested "now," in this NT age, through the work of the Messiah. The divine grace-righteousness has been revealed here and now, in our time, in our day. See 3:26; Gal 4:4. This latter meaning seems to be the intended sense.

This does not mean that this way of salvation is only now just beginning, and is only now for the first time being applied. It does not mean that people were saved only by law up to this point, and that Christ introduced grace as a new and different way of salvation. Salvation through grace, by means of the gift of the righteousness of Christ, has always been the only possible way sinners could be saved and have been saved. If Adam was saved, he was saved thus, "apart from law." Paul's primary example of this way of salvation is Abraham (ch. 4), who predated even Moses. What has happened "now" is that this grace-righteousness has been manifested as never before in the substitutionary death of Jesus Christ. This is not the first knowledge of grace itself, but the first clear knowledge of the basis for it in the blood of Christ. (See Murray, I:108-109; Morris, 173.)

This does not mean that there was no knowledge of this at all prior to Christ's coming. Thus to preclude a possible misunderstanding Paul says this was something to which the Law and the prophets testify . See 1:2; 4:1-25. "Law" here means the Law of Moses or the Pentateuch; "the Law and the prophets" together represent the entire OT (see Matt 5:17; 7:12; 11:13; 22:40; John 1:45; Acts 13:15; 24:14; 28:23). They testify to justification by faith (cf. Gen 15:6 [Rom 4:3]; Hab 2:4 [Rom 1:17]) and to the taking away of sins through the sacrifice of a substitutionary sin-bearer (cf. the Mosaic sacrificial system and Isa 53). But now through the cross this way of grace has been laid open for all to see.

3:22 Here Paul further clarifies the nature of the righteousness that is apart from law: This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe. Here again the implied contrast is between law and grace as systems of salvation. Grace-righteousness is not given to sinners by works of law (v. 20), but "through faith in Jesus Christ." This is the same thought expressed in v. 28, that "a man is justified by faith apart from works of the Law" (NASB). For a discussion of the nature of faith, see 1:16.

Because the words "Jesus Christ" are in the genitive case, some have argued that Paul is speaking of "the faith of Jesus Christ," or more specifically, the faithfulness of Jesus in fulfilling his saving mission on our behalf (Shields, 40-41). Most agree, though, that this is an objective genitive, i.e., that Jesus Christ is the object of the faith which receives the gift of God's righteousness.

As noted under 1:16, the faith by which sinners receive the gift of righteousness is not just a general faith in God's existence and providential care, but is a specific faith in the person and work of the Savior, Jesus Christ. In OT times, since Jesus was not yet known, the object of saving faith was God's gracious promise to forgive sins. Now that the Redeemer himself has come and has purchased us with his own blood (Acts 20:28), we cannot be saved unless our faith is specifically directed toward him.

The role of faith is asserted twice: "through faith . . . to all who believe." When Paul says "through [diav , dia ] faith," he is designating faith as the necessary means by which the gift of God's righteousness is received by sinners. As such, faith is never to be understood as a meritorious act, or as something we do that in some way deserves to be rewarded by God. The source and basis of grace-righteousness is not our faith but the one toward whom it is directed, namely, Jesus Christ.

"To all who believe" is not just a repetition for emphasis. The stress here is not on the word "believe" but on "all." Perhaps the point once again is to erase all distinctions between Jews and Gentiles and to show that they have equal access to the gospel (1:16). In any case the "all" serves "to highlight the universal availability of God's righteousness," which is "available to anyone who has faith in Christ" (Moo, I:225).

The rest of v. 22, There is no difference , goes better with v. 23 and along with that verse forms a parenthesis that sums up a main conclusion of 1:18-3:20. The NIV does not translate the particle gavr ( gar ), meaning "for" or "because." This little word introduces the reason why the righteousness of God is available to everyone on the same terms, namely, because "there is no difference" in their starting point or their status before God: all have sinned.

3:23 for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God . . . . This verse also begins with gavr ( gar ), "for," explaining why there is no difference among human beings as to the manner of their salvation. None can be saved by law through works; all must be saved by grace through faith - because all have sinned, and grace through faith is the only possible way for sinners to be saved. Once a person has sinned even once, he has forfeited all possibility of salvation by law-righteousness (Jas 2:10).

Because the language is the same as 5:12, some say this is a reference to Adam's sin and to the idea that all sinned in Adam (e.g., Shedd, 76-77). Whether this is so or not, the main emphasis must be upon the personal sins of all people of accountable age. Following this closely upon the first main section (1:18-3:20), this verse surely refers to the "all" described in 3:9-20. To say that all "have sinned" (aorist tense) means that all who have ever lived up to this point have sinned, and by implication the same will be true from any vantage point all the way up to the final judgment (see Dunn, I:167).

"Fall short" is a good translation of the second verb (uJsterevw , hystereô ). It means "to lack, to be deficient in, to come short of, to be wanting, to fall behind." It is present tense, which suggests that it refers to a condition and not to action (Murray, I:112). I.e., once a person has sinned, he is in the condition or state of being destitute of the glory of God.

The difficult part of this verse is determining what is meant by "the glory of God" in this context. Both Murray (I:112-113) and Hendriksen (I:128-129) set forth four possible understandings. (1) It means the honor and glory due unto God through our perfect obedience (Lard, 115). By sinning we fail to glorify him as we should. See 1:21; 4:20; 1 Cor 10:31. (2) It means the honor and praise God would give us if we lived perfectly before him (DeWelt, 55; Calvin, 140). By sinning we become unworthy of such praise. See 2:7, 10; John 5:44; 12:43. (3) It means the glory of God's presence in the future eschatological kingdom, from which sinners are excluded. See 5:2; 8:18, 21; Phil 3:21; Rev 21:23. (4) It means the reflected glory of God that creatures made in his image are supposed to display by imitating his perfect moral character (Moo, I:226-227; Murray, I:113). See Matt 5:48; 1 Pet 1:15-16. This glory is bedimmed by sin, as a light bulb controlled by a rheostat becomes dimmer and dimmer when turned down. Salvation reverses this process and in the last day completely restores us to this image and glory of God. See 1 Cor 11:7; 2 Cor 3:18; 2 Pet 1:4.

All of these are possible meanings. The weakest is the third one, since the present tense suggests the falling short is a present condition and not just a future one. I have a slight preference for the fourth view, where the "glory of God" is "his image or glory in which all were made but which all fail to live up to" (Stott, 109). This goes well with the context. Paul's point is that the fact of sin disqualifies us from being acceptable to God on the basis of our own personal righteousness; thus we stand in dire need of the righteousness that comes from God through faith.

B. SINNERS ARE JUSTIFIED BY THE BLOOD OF CHRIST (3:24-26)

These three verses, says Godet (149), form "the most important passage in the whole Epistle." Arguably, it is the most important in the whole Bible. It is like the Hope Diamond in a setting of gold. From its depths shine forth the most glorious and most welcome truths of God's revelation.

3:24 and are justified freely by his grace . . . . The verb "justified" is actually a participle and is translated literally by the NASB: "being justified." This presents a difficulty because a participle usually relates to and modifies a word or phrase in the adjacent context. Thus grammatically it would seem to relate to "all have sinned" in v. 23, as the NIV translation suggests. (See the NRSV also.) But this makes the "all" in v. 23 the subject of "justified," and suggests universal salvation unless some awkward paraphrasing is done, e.g., "All have sinned and will not be saved unless they are justified freely by his grace."

Because of this difficulty many take vv. 22b-23 as a parenthesis and connect the participle back to "all who believe" in v. 22a (e.g., Murray, I:114; Hendriksen, I:129). This yields the quite valid thought that all who believe are thus justified freely by his grace. This is probably the way it should be understood. Because of the intervening parenthesis the participle can be translated as a main verb, thus: "Those who believe are justified freely by his grace."

Thus in this unusual way v. 24 introduces one of the most important of all doctrines, justification by grace. The verb has appeared already three times in Romans (2:13; 3:4, 20), but this is its first use for the act of God by which sinners are saved through Christ's blood.

As stated under 3:21 above, justification and righteousness are closely related. "To justify" means "to declare righteous." It does not mean "to make righteous," contrary to the traditional Roman Catholic view. These two distinct definitions of justification are one of the key differences between Catholics and Protestants.

Justification is a legal or judicial term; it has to do with one's relation to the law (see 2:13). It is best understood as the declaration made by a judge once his final decision as to guilt or innocence has been made. When he justifies a defendant, the judge declares that he is in a right standing with the law. Some say it is equivalent to the judge declaring the defendant "not guilty"; I prefer to say it means that the judge declares "No penalty for you!"

That this is the true meaning of justification is seen by the way the Bible uses it in legal contexts, and especially in contrast with condemnation. See Deut 25:1; Prov 17:15; Isa 5:23; Matt 12:37; Rom 5:16; 8:33-34. When a judge condemns someone, that does not make the latter unrighteous or guilty; it is simply a pronouncement that he is guilty. Likewise when a judge justifies someone, this does not make him righteous; it only declares his righteousness. This is also illustrated by the way the term is used in Luke 7:29, which literally says that the people justified God. This cannot mean that they made him righteous; they were only acknowledging his righteousness.

All of this shows that justification is not strictly a salvation concept; whether it is or not depends solely on the basis upon which a person is declared to be righteous. When God is "justified," this obviously has nothing to do with his salvation; he is declared righteous because he is righteous. When a person who is truly innocent stands trial and his innocence is demonstrated, the law requires the judge to justify that person on the basis of his actual righteousness. If anyone could live a perfect life before God, God would justify him on the basis of his own works of personal righteousness (2:13). Such a person would merit or deserve to be justified.

However, because all have sinned, this will never happen (3:20). Thus God has provided an alternative to justification by law; he offers to justify sinners "freely by his grace." That it is done "freely" means it is a free gift, totally undeserved, unmerited, and unearned. (See the use of this word in Matt 10:8; 2 Cor 11:7; 2 Thess 3:8; Rev 21:6; 22:17.) That it is "by his grace" is the very same idea repeated for emphasis. It is the very opposite of justification in accordance with law.

We are talking now about justification as a salvation concept, because it is the justification of sinners . The God who saves sinners is, indeed he must be, a God who "justifies the wicked" (4:5). Perhaps we have read this verse so often that we forget what a shocking concept this is. "No expression in Romans is more startling," says Stott (112). Think about it: God the all-knowing and all-holy Judge looks the wicked sinner square in the eye and justifies him, declares him righteous, acquits him, pardons him, sets him free, cries "No penalty for you"!

This raises the question of the basis for the justification of sinners. How is it possible for the truly righteous God to declare sinners to be righteous? Here is the grace element: only on the basis of the gift of righteousness which he freely gives to those who put their faith in Jesus. As we saw under 1:17 above, the specific content of this gift of righteousness is Jesus' satisfaction of God's law's requirement for penalty in our place. Jesus paid the penalty of eternal condemnation for us - a point that is elaborated in vv. 24b-26; and on this basis God releases us from this penalty and sets us free.

This is the heart of the concept of imputation. "To impute" (logivzomai , logizomai and ejllogevw , ellogeô ) is basically a word used in the context of commerce and bookkeeping. It means to apply an amount of money or something equivalent to someone's account (see Phlm 18), either as a charge or as a credit. Our situation as sinners is that we owe God the debt of eternal punishment; but God applies Christ's righteousness (his payment of the penalty in our place) to our account. This is "the righteousness of God" that comes to us as a gift (1:17; 3:21-22); on the basis of this imputed righteousness he justifies us, declaring "No penalty for you!"

Because such justification is a free gift, it must be received by faith rather than by works (1:16-17; 3:21, 28). When God asks us if we want Jesus' payment of God's righteous penalty for our sin applied to our account, all we can do is humbly and gratefully say yes. This is the essence of saving faith.

For all practical purposes justification is the same as forgiveness or remission of sins. A justified person is a forgiven person. In 4:6-8, the imputation of righteousness is equated with forgiveness. Forgiveness in and of itself bestows a righteous status upon the sinner, and reinstates him in the favor and fellowship of God (see Stott, 110); nothing more is needed.

The second half of v. 24 begins Paul's detailed explanation of the death of Jesus as the basis for the sinner's justification: we are justified through the redemption that came by Christ Jesus. This and the next two verses tell us more about the basic meaning of the death of Jesus than any other NT passage. They are absolutely fundamental for a proper understanding of the cross.

That which "came by Christ Jesus," and specifically by his cross, is called "redemption." The Greek word is ajpoluvtrwsi" (apolytrôsis ), which comes from luvw , which means "to loose, to set free, to ransom." Related words are lutrovw (lytroô ), which means "to ransom, to rescue, to redeem, to liberate"; and luvtron ( lytron ), which is "a ransom, a ransom price." The basic idea of redemption is to set something or someone free from some kind of bondage, slavery, captivity, or obligation. Under the OT law consecrated property, the firstborn, and slaves could be redeemed or "bought back" (see Exod 13:11-13; Lev 25:47-49; 27:11-19; Num 18:14-16). In NT times the terms were used for the act of ransoming slaves, prisoners of war, and condemned criminals.

What is the price by which sinners are redeemed from their sin? It is stated most vividly in 1 Pet 1:18-19, "It was not with perishable things such as silver or gold that you were redeemed . . . , but with the precious blood of Christ." Because the Son of Man came "to give his life as a ransom for many" (Matt 20:28), "we have redemption through his blood" (Eph 1:7). See Acts 20:28; 1 Cor 6:20; Rev 5:9.

To whom is this ransom price paid? The answer depends on the kind of captivity from which we are redeemed. Certainly we are set free from slavery to sin (6:16-18; 2 Tim 2:26), but this is not the main point of redemption. As sinners we owe to God the debt of eternal punishment, and thus are captive to that obligation as surely as if we were in a kind of debtors' prison (Matt 18:30). Hell itself will be the ultimate debtors' prison (Matt 18:34). Thus the ransom price paid by Jesus was paid to God himself, the one to whom we owe this debt of eternal punishment ( GRe , 439-440). This is how Christ's act of redemption is the basis of our justification or forgiveness. Our debt of eternal penalty is forgiven or set aside because Jesus has paid it in our place. Thus from our point of view justification comes to us "freely," but from God's side it is anything but free. God the Son paid the ultimate price, the equivalent of eternity in hell for the whole human race.

3:25 Paul states this same truth in v. 25, where he uses another word parallel in significance to redemption: God presented him as a sacrifice of atonement . . . . The word translated "sacrifice of atonement" is iJlasthvrion (hilastçrion ), which is also used in Heb 9:5. This term and its equivalent, iJlasmov" ( hilasmos ) (1 John 2:2; 4:10) stand for one of the most important concepts in the Bible.

Unfortunately, there is no unanimity as to the meaning of hilasterion . Because it is used often in the LXX and in Heb 9:5 to refer to the lid of the ark of the covenant, i.e., the "mercy-seat," many find that meaning figuratively here in 3:25. Just as the mercy-seat was the place where the atoning blood of sin-offerings was sprinkled in OT times, so also is Jesus in a sense the place where the final atonement has been made for all times (Bruce, 105-107; Nygren, 156-158; Weymouth).

While this view presents no doctrinal problems and is very close to Paul's meaning here, it does not seem to capture the full significance of the term (Moo, I:232-235). Consistent with its use in non-biblical Greek, Paul more likely intends it to mean the atoning sacrifice itself, in the sense of a propitiation .

The key element in the concept of propitiation is the averting of wrath. To say that Jesus is a propitiation means that he offered himself as a sacrifice that turns God's wrath away from deserving sinners by accepting that wrath upon himself in our place. Thus he is a "wrath-removing sacrifice" (Hendriksen, I:132), a "wrath-averting sacrifice" (Moo, I:237). Any interpretation of this concept that excludes the removal of the divine wrath from the purpose of the cross has missed its point and must be rejected. The substitution of the ambiguous "sacrifice of atonement" for "propitiation" in the NIV and elsewhere is to be regretted.

Some interpreters reject the concept of propitiation because they deny that any true wrath exists in God; thus the atonement can have nothing to do with averting wrath. The idea of propitiation, they say, reduces God to the level of pagan deities whose fickle wrath is appeased and whose mind is changed by the offering. Instead of "propitiation" they translate hilastçrion as "expiation" (NEB, RSV), which connotes the removal or covering of sins themselves rather than wrath.

This view is totally mistaken. The Bible clearly presents the wrath of God as an undeniable reality (see 1:18; 2:5; GRe , 275-319). When the propitiatory sacrifice of Jesus Christ turns God's wrath away from sinners, it does not do so after the pattern of pagan sacrifices that are intended to placate, appease, or bribe God, or in any sense change his mind. Verse 25 makes this clear when it says that "God presented him" as a propitiation. God's own initiative provided the sacrifice that satisfied his wrath; his already-existing love for sinners both planned and executed the propitiation (1 John 4:10). Rather than being unworthy of the love of God, propitiation is its most glorious manifestation. (See Moo, I:235-237.)

The word translated "presented" has two distinct connotations. It can mean "to plan, to purpose," as it does in 1:13 and Eph 1:9 (its only other NT uses). Some see that meaning here: God purposed or designed Jesus to be a propitiation; it was part of his eternal purpose of grace. This is acceptable, but the context favors the other meaning, "to set forth, to display publicly" (Dunn, I:170; Moo, I:232; Murray, I:118). Verse 21 asserts that the righteousness of God has been "made known"; vv. 25b-26 say the cross is God's public demonstration of his righteousness. "Presented" in 25a fits this pattern, and refers to the openly historical event of the cross as explained by the gospel.

God presented Jesus as a propitiation through faith in his blood. As in v. 22, faith is a necessary condition for the actual application of the results of Christ's propitiatory sacrifice to the individual sinner. These results are not automatically and unconditionally applied to all sinners with a resulting universal salvation. But neither are the conditions meritorious in nature and thus inconsistent with grace (4:16; 11:6).

A point of dispute is the placement of "in [ejn , en ] his blood." Some take it as modifying propitiation. It would then read that Christ is "a propitiation in his blood through faith" (NASB). However, the word order favors the view that this phrase modifies faith, i.e., "through faith in his blood" (NIV). One reason Dunn and Moo reject this latter view is their claim that Paul does not anywhere else link "faith" (pivsti" , pistis ) with the preposition "in" ( en ). This is simply wrong, since Paul does this very thing in Gal 3:26; Eph 1:15; Col 1:4; and 2 Tim 3:15 (a fact that Moo himself notes in another context, I:223).

The fact that Jesus is a propitiation through faith in his blood implies that his blood, i.e., his substitutionary death on the cross, is what actually accomplishes the propitiation. It does so in the same way that it accomplishes redemption: it satisfies the penal wrath of God in the place of the sinners who actually deserve it. To have saving faith means we specifically believe that Christ's death on the cross is the basis for our forgiveness, even if we do not understand all the details about how this is so.

He did this to demonstrate his justice . . . . I.e., God presented Jesus as a propitiation for this purpose, to "demonstrate his justice." Some take the word "demonstrate" in the sense of "show forth, set forth, reveal publicly." This would make it similar to "presented" in 25a. Others say it means to demonstrate in the sense of "prove." Either view is possible; in fact, it is difficult to separate them in this context.

The cross as a propitiation specifically demonstrates God's "justice." The Greek term (dikaiosuvnh , dikaiosynç ) is the same one used in 1:17; 3:5; and 3:21-22. In each of these instances it is translated "righteousness." The reason the NIV translates it "justice" in 3:25 is that its connotation here is different from 3:21-22. In the latter passage (and in 1:17) it refers to God's gift of justifying righteousness; here (as in 3:5) it means God's own righteous character, his inner integrity that requires him to be completely true to himself in all ways.

In this context it is clear that the aspect of his nature to which his righteousness requires him to be true is his perfect holiness. God's holiness in turn requires him to uphold the full integrity of his law, and this requires him to punish those who violate that law by their sin. This specific attribute of God is often called his retributive justice . Thus the translation "justice."

Why is such a demonstration needed? Because it would seem that God, in justifying sinners, is not being true to his law's requirement that sin must be punished. (See especially Exod 23:7; Deut 25:1; Prov 17:15.) But when Jesus is set forth as a propitiation , it is clear that God is punishing sins after all, albeit in the person of his only-begotten Son, who suffers the penalty in our place.

Such a demonstration was especially important because in his forbearance he had left the sins committed beforehand unpunished . . . . God's "forbearance" is his patience and longsuffering, which in essence means "delay and restraint in the execution of wrath." (See GRe , 357-361.) Paul's point is that God's failure to consistently punish sin throughout the OT era may have raised questions about his integrity. How could he claim to be a righteous and holy God, and at the same time forgive sins and leave them unpunished?

"Sins committed beforehand" does not refer to the sins an individual commits prior to his baptism, but to sins committed and forgiven prior to the cross. The only basis upon which sins may be forgiven is the propitiatory sacrifice of Jesus Christ, and it was upon this basis that God forgave sins even in the OT era, even before the historical event of the atonement had occurred. It was absolutely certain that the cross would occur (Acts 2:23); thus God freely dispensed its benefits before the fact. An analogy is a person who knows his paycheck is going to be deposited tomorrow, so he writes checks on it today, knowing the funds will be there when the checks reach the bank.

The problem was not God's ability to forgive pre-cross sins as such, but the appearance this gave as to God's violating his own righteousness or justice in doing so. But, says Paul, any doubts concerning the integrity of God's justice that were thus raised are completely dispelled by the actual event of the cross, which was a public event presented before the whole world.

There is considerable debate about the meaning of the term pavresi" ( paresis ), used only here in the NT and translated "left unpunished" in the NIV. The question is whether it means remission or forgiveness of sins in the full sense of the word (KJV, NAB), or whether it means merely passing sins over or passing them by in the sense of leaving them unpunished (NASB, NRSV, NIV). Lard (120) says it is the same as remission, but most modern interpreters take the latter view (e.g., Murray, I:119; Cranfield, I:211; Moo, I:240-242). The point would be that God did indeed leave sins unpunished prior to the cross, but this was not because of a breakdown in his justice. Rather, it was because he knew these sins would be punished later, in the person of Jesus Christ on the cross.

One point must be carefully noted here. Even if we take paresis to mean only the "passing over" of sins in the sense of delaying their punishment, this in itself does not imply that God was not truly forgiving the sins of OT believers. We know that he did so forgive them because other biblical texts declare that forgiveness was a fact in OT times. Paul's main paradigm for justification (i.e., forgiveness) here in Romans is Abraham (ch. 4). See also the quote from David in 4:7-8. There is no basis for the idea of a "limbo" for OT saints until Christ came, or for the idea that the sins of OT saints were just "rolled back" until the time of the cross.

3:26 Whereas v. 25 relates the demonstration of propitiation to sins committed prior to the cross, v. 26 makes the same point as a general principle that applies especially to the Christian era. He did it , i.e., he set Jesus forth as a propitiation, to demonstrate his justice at the present time, so as to be just and the one who justifies those who have faith in Jesus. What has God done in this "present time"? He "sent his Son" (Gal 4:4) to establish and demonstrate the basis for the forgiveness he freely bestows in every era.

The latter part of v. 26 is a purpose statement, and expresses in no uncertain terms the ultimate purpose of the death of Jesus, i.e., so that God can be both just and justifier . This shows that the cross was not merely a demonstration of the fact that the forgiving God is just (as the RSV and NRSV imply), but was necessary in order that God might be just, even while he is justifying sinners (see Lard, 121). Because the cross in its nature and meaning was an act of redemption and propitiation, God is able to forgive righteously. Because Jesus on the cross was paying our debt of eternal punishment and bearing the full force of the wrath of God in our place, God is able to fully cancel our punishment and declare "No penalty for you!" without compromising his nature as a holy God who must punish sin. (See GRe , 450-455.) Such justification "at the present time" is offered only to those "who have faith in Jesus" (see 3:22).

Such is the nature of the righteousness of God that is "apart from law" (3:21). Even though from God's perspective both his law and his love are satisfied by the cross, this is not something that could have been done within the framework of the law system as such. Law alone requires that the person who sins suffer his own penalty (Ezek 18:4). Only grace, which is the opposite of law, can turn this principle upside down and provide for us one who for himself kept the law's commandments, but who for us suffered the law's penalty.

C. SINNERS ARE JUSTIFIED BY FAITH

APART FROM WORKS OF LAW (3:27-28)

In the rest of this chapter Paul returns to the question-and-answer format used in 3:1-9. This does not mean he is once again counteracting an exclusively Jewish viewpoint, contrary to Moo (I:247-248). Nor does it mean that the "law" of which he speaks here is exclusively the Jewish Law. Paul moved beyond that limited perspective in 3:9. What he has been saying since then, and what he says here, is certainly applicable to Jews and to the Mosaic Law, but it is also intended to apply to all people and to the law of God as such.

In 3:21 Paul begins to explain a way of justification that is "apart from law," i.e., the way of grace. In vv. 24-26 he sets forth the basis or ground of justification by grace, namely, the propitiatory sacrifice of Jesus Christ. From 3:27 through the end of ch. 4, the main theme is faith as the means of appropriating the benefits of Christ's sacrifice. From the human side this is the key difference between law and grace: the means of justification is faith , not works of law (3:28). This antithesis is not intended to set faith apart from every other human act, but rather to set it apart from works as the means of justification within the law system.

3:27 Where, then, is boasting? It is excluded. The word "then" (ou , oun ) introduces a conclusion drawn from vv. 24-26, namely, that the grace system excludes boasting. Those under law, whether Jews or Gentiles, are given to boasting since both the ground and means of justification in that system are human works (1:30; 2:17, 23). But the way of grace is not consistent with boasting since the total package of salvation from beginning to end was conceived in the mind of God and made possible only through the work of Jesus, and is offered to sinners in the form of a free gift. (See Eph 2:8-10.)

"Excluded" is aorist tense: "it has been excluded" once for all. On what principle? On that of observing the law? No, but on that of faith. The exclusion of boasting is not just an arbitrary divine decree, but is true from the very nature of the human predicament and its resolution by grace. Justification through the law system would permit boasting, but such justification is not possible since all have sinned. The grace alternative excludes boasting since the only meritorious works that produce salvation within this system are done by God himself through Jesus Christ. The only thing sinners can do is react to and respond to these divine works, and passively receive the benefits generated by them. The defining element in this completely unmeritorious response is faith. Even the greatest OT saints - Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Elijah - were sinners whose relative righteousness fell short of the divine standard and who were saved only by God's grace. Even they had no room for boasting (4:2).

The latter part of v. 27 reads literally, "Through what law [novmo" , nomos ]? of works? No, but through a law [ nomos ] of faith." The exact sense of nomos here is debated. Some say it means the Torah, or Law of Moses (Cranfield, I:220; Dunn, I:186). But this requires a strained interpretation of "a law of faith" (see Moo, I:251) and is very unlikely. For similar reasons it cannot mean the law system as such. This means that Paul here is using nomos in a still more general sense, with a connotation that has not yet appeared in the epistle. The NIV translation, "principle," adequately reflects this understanding. Related suggestions are "method, norm, arrangement, order, system, rule, set of rules" (Murray, I:122-123; Moo, I:259; Reese, 126). The word seems to be used in a similar way in 7:21; 8:2. Moo gives examples to show that "this general use of nomos was very much a live meaning in first-century Greek" (I:259; see 252).

It seems, then, that Paul is using nomos in 3:27 the way I have been using "system of salvation." His words "of works" (NIV, "observing the law") refer to the law system as such, and his words "a law of faith" refer to the grace system as such. We may paraphrase v. 27 thus: "Where, then, is boasting? It has been excluded. Through what system of salvation? The law system, in which one is justified by works? No, on the contrary, through the grace system, in which one is justified by faith."

3:28 For we maintain that a man is justified by faith apart from observing the law. It is tempting to translate logivzomai ( logizomai ) as "conclude" here (KJV; Lipscomb, 78; Wuest, 63), but "maintain, hold, deem" is probably better. It is the same word that is translated "reckon, count, impute" throughout ch. 4. The word "for" ( gar ) shows this statement is not a conclusion from v. 27, but is rather the basis for it (Lard, 123). The plural "we" probably refers to Paul and his Christian readers, and thus by implication to all believers: "we Christians" (Moo, I:253; Morris, 187; Cranfield, I:220-221). "A man" refers to any man or any person, i.e., anybody who is actually justified. "Observing the law" is literally "works of law" and should be translated such, contrary to the NIV's unacceptable paraphrase (see 3:20).

This verse says nothing that has not already been said, especially in 1:16-17; 3:21-22; but it says it more succinctly and thus sums up the main thesis of the epistle. Anybody who is actually justified is justified only under the grace system, not under the law system. "Faith" is a kind of shorthand for the grace system as a whole, and "works of law" (like "works" in v. 27) is shorthand for the law system as a whole.

It is extremely important that we understand this verse aright since it is one of the main passages used to support the widely-held "faith only" doctrine of salvation. It is recognized that this contrast between "faith" and "works of law" creates two categories. Then it is assumed that the only thing in the first category is faith, and faith alone. Everything else - every other possible human act, thought, attitude, or state of mind - goes into the second category as a "work of law." Thus under the grace system the sole condition for justification is faith. (See 1:16 above.)

The consistent result of this view is to exclude even repentance as a condition for justification, a position held by those who oppose what is called "Lordship salvation." Many who hold the "faith-only" view object to such an exclusion and argue that both faith and repentance are necessary conditions for justification, contrary to their "faith-only" interpretation of 3:28. Both groups then proceed to exclude baptism as a condition for justification. To avoid antinomianism it is usually added that the faith which, alone, justifies us is not completely alone, in the sense that it will naturally produce good works, even if these works are not directly involved in justification (Bruce, 109).

How may we respond to this view? The key point is a right understanding of the expression "works of law." It should be carefully noted that in this verse the only things specifically set apart from faith are whatever is meant by "works of law." But does this verse imply that everything that is not faith is automatically included in this category? The answer is no, as will now be explained.

At this point we must note that there are some things that the expression "works of law" does not mean. First, it does not mean works of obedience to the Law of Moses only, contrary to Dunn (I:172), and Newman and Nida (70). The use of the example of Abraham in ch. 4 is clearly against this. The "law" in the expression "works of law" is any law or commandment given by the Creator through either general or special revelation. Thus "works of law" are "law works of any kind" (Morris, 187; Murray, I:126).

Second, the expression "works of law" is not strictly equivalent to "perfect obedience to all the law requires," contrary to Reese (110). It is true that the only way to be saved under the law system is by "sinless (perfect) obedience." And since all have sinned, it is also true that anyone who is actually saved will be justified "without perfect obedience to any law" (Reese, 128, 136). But "works of law" here in 3:28 (like "works" in 4:6) means something different, as will be explained below.

Third, "works of law" does not refer to acts of obedience done from legalistic motives, or the motive of meriting God's favor thereby. This view excludes all "meritorious" works, or "acts of human obedience viewed as satisfactory, or meritorious, in regard of salvation" (Moule, 85). According to this popular understanding the real problem with "works of law" is the wrong motive with which they are done. This view is unacceptable, however, because it implies that the very same works done from right motives would justify, which undermines Paul's very point.

What, then, is meant by "works of law"? Law itself, as said above, means God's commandments or law in general, and not just one limited version of it (such as the Law of Moses). It is composed especially of the moral law, which applies equally to all people in all ages, even though it is revealed in different forms and under different covenants. "Works of law," then, must mean any response to any such law, without restriction in terms of dispensation, form, or motive.

The preposition "apart from" is cwvri" (chôris ), a term which emphasizes separation: "apart from, without, separated from, without relation to, without regard to." "Apart from works of law" thus means "without regard to one's response to the law, apart from a consideration of how one responds to the law." But one may respond to law either positively or negatively, either in obedience or in disobedience. In 3:28 Paul has in mind both kinds of response: "Apart from a consideration of one's obedience and disobedience to law."

We know that "works of law" is intended to have this all-inclusive meaning here because of the parallel with "apart from works" in 4:6. In the latter passage Paul cites David in Ps 32:1-2 as evidence that a man is justified (reckoned righteous) "apart from works." But what "works" does David mention in these verses? Only transgressions and sins! To be justified apart from works thus includes the idea of being justified apart from a consideration of our sinful deeds. The similarity of meaning between 3:28 and 4:6 thus requires us to include sinful works in our understanding of "works of law" in 3:28. (This is why we cannot simply equate "works of law" with "perfect obedience to all the law requires." This is also why the NIV translation, "observing the law," is wrong; it refers only to a positive response to the law.)

On the other hand "works of law" cannot be expanded to mean "anything a person does." Even if faith is excepted, this is too broad because not everything a sinner does is a response to law. God gives his human creatures law in his role as Creator and Lord, and we as creatures respond to this law either by obeying it or disobeying it (i.e., in "works of law"). But once we have disobeyed it, God then begins to relate to sinful mankind in a wholly new role: that of Redeemer. As Redeemer he works out our salvation; as Redeemer he offers it to sinners with instructions on how to receive it. Such redemptive instruction is not "law," and our response to this instruction cannot be called "works of law."

Thus "works of law" cannot be broadened to include "anything a person does" besides faith. We cannot posit two categories of human acts, where faith alone is one category, with everything else constituting a second category called "works of law." Sinners are instructed, yea, required to do other things that cannot be labeled "works of law," because they are not responses to the law given by God as Creator to man as creature. The most obvious example of this is repentance, and an equally clear example is baptism. Both repentance and baptism are the sinner's response to God as Redeemer, not the creature's response to God as Creator. They are neither "works" nor "works of law," any more than saving faith is.

This does not mean that we are justified by repentance and baptism, in the way that we are justified by faith. As discussed above, faith alone is the sole means by which justification is received. It does mean, though, that "faith" in 3:28 (as in 3:27) is an abbreviated way of referring to the grace system as a whole, and that repentance and baptism are legitimately understood within the grace system as conditions for receiving justification that are fully compatible with faith. They are not "works of law" any more than faith is.

D. THE WAY OF GRACE IS AVAILABLE TO ALL (3:29-30)

3:29 In vv. 29-30 Paul returns to a continuing theme of the epistle, that God's grace makes no distinctions among sinners; it is equally needed by all and equally available to all on the same conditions (see 1:16; 3:22). No one group has an advantage over any other; especially, the Jews have no advantage over the Gentiles. Is God the God of Jews only? This is the question Paul addressed at length in ch. 2. It reflects the mistaken Jewish attitude that their privilege of service implied a unique access to God and his salvation. But has not Paul clearly shown that the Jews do not have a monopoly on God? Is he not the God of Gentiles too? Yes, of Gentiles too . . . .

The general principle of v. 28 is given a specific application here. Under grace sinners are justified apart from their response to any given version of God's law, and this applies especially to the Law of Moses. God did not give the Law of Moses as an exclusive means by which Jews alone could be justified. That was not its purpose. If it had been, then he could have simply left that law in place and continued to ignore the Gentiles (Acts 17:30). But God is God of all men, including the Gentiles; and now in the fulness of time (Gal 4:4) he has made it clear that he has always intended to include the Gentiles as full partners in salvation by grace (Eph 2:11-3:12).

3:30 Indeed, he must be the God of both Jews and Gentiles, since there is only one God . . . . The existence of only one God was a basic OT revelation (Exod 20:3; Deut 6:4), and a basic Jewish belief. Moo's comment (I:254) is appropriate: "Paul's contention is that the oneness of God requires that God be God of the Gentiles as much as of the Jews; otherwise, the Gentiles would be left with no God. In arguing in this manner, Paul takes one of the most basic Jewish beliefs, monotheism, and turns it against Judaism." I.e., he turns it against their false exclusivism.

. . . who [the one God] will justify the circumcised by faith and the uncircumcised through that same faith. Here Paul calls attention to the other main symbol of Jewish exclusivism, circumcision, and declares that within the grace system it makes no difference whatever (see 2:25-29). Both the circumcised (the Jews) and the uncircumcised (the Gentiles) are justified in the same way, i.e., by a common faith in a common Redeemer. Now that Christ has come, the Gentiles are specifically said to have the (same) faith as the Jews (pivsti" [ pistis ] with the definite article). Stott (120) reminds us that "this identical truth applies to all other distinctions, whether of race, nationality, class, sex or age. . . . At the foot of Christ's cross and through faith in him, we are all on exactly the same level."

The future tense of "will justify" denotes the change in circumstances reflected by the Great Commission. From that point onward the gospel will be preached to Jews and Gentiles alike to the end of the age, and throughout this time God will continue to justify Jews and Gentiles alike. Though two different prepositions are used for "by (ejk , ek ) faith" and "through (diav , dia ) faith," no significant difference in meaning is intended (Lard, 125; Cranfield, I:222; Dunn, I:189; Moo, I:255).

E. GRACE LETS LAW DO ITS PROPER WORK (3:31)

3:31 Some readers (especially Jewish) may by this time be thinking thoughts similar to those voiced in 3:1. There, following Paul's long attack on the Jews' false concept of their own exclusiveness in God's plan (2:1-29), the question of the very meaning of Jewishness and the futility of their very existence is raised. Likewise, after Paul has emphatically rejected the ability of law to justify (3:20), and has declared that justification can be received only apart from law (3:21, 27-28), some are no doubt thinking that law must be rather obsolete. Paul voices this concern in the question, Do we, then, nullify the law by this faith?

This is not just a reference to the Mosaic Law or to the OT as a whole, contrary to Cranfield (I:223). The contrast throughout this section has been between grace on the one hand and law in general on the other hand, and it is no different here. As Morris says (189), "What Paul says has reference to the Jewish law, but also to law in general."

The question is, does grace abolish law, or render it ineffective and purposeless? Does it set the law aside so that it has no relevance to the Christian? Does faith "nullify the law"? (On the word "nullify" [katargevw , katargeô ], see 3:3.) Not at all! Rather, by it we uphold the law. A right understanding of grace and justification by faith actually establishes and confirms the law. How does it do this? By setting law free from a burden it is not able to bear and was never intended to bear, namely, function as a means of justifying sinners. When we stop trying to use the law and its commandments in such an impossible way, we can then let it perform its proper functions.

One such function is that it serves to show us our sin (3:20) and thus shows us our need for justification by faith (MP, 324; Hendriksen, I:137-138). Also, it properly functions as a norm or standard for holy living. As DeWelt says (59), under grace we can "preach and teach the real value of the law which is to point out right and wrong." As Lard says (126), "Law may be wholly useless for one purpose, and yet indispensable for others."

Here is a point we must not forget: as a revelation of God's will to us, his law is absolutely binding upon us and we have an absolute obligation to obey it. Grace does not change this fact. We are not under law as a way of salvation (6:14), but we are always under law as a way of life . To put it another way, law is not involved in the first part of the double cure, which is justification; but it is absolutely necessary for the second part of the double cure, which includes sanctification.

McGarvey: Rom 3:14

Whose mouth is full of cursing and bitterness [Psa 10:7]:

Introduction / Outline

Robertson: Romans (Book Introduction)

The Epistle to the Romans

Spring of a.d. 57

By Way of Introduction

Integrity of the Epistle

The genuineness of the Epistle is so generally admitted by scholars that it is unnecessary to prove it here, for Loman, Steck, and the Dutch scholars (Van Manen, etc.) who deny it as Pauline are no longer taken seriously. He wrote it from Corinth because he sent it to Rome by Phoebe of Cenchreae (Rom_16:2) if chapter 16 is acknowledged to be a part of the Epistle. Chapter 16 is held by some to be really a short epistle to Ephesus because of the long list of names in it, because of Paul’s long stay in Ephesus, because he had not yet been to Rome, and because, in particular, Aquila and Priscilla are named (Rom_16:3-5) who had been with Paul in Ephesus. But they had come from Rome before going to Corinth and there is no reason for thinking that they did not return to Rome. It was quite possible for Paul to have many friends in Rome whom he had met elsewhere. People naturally drifted to Rome from all over the empire. The old MSS. (Aleph A B C D) give chapter 16 as an integral part of the Epistle. Marcion rejected it and chapter 15 also for reasons of his own. Renan’s theory that Romans was a circular letter like Ephesians sent in different forms to different churches (Rome, Ephesus, Thessalonica, etc.) has appealed to some scholars as explaining the several doxologies in the Epistle, but they cause no real difficulty since Paul interjected them in his other epistles according to his moods (2Co_1:20, for instance). That theory raises more problems than it solves as, for example, Paul’s remarks about going to Rome (Rom_1:9-16) which apply to Rome. Lightfoot suggests the possibility that Paul added Rom_16:25-27 some years after the original date so as to turn it into a circular letter. But the MSS. do not support that theory and that leaves Rom_15:22-33 in the Epistle quite unsuitable to a circular letter. Modern knowledge leaves the Epistle intact with occasional variations in the MSS. on particular points as is true of all the N.T.

The Time and Place

The place is settled if we accept Rom_16:1. The time of the year is in the spring if we combine statements in the Acts and the Epistle. He says: " I am now going to Jerusalem ministering to the saints" (Rom_15:25). In Act_20:3 we read that Paul spent three months in Corinth. In II Corinthians we have a full account of the collection for the poor saints in Jerusalem. The account of the journey from Corinth to Jerusalem is given in Acts 20:3-21:17. It was in the spring between passover at Philippi (Act_20:6) and pentecost in Jerusalem (Act_20:16; Act_21:17). The precise year is not quite so certain, but we may suggest a.d. 57 or 58 with reasonable confidence.

The Purpose

Paul tells this himself. He had long cherished a desire to come to Rome (Act_19:21) and had often made his plans to do so (Rom_1:13) which were interrupted (Rom_15:22), but now he definitely plans to go from Jerusalem, after taking the contribution there (Rom_15:26), to Rome and then on to Spain (Rom_15:24, Rom_15:28). Meanwhile he sends this Epistle that the Romans may know what Paul’s gospel really is (Rom_1:15; Rom_2:16). He is full of the issues raised by the Judaizing controversy as set forth in the Epistles to Corinth and to Galatia. So in a calmer mood and more at length he presents his conception of the Righteousness demanded by God (Rom_1:17) of both Gentile (Rom_1:18-32) and Jew (Romans 2:1-3:20) and only to be obtained by faith in Christ who by his atoning death (justification) has made it possible (Romans 3:21-5:21). This new life of faith in Christ should lead to holiness of life (sanctification, chapters Romans 6-8). This is Paul’s gospel and the remaining chapters deal with corollaries growing out of the doctrine of grace as applied to practical matters. It is a cause for gratitude that Paul did write out so full a statement of his message. He had a message for the whole world and was anxious to win the Roman Empire to Christ. It was important that he go to Rome for it was the centre of the world’s life. Nowhere does Paul’s Christian statesmanship show to better advantage than in this greatest of his Epistles. It is not a book of formal theology though Paul is the greatest of theologians. Here Paul is seen in the plenitude of his powers with all the wealth of his knowledge of Christ and his rich experience in mission work. The church in Rome is plainly composed of both Jews and Greeks, though who started the work there we have no way of knowing. Paul’s ambition was to preach where no one else had been (Rom_15:20), but he has no hesitation in going on to Rome.

JFB: Romans (Book Introduction)

THE GENUINENESS of the Epistle to the Romans has never been questioned. It has the unbroken testimony of all antiquity, up to CLEMENT OF ROME, the apostle's "fellow laborer in the Gospel, whose name was in the Book of Life" (Phi 4:3), and who quotes from it in his undoubted Epistle to the Corinthians, written before the close of the first century. The most searching investigations of modern criticism have left it untouched.

WHEN and WHERE this Epistle was written we have the means of determining with great precision, from the Epistle itself compared with the Acts of the Apostles. Up to the date of it the apostle had never been at Rome (Rom 1:11, Rom 1:13, Rom 1:15). He was then on the eve of visiting Jerusalem with a pecuniary contribution for its Christian poor from the churches of Macedonia and Achaia, after which his purpose was to pay a visit to Rome on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-28). Now this contribution we know that he carried with him from Corinth, at the close of his third visit to that city, which lasted three months (Act 20:2-3; Act 24:17). On this occasion there accompanied him from Corinth certain persons whose names are given by the historian of the Acts (Act 20:4), and four of these are expressly mentioned in our Epistle as being with the apostle when he wrote it--Timotheus, Sosipater, Gaius, and Erastus (Rom 16:21, Rom 16:23). Of these four, the third, Gaius, was an inhabitant of Corinth (1Co 1:14), and the fourth, Erastus, was "chamberlain of the city" (Rom 16:23), which can hardly be supposed to be other than Corinth. Finally, Phœbebe, the bearer, as appears, of this Epistle, was a deaconess of the Church at Cenchrea, the eastern port of Corinth (Rom 16:1). Putting these facts together, it is impossible to resist the conviction, in which all critics agree, that Corinth was the place from which the Epistle was written, and that it was despatched about the close of the visit above mentioned, probably in the early spring of the year 58.FOUNDER of this celebrated church is unknown. That it owed its origin to the apostle Peter, and that he was its first bishop, though an ancient tradition and taught in the Church of Rome as a fact not to be doubted, is refuted by the clearest evidence, and is given up even by candid Romanists. On that supposition, how are we to account for so important a circumstance being passed by in silence by the historian of the Acts, not only in the narrative of Peter's labors, but in that of Paul's approach to the metropolis, of the deputations of Roman "brethren" that came as far as Appii Forum and the Three Taverns to meet him, and of his two years' labors there (Act 28:15, Act 28:30)? And how, consistently with his declared principle--not to build on another man's foundation (Rom 15:20) --could he express his anxious desire to come to them that he might have some fruit among them also, even as among other Gentiles (Rom 1:13), if all the while he knew that they had the apostle of the circumcision for their spiritual father? And how, if so, is there no salutation to Peter among the many in this Epistle? or, if it may be thought that he was known to be elsewhere at that particular time, how does there occur in all the Epistles which our apostle afterwards wrote from Rome not one allusion to such an origin of the church at Rome? The same considerations would seem to prove that this church owed its origin to no prominent Christian laborer; and this brings us to the much-litigated question.

For WHAT CLASS of Christians was this Epistle principally designed--Jewish or Gentile? That a large number of Jews and Jewish proselytes resided at this time at Rome is known to all who are familiar with the classical and Jewish writers of that and the immediately subsequent periods; and that those of them who were at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (Act 2:10), and formed probably part of the three thousand converts of that day, would on their return to Rome carry the glad tidings with them, there can be no doubt. Nor are indications wanting that some of those embraced in the salutations of this Epistle were Christians already of long standing, if not among the earliest converts to the Christian faith. Others of them who had made the apostle's acquaintance elsewhere, and who, if not indebted to him for their first knowledge of Christ, probably owed much to his ministrations, seemed to have charged themselves with the duty of cherishing and consolidating the work of the Lord in the capital. And thus it is not improbable that up to the time of the apostle's arrival the Christian community at Rome had been dependent upon subordinate agency for the increase of its numbers, aided by occasional visits of stated preachers from the provinces; and perhaps it may be gathered from the salutations of the last chapter that it was up to that time in a less organized, though far from less flourishing state, than some other churches to whom the apostle had already addressed Epistles. Certain it is, that the apostle writes to them expressly as a Gentile Church (Rom 1:13, Rom 1:15; Rom 15:15-16); and though it is plain that there were Jewish Christians among them, and the whole argument presupposes an intimate acquaintance on the part of his readers with the leading principles of the Old Testament, this will be sufficiently explained by supposing that the bulk of them, having before they knew the Lord been Gentile proselytes to the Jewish faith, had entered the pale of the Christian Church through the gate of the ancient economy.

It remains only to speak briefly of the PLAN and CHARACTER Of this Epistle. Of all the undoubted Epistles of our apostle, this is the most elaborate, and at the same time the most glowing. It has just as much in common with a theological treatise as is consistent with the freedom and warmth of a real letter. Referring to the headings which we have prefixed to its successive sections, as best exhibiting the progress of the argument and the connection of its points, we here merely note that its first great topic is what may be termed the legal relation of man to God as a violator of His holy law, whether as merely written on the heart, as in the case of the heathen, or, as in the case of the Chosen People, as further known by external revelation; that it next treats of that legal relation as wholly reversed through believing connection with the Lord Jesus Christ; and that its third and last great topic is the new life which accompanies this change of relation, embracing at once a blessedness and a consecration to God which, rudimentally complete already, will open, in the future world, into the bliss of immediate and stainless fellowship with God. The bearing of these wonderful truths upon the condition and destiny of the Chosen People, to which the apostle next comes, though it seem but the practical application of them to his kinsmen according to the flesh, is in some respects the deepest and most difficult part of the whole Epistle, carrying us directly to the eternal springs of Grace to the guilty in the sovereign love and inscrutable purposes of God; after which, however, we are brought back to the historical platform of the visible Church, in the calling of the Gentiles, the preservation of a faithful Israelitish remnant amidst the general unbelief and fall of the nation, and the ultimate recovery of all Israel to constitute, with the Gentiles in the latter day, one catholic Church of God upon earth. The remainder of the Epistle is devoted to sundry practical topics, winding up with salutations and outpourings of heart delightfully suggestive.

JFB: Romans (Outline)

• INTRODUCTION. (Rom. 1:1-17)
• THE JEW UNDER LIKE CONDEMNATION WITH THE GENTILE. (Rom. 2:1-29)
• JEWISH OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. (Rom 3:1-8)
• THAT THE JEW IS SHUT UP UNDER LIKE CONDEMNATION WITH THE GENTILE IS PROVED BY HIS OWN SCRIPTURE. (Rom 3:9-20)
• GOD'S JUSTIFYING RIGHTEOUSNESS THROUGH FAITH IN JESUS CHRIST, ALIKE ADAPTED TO OUR NECESSITIES AND WORTHY OF HIMSELF. (Rom 3:21-26)
• INFERENCES FROM THE FOREGOING DOCTRINES AND AN OBJECTION ANSWERED. (Rom 3:27-31)
• THE FOREGOING DOCTRINE OF JUSTIFICATION BY FAITH ILLUSTRATED FROM THE OLD TESTAMENT. (Rom. 4:1-25)
• THE BLESSED EFFECTS OF JUSTIFICATION BY FAITH. (Rom 5:1-11)
• COMPARISON AND CONTRAST BETWEEN ADAM AND CHRIST IN THEIR RELATION TO THE HUMAN FAMILY. (Rom 5:12-21)
• THE BEARING OF JUSTIFICATION BY GRACE UPON A HOLY LIFE. (Rom 6:1-11)
• WHAT PRACTICAL USE BELIEVERS SHOULD MAKE OF THEIR DEATH TO SIN AND LIFE TO GOD THROUGH UNION TO THE CRUCIFIED SAVIOUR. (Rom 6:12-23)
• SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. (Rom. 7:1-25)
• CONCLUSION OF THE WHOLE ARGUMENT--THE GLORIOUS COMPLETENESS OF THEM THAT ARE IN CHRIST JESUS. (Rom. 8:1-39)
• THE BEARING OF THE FOREGOING TRUTHS UPON THE CONDITION AND DESTINY OF THE CHOSEN PEOPLE--ELECTION--THE CALLING OF THE GENTILES. (Rom. 9:1-33)
• SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED--HOW ISRAEL CAME TO MISS SALVATION, AND THE GENTILES TO FIND IT. (Rom. 10:1-21)
• SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED AND CONCLUDED--THE ULTIMATE INBRINGING OF ALL ISRAEL, TO BE, WITH THE GENTILES, ONE KINGDOM OF GOD ON THE EARTH. (Rom. 11:1-36)
• DUTIES OF BELIEVERS, GENERAL AND PARTICULAR. (Rom. 12:1-21)
• SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED--POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS--MOTIVES. (Rom 13:1-14)
• SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED--CHRISTIAN FORBEARANCE. (Rom. 14:1-23)
• SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED AND CONCLUDED. (Rom 15:1-13)
• CONCLUSION: IN WHICH THE APOSTLE APOLOGIZES FOR THUS WRITING TO THE ROMAN CHRISTIANS, EXPLAINS WHY HE HAD NOT YET VISITED THEM, ANNOUNCES HIS FUTURE PLANS, AND ASKS THEIR PRAYERS FOR THE COMPLETION OF THEM. (Rom. 15:14-33)
• CONCLUSION, EMBRACING SUNDRY SALUTATIONS AND DIRECTIONS, AND A CLOSING PRAYER. (Rom. 16:1-27)
• WHY THIS DIVINELY PROVIDED RIGHTEOUSNESS IS NEEDED BY ALL MEN. (Rom 1:18)
• THIS WRATH OF GOD, REVEALED AGAINST ALL INIQUITY, OVERHANGS THE WHOLE HEATHEN WORLD. (Rom 1:18-32)

TSK: Romans (Book Introduction)

The Epistle to the Romans is " a writing," says Dr. Macknight, " which, for sublimity and truth of sentiment, for brevity and strength of expression, for regularity in its structure, but above all, for the unspeakable importance of the discoveries which it contains, stands unrivalled by any mere human composition, and as far exceeds the most celebrated productions of the learned Greeks and Romans, as the shining of the sun exceeds the twinkling of the stars." " The plan of it is very extensive; and it is surprising to see what a spacious field of knowledge is comprised, and how many various designs, arguments, explications, instructions, and exhortations, are executed in so small a compass....The whole Epistle is to be taken in connection, or considered as one continued discourse; and the sense of every part must be taken from the drift of the whole. Every sentence, or verse, is not to be regarded as a distinct mathematical proposition, or theorem, or as a sentence in the book of Proverbs, whose sense is absolute, and independent of what goes before, or comes after, but we must remember, that every sentence, especially in the argumentative part, bears relation to, and is dependent upon, the whole discourse, and cannot be rightly understood unless we understand the scope and drift of the whole; and therefore, the whole Epistle, or at least the eleven first chapters of it, ought to be read over at once, without stopping. As to the use and excellency of this Epistle, I shall leave it to speak for itself, when the reader has studied and well digested its contents....This Epistle will not be difficult to understand, if our minds are unprejudiced, and at liberty to attend to the subject, and to the current scriptural sense of the words used. Great care is taken to guard and explain every part of the subject; no part of it is left unexplained or unguarded. Sometimes notes are written upon a sentence, liable to exception and wanting explanation, as Rom 2:12-16. Here Rom 2:13 and Rom 2:15 are a comment upon the former part of it. Sometimes are found comments upon a single word; as Rom 10:11-13. Rom 10:12 and Rom 10:13 are a comment upon πας [Strong’s 3956]

TSK: Romans 3 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

Rom 3:1, The Jews’ prerogative; Rom 3:3, which they have not lost; Rom 3:9, howbeit the law convinces them also of sin; Rom 3:20, therefore no flesh is justified by the law; Rom 3:28, but all, without difference, by faith, only; Rom 3:31, and yet the law is not abolished.

Poole: Romans 3 (Chapter Introduction)

CHAPTER 3

MHCC: Romans (Book Introduction)

The scope or design of the apostle in writing to the Romans appears to have been, to answer the unbelieving, and to teach the believing Jew; to confirm the Christian and to convert the idolatrous Gentile; and to show the Gentile convert as equal with the Jewish, in respect of his religious condition, and his rank in the Divine favour. These several designs are brought into on view, by opposing or arguing with the infidel or unbelieving Jew, in favour of the Christian or believing Gentile. The way of a sinner's acceptance with God, or justification in his sight, merely by grace, through faith in the righteousness of Christ, without distinction of nations, is plainly stated. This doctrine is cleared from the objections raised by Judaizing Christians, who were for making terms of acceptance with God by a mixture of the law and the gospel, and for shutting out the Gentiles from any share in the blessings of salvation brought in by the Messiah. In the conclusion, holiness is further enforced by practical exhortations.

MHCC: Romans 3 (Chapter Introduction)

(Rom 3:1-8) Objections answered.

(Rom 3:9-18) All mankind are sinners.

(Rom 3:19, Rom 3:20) Both Jews and Gentiles cannot be justified by their own deeds.

(Rom 3:21-31) It is owing to the free grace of God, through faith in the righteousness of Christ, yet the law is not done away.

Matthew Henry: Romans (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans

If we may compare scripture with scripture, and take the opinion of some devout and pious persons, in the Old Testament David's Psalms, and in the New Testament Paul's Epistles, are stars of the first magnitude, that differ from the other stars in glory. The whole scripture is indeed an epistle from heaven to earth: but in it we have upon record several particular epistles, more of Paul's than of any other, for he was the chief of the apostles, and laboured more abundantly than they all. His natural parts, I doubt not, were very pregnant; his apprehension was quick and piercing; his expressions were fluent and copious; his affections, wherever he took, very warm and zealous, and his resolutions no less bold and daring: this made him, before his conversion, a very keen and bitter persecutor; but when the strong man armed was dispossessed, and the stronger than he came to divide the spoil and to sanctify these qualifications, he became the most skilful zealous preacher; never any better fitted to win souls, nor more successful. Fourteen of his epistles we have in the canon of scripture; many more, it is probable, he wrote in the course of his ministry, which might be profitable enough for doctrine, for reproof, etc., but, not being given by inspiration of God, they were not received as canonical scripture, nor handed down to us. Six epistles, said to be Paul's, written to Seneca, and eight of Seneca's to him, are spoken of by some of the ancients [ Sixt. Senens. Biblioth. Sanct. lib. 2] and are extant; but, upon the first view, they appear spurious and counterfeit.

This epistle to the Romans is placed first, not because of the priority of its date, but because of the superlative excellency of the epistle, it being one of the longest and fullest of all, and perhaps because of the dignity of the place to which it is written. Chrysostom would have this epistle read over to him twice a week. It is gathered from some passages in the epistle that it was written Anno Christi 56, from Corinth, while Paul made a short stay there in his way to Troas, Act 20:5, Act 20:6. He commendeth to the Romans Phebe, a servant of the church at Cenchrea (ch. 16), which was a place belonging to Corinth. He calls Gaius his host, or the man with whom he lodged (Rom 16:23), and he was a Corinthian, not the same with Gaius of Derbe, mentioned Acts 20. Paul was now going up to Jerusalem, with the money that was given to the poor saints there; and of that he speaks, Rom 15:26. The great mysteries treated of in this epistle must needs produce in this, as in other writings of Paul, many things dark and hard to be understood, 2Pe 3:16. The method of this (as of several other of the epistles) is observable; the former part of it doctrinal, in the first eleven chapters; the latter part practical, in the last five: to inform the judgment and to reform the life. And the best way to understand the truths explained in the former part is to abide and abound in the practice of the duties prescribed in the latter part; for, if any man will do his will, he shall know of the doctrine, Joh 7:17.

I. The doctrinal part of the epistles instructs us,

1. Concerning the way of salvation (1.) The foundation of it laid in justification, and that not by the Gentiles' works of nature (ch. 1), nor by the Jews' works of the law (ch. 2, 3), for both Jews and Gentiles were liable to the curse; but only by faith in Jesus Christ, Rom 3:21, etc.; ch. 4. (2.) The steps of this salvation are, [1.] Peace with God, ch. 5. [2.] Sanctification, ch. 6, 7. [3.] Glorification, ch. 8.

2. Concerning the persons saved, such as belong to the election of grace (ch. 9), Gentiles and Jews, ch. 10, 11. By this is appears that the subject he discourses of were such as were then the present truths, as the apostle speaks, 2Pe 1:12. Two things the Jews then stumbled at - justification by faith without the works of the law, and the admission of the Gentiles into the church; and therefore both these he studied to clear and vindicate.

II. The practical part follows, wherein we find, 1. Several general exhortations proper for all Christians, ch. 12. 2. Directions for our behaviour, as members of civil society, Rom 13:1-14. 3. Rules for the conduct of Christians to one another, as members of the Christian church, ch. 14 and Rom 15:1-14.

III. As he draws towards a conclusion, he makes an apology for writing to them (Rom 15:14-16), gives them an account of himself and his own affairs (Rom 15:17-21), promises them a visit (Rom 15:22-29), begs their prayers (Rom 15:30-32), sends particular salutations to many friends there (ch. 16:1-16), warns them against those who caused divisions (Rom 16:17-20), adds the salutations of his friends with him (Rom 16:21-23), and ends with a benediction to them and a doxology to God (Rom 16:24-27).

Matthew Henry: Romans 3 (Chapter Introduction)

The apostle, in this chapter, carries on his discourse concerning justification. He had already proved the guilt both of Gentiles and Jews. Now in this chapter, I. He answers some objections that might be made against what he had said about the Jews (Rom 3:1-8). II. He asserts the guilt and corruption of mankind in common, both Jews and Gentiles (Rom 3:9-18). III. He argues thence that justification must needs be by faith, and not by the law, which he gives several reasons for (Rom 3:19 to the end). The many digressions in his writings render his discourse sometimes a little difficult, but his scope is evident.

Barclay: Romans (Book Introduction)

A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE LETTERS OF PAUL

The Letters Of Paul

There is no more interesting body of documents in the New Testament than the letters of Paul. That is because of all forms of literature a letter is most personal. Demetrius, one of the old Greek literary critics, once wrote, "Every one reveals his own soul in his letters. In every other form of composition it is possible to discern the writercharacter, but in none so clearly as the epistolary." (Demetrius, On Style, 227.) It is just because he left us so many letters that we feel we know Paul so well. In them he opened his mind and heart to the folk he loved so much; and, in them, to this day, we can see that great mind grappling with the problems of the early church and feel that great heart throbbing with love for men, even when they were misguided and mistaken.

The Difficulty Of Letters

At the same time there is often nothing so difficult to understand as a letter. Demetrius (On Style, 223) quotes a saying of Artemon, who edited the letters of Aristotle. Artemon said that a letter ought to be written in the same manner as a dialogue, because it was one of the two sides of a dialogue. In other words, to read a letter is like listening to one side of a telephone conversation. So when we read the letters of Paul we are often in a difficulty. We do not possess the letter which he was answering; we do not fully know the circumstances with which he was dealing; it is only from the letter itself that we can deduce the situation which prompted it. Before we can hope to understand fully any letter Paul wrote, we must try to reconstruct the situation which produced it.

The Ancient Letters

It is a great pity that Paulletters were ever called epistles. They are in the most literal sense letters. One of the great lights shed on the interpretation of the New Testament has been the discovery and the publication of the papyri. In the ancient world, papyrus was the substance on which most documents were written. It was composed of strips of the pith of a certain bulrush that grew on the banks of the Nile. These strips were laid one on top of the other to form a substance very like brown paper. The sands of the Egyptian desert were ideal for preservation, for papyrus, although very brittle, will last for ever so long as moisture does not get at it. As a result, from the Egyptian rubbish heaps, archaeologists have rescued hundreds of documents, marriage contracts, legal agreements, government forms, and, most interesting of all, private letters. When we read these private letters we find that there was a pattern to which nearly all conformed; and we find that Paulletters reproduce exactly that pattern. Here is one of these ancient letters. It is from a soldier, called Apion, to his father Epimachus. He is writing from Misenum to tell his father that he has arrived safely after a stormy passage.

"Apion sends heartiest greetings to his father and lord Epimachus.

I pray above all that you are well and fit; and that things are

going well with you and my sister and her daughter and my

brother. I thank my Lord Serapis [his god] that he kept me safe

when I was in peril on the sea. As soon as I got to Misenum I got

my journey money from Caesar--three gold pieces. And things

are going fine with me. So I beg you, my dear father, send me a

line, first to let me know how you are, and then about my

brothers, and thirdly, that I may kiss your hand, because you

brought me up well, and because of that I hope, God willing, soon

to be promoted. Give Capito my heartiest greetings, and my

brothers and Serenilla and my friends. I sent you a little picture

of myself painted by Euctemon. My military name is Antonius

Maximus. I pray for your good health. Serenus sends good

wishes, Agathos Daimonboy, and Turbo, Galloniuson."

(G. Milligan, Selections from the Greek Papyri, 36.)

Little did Apion think that we would be reading his letter to his father 1800 years after he had written it. It shows how little human nature changes. The lad is hoping for promotion quickly. Who will Serenilla be but the girl he left behind him? He sends the ancient equivalent of a photograph to the folk at home. Now that letter falls into certain sections. (i) There is a greeting. (ii) There is a prayer for the health of the recipients. (iii) There is a thanksgiving to the gods. (iv) There are the special contents. (v) Finally, there are the special salutations and the personal greetings. Practically every one of Paulletters shows exactly the same sections, as we now demonstrate.

(i) The Greeting: Rom_1:1 ; 1Co_1:1 ; 2Co_1:1 ; Gal_1:1 ; Eph_1:1 ; Phi_1:1 ; Col_1:1-2 ; 1Th_1:1 ; 2Th_1:1 .

(ii) The Prayer: in every case Paul prays for the grace of God on the people to whom he writes: Rom_1:7 ; 1Co_1:3 ; 2Co_1:2 ; Gal_1:3 ; Eph_1:2 ; Phi_1:3 ; Col_1:2 ; 1Th_1:1 ; 2Th_1:2 .

(iii) The Thanksgiving: Rom_1:8 ; 1Co_1:4 ; 2Co_1:3 ; Eph_1:3 ; Phi_1:3 ; 1Th_1:3 ; 2Th_1:3 .

(iv) The Special Contents: the main body of the letters.

(v) Special Salutations and Personal Greetings: Rom 16 ; 1Co_16:19 ; 2Co_13:13 ; Phi_4:21-22 ; Col_4:12-15 ; 1Th_5:26 .

When Paul wrote letters, he wrote them on the pattern which everyone used. Deissmann says of them, "They differ from the messages of the homely papyrus leaves of Egypt, not as letters but only as the letters of Paul." When we read Paulletters we are not reading things which were meant to be academic exercises and theological treatises, but human documents written by a friend to his friends.

The Immediate Situation

With a very few exceptions, all Paulletters were written to meet an immediate situation and not treatises which he sat down to write in the peace and silence of his study. There was some threatening situation in Corinth, or Galatia, or Philippi, or Thessalonica, and he wrote a letter to meet it. He was not in the least thinking of us when he wrote, but solely of the people to whom he was writing. Deissmann writes, "Paul had no thought of adding a few fresh compositions to the already extant Jewish epistles; still less of enriching the sacred literature of his nation. He had no presentiment of the place his words would occupy in universal history; not so much that they would be in existence in the next generation, far less that one day people would look at them as Holy Scripture." We must always remember that a thing need not be transient because it was written to meet an immediate situation. All the great love songs of the world were written for one person, but they live on for the whole of mankind. It is just because Paulletters were written to meet a threatening danger or a clamant need that they still throb with life. And it is because human need and the human situation do not change that God speaks to us through them today.

The Spoken Word

One other thing we must note about these letters. Paul did what most people did in his day. He did not normally pen his own letters but dictated them to a secretary, and then added his own authenticating signature. (We actually know the name of one of the people who did the writing for him. In Rom_16:22 Tertius, the secretary, slips in his own greeting before the letter draws to an end.) In 1Co_16:21 Paul says, "This is my own signature, my autograph, so that you can be sure this letter comes from me" (compare Col_4:18 ; 2Th_3:17 ).

This explains a great deal. Sometimes Paul is hard to understand, because his sentences begin and never finish; his grammar breaks down and the construction becomes involved. We must not think of him sitting quietly at a desk, carefully polishing each sentence as he writes. We must think of him striding up and down some little room, pouring out a torrent of words, while his secretary races to get them down. When Paul composed his letters, he had in his mindeye a vision of the folk to whom he was writing, and he was pouring out his heart to them in words that fell over each other in his eagerness to help.

INTRODUCTION TO THE LETTER TO THE ROMANS

The Epistle That Is Different

There is an obvious difference between PaulLetter to the Romans and any other of his letters. Anyone coming from, say, a reading of the Letters to the Corinthians, will immediately feel that difference, both of atmosphere and of method. A very great part of it is due to one basic fact--when Paul wrote to the Church at Rome he was writing to a Church with whose founding he had had nothing whatever to do and with which he had had no personal contact at all. That explains why in Romans there are so few of the details of practical problems which fill the other letters. That is why Romans, at first sight, seems so much more impersonal. As Dibelius put it, "It is of all Paulletters the least conditioned by the momentary situation."

We may put that in another way. Romans, of all Paulletters, comes nearest to being a theological treatise. In almost all his other letters he is dealing with some immediate trouble, some pressing situation, some current error, some threatening danger, which was menacing the Church to which he was writing. Romans is the nearest approach to a systematic exposition of Paulown theological position, independent of any immediate set of circumstances.

Testamentary And Prophylactic

Because of that, two great scholars have applied two very illuminating adjectives to Romans. Sanday called Romans "testamentary." It is as if Paul was writing his theological last will and testament, as if into Romans he was distilling the very essence of his faith and belief. Rome was the greatest city in the world, the capital of the greatest Empire the world had ever seen. Paul had never been there, and he did not know if he ever would be there. But, in writing to such a Church in such a city, it was fitting that he should set down the very centre and core of his belief. Burton called Romans "prophylactic." A prophylactic is something which guards against infection. Paul had seen too often what harm and trouble could be caused by wrong ideas, twisted notions, misguided conceptions of Christian faith and belief. He therefore wished to send to the Church in the city which was the centre of the world a letter which would so build up the structure of their faith that, if infections should ever come to them, they might have in the true word of Christian doctrine a powerful and effective defence. He felt that the best protection against the infection of false teaching was the antiseptic of the truth.

The Occasion Of PaulWriting To Rome

All his life Paul had been haunted by the thought of Rome. It had always been one of his dreams to preach there. When he is in Ephesus, he is planning to go through Achaea and Macedonia again, and then comes a sentence obviously dropped straight from the heart, "After I have been there, I must also see Rome" (Act_19:21 ). When he was up against things in Jerusalem, and the situation looked threatening and the end seemed near, he had one of those visions which always lifted up his heart. In that vision the Lord stood by him and said, "Take courage, Paul. For as you have testified about me at Jerusalem, so you must bear witness also at Rome" (Act_23:11 ). In the very first chapter of this letter Pauldesire to see Rome breathes out. "I long to see you that I may impart to you some spiritual gift to strengthen you" (Rom_1:11 ). "So, I am eager to preach the gospel to you also who are in Rome" (Rom_1:15 ). It might well be said that the name Rome was written on Paulheart.

When he actually wrote the Letter to the Romans, the date was sometime in the year A.D. 58, and he was in Corinth. He was just about to bring to its completion a scheme that was very dear to his heart. The Church at Jerusalem was the mother Church of them all, but it was poor, and Paul had organized a collection throughout the younger churches for it (1Co_16:1 ; 2Co_9:1 ). That collection was two things. It was an opportunity for his younger converts to put Christian charity into Christian action, and it was a most practical way of impressing on all Christians the unity of the Christian Church, of teaching them that they were not members of isolated and independent congregations, but of one great Church, each part of which had a responsibility to all the rest. When Paul wrote Romans he was just about to set out with that gift for the Jerusalem Church. "At present, however, I am going to Jerusalem with aid for the saints" (Rom_15:25 ).

The Object Of PaulWriting

Why, then, at such a moment should he write?

(a) Paul knew that the journey to Jerusalem was not without its peril. He knew that he had enemies there, and that to go to Jerusalem was to take his life and liberty in his hands. He desired the prayers of the Roman Church before he set out on this expedition. "Now I appeal to you brethren, by our Lord Jesus Christ and by the love of the Spirit, to strive together with me in your prayers to God on my behalf, that I may be delivered from the unbelievers in Judaea" (Rom_15:30-31 ). He was mobilizing the prayers of the Church before he embarked on this perilous undertaking.

(b) Paul had great schemes simmering in his mind. It has been said of him that he was "always haunted by the regions beyond." He never saw a ship at anchor but he wished to board her and to carry the good news to men across the sea. He never saw a range of mountains, blue in the distance, but he wished to cross them, and to bring the story of the Cross to men who had never heard it. At this time Paul was haunted by the thought of Spain. "I hope to see you in passing as I go to Spain" (Rom_15:24 ). "When I have completed this [that is, when he had delivered the collection to the Church in Jerusalem] I shall go on by way of you to Spain" (Rom_15:28 ).

Why this great desire to go to Spain? Rome had opened up that land. Some of the great Roman roads and buildings still stand there to this day. And it so happened that, just at this time, there was a blaze of greatness in Spain. Many of the great figures who were writing their names on Roman history and literature were Spaniards. There was Martial, the master of the epigram. There was Lucan, the epic poet. There were Columella and Pomponius Mela, great figures in Roman literature. There was Quintilian, the master of Roman oratory. And, above all, there was Seneca, the greatest of the Roman Stoic philosophers, the tutor of the Emperor Nero, and the Prime Minister of the Roman Empire. It was most natural that Paulthoughts should go out to this land which was producing such a scintillating galaxy of greatness. What might happen if men like that could be touched for Christ? As far as we know Paul never got to Spain. On that visit to Jerusalem he was arrested and he was never freed again. But, when he was writing Romans, that was his dream.

Paul was a master strategist. He had an eye for the layout of territory like a great commander. He felt that by this time he could move on from Asia Minor and for the time being leave Greece behind. He saw the whole west lying in front of him, virgin territory to be won for Christ. But, if he was to launch a campaign in the west, he needed a base of operations. There was only one such base possible--and that was Rome.

That was why Paul wrote this letter to Rome. He had this great dream in his heart and this great plan in his mind. He needed Rome for a base for this new campaign. He was aware that the Church in Rome must know his name. But he was also aware, for he was a realist, that the reports which reached Rome would be mixed. His opponents were not above spreading slanders and false accusation against him. So he wrote this letter to set out for the Church at Rome an account of the very essence of his belief, in order that, when the time came for action, he might find in Rome a sympathetic Church from which the lines of communication might go out to Spain and the west. It was with such a plan and such an intention, that in A.D. 58 Paul sat down in Corinth to write his letter to the Church at Rome.

The Layout Of The Letter

Romans is at once a very complicated and a very carefully constructed letter. It will therefore help us to find our way through it, if we have in our minds an idea of its framework. It falls into four definite divisions.

(i) Rom 1-8, which deal with the problem of righteousness.

(ii) Rom 9-11, which deal with problem of the Jews, the chosen

people.

(iii) Rom 12-15, which deal with practical questions of life and

living.

(iv) Rom 16 , which is a letter of introduction for Phoebe,

and a list of final personal greetings.

(i) When Paul uses the word "righteousness," he means a right relationship with God The man who is righteous is the man who is in a right relationship with God, and whose life shows it.

Paul begins with a survey of the Gentile world. We have only to look at its decadence and corruption to know that it had not solved the problem of righteousness. He looks at the Jewish world. The Jews had sought to solve the problem of righteousness by meticulous obedience to the law. Paul had tried that way himself, and it had issued in frustration and defeat, because no man on earth can ever fully obey the law, and, therefore, every man must have the continual consciousness of being in debt to God and under his condemnation.

So Paul finds the way to righteousness in the way of utter trust and utter yieldedness. The only way to a right relationship with God is to take him at his word, and to cast oneself, just as one is, on his mercy and love. It is the way of faith. It is to know that the important thing is, not what we can do for God, but what he has done for us. For Paul the centre of the Christian faith was that we can never earn or deserve the favour of God, nor do we need to. The whole matter is one of grace, and all that we can do is to accept in wondering love and gratitude and trust what God has done for us.

That does not free us, however, from obligations or entitle us to do as we like; it means that for ever and for ever we must try to be worthy of the love which does so much for us. But we are no longer trying to fulfil the demands of stern and austere and condemnatory law; we are no longer like criminals before a judge; we are lovers who have given all life in love to the one who first loved us.

(ii) The problem of the Jews was a torturing one. In a real sense they were Godchosen people, and yet, when his Son had come into the world, they had rejected him. What possible explanation could there be for this heart-breaking fact?

The only one Paul could find was that, in the end, it was all Goddoing. Somehow the hearts of the Jews had been hardened; but it was not all failure, for there had always been a faithful remnant. Nor was it for nothing, for the very fact that the Jews had rejected Christ opened the door so the Gentiles would bring in the Jews and all men would be saved.

Paul goes further. The Jew had always claimed that he was a member of the chosen people in virtue of the fact that he was a Jew. It was solely a matter of pure racial descent from Abraham. But Paul insists that the real Jew is not the man whose flesh and blood descent can be traced to Abraham. He is the man who has made the same decision of utter yieldedness to God in loving faith which Abraham made. Therefore, Paul argues, there are many pure-blooded Jews who are not Jews in the real sense of the term at all; and there are many people of other nations who are really Jews in the true meaning of that word. The new Israel was not a racial thing at all; it was composed of those who had the same faith as Abraham had had.

(iii) Rom 12 is so great an ethical statement that it must always be set alongside the Sermon on the Mount. In it Paul lays down the ethical character of the Christian faith. The fourteenth and fifteenth chapters deal with an ever-recurring problem. In the Church there was a narrower party who believed that they must abstain from certain foods and drinks, and who counted special days and ceremonies as of great importance. Paul thinks of them as the weaker brethren because their faith was dependent on these external things. There was a more liberal party, who had liberated themselves from these external rules and observances. He thinks of them as the brethren who are stronger in the faith. He makes it quite clear that his sympathies are with the more liberal party; but he lays down the great principle that no man must ever do anything to hurt the conscience of a weaker brother or to put a stumbling block in his way. His whole point of view is that we must never do anything which makes it harder for someone else to be a Christian; and that that may well mean the giving up of something, which is right and safe for us, for the sake of the weaker brother. Christian liberty must never be used in such a way that it injures anotherlife or conscience.

(iv) The fourth section is a recommendation on behalf of Phoebe, a member of the Church at Cenchreae, who is coming to Rome. The letter ends with a list of greetings and a final benediction.

Two Problems

Rom 16 has always presented scholars with a problem. Many have felt that it does not really form part of the Letter to the Romans at all; and that it is really a letter to some other Church which became attached to Romans when Paulletters were collected. What are their grounds? First and foremost, in this chapter Paul sends greetings to twenty-six different people, twenty-four of whom he mentions by name and all of whom he seems to know very intimately. He can, for instance, say that the mother of Rufus has also been a mother to him. Is it likely that Paul knew intimately twenty-six people in a Church which he had never visited? He, in fact, greets far more people in this chapter than he does in any other letter, and yet he had never set foot in Rome. Here is something that needs explanation.

If Rom 16 was not written to Rome, what was its original destination? It is here that Prisca and Aquila come into the argument. We know that they left Rome in A.D. 52 when Claudius issued his edict banishing the Jews (Act_18:2 ). We know that they went with Paul to Ephesus (Act_18:18 ). We know that they were in Ephesus when Paul wrote his letter to Corinth, less than two years before he wrote Romans (1Co_16:19 ). And we know that they were still in Ephesus when the Pastoral Epistles were written (2Ti_4:19 ). It is certain that if we had come across a letter sending greeting to Prisca and Aquila we should have assumed that it was sent to Ephesus, if no other address was given.

Is there any other evidence to make us think that chapter sixteen may have been sent to Ephesus in the first place? There is the perfectly general reason that Paul spent longer in Ephesus than anywhere else, and it would be very natural for him to send greetings to many people there. Paul speaks of Epaenetus, the first-fruits of Asia. Ephesus is in Asia, and such a reference, too, would be very natural in a letter to Ephesus, but not so natural in a letter to Rome. Rom_16:17 speaks about difficulties, in opposition to the doctrine which you have been taught, which sounds as if Paul was speaking about possible disobedience to his own teaching, and he had never taught in Rome.

It can be argued that the sixteenth chapter was originally addressed to Ephesus, but the argument is not so strong as it looks. For one thing, there is no evidence that the chapter was ever attached anywhere except to the Letter to the Romans. For another thing, the odd fact is that Paul does not send personal greetings to churches which he knew well. There are no personal greetings in Thessalonians, Corinthians, Galatians, and Philippians, all of them letters to churches he knew well; whereas there are personal greetings in Colossians, although Paul had never set foot in Colosse.

The reason is really quite simple. If Paul had sent personal greetings to churches he knew well, jealousies might well have arisen; on the other hand, when he was writing to churches he had never visited, he liked to establish as many personal links as possible. The very fact that Paul had never been in Rome makes it likely that he would try to establish as many personal connections as possible. Again, it is to be remembered that Prisca and Aquila were banished by edict from Rome. What is more likely than that, after the trouble was over, six or seven years later, they would return to Rome and pick up the threads of their business after their stay in other towns? And is it not most likely that many of the other names are names of people who shared in this banishment, who took up temporary residence in other cities, who met Paul there, and who, when the coast was clear, returned to Rome and their old homes? Paul would be delighted to have so many personal contacts in Rome and to seize hold of them.

Further, as we shall see, when we come to study chapter 16 in detail, many of the names--the households of Aristobulus and Narcissus, Amplias, Nereus and others--well suit Rome. In spite of the arguments for Ephesus, we may take it that there is no necessity to detach chapter sixteen from the Letter to the Romans.

But there is a more interesting, and a much more important, problem. The early manuscripts show some very curious things with regard to Rom 14-16. The only natural place for a doxology is at the very end. Rom_16:25-27 is a doxology, and in most good manuscripts it comes at the end. But in a number of manuscripts it comes at the end of Rom 14 ; two good manuscripts have it in both places; one ancient manuscript has it at the end of Rom 15 ; two manuscripts have it in neither place, but leave an empty space for it. One ancient Latin manuscript has a series of section summaries. The last two are as follows:

50: On the peril of him who grieves his brother by meat.

That is obviously Rom_14:15-23 .

51: On the mystery of the Lord, kept secret before his passion

but after his passion revealed.

That is equally clearly Rom_16:25-27 , the doxology. Clearly, these summaries were made from a manuscript which did not contain chapters fifteen and sixteen. Now there is one thing which sheds a flood of light on this. In one manuscript the mention of Rome in Rom_1:7 and Rom_1:15 is entirely omitted. There is no mention of any destination.

All this goes to show that Romans circulated in two forms--one form as we have it with sixteen chapters, and one with fourteen chapters; and perhaps also one with fifteen chapters. The explanation must be this. As Paul wrote it to Rome, it had sixteen chapters; but Rom 15-16 are private and personal to Rome. Now no other letter gives such a compendium of Pauldoctrine. What must have happened was that Romans began to circulate among all the churches, with the last two local chapters omitted, except for the doxology. It must have been felt that Romans was too fundamental to stop at Rome and so the purely local references were removed and it was sent out to the Church at large. From very early times the Church felt that Romans was so great an expression of the mind of Paul that it must become the possession not of one congregation, but of the whole Church. We must remember, as we study it, that men have always looked on Romans as the quintessence of Paulgospel.

FURTHER READING

Romans

C. H. Dodd, The Epistle of Paul to the Romans (MC; E)

A. M. Hunter, The Epistle to the Romans: The Law of Love (Tch; E)

W. Sanday and A.C. Headlam, Romans (Sixth edition, in two volumes, revised by C. E. B. Cranfield) (ICC; G)

Abbreviations

ICC: International Critical Commentary

MC : Moffatt Commentary

Tch: Torch Commentary

E: English Text

G: Greek Text

Barclay: Romans 3 (Chapter Introduction)

God's Fidelity And Man's Infidelity (Rom_3:1-8)

The Christless World (Rom_3:9-18)

The Only Way To Be Right With God (Rom_3:19-26)

The End Of The Way Of Human Achievement (Rom_3:27-31)

Constable: Romans (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Historical Background

Throughout the history of the church, from postapostolic times to the present, Christians have regarded Romans as having been one of the Apostle Paul's epistles.¹ Not only does the letter claim that he wrote it (1:1), but it develops many of the same ideas and uses the same terminology that appear in Paul's earlier writings (e.g., Gal. 2; 1 Cor. 12; 2 Cor. 8-9).

Following his conversion on the Damascus Road (34 A.D.), Paul preached in Damascus, spent some time in Arabia, and then returned to Damascus. Next he travelled to Jerusalem where he met briefly with Peter and James. He then moved on to Tarsus, which was evidently his base of operations and from which he ministered for about six years (37-43 A.D.). In response to an invitation from Barnabas he moved to Antioch of Syria where he served for about five years (43-48 A.D.). He and Barnabas then set out on their so-called first missionary journey into Asia Minor (48-49 A.D.). Returning to Antioch Paul wrote the Epistle to the Galatians to strengthen the churches that he and Barnabas had just planted in Asia Minor (49 A.D.). After the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), Paul took Silas and began his second missionary journey (50-52 A.D.) through Asia Minor and on westward into the Roman provinces of Macedonia and Achaia. From Corinth, Paul wrote 1 and 2 Thessalonians (51 A.D.). He proceeded to Ephesus by ship and then on to Syrian Antioch. From there he set out on his third missionary journey (53-57 A.D.). Passing through Asia Minor he arrived in Ephesus where he labored for three years (53-56 A.D.). During this time he wrote 1 Corinthians (56 A.D.). Finally Paul left Ephesus and travelled by land to Macedonia where he wrote 2 Corinthians (56 A.D.). He continued south and spent the winter of 56-57 A.D. in Corinth. There he wrote the Epistle to the Romans and sent it by Phoebe (16:1-2) to the Roman church.

The apostle then proceeded from Corinth by land clockwise around the Aegean Sea back to Troas in Asia where he boarded a ship and eventually reached Jerusalem. In Jerusalem, the Jews arrested Paul and imprisoned him (57 A.D.). He arrived in Rome as a prisoner and ministered there for two years (60-62 A.D.). During this time he wrote the Prison Epistles (Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon). The Romans freed Paul, and he returned to the Aegean area. There he wrote 1 Timothy and Titus, experienced arrest again, suffered imprisonment in Rome a second time, wrote 2 Timothy, and died as a martyr under Nero in A.D. 68.²

We know very little about the founding of the church in Rome. According to Ambrosiaster, a church father who lived in the fourth century, an apostle did not found it (thus discrediting the Roman Catholic claim that Peter founded the church). A group of Jewish Christians did.³ It is possible that these Jews became believers in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2) or at some other time quite early in the church's history. By the time Paul wrote Romans the church in Rome was famous throughout the Roman Empire for its faith (1:18).

Purpose

Paul wrote this epistle under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit for several reasons.⁴ He wanted to prepare the way for his intended visit to the church (15:22-24). He evidently hoped that Rome would become a base of operations and support for his pioneer missionary work in Spain and the western portions of the empire that he had not yet evangelized. His full exposition of the gospel in this letter would have provided a solid foundation for their participation in this mission.

As Paul looked forward to returning to Jerusalem between his departure from Corinth and his arrival in Rome, he was aware of the danger he faced (15:31). He may have written the exhaustive exposition of the gospel that we have in Romans to set forth his teaching in case he did not reach Rome. From Rome his doctrine could then go out to the rest of the empire as others preached it. Paul may have viewed Romans as his legacy to the church, his last will and testament.

Another reason for writing Romans was undoubtedly Paul's desire to minister to the spiritual needs of the Christians in Rome even though they were in good spiritual condition (15:14-16). The common problems of all the early churches were dangers to the Roman church as well. These difficulties included internal conflicts, mainly between Jewish and Gentile believers, and external threats from false teachers. Paul gave both of these potential problems attention in this epistle (15:1-8; 16:17-20).

Paul also wrote Romans as he did because he was at a transition point in his ministry, as he mentioned at the end of chapter 15. His ministry in the Aegean region was solid enough that he planned to leave it and move farther west into new virgin missionary territory. Before he did that, he planned to visit Jerusalem where he realized he would be in danger. Probably therefore Paul wrote Romans as he did to leave a full exposition of the gospel in good hands if his ministry ended prematurely in Jerusalem.

"The peculiar position of the apostle at the time of writing, as he reviews the past and anticipates the future, enables us to understand the absence of controversy in this epistle, the conciliatory attitude, and the didactic and apologetic elements which are all found combined herein."⁵

The great contribution of this letter to the body of New Testament inspired revelation is its reasoned explanation of how God's righteousness can become man's possession.

The Book of Romans is distinctive among Paul's inspired writings in several respects. It was one of the few letters he wrote to churches with which he had had no personal dealings. The only other epistle of this kind was Colossians. It is also a formal treatise within a personal letter.⁶ Paul expounded on the gospel in this treatise. He probably did so in this epistle rather than in another because the church in Rome was at the heart of the Roman Empire. As such it was able to exert great influence in the dissemination of the gospel. For these two reasons Romans is more formal and less personal than most of Paul's other epistles.

The Epistle to the Romans is, by popular consent, the greatest of Paul's writings. William Tyndale, the great English reformer and translator, referred to Romans as "the principle and most excellent part of the New Testament." He went on to say the following in his prologue to Romans that he wrote in the 1534 edition of his English New Testament.

"No man verily can read it too oft or study it too well; for the more it is studied the easier it is, the more it is chewed the pleasanter it is, and the more groundly [sic] it is searched the preciouser [sic] things are found in it, so great treasures of spiritual things lieth hid therein."⁷

Martin Luther wrote the following commendation of this epistle.

"[Romans] is worthy not only that every Christian should know it word for word, by heart, but occupy himself with it every day, as the daily bread of the soul. It can never be read or pondered too much, and the more it is dealt with the more precious it becomes, and the better it tastes."⁸

Message⁹

Throughout the history of the church Christians have recognized this epistle as the most important book in the New Testament. The reason for this conviction is that it is an exposition of the gospel of Jesus Christ. Luther called Romans "the chief part of the New Testament and the perfect gospel." Coleridge, the English poet, declared it to be "the most profound work in existence." Frederick Godet, the French commentator, described it as "the cathedral of the Christian faith."¹⁰

To appreciate the message of this book it will be helpful first to consider Paul's presuppositions. He based these, of course, on Old Testament revelation concerning cosmology and history.

First, Paul assumed the God of the Old Testament. He assumed God's existence and full deity. He believed that God is holy and just. He also held that God is the creator, sustainer, and sovereign ruler of the universe.

Second, Paul's view of man is that he is subject to God's government of the universe. Man has received a measure of freedom from God, so he can choose to pursue sin. However, if he does so, he is still in the sovereign hand of God. God can allow the consequences of his sins to have their effects on him both now and forever. Man is also in authority over the rest of the material creation (Gen. 1:28). What man has experienced, the material creation also has experienced and reflects as a result of man's action.

Third, Paul's view of history was that of Old Testament revelation. The important historical events for Paul were those in his Scriptures.

Adam was the first man. He rebelled against God's authority. The result was threefold: the practical dethronement of God in the minds of Adam's descendents, the degradation of humanity, and the defilement of creation. This is a very different view of history from what evolutionists and humanists take. Man has lost his scepter because he rebelled against God's scepter.

Two other individuals were specially significant in history for Paul as we see in Romans: Abraham and Jesus Christ. God called Abraham to be a channel of blessing to the world. Christ is the greatest blessing. Through Him people and creation can experience restoration to God's original intention for them.

These are Paul's basic presuppositions on which all his reasoning in Romans rests. Romans is not the best book to put in the hands of an unsaved person to lead him or her to salvation. John is better for that purpose. However, Romans is the best book to put in the hands of a saved person to lead him or her to understand and appreciate our salvation.

We turn now to the major revelations in this book. These are its central teachings, the emphases that distinguish Romans from other books of the Bible.

First, Romans reveals the tragic helplessness of the human race. No other book of the Bible looks so fearlessly into the abysmal degradation that has resulted from human sin. If you read only 1:18-3:20, you will become depressed by its pessimism. If you keep reading, you will conclude from 3:21 on that we have the best, most optimistic news you have ever heard. This book is all about ruin and redemption. Its first great revelation is the absolute ruin and helplessness of the human race.

Paul divides the ruined race into two parts. The first of these is the Gentiles who have the light of nature. God has given everyone, Gentiles and Jews, the opportunity of observing and concluding two things about Himself: His wisdom and power. The average person as well as the scientist concludes that Someone wise must have put the natural world together, and He must be very powerful. Nevertheless having come to that conclusion he turns from God to vain reasonings, vile passions, unrighteous behavior, envy, murder, strife, deceit, insolence, pride, and perverted conduct. Just read today's newspaper and you will find confirmation of Paul's analysis of the human race.

The other part of the ruined race is the Jews who, in addition to the light of nature, also had the light of Scripture. Paul observed that in spite of his greater revelation and privilege the Jew behaves the same way as the Gentile. Yet he is a worse sinner. Having professed devotion to God and having claimed to be a teacher of the Gentiles because of his greater light he disobeys God and causes the Gentiles to blaspheme His name. Paul concluded, "There is none righteous, no, not one" (3:10). "All have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" (3:23).

The second major revelation of Romans is the magnificence of the divine plan of salvation. This plan centers on Jesus Christ whom Paul introduced on the very first page of his letter (1:3-4). God declared to everyone that the Jesus of the Gospels is His Son by resurrecting Him.

Two words describe Christ's relation to the divine plan of salvation: manifestation and propitiation. The righteousness manifested in Him is available to people through His propitiation. God's righteousness is available to everyone because Jesus died as the perfect offering for sin. The righteousness we see in Jesus in the Gospel records is available to those who believe that His sacrifice satisfied God (3:21, 25).

We can also describe God's relation to the plan of salvation with two words: holiness and love. The plan of salvation that Romans expounds resulted from a holy God reaching out to sinful humanity lovingly (3:22, 24). This plan vindicates the holiness of God as it unveils God's gracious love (chs. 9-11).

Man's relation to the plan of salvation is threefold. It involves justification, the imputation of God's righteousness to the believing sinner. It also involves sanctification, the impartation of God's righteousness to the redeemed sinner. Third, it involves glorification, the perfection of God's righteousness in the sanctified sinner. In justification God lifts the sinner into a relationship with Himself that is more intimate than we would have enjoyed if we had never sinned. In sanctification God progressively transforms the sinner into the Savior's image by the power of the indwelling Holy Spirit. In glorification God finally restores the sinner to the place God intended for us to occupy in creation.

The creation's relation to the plan of salvation is twofold. God restores creation's king, man, to his intended position. Second, creation realizes all of its intended possibilities that sin has denied it.

Let us note next some of the lessons of this book. What did God want us to learn from it?

First, Romans calls us to measure ourselves by divine rather than human standards. We sometimes evaluate ourselves and one another by using the criteria that our age sets or that we set. However to know our true condition we must use the criteria that God sets. This standard reveals that we are all guilty before God. This is one of the great lessons that Romans teaches us.

Second, Romans calls us to live by faith rather than by sight. God did not come any closer to mankind in the incarnation of Christ than He ever had been. Yet in the incarnation the nearness of God became more obvious to people. In the resurrection the Son of God became observable as the Son of God to human beings. All the glories of salvation come to us as we believe God. Romans contrasts the folly of trying to obtain salvation by working for it with trusting God, simply believing what He has revealed as true.

Third, Romans calls us to dedicate ourselves to God rather than living self-centered lives (12:1). This is the reasonable response to having received salvation. We should give ourselves to God. God's grace puts us in His debt. Paul did not say that if we fail to dedicate ourselves to God we are unsaved. Rather he appeals to us as saved people to do for God what He has done for us, namely giving ourselves out of love. When we do this, we show that we truly appreciate what God has done for us.

On the basis of these observations I would summarize the message of Romans in these words. Since God has lovingly provided salvation for helpless sinners through His Son, we should accept that sacrifice by faith and express our gratitude to God by dedicating our lives to Him.

In conclusion let me suggest an application of the message of Romans.

In view of the greatness of the salvation that God has provided as Romans reveals, we, as Paul, have a duty to communicate this good news to the world (1:14-17; Matt. 28:19). We do this both by lip and life, by explanation and by example (8:29). Our living example will reflect death to self as well as life to God (6:13).

Constable: Romans (Outline)

Outline

I. Introduction 1:1-17

A. Salutation 1:1-7

1. The writer 1:1

2. The subject of the epistle 1:2-5

3. The original recipients 1:6-7

B. Purpose 1:8-15

C. Theme 1:16-17

II. The need for God's righteousness 1:18-3:20

A. The need of all people 1:18-32

1. The reason for human guilt 1:18

2. The ungodliness of mankind 1:19-27

3. The wickedness of mankind 1:28-32

B. The need of good people 2:1-3:8

1. God's principles of judgment 2:1-16

2. The guilt of the Jews 2:17-29

3. Answers to objections 3:1-8

C. The guilt of all humanity 3:9-20

III. The imputation of God's righteousness 3:21-5:21

A. The description of justification 3:21-26

B. The defense of justification by faith alone 3:27-31

C. The proof of justification by faith from the law ch. 4

1. Abraham's justification by faith 4:1-5

2. David's testimony to justification by faith 4:6-8

3. The priority of faith to circumcision 4:9-12

4. The priority of faith to the promise concerning headship of many nations 4:13-17

5. The exemplary value of Abraham's faith 4:18-22

6. Conclusions from Abraham's example 4:23-25

D. The benefits of justification 5:1-11

E. The universal applicability of justification 5:12-21

IV. The impartation of God's righteousness chs. 6-8

A. The believer's relationship to sin ch. 6

1. Freedom from sin 6:1-14

2. Slavery to righteousness 6:15-23

B. The believer's relationship to the law ch. 7

1. The law's authority 7:1-6

2. The law's activity 7:7-12

3. The law's inability 7:13-25

C. The believer's relationship to God ch. 8

1. Our deliverance from the flesh by the power of the Spirit 8:1-11

2. Our new relationship to God 8:12-17

3. Our present sufferings and future glory 8:18-25

4. Our place in God's sovereign plan 8:26-30

5. Our eternal security 8:31-39

V. The vindication of God's righteousness chs. 9-11

A. Israel's past election ch. 9

1. God's blessings on Israel 9:1-5

2. God's election of Israel 9:6-13

3. God's freedom to elect 9:14-18

4. God's mercy toward Israel 9:19-29

5. God's mercy toward the Gentiles 9:30-33

B. Israel's present rejection ch. 10

1. The reason God has set Israel aside 10:1-7

2. The remedy for rejection 10:8-15

3. The continuing unbelief of Israel 10:16-21

C. Israel's future salvation ch. 11

1. Israel's rejection not total 11:1-10

2. Israel's rejection not final 11:11-24

3. Israel's restoration assured 11:25-32

4. Praise for God's wise plans 11:33-36

VI. The practice of God's righteousness 12:1-15:13

A. Dedication to God 12:1-2

B. Conduct within the church 12:3-21

1. The diversity of gifts 12:3-8

2. The necessity of love 12:9-21

C. Conduct within the state ch. 13

1. Conduct towards the government 13:1-7

2. Conduct toward unbelievers 13:8-10

3. Conduct in view of our hope 13:11-14

D. Conduct within Christian liberty 14:1-15:13

1. The folly of judging one another 14:1-12

2. The evil of offending one another 14:13-23

3. The importance of pleasing one another 15:1-6

4. the importance of accepting one another 15:7-13

VII. Conclusion 15:14-16:27

A. Paul's ministry 15:14-33

1. Past labors 15:14-21

2. Present program 15:22-29

3. Future plans 15:30-33

B. Personal matters ch. 16

1. A commendation 16:1-2

2. Various greetings to Christians in Rome 16:3-16

3. A warning 16:17-20

4. Greetings from Paul's companions 16:21-24

5. A doxology 16:25-27

Constable: Romans

Romans

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Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: Romans (Book Introduction)

THE

EPISTLE OF ST. PAUL, THE APOSTLE,

TO THE ROMANS.

INTRODUCTION.

After the Gospels, which contain the history of Christ, and the Acts of the Apostles, which contain the history of the infant Church, we have the Epistles of the Apostles. Of these fourteen have been penned on particular occasions, and addressed to particular persons, by St. Paul; the others of St. James, St. Peter, St. John, and St. Jude, are called Catholic Epistles, because they are addressed to all Christians in general, if we except the two latter short epistles of St. John. --- The epistles of St. Paul contain admirable advice, and explain fully several tenets of Christianity: but an humble and teachable mind and heart are essentially requisite to draw good from this inexhaustible source. If we prepare our minds by prayer, and go to these sacred oracles with proper dispositions, as to Jesus Christ himself, not preferring our own weak judgment to that of the Catholic Church divinely inspired, and which he has commanded us to hear, and which he has promised to lead in all truth unto the end of the world, we shall improve both our mind and heart by a frequent and pious perusal. We shall learn there that faith is essentially necessary to please God; that this faith is but one, as God is but one; and that faith which shews itself not by good works, is dead. Hence, when St. Paul speaks of works that are incapable of justifying us, he speaks not of the works of moral righteousness, but of the ceremonial works of the Mosaic law, on which the Jews laid such great stress as necessary to salvation. --- St. Peter (in his 2nd Epistle, chap. iii.) assures us that there were some in his time, as there are found some now in our days, who misconstrue St. Paul's epistles, as if he required no good works any more after baptism than before baptism, and maintaining that faith alone would justify and save a man. Hence the other apostles wrote their epistles, as St. Augustine remarks in these words; "therefore because this opinion, that faith only was necessary to salvation, was started, the other apostolical epistles do most pointedly refute it, forcibly contending that faith without works profiteth nothing." Indeed St. Paul himself, in his first Epistle to the Corinthians, (Chap. xiii. 2.) positively asserts: if I should have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not charity, I am nothing. --- This epistle, like most of the following, is divided into two parts: the first treats of points of doctrine, and extends to the eleventh chapter inclusively; the second treats of morality, and is contained in the last five chapters: but to be able to understand the former, and to practise the latter, humble prayer and a firm adherence to the Catholic Church, which St. Paul (1 Timothy chap. iii.) styles, the pillar and ground of truth, are undoubtedly necessary. Nor should we ever forget what St. Peter affirms, that in St. Paul's epistles there are some things hard to be understood, which the unlearned and the unstable wrest, as they do also the other Scriptures, to their own destruction. (2 Peter chap. iii. ver. 16.) (Haydock) --- St. Paul had not been at Rome when he wrote this epistle, which was in the year fifty-seven or fifty-eight, when he was preparing to go to Jerusalem with the charitable contributions and alms, collected in Achaia and Macedonia, for the benefit and relief of the poor Christians in Judea, and at Jerusalem; and after he had preached in almost all places from Jerusalem even to Illyris, Illyrium, or Illyricum. See this Epistle, chap. xv. It was written in Greek. It is not the first in order of time, though placed first, either because of the dignity of the chief Christian Church, or of its sublime contents. --- The apostle's chief design was not only to unite all the new Christian converts, whether they had been Gentiles or Jews, in the same faith, but also to bring them to a union in charity, love, and peace; to put an end to those disputes and contentions among them, which were particularly occasioned by those zealous Jewish converts, who were for obliging all Christians to the observance of the Mosaic precepts and ceremonies. They who had been Jews, boasted that they were the elect people of God, preferred before all other nations, to whom he had given this written law, precepts, and ceremonies by Moses, to whom he had sent his prophets, and had performed so many miracles in their favour, while the Gentiles were left in their ignorance and idolatry. The Gentiles, now converted, were apt to brag of the learning of their great philosophers, and that sciences had flourished among them: they reproached the Jews with the disobedience of their forefathers to God, and the laws he had given them; that they had frequently returned to idolatry; that they had persecuted and put to death the prophets, and even their Messias, the true Son of God. St. Paul shews that neither the Jew nor the Gentile had reason to boast, but to humble themselves under the hand of God, the author of their salvation. He puts the Jews in mind, that they could not expect to be justified and saved merely by the ceremonies and works of their law, thought good in themselves; that the Gentiles, as well as they, were now called by the pure mercy of God: that they were all to be saved by believing in Christ, and complying with his doctrine; that sanctification and salvation can only be had by the Christian faith. He does not mean by faith only, as it is one particular virtue, different from charity, hope, and other Christian virtues; but he means by faith, the Christian religion, and worship, taken in opposition to the law of Moses and to the moral virtues of heathens. The design of the Epistle to the Galatians is much the same. From the 12th chapter he exhorts them to the practice of Christian virtues. (Witham)

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Gill: Romans (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO ROMANS

Though this epistle is in order placed the first of the epistles, yet it was not first written: there were several epistles written before it, as the two epistles to the Thessalonians, the two to the Corinthians, the first epistle to Timothy, and that to Titus: the reason why this epistle stands first, is either the excellency of it, of which Chrysostom had so great an esteem that he caused it to be read over to him twice a week; or else the dignity of the place, where the persons lived to whom it is written, being Rome, the imperial city: so the books of the prophets are not placed in the same order in which they were written: Hosea prophesied as early as Isaiah, if not earlier; and before Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and yet stands after them. This epistle was written from Corinth, as the subscription of it testifies; and which may be confirmed from the apostle's commendation of Phoebe, by whom he sent it, who was of Cenchrea, a place near Corinth; by his calling Erastus, the chamberlain of the city, who abode at Corinth, 2Ti 4:20, and Gaius his host, who was a Corinthian, Rom 16:23, 1Co 1:14, though at what time it was written from hence, is not so evident: some think it was written in the time of his three months' travel through Greece, Act 20:2, a little before the death of the Emperor Claudius, in the year of Christ 55; others, that it was written by him in the short stay he made at Corinth, when he came thither, as is supposed, from Philippi, in his way to Troas, where some of his company went before, and had been there five days before him: and this is placed in the second year of Nero, and in the year of Christ 56; however, it was not written by him during his long stay at Corinth, when he was first there, but afterwards, even after he had preached from Jerusalem, and round about unto Illyricum: and when he was about to go to Jerusalem, with the contributions of the churches of Macedonia and Achaia, to the poor saints there, Rom 15:19. The persons to whom this epistle was sent were Roman saints, both Jews and Gentiles, inhabiting the city of Rome; of which city and church; See Gill on Act 28:14; Act 28:15; by whom the Gospel was first preached at Rome, and who were the means of forming the church there, is not very evident Irenaeus, an ancient writer, says ^a, that Peter and Paul preached the Gospel at Rome, and founded the church; and Gaius, an ecclesiastical man, who lived in the time of Zephyrinus, bishop of Rome, asserts the same; and Dionysius; bishop of the Corinthians, calls the Romans the plantation of Peter and Paul ^b: whether Peter was ever at Rome is not a clear point with many; and certain it is, that the Apostle Paul had not been at Rome when he wrote this epistle, at least it seems very probable he had not, by several expressions in Rom 1:10; and yet here was a church to which he writes, and had been a considerable time; for their faith was spoken of throughout the world, Rom 1:8; and when the apostle was on the road to this city, the brethren in it met him, Act 28:15. The chief design of this epistle is to set in a clear light the doctrine of justification: showing against the Gentiles, that it is not by the light of nature, and works done in obedience to that, and against the Jews, that it was not by the law of Moses, and the deeds of that; which he clearly evinces, by observing the sinful and wretched estate both of Jews and Gentiles: but that it is by the righteousness of Christ imputed through the grace of God, and received by faith; the effects of which are peace and joy in the soul, and holiness in the life and conversation: he gives an account of the justified ones, as that they are not without sin, which he illustrates by his own experience and case; and yet are possessed of various privileges, as freedom from condemnation, the blessing of adoption, and a right to the heavenly inheritance; he treats in it concerning predestination, the calling of the Gentiles, and the rejection of the Jews; and exhorts to the various duties incumbent on the saints, with respect to one another, and to the world, to duties of a moral and civil nature, and the use of things indifferent; and closes it with the salutations of divers persons.

Gill: Romans 3 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO ROMANS 3

In this chapter are an answer to several objections which follow one upon another, relating to what the apostle had said concerning the equality of the Gentiles with the Jews; and various proofs out of the Psalms and Prophets, showing the general depravity and corruption of mankind, of the Jews as well as of the Gentiles; and the conclusion from all this, that there is no justification by the works of the law, but by the righteousness of God received by faith, of which a large and clear account is given. The first objection is in Rom 3:1, and is taken from the unprofitableness of being a Jew and a circumcised person, if that is true which is asserted in the preceding chapter; to which an answer is given, Rom 3:2, showing that though many things might be instanced in, in which the Jew had the advantage of the Gentile in external things; this might be mentioned as one for all, and taken sufficient answer, that the Jews had the oracles or word of God committed to their trust, by which they became acquainted with the will of God. The apostle foreseeing that another objection would arise upon this; what signifies their having the oracles of God, when these are not believed by them? prevents it by observing, Rom 3:3, that though some did not believe, some did, and as for the unbelief of others, the truth and faithfulness of God in his word were not made void by it; however false and deceitful men are, God is always true to his word, Rom 3:4, and which is confirmed by a passage of Scripture, cited out of Psa 51:4, hence arises another objection, that if the righteousness of God is commended and illustrated by the unrighteousness of man, then it would be unjust in God to take vengeance on men for their sins, Rom 3:5, which is removed with abhorrence, and answered by observing, that if there was any truth in it, the world could not be judged by God, as it certainly will, Rom 3:6, but still the objection is continued and strengthened, Rom 3:7, that if God is glorified through the sins of men, not only men ought not to be punished for them, but they should not be reckoned sinners, or as doers of evil things, but of good things, and be indulged in them; to which is replied, that this was the common calumny cast upon the doctrine of the apostle, and persons of such principles and practices are deserving of damnation, Rom 3:8. Having removed these objections, the apostle reassumes his former assertion, and supports it, that a carnal circumcised Jew is no better than a carnal uncircumcised Gentile; it being already sufficiently made to appear, that they are both under the power and guilt of sin; and as a further evidence of it, he produces several passages out of the book of Psalms, and out of the prophecies of Isaiah, which fully express the sad corruption of human nature, and especially of the Jews; and this account begins in Rom 3:10, and ends in Rom 3:18, and which account he suggests, Rom 3:19, carries in it such a full conviction of the truth of what he had said, that all men are under sin, that no one would be able to open his mouth in his own defence, but all must acknowledge themselves guilty before God: and then he proceeds to the conclusion he meant to draw from all this, that there is no justification of any before God by the deeds of the law; giving this as a reason for it, because the law discovered sin, but not a justifying righteousness, Rom 3:20, that is revealed in another way, by the Gospel, and not the law, though both law and prophets bear a testimony to it, Rom 3:21, which righteousness is described by the author of it, God; by the means through which it comes to the use and comfort of men, the faith of Christ; and by the subjects of it, them that believe; in the justification of which there is no difference, Rom 3:22, of which a reason is given, Rom 3:23, taken from the general state of men, as sinners, and bereaved of the image of God: the several causes, ways, means, and end of the justification of such persons are suggested; the moving cause is the free grace of God, the meritorious or procuring cause the redemption that is in Christ, Rom 3:24, and his propitiatory sacrifice, Rom 3:25, which is owing to the eternal purpose of God, whose end in it was to declare his purity, holiness, and justice; which end is repeated and enlarged on, in Rom 3:26, upon which the apostle asks, Rom 3:27, what is become of boasting in the creature? and answers himself by saying, it was excluded, not by the doctrine of works, but by the doctrine of faith, and particularly the doctrine of justification by faith in the righteousness of Christ; wherefore the conclusion stands firm and just, from the premises, that justification is by faith without the works of the law, Rom 3:28, and it is further confirmed, that Jews and Gentiles, with respect to their state and condition God-ward, are on a level; he is the God of the one, as well as of the other, Rom 3:29, and this appears by his justifying both in one and the same way, through faith in the righteousness of this Son, Rom 3:30, and the chapter is concluded by obviating an objection that might be made, that through this doctrine of justification by faith the law is made void, and is of no use, Rom 3:31, to which the apostle answers, that this is so far from being fact, that the law is established by it.

College: Romans (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION

I. ROMANS: ITS INFLUENCE AND IMPORTANCE

God's Word is a lamp to our feet and a light for our path (Ps 119:105), and no part of it shines more brilliantly than the book of Romans. The truth of God's Word sets us free (John 8:32), and Romans teaches us the most liberating of all truths. God's Word is sharp and piercing like a sword (Heb 4:12), and no blade penetrates more deeply into our hearts than Romans. Overall the book of Romans may be the most read and most influential book of the Bible, but sometimes it is the most neglected and most misunderstood book. The Restoration Movement has tended to concentrate especially on the book of Acts, which is truly foundational and indispensable. But Romans is to Acts what meat is to milk. We need to mature; we need to graduate from Acts to Romans.

In 1 Cor 15:3-4 Paul sums up the gospel as these three truths: Christ died for our sins, was buried, and was raised up again on the third day. The reality of the historical facts of the Savior's death and resurrection is stressed over and over in the book of Acts. Romans, however, is an exposition of the meaning of these facts. In the language of 1 Cor 15:3, Romans focuses not on "Christ died," but on the next three words: " for our sins ." Acts explains what salvation consists of and how we may receive it. Romans does the same, but carries the explanation to heights and depths that thrill and satisfy the soul, providing it with an experience that is at the same time intellectual, spiritual, and esthetic.

The unparalleled ability of Romans to convict sinners and to motivate Christians is well attested. The comment of Sanday and Headlam (v) has often been noted: "If it is a historical fact that the spiritual revivals of Christendom have been usually associated with closer study of the Bible, this would be true in an eminent degree of the Epistle to the Romans." Leon Morris (1) concurs: "It is commonly agreed that the Epistle to the Romans is one of the greatest Christian writings. Its power has been demonstrated again and again at critical points in the history of the Christian church."

The role of Romans in Augustine's conversion is well known. In his Confessions he tells how a discussion of Christian commitment with two of his friends brought him under strong conviction, filling him with remorse for his sins of sexual immorality and a sense of helplessness to overcome them. Later he and his friend Alypius went into the garden, taking along a copy of Paul's writings. Augustine went off by himself to weep over his sins. While doing so, he reports, "I heard the voice as of a boy or girl, I know not which, coming from a neighbouring house, chanting, and oft repeating, 'Take up and read; take up and read.'" He took this as a sign from God to open the book of Paul's writings and read the first passage that met his eyes. He quickly returned to where Alypius was sitting and the book was lying. When he opened it, the first words he saw were these from Rom 13:13-14: "Not in orgies and drunkenness, not in sexual immorality and debauchery, not in dissension and jealousy. Rather, clothe yourselves with the Lord Jesus Christ, and do not think about how to gratify the desires of the sinful nature." This experience and these words gave him what he needed to turn completely to Christ. He says, "No further would I read, nor did I need; for instantly, as the sentence ended, - by a light, as it were, of security infused into my heart, - all the gloom of doubt vanished away."

Godet (1) declares that "the Reformation was undoubtedly the work of the Epistle to the Romans." Morris (1) agrees: "The Reformation may be regarded as the unleashing of new spiritual life as a result of a renewed understanding of the teaching of Romans."

Insofar as the Reformation depends on the work of Martin Luther, this is surely the case. Luther confesses how in 1519 he had an ardent desire to understand the epistle to the Romans. His problem was the way he had been taught to understand the expression "the righteousness of God" in Rom 1:17. To him it meant the divine justice and wrath by which God punishes sin, which did not sound very much like gospel . "Nevertheless," he says, "I beat importunately upon Paul at that place, most ardently desiring to know what St. Paul wanted." Finally, by the mercy of God, he began to understand this expression in a totally different way, i.e., as the righteousness of Christ that God bestows upon the sinner and on the basis of which the sinner is justified. The effect on Luther was electrifying: "I felt that I was altogether born again and had entered paradise itself through open gates." This new understanding of this one verse - Rom 1:17 - changed everything; it became in a real sense the doorway to the Reformation. "Thus that place in Paul was for me truly the gate to paradise," says Luther ("Latin Writings," 336-337).

Luther's regard for Romans is clearly seen in this well-known paragraph from his famous preface to this epistle:

This epistle is really the chief part of the New Testament, and is truly the purest gospel. It is worthy not only that every Christian should know it word for word, by heart, but also that he should occupy himself with it every day, as the daily bread of the soul. We can never read it or ponder over it too much; for the more we deal with it, the more precious it becomes and the better it tastes ("Preface," 365).

These words, first published in 1522, were echoed almost verbatim by the English reformer William Tyndale, in his prologue to his 1534 English translation of the New Testament. He says, "This epistle is the principal and most excellent part of the New Testament, and most pure . . . gospel, and also a light and a way in unto the whole Scripture." He also recommends learning it by heart and studying it daily, because "so great treasure of spiritual things lieth hid therein."

The Swiss reformer John Calvin echoes some of Tyndale's thoughts in his own commentary on Romans (xxix): "When any one gains a knowledge of this Epistle, he has an entrance opened to him to all the most hidden treasures of Scripture."

Working indirectly through Luther's preface, the book of Romans had an effect on John Wesley similar to the way it influenced Augustine and Luther. In his journal Wesley recounts his own search for personal victory over sin and assurance of salvation based on trust in the blood of Christ alone. He tells what happened to him on May 24, 1738:

In the evening I went very unwillingly to a society in Aldersgate Street, where one was reading Luther's preface to the Epistle to the Romans. About a quarter before nine, while he was describing the change which God works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone for salvation: And an assurace was given me, that he had taken away my sins, even mine , and saved me from the law of sin and death ( Works , I:103).

Modern scholars and expositors seem unable to praise the letter to the Romans highly enough. Philip Schaff has said, "The Epistle to the Romans is the Epistle of the Epistles, as the Gospel of John is the Gospel of the Gospels" ("Preface," v). "This is in every sense the greatest of the Epistles of Paul, if not the greatest book in the New Testament," declares Thiessen ( Introduction , 219). Newell (375) says Romans is "probably the greatest book in the Bible." "If the apostle Paul had written nothing else, he would still be recognized as one of the outstanding Christian thinkers of all time on the basis of this letter alone," say Newman and Nida (1). This familiar praise comes from Godet (x):

The pious Sailer used to say, "O Christianity, had thy one work been to produce a St. Paul, that alone would have rendered thee dear to the coldest reason." May we not be permitted to add: And thou, O St. Paul, had thy one work been to compose an Epistle to the Romans, that alone would have rendered thee dear to every sound reason.

Godet adds, "The Epistle to the Romans is the cathedral of the Christian faith" (1).

Others add even higher praise. Batey (7) says, "Paul's epistle to the Romans stands among the most important pieces of literature in the intellectual history of Western man." "It is safe to say that Romans is probably the most powerful human document ever written," declares Stedman. Some might think this honor should go to the U.S. Constitution or to the Declaration of Independence. "But even they cannot hold a candle to the impact the Epistle to the Romans has had upon human history" (I:1-2). Boice avows: "Christianity has been the most powerful, transforming force in human history - and the book of Romans is the most basic, most comprehensive statement of true Christianity" (I:13).

Commentators often quote this statement from Coleridge: "I think St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans the most profound work in existence" ( Table Talk , 245). Many will certainly agree, but to Coleridge such profundity was not altogether a virtue. For him it meant that Romans "undoubtedly . . . is, and must be, very obscure to ordinary readers" (ibid., 245-246). Indeed, some think that the Apostle Peter may have been referring to Romans in 2 Pet 3:16. But at the same time, perhaps paradoxically, Newell is correct when he says (vii), "There is no more simple book in the Bible than Romans, when one comes to know the book, its contents, its message, its power."

Scholars praise Romans as the clearest statement of the gospel of salvation. As noted above, Luther called it "the purest gospel." Nygren agrees (3): "What the gospel is, what the content of the Christian faith is, one learns to know in the Epistle to the Romans as in no other place in the New Testament." Cranfield says Romans is "the most systematic and complete exposition of the gospel that the NT contains" (I:31). The Restoration scholar Moses Lard (xx) concurs: "It is the whole gospel compressed into the short space of a single letter - a generalization of Christianity up to the hight [sic] of the marvelous, and a detail down to exhaustion." In Stott's words (19), Romans is "the fullest, plainest and grandest statement of the gospel in the New Testament."

Scholars also praise Romans for its unparalleled presentation of the essence of Christian doctrine . In his preface to Romans (380) Luther says that in Romans we "find most abundantly the things that a Christian ought to know, namely, what is law, gospel, sin, punishment, grace, faith, righteousness, Christ, God, good works, love, hope, and the cross; and also how we are to conduct ourselves toward everyone." Thus it seems that Paul "wanted in this one epistle to sum up briefly the whole Christian and evangelical doctrine." Schaff declares it to be "the heart of the doctrinal portion of the New Testament. It presents in systematic order the fundamental truths of Christianity in their primitive purity, inexhaustible depth, all-conquering force, and never-failing comfort. It is the bulwark of the evangelical doctrines of sin and grace" ("Preface," v).

Modern writers agree. "The truth laid down in Romans forms the Gibraltar basis of doctrine, teaching, and confession in the true evangelical church," says Lenski (8). Moo says the Puritan writer Thomas Draxe described Romans as "the quintessence and perfection of saving doctrine." Moo agrees: "When we think of Romans, we think of doctrine" (I:1). Lard (xx) calls Romans Paul's "great doctrinal chart for the future." Newman and Nida (1) declare that "above all else, the appeal of Romans is its theology ."

Concerning its doctrinal content, MacArthur lists 49 significant questions about God and man that are answered by Romans, e.g., How can a person who has never heard the gospel be held spiritually responsible? How can a sinner be forgiven and justified by God? How are God's grace and God's law related? Why is there suffering? MacArthur points out that these key words are used repeatedly in the epistle: God (154 times), law (77), Christ (66), sin (45), Lord (44), and faith (40).

Which of these assessments is correct? Is Romans the crowning presentation of the Christian gospel ? Or is it the grandest statement of Christian doctrine ? Actually, it is both. Romans is the theology of the New Testament; it is also the definitive statement of the gospel. In this epistle doctrine and gospel merge, and the result is a spiritual feast for Christians.

Boice (I:10) advises that "it is time to rediscover Romans." Actually, it is always time to "rediscover" Romans, and down through the history of Christianity individuals have been doing just this. The results have been earth-shaking. It can and does happen over and over, in the lives of individuals, in congregations, in the Church at large. F.F. Bruce (60) has well said, "There is no telling what may happen when people begin to study the Epistle to the Romans."

II. THE AUTHOR OF ROMANS

The epistle to the Romans was written by the Apostle Paul (1:1). In the past a few critics challenged this, but without any real basis in fact. Today, as Cranfield says, "no responsible criticism disputes its Pauline origin" (I:2). Romans was quoted by the earliest Christian writers (Clement, Ignatius, Polycarp, Justin), and was attributed to Paul by name by Marcion in the mid-second century. Since the time of Irenaeus (late second century) writers have explicitly and regularly viewed it as Pauline.

Though composed and dictated by Paul, the letter was actually written down by a Christian scribe named Tertius, who inserted his own greeting in 16:22.

A. PAUL'S JEWISH BACKGROUND

It is not necessary to go into the details of Paul's life, except for a few facts that are important in view of the content of the epistle, which relates especially to the distinction between law and grace. One relevant fact is Paul's Jewish background, which he proudly avowed: "I am an Israelite myself, a descendant of Abraham, from the tribe of Benjamin," a "Hebrew of Hebrews" (11:1; Phil 3:5; 2 Cor 11:22). Though born in Tarsus, he was reared in Jerusalem (Acts 22:3), the capital of Judaism.

Paul's education included strict and thorough religious training in the contents of the Old Testament - especially the Law (Torah) - at the feet of Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). Gamaliel was one of the most famous and most revered of all rabbis. His knowledge of the Law was so great that he was practically identified with it, being given the title "the Beauty of the Law." A saying recorded in the Talmud declares, "Since Rabban Gamaliel died the glory of the Law has ceased." "Under Gamaliel," says Paul, "I was thoroughly trained in the law of our fathers" (Acts 22:3). "Thoroughly" translates kataÉ ajkrivbeian ( kata akribeian ), "according to exactness, strictness, precision."

Paul's zeal for God and commitment to his Law was total (Acts 22:3; Gal 1:14). He was a Pharisee (Acts 23:6; Phil 3:5), which he properly identified as "the strictest sect of our religion" (Acts 26:5). The glory of the Pharisees was the Law; they were devoted to akribeia in its interpretation and observance (Dunn, I:xl). Thus Paul not only knew the Law but also devoted himself to scrupulous obedience to its commandments (Acts 26:4-5; Phil 3:6).

This probably means that he was a legalist in the proper sense of that word, i.e., one who sought acceptance by God on the basis of his obedience to the Law. This is implied in the way he contrasted his pre-Christian life (Phil 3:6) and his Christian life (Phil 3:9). This is also the way Pharisees are generally pictured in the Gospels.

Paul's zeal for the Law was expressed perhaps most vehemently in his fanatical persecution of the earliest Christians, all converted Jews whom he no doubt regarded as traitors to God and his Law (Phil 3:6). See Acts 7:58; 8:3; 9:1-2; 22:4-5; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Tim 1:13.

B. PAUL'S CONVERSION TO CHRISTIANITY

The second relevant fact about the Apostle Paul is his conversion. The details need not be recounted here. What is important is that the one who converted him to Christianity was no human preacher, but was Jesus himself (Gal 1:15-16). Also, the gospel he preached was not taught to him by a human teacher; he received it by direct revelation from Jesus (Gal 1:11-12). The result was that Paul's conversion, his change, his turnaround, was complete. Whereas before he was totally committed to the Mosaic Law as a way of life and salvation, once converted he was just as totally committed to the gospel of grace.

As a Christian Paul set himself in complete opposition to everything he had stood for as a Pharisee. He now understood the way of law to be futile (10:3). He saw that his former legalistic approach to salvation was, as Murray says, "the antithesis of grace and of justification by faith" (I:xiii). Thus when Paul presents the classic contrast between law and grace in Romans, he speaks as one who knew both sides of the issue from personal experience and from the best teachers available. As Murray says, he is describing "the contrast between the two periods in his own life history, periods divided by the experience of the Damascus road" (I:xiv).

It is no surprise that Paul's preaching of the gospel and his condemnation of law-righteousness turned the Jews completely against him, even to the point that they tried to kill him (Acts 9:29; 13:45; 14:2, 19; 17:5-8; 18:12; 2 Cor 11:24-26). His opponents included "false brothers" (2 Cor 11:26), the Judaizers, or Jews who accepted Jesus as the Messiah but still clung to the Law of Moses.

In spite of all of this upheaval, Paul did not turn against the Jews as such. He still regarded them as his beloved brothers according to the flesh (9:1-3; 10:1), and as blessed by God in an incomparable way (3:1-2; 9:4-5). In fact, a major aspect of the teaching in Romans is an explanation and a defense of God's purpose for his Old Covenant people, the Jews (see especially chs. 9-11).

C. PAUL'S COMMISSION AS

THE APOSTLE TO THE GENTILES

The last detail about Paul's life that is relevant here is his call and commission to be the Apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 26:17). His appointment as an apostle (1:1) invested him with the full authority of Jesus Christ and with the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, so that his teachings are truly the Word of God (1 Cor 2:6-13; 1 Thess 2:13). When we read the book of Romans, we must understand it to be nothing less than this.

Also, Paul's appointment as the apostle to the Gentiles (1:5) completely governed his thoughts and deeds from that point on. As a Jew and a Pharisee, he had no doubt shared the typical Hebrew aversion to anything Gentile; and he had no doubt gloried in the Jews' exclusive position as God's chosen people. Thus when God revealed to him the mystery of the Gentiles - that it had been his plan all along to include Gentiles in the people of the Messiah (Eph 3:1-10), Paul was overwhelmed with awe and joy. He unhesitatingly opened his heart to the very people he had once despised. This was another complete turnaround in his life, and he devoted himself totally to his new mission.

Paul's role as apostle to the Gentiles had a direct bearing on his relationship with the Roman church and his letter to them. Paul tells us that he had often desired to visit Rome, in order to preach the gospel and have some converts there, "just as I have had among the other Gentiles" (1:13). But since there was already a church in Rome, God's Spirit directed him into other Gentile areas in Asia Minor and the Greek peninsula first (15:17-22). But now he has covered this territory with three lengthy tours of missionary service (15:19). Thus he is ready to launch out into a totally new area, namely, Spain; and his journey there will take him through Rome, as he announces in this epistle (15:23-24).

Throughout the epistle to the Romans, Paul writes with the full conciousness of his mission to the Gentiles and of the Gentiles in his audience. One point that he clarifies in the letter is the relation of the Gentiles to the Jews with respect to salvation.

III. TIME AND PLACE OF WRITING

Immediately after his baptism Paul began to preach Christ in Damascus (Acts 9:19-20), but soon went away into Arabia (Gal 1:17), which may have been the time he received his revelation from Jesus Christ (Gal 1:12). He went from there back to Damascus, then to Jerusalem (Gal 1:17-18) and elsewhere, and ultimately to Antioch (Acts 11:25-26).

From Antioch Paul launched his first missionary trip among the Gentiles (Acts 13:1-3), which was followed by two more. While in Ephesus on his third journey, "Paul decided to go to Jerusalem, passing through Macedonia and Achaia. 'After I have been there,' he said, 'I must visit Rome also'" (Acts 19:21). He shortly departed for Achaia (Greece) and arrived in Corinth, where he stayed for three months (Acts 20:1-3). This was approximately twenty years after his conversion, and ten years after the beginning of his first journey.

Corinth was the farthest point of his third trip, whence he retraced his steps back toward Ephesus. He stopped at Miletus instead, and traveled from there on to Jerusalem, with the goal of arriving by Pentecost (Acts 20:16-17). One main reason for the trip to Jerusalem was to deliver the money he had collected from the (mostly Gentile) churches in Galatia, Macedonia, and Greece, to help the poor (mostly Jewish) saints in Jerusalem (1 Cor 16:1-4; Rom 15:25-26). Though "compelled by the Spirit" to go to Jerusalem, he was apprehensive about what might happen to him there (Acts 20:22-23).

It was in the midst of this final journey, during the three months Paul spent at Corinth, that he most likely wrote the letter to the Romans. He was apparently staying at the house of Gaius (16:23), one of his converts at Corinth (1 Cor 1:14). The letter was carried to Rome by Phoebe, a Christian from the church in nearby Cenchrea (16:1).

The exact date of the writing of Romans is calculated in relation to the overall chronology of Paul's life and work. There is no unanimity on this chronology, though the differences of opinion are minor. Everyone agrees that the Apostle's stay in Corinth must have been in late winter and/or early spring, since he planned to set out from there and arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost. Most agree also that this would have been in the middle or late 50s. Thus Romans was probably written early in A.D. 56, 57, or 58.

IV. RECIPIENTS OF ROMANS:

THE CHURCH IN ROME

Rome was the largest and most important city in the Roman Empire in Paul's day. Its population was probably over one million. Of this number, it is estimated that forty to fifty thousand were Jews, with as many as fifteen identifiable synagogues (Dunn, I:xlvi; Edwards, 9).

How the church in Rome originated is not known. There is no real evidence that Peter founded it, contrary to a common tradition. Some say that Rom 15:20 shows this could not have been the case. Here Paul says that he does not intend to "be building on someone else's foundation." The fact that he did plan to visit Rome and work there implies that no apostle had been there yet (MacArthur, I:xviii; Moo, I:4).

One very common speculation is that the Roman church was probably started by Jews and proselytes from Rome who were in the audience that heard Peter's sermon on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:10), and who were among the converts baptized that day. Upon returning to Rome, they would have established the church there. If so, and this seems very likely, then the first Christians in Rome were converts from Judaism.

Another likely speculation is that Christians from other churches, perhaps some of Paul's own converts from his earlier work in Tarsus and Antioch and Asia Minor, were among those who started the Roman church and helped it to grow. Perhaps some of Paul's acquaintances named in Romans 16 were among this group. Such a scenario is highly probable, given the importance of Rome and the constant travel to and from that city.

Thus the church in Rome would have begun not as the result of some formal missionary effort, but by residents converted while traveling (e.g., Acts 2:10) and by Christians moving there from other places. Their own evangelistic efforts would certainly have focused on the synagogues of Rome, following the pattern of evangelism reflected in the book of Acts. This would have resulted in converts not only from Judaism but also from among Gentile "God-fearers" who were commonly attached to the synagogues (Dunn, I:xlvii-xlviii).

The epistle to the Romans is addressed "to all in Rome who are loved by God and called to be saints" (1:7). The main question about these saints is the relative number of Jews and Gentiles among them. In answering this question, scholars usually begin with one solid historical fact, and then draw conclusions based on inferences and a bit of speculation. This has led to the following scenario, for which there is considerable consensus among commentators today.

The one fact is that the Roman emperor Claudius issued a decree that expelled all Jews from Rome. This is recorded in Acts 18:2, and is also mentioned by the Roman historian Suetonius. The exact date of the decree is somewhat unclear, but the best calculation is A.D. 49. The reason for the decree is stated thus by Suetonius: "Because the Jews at Rome caused continuous disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, (Emperor Claudius) expelled them from the city" (cited in Fiensy, Introduction , 224). Though we cannot be certain about this, most scholars agree that "Chrestus" is just a mistaken spelling of "Christus," and that the decree had to do with Jesus Christ.

In what way would Christ be instigating disturbances among the Jews in Rome? It is inferred that this refers to conflicts among the Jews stemming from Christian evangelism in the various synagogues. Because there was a wide diversity among the Jews and synagogues in Rome, it is concluded that some were more receptive to Christianity than others, and that this must have led to disputes among them. The resulting unrest was apparently unpleasant enough for Claudius to order all Jews to leave the city. It is also assumed that his decree did not make a distinction between unbelieving and believing Jews; thus even the Jewish Christians had to leave, e.g., Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2). After the decree the Roman church thus would be composed almost entirely of Gentiles. (See Donfried, "Presuppositions," 104-105.)

When Claudius died around A.D. 54, the decree was no longer enforced, and Jews and Jewish Christians were free to return to Rome. Some think, however, that they were still forbidden to assemble publicly (Wiefel, "Community," 92-94). The results for the church would have been twofold. First, the problem with public assembly may have forced the Christians to set up a number of "house churches," a possibility that seems to be confirmed in Rom 16:5, 14, 15. Second, the returning Jewish Christians would find the Roman church dominated by the Gentile Christians, if not in number then certainly in power and influence (Wiefel, "Community," 94-96).

Thus the saints in Rome, to whom the letter is addressed, were almost certainly a mixture of Jewish and Gentile Christians, though there is no way to tell which group had the larger number. If the circumstances outlined in the above scenario are correct, however, it is safe to assume that there was tension if not conflict among the two groups. Wiefel refers to "quarrels about status" ("Community," 96). Bruce says, "It is implied in Romans 11:13-24 that the Gentile Christians tended to look down on their Jewish brethren as poor relations" ("Debate," 180). Dunn speaks of "at least some friction between Gentile and Jew" within the house churches, with the Jews being in a minority and feeling themselves vulnerable (I:liii).

What is obvious is that in the epistle Paul addresses both groups, with some passages being specifically directed toward the Jewish Christians and some toward the Gentile Christians (see Moo, I:10-11; Murray, I:xviii-xix). Some say the letter as a whole is directed mainly to the Jewish saints; others say it was mainly intended for the Gentiles.

Hendriksen is surely right, though, when he says that regarding the main point of Romans this whole question is really irrelevant, since it applies equally to both groups (I:23). All are sinners (3:9, 23), no one will be saved by law (3:19-20), and all are equal recipients of the grace that is in Christ Jesus (3:24; 4:11-12). Hendriksen stresses Rom 10:12-13, "For there is no difference between Jew and Gentile - the same Lord is Lord of all and richly blesses all who call on him, for, 'Everyone who calls on the name of the Lord will be saved.'"

V. THE OCCASION OF THE WRITING

What were the circumstances that prompted Paul to write his epistle to the Romans? We have already noted that he wrote the letter during his three-month stay in Corinth on his final mission trip. What sorts of things were going through his mind that led him to write it at that particular time?

We are fortunate that Paul reveals his mind to us in certain statements of his desires and plans in chapters 1 and 15. These statements show us what occasioned the writing of Romans.

One main consideration was Paul's immediate travel plans, as they related to his all-determining calling as apostle to the Gentiles (15:15-24). He refers to his "priestly duty of proclaiming the gospel of God, so that the Gentiles might become an offering acceptable to God" (15:16). For twenty years he had been preaching in the eastern and northeastern sections of the Mediterranean area, and had covered it well. "So from Jerusalem all the way around to Illyricum," he says, "I have fully proclaimed the gospel of Christ"; so now "there is no more place for me to work in these regions" (15:19, 23). Thus he decided to change his focus to the northwestern section, Spain in particular (15:24, 28). In his mind he was already planning his trip to Spain.

But first he had to go to Jerusalem (15:25-31). His purpose for doing this was to deliver the funds he had been collecting from the Gentile churches "for the poor among the saints in Jerusalem" (15:26). He wanted to do this personally, to make sure that the funds were properly received (15:28). To this end he asked the Roman Christians to offer two specific prayers for him (15:30-31).

First, he knew that he still had many enemies in Jerusalem among the Jews especially. He knew that some of these enemies had already tried to kill him. Thus he really was not sure what dangers he might be facing in Jerusalem. Nevertheless he was determined to go (Acts 20:22-23), so he requested that the Roman Christians "pray that I may be rescued from the unbelievers in Judea" (15:31). He was not afraid of losing his life; he just did not want his newly-formed missionary plans to be aborted (Acts 20:24; Rom 15:32).

Second, Paul was not really sure how the offering from the Gentile churches would be received by the Jewish saints in Jerusalem. There were still a lot of suspicions and misunderstandings between the two groups, mostly about the relation between the Old and New Covenants and the role of the Mosaic Law in the life of the Christian. Thus the money he was bringing to the poor in Jerusalem was not just an act of charity, but was also a symbol of unity between the two main factions in the church. Thus Paul was anxious that it might be received in the proper spirit, so he asked the Romans to pray "that my service in Jerusalem may be acceptable to the saints there" (15:31).

Thus Paul was ultimately bound for Spain, after an initial trip to Jerusalem. But there was a third item in his itinerary: an intermediate stop in Rome itself (Acts 19:21; 23:11), a place he had never been. So he announced to the Christians in Rome that on his way to Spain he would stop and visit them (15:23, 24, 28). This was something he had longed to do for many years and had even made plans to do (1:11, 13; 15:23), but had "often been hindered from coming to you" (15:22; cf. 1:13).

Paul had many reasons for wanting to visit the church in Rome. For one thing, he wanted to enlist their help for his mission to Spain. "I hope to visit you while passing through and to have you assist me on my journey there," he says (15:24). But he had other reasons that predated his plans for Spain. For example, he seems simply to have desired to visit with the Christians there: to have fellowship with them, to enjoy their company, to be spiritually refreshed by them (15:24, 32), and to be encouraged by them (1:12). After all, he knew quite a few of them personally (16:3-15).

Paul's principal longstanding reason for wanting to visit Rome, though, was his desire to preach the gospel there. "I am obligated," he says, "both to Greeks and non-Greeks, both to the wise and the foolish. That is why I am so eager to preach the gospel also to you who are at Rome" (1:14-15). By this means or by some accompanying means he would be able to "impart to you some spiritual gift to make you strong" (1:11). This would also enable him to "have a harvest among you, just as I have had among the other Gentiles" (1:13).

No wonder that Paul says he was praying "that now at last by God's will the way may be opened for me to come to you" (1:10).

These are the immediate circumstances that prompted Paul to write the epistle to the Romans. But a simple presentation of these facts does not in itself answer the question of exactly why he wrote the letter. What was his purpose for writing? What did he hope to accomplish by writing this particular letter? This is the subject of the next section.

VI. THE PURPOSE OF ROMANS

The question of Paul's purpose for writing the epistle to the Romans is very controversial; there is much disagreement about it. Everyone agrees on the facts described above relating to the occasion for the writing. The problem is that these facts have to be assessed in view of the contents of the main body of the letter, 1:18-15:13. The question is not just why he wrote a letter to the Roman church, but why he wrote this specific letter with this particular content. Why does he write "such a lengthy and involved discussion to a largely unknown congregation"? (Dunn, I:lv).

There are two basic approaches to this question. The older and more traditional approach is that the historical circumstances as described in the previous section were not particularly relevant with regard to Paul's decision to write the letter. Neither Paul's own plans nor the state of the Roman church presented him with a pressing need or occasion that required him to write. Thus unlike his other letters, Romans is more or less non-occasional. It is regarded rather as a kind of timeless theological essay on the essence of Christianity. As Sanday and Headlam describe this view, "the main object of the Epistle is doctrinal; it is rather a theological treatise than a letter; its purpose is to instruct the Roman Church in central principles of the faith, and has but little reference to the circumstances of the moment" (xl).

The more recent approaches to the purpose of Romans take the opposite view, that it is "a situational letter rather than a doctrinal treatise" (Jewett, "Argument," 265). Paul was not simply writing an essay detached from his circumstances, but was specifically addressing a particular situation that needed his attention at that time. Thus Romans is just as much an occasional letter as 1 Corinthians or Galatians.

Those who take the latter approach usually go in one of two directions. Some emphasize that Paul wrote the letter to fulfill certain needs of his own, relating to his trip either to Jerusalem or to Spain. Others say that Paul wrote mainly to meet the needs of the Roman church at that particular time.

It is possible, of course, that Paul had more than one purpose for writing Romans, as Cranfield says: "It is surely quite clear that Paul did not have just one single purpose in mind but rather a complex of purposes and hopes" (II:815). Dunn (I:lx) and Moo (I:20) agree.

A. ROMANS IS A DOCTRINAL ESSAY

Now we shall go into a bit more detail concerning the possibilities outlined above. The first view is that Paul was not addressing a specific situation but was writing a timeless doctrinal essay. In its most extreme form this view says that Romans is a complete systematic theology, a compendium of Christian doctrine. Shedd (viii) calls it " an inspired system of theology , . . . a complete statement of religious truth." Romans is so "encyclopædic in its structure" that one "need not go outside of this Epistle, in order to know all religious truth."

More recently Bornkamm has taken a similar view, describing Romans as Paul's "last will and testament" - "a summary of his theology in light of the impending danger in Jerusalem" (Donfried, "Presuppositions," 103). Bornkamm says ("Letter," 27-28), "This great document . . . summarizes and develops the most important themes and thoughts of the Pauline message and theology and . . . elevates his theology above the moment of definite situations and conflicts into the sphere of the eternally and universally valid."

Many writers agree that Romans was not occasioned by some immediate need or crisis but was a kind of doctrinal essay. Nygren says (4), "The characteristic and peculiar thing about Romans, differentiating it from the rest of Paul's epistles, is just the fact that it was not, or was only in slight degree aimed at circumstances within a certain congregation." Lenski (10-12) agrees.

Most who take this non-occasional view, however, say that it is an exaggeration to call Romans a full-blown systematic theology. "If Romans is a compendium of theology," says Morris (8), "there are some curious gaps." (See also Moo, I:1; Hendriksen, I:25; W. Williams, 19-20.) It is a doctrinal essay, to be sure, but one that is more focused and limited in its scope.

Just what is the focus of this doctrinal essay? The most common view is that it has to do with the doctrines of salvation, i.e., that Romans is a summary or synopsis of Paul's gospel . Morris says that Paul probably thought his three-month, pressure-free sojourn in Corinth was a good time to bring together the timeless teachings that had crystallized in his thinking during his twenty years as a preacher. Thus he sets forth "a summary of the gospel and its consequences as he understood them" (pp. 18-19). Cranfield likewise says it is likely that Paul "was conscious of having reached a certain maturity of experience, reflection and understanding, which made the time ripe for him to attempt, with God's help, such an orderly presentation of the gospel" (II:817).

Vincent summarizes this whole approach quite well when he says that Romans "is distinguished among the epistles by its systematic character. Its object is to present a comprehensive statement of the doctrine of salvation through Christ, not a complete system of christian doctrine" ( Word Studies , III:x). As Hendriksen says (I:25), "Romans is not really 'a complete compendium of Christian Doctrine.' If it had been Paul's intention to draw up such a document, he would surely have included far more material." The specific doctrine he deals with is one needed not just in Rome but by all people in all times: " the manner in which sinners are saved ." (See Edwards, 3.)

The idea that Romans is a kind of doctrinal essay focusing on the general doctrine of salvation is correct, in my opinion. However, I do not think it is wise to separate it too sharply from the occasion or circumstances discussed in the last section. I question W. Williams' approach, for example, when he says (19), "The Epistle to the Romans is a discussion of the relation of the Gentile world to God's plan of salvation," and in the next sentence says, "This discussion was incidental to the apostle's circumstances." In my opinion this is a false choice. It is an essay on salvation, but its purpose was definitely related to the circumstances at that time, as we shall see below.

B. ROMANS WAS OCCASIONED

BY PAUL'S IMMEDIATE NEEDS

The second major approach to the purpose of Romans is that it was occasioned by the various circumstances relating to Paul's immediate plans in relation to his mission. In other words, it was designed to meet needs that Paul felt in his own life at the time. As Jervell says, "Its raison d'être does not stem from the situation of the Roman congregation, but is to be found in Paul himself at the time of writing" ("Letter," 54).

The main idea here resembles the modern practice of churches requesting that prospective ministers send a tape recording of one of their sermons. In this case Paul takes the initiative and sets forth in writing a "sermon" or a lengthy presentation of his gospel. He does this because he needs to introduce himself to people who are not familiar with him or with what he preaches. Or, he does this because his enemies are spreading false rumors about what he preaches, and are misrepresenting his gospel especially as to what he says about Jew-Gentile relations. Thus Romans is not just a presentation but also a defense of Paul's gospel.

This is how Moo explains the purpose of Romans. The various circumstances that he faced "forced Paul to write a letter in which he carefully rehearsed his understanding of the gospel, especially as it related to the salvation-historical questions of Jew and Gentile and the continuity of the plan of salvation" (I:20). Bruce agrees that it was "expedient that Paul should communicate to the Roman Christians an outline of the message which he proclaimed. Misrepresentations of his preaching and his apostolic procedure were current and must have found their way to Rome" ("Debate," 182). (See Stuhlmacher, "Purpose," 236.)

Why was it crucial for Paul at this particular time to write such a presentation and defense of his gospel? The answer is that it was necessary in order to facilitate his immediate plans. For one thing, he was on his way to Jerusalem with the offering for the poor saints, and was apprehensive about how this would turn out. Thus some contend that in this letter Paul was rehearsing what he was going to say in Jerusalem in defense of himself and in an effort to seal Jew-Gentile unity. He sent the product to the Roman church in a letter, asking them to pray for him and the upcoming Jerusalem episode (15:30-32). Thus, says Jervell, Romans is Paul's "'collection speech,' or more precisely, the defense which Paul plans to give before the church in Jerusalem." He sends it to Rome "to ask the Roman congregation for solidarity, support, and intercession on his behalf" ("Letter," 56). Dunn calls this Paul's "apologetic purpose" (I:lvi; see I:xlii-xliii).

Though this is a fairly common view today, some object to it or at least doubt that it could be the only purpose for Romans (Moo, I:18). Thus other aspects of Paul's immediate plans must have elicited the letter. One of the most obvious is Paul's plan to visit Rome itself. Though he knew some of the Roman Christians, he had never been in Rome and would not know most of the people there. It must have seemed expedient, then, for him to write a kind of "letter of introduction" to himself, especially in view of the false rumors that were probably afoot.

This is how Morris understands it (16-17). Paul used his three-month interlude in Corinth "to write to the Roman Christians to let them know of his plan to visit them and to set down in order something of what the gospel meant." He wanted to give them "a clear but profound statement of the essential message of Christianity as he proclaimed it. This will show the Romans where he stands." MacArthur's view is similar: "Paul's letter to the church at Rome was, among other things, an introduction to himself as an apostle. He clearly set forth the gospel he preached and taught, so that believers in Rome would have complete confidence in his authority" (I:xix). (See also Stott, 34.)

Those who hold this view usually take it a step further, and say that Paul laid out and defended his gospel to the Romans as a means of enlisting their support for his Spanish mission. In a real sense Rome was just a means to an end, both in Paul's itinerary and in his missionary strategy. He needed them as a kind of "base of operations" for what he hoped to accomplish in Spain (Stott, 33). Thus "if Rome was to be his base, the Romans would need to be assured of his message and theological position" (Morris, 17). This is what Dunn calls Paul's "missionary purpose" for Romans (I:lv). This is a fairly common view. (See Cranfield, II:817-818; Jewett, "Argument," 266, 277.)

C. ROMANS WAS OCCASIONED BY NEEDS AT ROME ITSELF

As we have just seen, those who believe the writing of Romans was motivated by the immediate circumstances sometimes locate those circumstances in Paul's own personal needs. Others who take the occasional approach, however, believe that the situation in Rome itself is what Paul is specifically addressing in this epistle. Though he had not been there, he still would have been acquainted with the state of the Roman church. It was, after all, a famous church (1:8). Besides, Paul's Roman friends, such as Aquila and Priscilla (16:3), would probably have kept him informed especially of any problems that existed there (Sanday and Headlam, xl-xli).

Whatever the nature of those problems or needs, Paul wrote to resolve them. Since all of Paul's other letters were "addressed to the specific situations of the churches or persons involved," says Donfried, we must begin with the assumption that Romans "was written by Paul to deal with a concrete situation in Rome" ("Presuppositions," 103). This is what Dunn calls Paul's "pastoral purpose" (I:lvi-lviii).

1. The Need for Jew-Gentile Unity

What sorts of needs existed at Rome that would call forth from Paul's pen the most magnificent gospel tract ever written? Several possibilities are suggested, but the one most commonly held begins with the assumption that there was considerable tension in the Roman church between the Jewish Christians and the Gentile Christians. Thus the purpose of Paul's letter was to resolve this tension.

This view usually grows out of the speculations (discussed above) concerning the development of the Roman church following Claudius' decree expelling the Jews from Rome. With Jewish Christians being forced to leave Rome, the Gentile Christians became the dominant force; and this situation prevailed even after the former returned to Rome. This led to conflict between the two factions. This scenario is supported by the various references to Jews and Gentiles (Greeks) in Romans, by the discussion of the weak (Jews?) and the strong (Gentiles?) in 14:1-15:13, and by several references to unity and division within the church (12:16; 15:5; 16:17-18). Such texts seem to be evidence of a "basic division existing between the Jewish Christians and the Gentile Christians at Rome" (P. Williams, "Purpose," 64).

This view has been argued by Marxsen and more recently by Wiefel, who concludes that Romans "was written to assist the Gentile Christian majority, who are the primary addressees of the letter, to live together with the Jewish Christians in one congregation, thereby putting an end to their quarrels about status" ("Community," 96). Here is Edwards' summary (15-16):

Romans is addressed to the problems which inevitably resulted when Jewish Christians began returning to Rome following the edict of Claudius. We can imagine their trials of readjusting to churches which had become increasingly Gentile in their absence. Would Gentile believers who had established their supremacy during the Jewish absence, and for whom the law was now largely irrelevant, continue to find a place within their fellowship for a Jewish Christian minority which still embraced the law? Paul cannot have been unaware of such concerns.

In Dunn's words, "Paul wrote to counter (potential) divisions within Rome among the Christian house churches, particularly the danger of gentile believers despising less liberated Jewish believers" (I:lvii). (See also Stott, 34-36.)

2. The Need for an Apostolic Foundation

Another possible need being addressed by Paul is related to the circumstances of the origin of the church in Rome. It is inferred from 15:20 that no apostle was involved in its founding, nor as yet had even visited Rome. Thus Paul was concerned that the church did not have a solid apostolic foundation (see Eph 2:20), and he writes this epistle in order to provide that foundation. This is the view of Günter Klein ("Purpose," 39, 42), but Morris (11-12) gives reasons for doubting it.

3. The Need for Paul's Gospel

Another possibility (to which I subscribe) is that Paul did indeed recognize the need of the Roman church to hear his apostolic preaching and teaching, but not necessarily in a foundational sense. This view begins with Paul's sense of duty, based upon his special calling, to preach the gospel to everyone in the Gentile world (1:14), including those in Rome: "That is why I am so eager to preach the gospel also to you who are at Rome" (1:15).

But these people are already Christians. Why would Paul want to "preach the gospel" to believers ? Here is a point that is often missed: the gospel is more than just the initial evangelistic witness given to unbelievers with a view to their conversion. It also includes the deeper meaning and implications of the basic facts of salvation, which are things about which even mature believers can never hear enough. That Paul wanted to preach the gospel to the Christians in Rome means that he wanted to go deeper into the meaning of Christ's saving work "for our sins," unfolding for them the full power of the gospel in the Christian life and at the same time clearing up common misunderstandings that may arise through incomplete knowledge.

Paul's desire, of course, was to do this in person, and he had often planned to travel to Rome for this very reason. Up to this point, however, God's providence had prevented it (1:13; 15:22). Now he is once again planning to go to Rome, after his trip to Jerusalem with the offering. But based on his past experience and the uncertainty about what would happen to him in Jerusalem (Acts 20:22-24), at this point he could not be certain that he would ever reach Rome in person.

This led Paul to the conclusion that if he was ever going to preach the gospel in Rome, perhaps the only way he would be able to do so was in writing . Thus he takes the time, while staying in Corinth just before traveling to Jerusalem, to prepare a well-thought-out essay on the gospel as every Christian needs to hear it; and he sends it on to Rome in advance of his intended trip there. Thus it seems likely, says Campbell, that "the letter is the written equivalent of the oral presentation which Paul would have delivered to the congregation had he himself been present" ("Key," 258).

According to this view, then, Romans is not just a basic presentation of the gospel, written in order to provide the Roman Christians with a missing apostolic foundation. And as Nygren (7) rightly notes, "it is a misunderstanding of Romans to see in it a typical example of Paul's missionary preaching." This is contrary to those who think Paul was just introducing himself to the Roman church, hoping to win their support for his mission to Spain by rehearsing the gospel as he usually preached it. Stuhlmacher rightly notes that how Paul "preached and taught as a missionary cannot be simply inferred from the outline of Romans" ("Purpose," 242).

According to this view, then, the primary purpose for Romans is not related to some need within Paul himself (e.g., his concern for defending himself; his missionary plans); nor is it related to some negative situation in the Roman church (e.g., Jew-Gentile disunity). It is motivated rather by Paul's loving concern for his fellow-Christians at Rome, and his desire to bless their hearts and lives with this written version of the deeper aspects of the gospel of grace. This point is brought out very well by Hendriksen (I:24):

Paul, being an intensely warm and loving person, desires to go to Rome in order to be a blessing to his friends (Rom. 1:10, 11) and to be refreshed by them (15:32). Moreover, it is for this same reason that he, now that it is impossible for him to go to Rome immediately , communicates with the Roman church by means of this letter. He writes to the Romans because he loves them. They are his friends "in Christ," and by means of this letter he imparts his love to them . . . .

It is strange that this deeply personal reason . . . , a reason clearly brought out by the apostle himself, is often overlooked. At times the emphasis is placed entirely on theological motivation or on mission incentive: Paul wants to correct errors of the antinomians and/or wants to make Rome the headquarters for the evangelization of Spain. To be sure, these matters are important, but we should begin with the reason first stated by Paul himself in this very epistle.

D. CONCLUSION

We have surveyed the main reasons why Paul wrote the epistle to the Romans. It should be obvious that some of these reasons may overlap or be combined; so we need not focus narrowly upon just one of them. Jewett, for example, says the immediate reason was to resolve the Jew-Gentile tensions, but this was sought in order to gain a strong and unified backing for the mission to Spain ("Argument," 266). After summarizing the missionary, apologetic, and pastoral purposes, Dunn concludes that "all three of these main emphases and purposes hang together and indeed reinforce each other when taken as a whole" (I:lviii).

In my opinion, though, the dominant reason is the last one discussed above: Paul's desire to preach the gospel to the Romans, and his decision to do so in the form of an epistle. This is the factor that Paul stresses in the introductory section of the letter, where we would expect him to say what is closest to his heart. It seems inappropriate to give priority to ch. 15 on this matter, and to pass over what Paul himself chooses to mention first of all. Just because he tells the Romans about his plans in ch. 15 is no reason to assume that his purpose for writing to Rome is specifically or directly related to these plans.

We may conclude, then, that Romans is indeed an occasional letter, that it was occasioned by the need of the Roman Christians to hear Paul's gospel and by the circumstances that made it expedient for him to send it to them in written form at this particular time. Thus Romans is by design a clear presentation of the deeper implications of the gospel, written not for Paul's sake but for the sake of the church at Rome. The references to Paul's own plans and needs in ch. 15 are secondary.

At the same time, just because of the nature of the situation that caused Paul to write this epistle, the purpose for Romans includes the first view discussed above, namely, that it was intended to be a kind of doctrinal essay focusing on the meaning of salvation through the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ. As noted above, it is a systematic presentation of the gospel : not necessarily the gospel as proclaimed in an evangelistic situation, but the gospel as unfolded to mature Christians.

When this point is understood, we can see that the epistle to the Romans is intended not just for the saints in Rome in the middle of the first century A.D., but for all Christians in all ages. It is relevant for all since it deals with salvation from sin through God's grace. As Moo rightly says (I:21),

That Paul was dealing in Romans with immediate concerns in the early church we do not doubt. But, especially in Romans, these issues are ultimately the issues of the church - and the world - of all ages: the continuity of God's plan of salvation, the sin and need of human beings, God's provision for our sin problem in Christ, the means to a life of holiness, security in the face of suffering and death.

The circumstances contributing to the writing of this letter were far broader than the immediate situation in Rome and Paul's own immediate travel plans. They included Paul's own pre-Christian life as a Jew who sought acceptance with God on the basis of his own righteousness. They included Paul's twenty years of preaching to sinners of all types, Jews and Gentiles. They included his dealings with new Christians and new churches with all their weaknesses and problems. His experience and knowledge of human nature and human need were personal and comprehensive; thus the gospel of Romans is generic and timeless.

In most of the discussions of the purpose of Romans, a forgotten factor is the role of the Holy Spirit in the inspiration of Scripture. It is Paul himself who tells us that "all Scripture is God-breathed" (2 Tim 3:16). Whatever circumstances led Paul to compose his letter to the Romans, the choice to write and the message he wrote were not his alone. The Holy Spirit worked through Paul to produce this letter (see 2 Pet 1:20-21), and the Holy Spirit knows more than any man what is needed by every sinner and by every Christian seeking peace and power. In the final analysis it is the Spirit of God, and not just the Apostle Paul, who speaks to our hearts in the epistle to the Romans.

VII. THE THEME OF ROMANS

Almost everyone today rejects the idea that Romans is a compendium or summary of Christian theology as such. It is nevertheless generally recognized that the content of the epistle is doctrinal in nature. Its main body is an essay or treatise with a strong doctrinal emphasis and seems to be built around a particular theme. The question now is, exactly what is the theme of Romans? Several answers have been proposed.

A. JUSTIFICATION BY FAITH

The Reformation established a way of looking at Romans that still has considerable support among Protestants, namely, that the main theme of the epistle is stated in 1:16-17. It can be summed up in the familiar phrase, "justification by faith," i.e., justification or righteousness before God comes through faith alone. John Calvin (xxix) states succinctly that "the main subject of the whole Epistle" is "justification by faith."

Boers says this is the theme that "currently almost universally controls the interpretation of the letter" ( Justification , 77). This is surely an exaggeration, but the justification view is still very popular. Concerning the principal content of Romans, Nygren says (16), "From the beginning evangelical Christianity has spoken clearly on that point: justification by faith. That answer is correct." Defining "theme" as "central topic" rather than as exclusive topic, Hendriksen agrees that justification by faith, "spread out into 'justification by grace through faith'. . . , is clearly the theme of Romans" (I:29). Edwards (3) says that "the driving concern throughout is salvation - that righteousness comes as a free gift of God and is received by faith alone." Stott (35) says two themes are woven together in the epistle. "The first is the justification of guilty sinners by God's grace alone in Christ alone through faith alone, irrespective of either status or works."

Many scholars today have rejected this traditional approach. Though justification by faith is a main topic in Romans, says Boers (88), it "never becomes thematic." Too much of its subject matter simply does not relate to this subject, he says (78). Moo agrees (I:26-27). (See Stott, 24-31.)

B. THE RIGHTEOUSNESS OF GOD

Those who are not satisfied with justification by faith as the theme for Romans sometimes opt for one that is very similar, namely, the righteousness of God (1:17). Beker says this is "the key term for the letter as a whole" ("Faithfulness," 331). Jewett says the thesis of Romans is that the gospel is "the 'power of God' to achieve the triumph of divine righteousness (Rom. 1:16-17)" ("Argument," 266).

Since the righteousness of God is integrally related to justification by faith, the two themes are sometimes confused. This is because one aspect of the theme of divine righteousness is that the righteousness of God is the basis for the personal justification of individual sinners. This is the sense in which Nygren says that the righteousness of God - in the sense of righteousness from God - is "the fundamental concept" and "the very foundation thought" of the epistle (9, 14-15), even though he says the "principal content" of the letter is justification by faith (16).

But most of those today who say that the righteousness of God is the theme of Romans are using the expression in a broader, more comprehensive sense. For them it includes the idea of the divine righteousness as the basis for individual justification, to be sure. For example, Stuhlmacher says the theme of Romans is "the gospel of the divine righteousness in Christ for those who believe from among the Jews and Gentiles" ("Theme," 334, 337). But in Romans, they say, the theme is more inclusive than this. It includes God's righteousness as the basis not only of his dealings with individual believers, but also of his dealings with mankind in general and especially with the Jewish nation in the context of redemptive history.

The question raised by the indiscriminate offer of justification by faith to both Jews and Gentiles is whether God is being fair with the Jews, in view of all the special treatment he has already bestowed upon them and the special promises he has given them. Does the gospel's "no partiality" principle bring God's justice or righteousness into question? "What is at stake is nothing less than the faithfulness of God," says Beker ("Faithfulness," 330); and this is what Paul is dealing with especially in Rom 9-11. Stuhlmacher explains that the "righteousness of God" refers to "the entire redemptive activity of God in Christ from creation to redemption" ("Theme," 341).

Thus according to this view the theme of Romans is not just the salvation of man but the defense of God, with perhaps the greater emphasis falling on the latter. As Fiensy says (227), "Romans is then a theodicy or defense of God in light of the Jewish-Gentile problem in the church." Gaertner says that the kinds of questions Paul raises in Romans (e.g., 3:3; 3:5; 3:29; 9:14) inquire into the nature of God's dealings with sinners, especially with his fairness and faithfulness. Thus Gaertner labels Romans "the gospel of God's fairness" ("Fairness," 1:14).

C. THE EQUALITY OF JEWS AND GENTILES

A third view is that the theme of Romans is the equality of Jews and Gentiles in God's plan of salvation. This is currently a popular view. It stems mainly from the reconstruction of the origin and development of the Roman church as described earlier in this introduction. It goes hand in hand with the idea that the letter is intended to deal with certain specific circumstances existing in Rome, especially the apparent disunity between Jewish and Gentile Christians. It recognizes that "the entire letter to the Romans is . . . permeated with Jew-Gentile issues" (Fiensy, Introduction , 230).

In its most general form this view says that the main emphasis of Romans is the universality of the gospel: there is just one way of salvation for Jews and Gentiles alike. The transcendent gospel goes beyond the Jew-Gentile distinction. God's salvation is given to both groups equally, favoring neither and offering favor to both.

Boers is an example of this view. He says the consistent theme of the main body of Romans is "salvation of Jews and gentiles, and the relationship between them" ( Justification , 80). This theme is stated in Rom 1:16, "that the gospel is the power of God for all who believe, to the Jews first, and to the Hellenes" (80). That salvation is offered to the Jews first is important, but so is the idea that "there is no difference between Jews and gentiles" (81-82).

Dunn says, "It is precisely the tension between 'Jew first but also Greek' (1:16), which . . . provides an integrating motif for the whole letter." Paul's "repeated emphasis on 'all'" underscores the theme of universality. Even the emphasis on the righteousness of God "is primarily an exposition of the same Jew/Gentile theme," i.e., it is Paul's way of arguing that Gentiles are full recipients of the saving grace of God as much as Jews are (I:lxii-lxiii).

As noted earlier, Stott says two themes are woven together in Romans, the first being justification by faith. But since this applies equally to all people, it is the "fundamental basis of Christian unity." This provides the second theme of Romans, that "'there is no difference' now between Jews and Gentiles. . . . Indeed, 'the single most important theme of Romans is the equality of Jews and Gentiles'" (35-36).

Interpreters differ as to the nature of the circumstances that led Paul to emphasize the theme of equality. Some say the Gentile Christians at Rome did not want to fully accept the Jewish Christians, so Romans is basically defending the right of the latter to full status in the Kingdom of God. This is how Boers understands the "Jews first" theme, as noted above. Jewett says, "Nowhere else in Paul's writings are the concerns of Jewish Christians taken up in so systematic and friendly a manner, thus counterbalancing the prejudices of the Gentile majority of Roman Christians" ("Argument," 276). The development of this theme in Rom 9-11 "is relevant to the situation in Rome," says Bruce. Here Paul "warns the Gentiles among his readers not to despise the Jews, . . . because God has not written them off" ("Debate," 183-184).

On the other hand, some say the problem in Rome was the status of the Gentile Christians. W. Williams says (19-20), "The Epistle to the Romans is a discussion of the relation of the Gentile world to God's plan of salvation." More specifically, Romans is Paul's "defense of the rights of the Gentiles against the Jewish assumption that excluded them from the Church, and from the chance of salvation." Thus "the sole intent of the apostle was to maintain the equality of the Gentiles against the assumption of the Jews." Stendahl agrees that Paul's concern is the salvation of the Gentiles. Even the subject of justification serves the purpose of "defending the rights of Gentile converts to be full and genuine heirs to the promises of God to Israel" ( Paul , 2-4).

Either way the subject is approached, the main point is the same: the principal theme of Romans is to demonstrate the equality of Jews and Gentiles with regard to the saving grace of God.

D. SINNERS ARE SAVED BY GRACE, NOT LAW

All of the themes discussed above are certainly present in Romans, and all are important. All of them contribute significantly to the main theme. But I believe none of them as such is the main point Paul is communicating to us in the epistle. Rather than seeing 1:16-17 as the thesis statement for Paul's treatise, I see it more or less as the starting point leading up to the thesis, which is 3:28: "For we maintain that a man is justified by faith apart from observing the law."

In the most general sense Paul's thesis relates to the gospel , since his desire to preach the gospel in Rome (1:15) is what led him to compose the epistle as a written version of his gospel. In this sense Moo is correct: "What, then, is the theme of the letter? If we have to choose one - and perhaps it would be better not to - we would choose 'the gospel.'" Romans is simply "Paul's statement of 'his' gospel" (I:28).

But since the gospel is the good news about salvation, also in a general sense the theme of Romans is salvation . As Harrison says (7), "Salvation is the basic theme of Romans (cf. 1:16) - a salvation presented in terms of the righteousness of God, which, when received by faith, issues in life (1:17)." Or as Hendriksen says, the basic doctrine at stake (especially in 1:16-8:39) is " the manner in which sinners are saved" (I:25). And the manner in which sinners are saved, whether Jews or Gentiles, is the same: justification by faith.

But the theme of Romans is more precise than this. Yes, sinners are justified by faith, but this means they are not justified by works of law, which is the only alternative. It is just as important to include the negative statement in the theme as the positive one.

In actuality, then, the basic theme of Romans is the contrast between law and grace as ways of salvation. This contrast is seen especially in 3:28, which (literally translated) says, "For we maintain that a man is justified by faith apart from works of law." The contrast is stated succinctly in 6:14, "You are not under law, but under grace." This is the gospel, the good news of salvation. Certainly it is good news to know that God justifies us by faith in the saving work of Jesus Christ. But in a real sense it is also good news to know that we are not justified by law-keeping: a way of salvation which is not only futile but which sinners in their hearts know is futile, and which thus leads only to self-deception or to despair.

Commenting on Romans, Grubbs says, "The Gospel versus the Law is the one theme of which he [Paul] never loses sight in the elaboration of the details of this wonderful production" (9). Though this is a very common way of speaking - "gospel versus law" - it is not altogether accurate. The real contrast is grace versus law, and this message as a whole is the gospel.

Thus Paul's theme is indeed that we are saved by grace, not by law. Law is not a viable option as a means of salvation; the only way for sinners to be counted righteous before God is by grace. Yes, we are justified by faith, but not by works of law. Yes, the righteousness of God figures prominently in our justification, but in contrast to the righteousness of man. Yes, Romans does emphasize full equality regarding this way of salvation; Jews and Gentiles are saved the same way. Both are saved by grace and justified by faith as provided by the righteousness of God, but in contrast with every false way.

This contrast between law and grace as competing ways of salvation is not a matter of OT versus NT nor Old Covenant versus New Covenant, as if law were the way to be saved prior to Christ and grace is the way to be saved now that Christ has come. Also, the contrast between law and grace - THIS IS VERY IMPORTANT - is not simply the Law of Moses versus the grace of Jesus Christ. No sinner has ever been saved nor can be saved by the law that applies to him, whether it be the Law of Moses for Jews under the Old Covenant, or some other comparable set of God's commandments for anyone else in any other time. Every sinner who has been saved since the time of Adam has been saved by grace and not by law, and this will always be the case.

The problem that Paul addresses in the book of Romans is not one that confronts Jews only, nor Gentiles only. It is not a problem faced only by those who are under the Mosaic Law, nor only by those to whom the Mosaic Law does not apply. The problem being addressed is this: As a sinner, how can I be saved? It is a problem faced by Jews and Gentiles alike, and the solution is the same for both.

Perhaps even more significantly, the problem addressed in Romans is not one confronted only by unbelieving sinners. It is a problem that believers often wrestle with as well (e.g., the Judaizers). When we state the problem thus - "As a sinner, how can I be saved?" - we can break it down into two separate problems. First is the unbeliever's problem: "How can I become saved?" The answer is: by grace through faith, not by works of law. Second is the believer's continuing problem: "How can I stay saved?" And the answer is: by grace through faith, not by works of law.

This is why the epistle to the Romans has always been and always will be in a class by itself with regard to its impact on individuals and upon the church as a whole. Its basic theme is one that is always needed and always applicable, and one that will result in the highest praise to God the Redeemer once it is understood.

PREFACE TO VOLUME 2

The introductory issues regarding the book of Romans have been discussed in Vol. 1 of this work (pp. 21-55). Also, the outline for chs. 1-8 of Romans is included in that volume (pp. 55-58).

References to passages in the book of Romans itself are usually limited to chapter and verse data only. For my policy regarding quotations from other sources, see the note at the beginning of the bibliography.

I wish to express my thanks to my wife, Barbara, for her patience in accepting my writing schedule while this work has been in production. My thanks go also to College Press for inaugurating this project, and especially to College Press editor John Hunter for adjusting to a writer who suffers from incurable prolixity. Another special word of thanks is due to my employers at the Cincinnati Bible College and Seminary who encourage my writing in many ways, especially through their regular sabbatical policy.

Above all, thanks be to God for his saving grace, for his Holy Word, and especially for the letter to the Romans with its incomparable beauty and power.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following bibliography includes commentaries, books, and articles cited in the text and footnotes of this work. Citations include a minimum of information; the reader must use this list for full titles and bibliographical data.

When commentaries are cited, only the author's name and page number are given. When other sources are cited, usually just the author's name and an abbreviated title (in bold print below) are given.

I. COMMENTARIES

Barclay, William. The Letter to the Romans , 2 ed. The Daily Study Bible. Edinburgh: Saint Andrew Press, 1957.

Barrett, C.K. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . Harper's New Testament Commentaries. New York: Harper & Row, 1957; reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987.

Bartlett, C. Norman. Right in Romans: Studies in the Epistle of Paul to the Romans . Chicago: Moody Press, 1953.

Batey, Richard A. The Letter of Paul to the Romans . Austin: R.B. Sweet, 1969.

Black, Matthew. Romans , 2 ed. New Century Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989.

Boice, James Montgomery. Romans , 4 vols. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1991ff.

Brokke, Harold J. Saved by His Life . Minneapolis: Bethany Fellowship, 1964.

Bruce, F.F. The Epistle of Paul to the Romans . Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1963.

Calvin, John. Commentaries on the Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans . Tr. by John Owen. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1947 reprint.

Cranfield, C.E.B. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . 2 vols. The International Critical Commentary, new series. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1975 (1990 corrected printing).

DeWelt, Don. Romans Realized . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1959.

Dodd, C.H. The Epistle of Paul to the Romans . New York: Harper & Brothers, 1932.

Dunn, James D.G. Romans. 2 vols. Volume 38 in Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word Books, 1988.

Edwards, James R. Romans . New International Biblical Commentary. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1992.

Erdman, Charles R. The Epistle to the Romans: An Exposition . Philadelphia: Westminster, 1925.

Godet, Frederic L. Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . Tr. by A. Cusin. Ed. by Talbot W. Chambers. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1956 reprint of 1883 ed.

Greathouse, William M. Romans . Vol. 6 of Beacon Bible Expositions. Kansas City, MO: Beacon Hill Press, 1975.

Grubbs, Isaiah Boone. An Exegetical and Analytical Commentary on Paul's Epistle to the Romans . Ed. by George A. Kingman. 6th ed. Nashville: Gospel Advocate, n.d.

Harrison, Everett F. "Romans." In The Expositor's Bible Commentary . Volume 10. Ed. by Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976. Pp. 1-171.

Hendriksen, William. Exposition of Paul's Epistle to the Romans . 2 vols. New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980-1981.

Käsemann, Ernst. Commentary on Romans . Tr. by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980.

Lard, Moses E. Commentary on Paul's Letter to Romans . Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, n.d.

Lenski, R.C.H. The Interpretation of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans . Columbus, OH: Wartburg Press, 1945.

Lipscomb, David. Romans . Vol. I in A Commentary on the New Testament Epistles. 2nd ed. Ed. by J. W. Shepherd. Nashville: Gospel Advocate, 1965.

Lloyd-Jones, D.M. Romans: An Exposition of Chapters 3.20-4.25-Atonement and Justification . London: Banner of Truth Trust, 1970.

. Romans: An Exposition of Chapter 6-The New Man . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1973.

. Romans: An Exposition of Chapters 7.1-8.4-The Law: Its Functions and Limits . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1973.

Luther, Martin. Luther: Lectures on Romans . Ed. & tr. by Wilhelm Pauck. The Library of Christian Classics. Vol. XV. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1961.

MacArthur, John, Jr. Romans . 2 vols. The MacArthur New Testament Commentary. Chicago: Moody, 1991, 1994.

McGarvey, J.W., and Philip Y. Pendleton. Thessalonians, Corinthians, Galatians, and Romans . Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, n.d.

McClain, Alva J. Romans: The Gospel of God's Grace . Ed. by Herman A. Hoyt. Chicago: Moody Press, 1973.

Mitchell, John G., with Dick Bohrer. Right with God: A Devotional Study of the Epistle to the Romans . Portland, OR: Multnomah, 1990.

Moo, Douglas. Romans . 2 vols. The Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary. Chicago: Moody, 1991.

Morris, Leon. The Epistle to the Romans . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988.

Moser, K.C. The Gist of Romans , revised ed. Delight, AR: Gospel Light Publishing Company, 1958.

Moule, H.C.G. The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans . The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. Cambridge: The University Press, 1918.

Mounce, Robert H. Romans . Vol. 27 in The New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995.

Murray, John. The Epistle to the Romans . 2 vols. New International Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959, 1965.

Newell, William R. Lessons on the Epistle of Paul to the Romans . No publisher given, 1925.

Newman, Barclay M., and Eugene A. Nida. A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letter to the Romans . London: United Bible Societies, 1973.

Nygren, Anders. Commentary on Romans . Tr. by Carl C. Rasmussen. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1949.

Reese, Gareth L. New Testament Epistles: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Paul's Epistle to the Romans . Moberly, MO: Scripture Exposition Press, 1987.

Robertson, A.T. The Epistles of Paul . Vol. IV in Word Pictures in the New Testament. Nashville: Broadman, 1931.

Sanday, William, and Arthur C. Headlam. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . 2nd ed. The International Critical Commentary, old series. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, n.d.

Schlatter, Adolf. Romans: The Righteousness of God . Tr. by Siegfried Schatzmann. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995.

Shedd, William G.T. A Critical and Doctrinal Commentary on the Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1967 reprint of 1879 edition.

Shields, Bruce. Romans . Standard Bible Studies. Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, 1988.

Smith, Sherwood. Thirteen Lessons on Romans . Vol. 1 (1979); and Thirteen Lessons on Romans . Vol. 2 (1981). Joplin, MO: College Press.

Stedman, Ray C. From Guilt to Glory, Volume I: Romans 1-8 . Waco: Word Books, 1978.

Stott, John. Romans: God's Good News for the World . Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1994.

Williams, William G. An Exposition of the Epistle of Paul to the Romans . Cincinnati: Jennings and Pye, 1902.

Wuest, Kenneth S. Romans in the Greek New Testament for the English Reader . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1955.

II. MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS AND ARTICLES

Arndt, William F., and F. Wilbur Gingrich. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature . 4th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957.

Augustine, The Confessions of St. Augustine . Vol. XIV in The Works of Aurelius Augustine. Ed. by Marcus Dods. Tr. by J.G. Pilkington. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1876.

Balz, Horst. "ajpokaradokiva." Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament . Ed. by Horst Balz and Gerhard Schneider. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990. I:132-133.

Bartchy, S. Scott. MALLON CHRESAI: First Century Slavery and the Interpretation of 1 Corinthians 7:21 . Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series, #11. Missoula: Scholars Press, 1973.

Beker, J.C. "The Faithfulness of God and the Priority of Israel in Paul's Letter to the Romans." RomDeb , 327-332.

Boers, Hendrikus. The Justification of the Gentiles: Paul's Letters to the Galatians and Romans . Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994.

Bornkamm, Günther. "The Letter to the Romans as Paul's Last Will and Testament." RomDeb , 16-28.

Boswell, John. Christianity , Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980.

Bruce, F.F. "The Romans Debate -Continued." RomDeb , 177-194.

Campbell, William S. "Romans III as a Key to the Structure and Thought of the Letter." RomDeb , 251-264.

Carson, D.A. Exegetical Fallacies . Grand Rapids: Baker, 1984.

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. The Table Talk and Omniana of Samuel Taylor Coleridge . London: Oxford University Press, 1917.

Cooper, John W. Body , Soul, and Life Everlasting: Biblical Anthropology and the Monism-Dualism Debate . Grand Rapids: Baker, 1989.

Corson, John. " Faith Alone Involves Obedience, Too!" Christian Standard . (10/2/77), pp. 5-6.

Cottrell, Jack. Baptism : A Biblical Study . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1989.

. "Baptism According to the Reformed Tradition ." In Baptism and the Remission of Sins . Ed. by David W. Fletcher. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1990. Pp. 39-81.

. "The Biblical Consensus : Historical Backgrounds to Reformed Theology." In Baptism and the Remission of Sins . Ed. by David W. Fletcher. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1990. Pp. 17-38.

. " Covenant and Baptism in the Theology of Huldreich Zwingli." Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Theological Seminary, 1971.

. " Faith , History, and the Resurrection Body of Jesus," The Seminary Review (Dec. 1982): 28:143-160.

. Faith's Fundamentals : Seven Essentials of Christian Belief . Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, 1995.

. Gender Roles and the Bible: Creation, the Fall, and Redemption . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1994.

. His Truth . 2nd ed. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1989.

. Thirteen Lessons on Grace . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1988.

. What the Bible Says about God the Creator . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1984.

. What the Bible Says about God the Redeemer . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1987.

. What the Bible Says about God the Ruler . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1984.

Delling, G. "lambavnw, etc." TDNT, IV:5-15.

DeYoung, James B. "The Meaning of 'Nature' in Romans 1." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society , 31 (December 1988): 429-441.

Donfried, Karl P. "False Presuppositions in the Study of Romans." RomDeb , 102-125.

, ed. The Romans Debate . Revised & expanded edition. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991.

. "A Short Note on Romans 16." RomDeb , 44-52.

Erickson, Millard J. The Evangelical Mind and Heart . Grand Rapids: Baker, 1993.

Fiensy, David A. New Testament Introduction . The College Press NIV Commentary. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1994.

Foerster, Werner. "swvzw, etc." TDNT, VII:965-1024.

Friedrich, Gerhard. "eujaggelivzomai, etc." TDNT, II:707-737.

Fuller, Daniel P. The Unity of the Bible: Unfolding God's Plan for Humanity . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992.

Gaertner, Dennis. "Romans: Gospel of God's Fairness ." Christian Standard , part 1 (12/20/87), pp. 14-16; and part 2 (12/27/87), pp. 4-6.

Graber, Friedrich. "All, Many." The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology . Ed. by Colin Brown. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1975. I:94-97.

Gromacki, Robert. The Virgin Birth : Doctrine of Deity . Nashville: Nelson, 1974.

Gundry, Robert H. Sôma in Biblical Theology: With Emphasis on Pauline Anthropology . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987.

Harris, M.J. " Prepositions and Theology in the Greek New Testament." Appendix. The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology . Ed. by Colin Brown. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978. III:1171-1213.

Hobbs, A. I. " Conversion : What Is It, and How Produced?" In The Old Faith Restated . Ed. by J.H. Garrison. St. Louis: Christian Publishing Company, 1891. Pp. 254-274.

Hodges, Zane C. Absolutely Free . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989.

Jervell, Jacob. "The Letter to Jerusalem." RomDeb , 53-64.

Jeremias, Joachim. The Central Message of the New Testament . London: SCM Press, 1965.

Jewett, Robert. "Following the Argument of Romans." RomDeb , 265-277.

Kittel, Gerhard, and Gerhard Friedrich, eds. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament . Tr. & ed. by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. 10 vols. Grand Rapid: Eerdmans, 1964-1976.

Klein, Günter. "Paul's Purpose in Writing the Epistle to the Romans." RomDeb , 29-43.

Lamar, J.S. "The Ground of Man's Need of Salvation." In The Old Faith Restated . Ed. by J.H. Garrison. St. Louis: Christian Publishing Company, 1891. Pp. 98-119.

Lewis, C.S. The Abolition of Man . New York: Macmillan, 1947.

Luther, Martin. "Preface to the Complete Edition of Luther's Latin Writings ." In Vol. 34: Career of the Reformer IV . Luther's Works (American Edition). Ed. by Lewis W. Spitz and Helmut T. Lehmann. Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press, 1960. Pp. 327-338.

. " Preface to the Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans." In Vol. 35: Word and Sacrament I . Luther's Works (American Edition). Ed. by E. Theodore Bachmann and Helmut T. Lehmann. Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press, 1960. Pp. 365-380.

MacArthur, John F., Jr. The Gospel According to Jesus: What Does Jesus Mean When He Says, "Follow Me"? Revised ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994.

Maurer, Christian. " ." TDNT, VIII:557-558.

. "pravssw, etc." TDNT, VI:632-644.

Milligan, Robert. Exposition and Defense of the Scheme of Redemption . St. Louis: Bethany Press, n.d.

Moreland, J.P., and David Ciocchi, eds. Christian Perspectives on Being Human: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Integration . Grand Rapids: Baker, 1993.

Morris, Leon. The Apostolic Preaching of the Cross . 3 ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965.

Murray, John. The Imputation of Adam's Sin . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959.

Nash, Donald A. "A Critique of the New International Version of the New Testament." Cincinnati: Christian Restoration Association, n.d.

Oepke, Albrecht. "kaqivsthmi, etc." TDNT, III:444-447.

Reese, Gareth L. New Testament History: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Acts . 2nd ed. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1976.

Rengstorf, Karl Heinrich. "dou'lo", etc." TDNT, II:261-280.

Ridderbos, Herman. Paul : An Outline of His Theology . Tr. by John R. de Witt. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975.

Rueda, Enrique. The Homosexual Network : Private Lives and Public Policy . Old Greenwich, CT: Devin Adair, 1982.

Ryrie, Charles C. So Great Salvation : What It Means to Believe in Jesus Christ . Wheaton: Scripture Press/Victor Books, 1989.

Sanders, E.P. Paul and Palestinian Judaism . London: SCM, 1977.

Schaff, Philip. " Preface ." In John Peter Lange, Commentary on the Holy Scriptures: Romans . Tr. by Philip Schaff. Grand Rapids: Zondervan reprint, n.d.

Schneider, Johannes. "parabaivnw, paravbasi", etc." TDNT, V:736-744.

Schrenk, Gottlob. "iJerov", etc." TDNT, III:221-283.

Spicq, Ceslas. Theological Lexicon of the New Testament . Tr. by James D. Ernest. 3 volumes. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994.

Stendahl, Krister. Paul Among Jews and Gentiles and Other Essays . Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1976.

Stuhlmacher, Peter. "The Purpose of Romans." RomDeb , 231-242.

. "The Theme of Romans." RomDeb , 333-345.

Thielman, Frank. Paul and the Law: A Contextual Approach . Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1994.

Thiessen, Henry. Introduction to the New Testament . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1944.

Trench, Richard Chenevix. Synonyms of the New Testament . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1958.

Tyndale, William. "A Prologe to the Epistle of Paule to the Romayns." In The New Testament, Translated by William Tyndale, 1534 . Ed. by N. Hardy Wallis. Cambridge: University Press, 1938. Pp. 293-318.

Unger, Merrill F. Unger's Bible Dictionary . 3rd ed. Chicago: Moody Press, 1966.

Vincent, Marvin R. The Epistles of Paul . Vol. III in Word Studies in the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1973 reprint of 1887 edition.

Watson, Francis. "The Two Roman Congregations : Romans 14:1-15:13." RomDeb , 203-215.

Wesley, John. Journal from October 14, 1735, to November 29, 1745 . Vol. I in The Works of John Wesley. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, reprint of 1872 ed.

Wedderburn, A.J.M. "The Purpose and Occasion of Romans Again," RomDeb , 195-202.

Wiefel, Wolfgang. "The Jewish Community in Ancient Rome and the Origins of Roman Christianity." RomDeb , 85-101.

Wiens, Delbert. "An Exegesis of Romans 5:12-21." Journal of Church and Society (Fall 1969): 5:42-54.

Williams, Philip R. "Paul's Purpose in Writing Romans." Bibliotheca Sacra (January-March 1971): 128:62-67.

Young, Richard. Intermediate N.T. Greek : A Linguistic and Exegetical Approach . Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

BIBLIOGRAPHY TO VOLUME 2

The following bibliography includes commentaries, books, and articles cited in the text and footnotes of this work. Citations include a minimum of information; the reader must use this list for full titles and bibliographical data.

When commentaries are cited, only the author's name and page number are given. When other sources are cited, usually just the author's name and an abbreviated title (in bold print below) are given. Some sources are cited with an even more abbreviated reference (see list of abbreviations).

I. COMMENTARIES

Achtemeier, Paul J. Romans . Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1985.

Barrett, C.K. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . Harper's New Testament Commentaries. New York: Harper & Row, 1957; reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987.

Black, Matthew. Romans . 2nd ed. New Century Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989.

Bruce, F.F. The Epistle of Paul to the Romans . Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1963.

Brunner, Emil. The Letter to the Romans: A Commentary . Trans. H.A. Kennedy. London: Lutterworth Press, 1959.

Calvin, John. Commentaries on the Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans . Trans. John Owen. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1947 reprint.

Cottrell, Jack. Romans , Vol. 1. The College Press NIV Commentary. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1996.

Cranfield, C.E.B. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . 2 vols. The International Critical Commentary, n.s. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1975 (1990 corrected printing).

Denney, James. "St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans." In The Expositor's Greek Testament , ed. W. Robertson Nicoll, II:555-725. New York: George H. Doran, n.d.

DeWelt, Don. Romans Realized . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1959.

Dodd, C.H. The Epistle of Paul to the Romans . New York: Harper & Brothers, 1932.

Dunn, James D.G. Romans . 2 vols. Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word Books, 1988.

Earle, Ralph. Romans . Vol. 3 of Word Meanings in the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1974.

Edwards, James R. Romans . New International Biblical Commentary. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1992.

Fitzmyer, Joseph A. Romans: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary . The Anchor Bible. New York: Doubleday, 1993.

Godet, Frederic L. Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . Trans. A. Cusin. Ed. Talbot W. Chambers. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1956 reprint of 1883 ed.

Griffith Thomas, W.H. Romans: A Devotional Commentary . 3 vols. London: Religious Tract Society, n.d.

Haldane, Robert. An Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans . MacDill AFB: MacDonald Publishing, 1958.

Harrison, Everett F. "Romans." In The Expositor's Bible Commentary , Volume 10, pp. 1-171. Ed. Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976.

Hendriksen, William. New Testament Commentary: Exposition of Paul's Epistle to the Romans . 2 vols. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980-1981.

Hughes, R. Kent. Romans: Righteousness from Heaven . Preaching the Word. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 1991.

Käsemann, Ernst. Commentary on Romans . Trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980.

Lard, Moses E. Commentary on Paul's Letter to Romans . Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, n.d.

Lenski, R.C.H. The Interpretation of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans . Columbus, OH: Wartburg Press, 1945.

Lloyd-Jones, D.M. Romans: An Exposition of Chapter 9 - God's Sovereign Purpose . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1991.

Luther, Martin. Luther: Lectures on Romans . Ed. & Trans. Wilhelm Pauck. Vol. XV of The Library of Christian Classics. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1961.

MacArthur, John, Jr. Romans . 2 vols. The MacArthur New Testament Commentary. Chicago: Moody, 1991, 1994.

McGarvey, J.W., and Philip Y. Pendleton. Thessalonians, Corinthians, Galatians, and Romans . Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, n.d.

McGuiggan, Jim. The Book of Romans . Lubbock, TX: Montex Publishing Company, 1982.

Moo, Douglas. The Epistle to the Romans . The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996.

Morris, Leon. The Epistle to the Romans . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988.

Moule, H.C.G. The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans . The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. Cambridge: The University Press, 1918.

Mounce, Robert H. Romans . Vol. 27 of The New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995.

Murray, John. The Epistle to the Romans . 2 vols. New International Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959, 1965.

Newman, Barclay M., and Eugene A. Nida. A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letter to the Romans . London: United Bible Societies, 1973.

Nygren, Anders. Commentary on Romans . Trans. Carl C. Rasmussen. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1949.

Sanday, William, and Arthur C. Headlam. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . 2nd ed. The International Critical Commentary, o.s. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, n.d.

Shedd, William G.T. A Critical and Doctrinal Commentary on the Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1967 reprint of 1879 edition.

Smith, Sherwood. Thirteen Lessons on Romans . Vol. 1 (1979). Thirteen Lessons on Romans . Vol. 2 (1981). Joplin, MO: College Press.

Stott, John. Romans: God's Good News for the World . Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1994.

Vanderlip, George. Paul and Romans . Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, 1967.

Wuest, Kenneth S. Romans in the Greek New Testament for the English Reader . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1955.

II. MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS AND ARTICLES

Arndt, William F., and F. Wilbur Gingrich. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature . 4th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957.

Bilezikian, Gilbert. Beyond Sex Roles . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1990.

Büchsel, Friedrich. "krivnw [etc.]." TDNT . III:921-954.

Cottrell, Jack. Baptism : A Biblical Study . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1989.

. "Baptism According to the Reformed Tradition ." In Baptism and the Remission of Sins , ed. David W. Fletcher, pp. 39-81. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1990.

. "The Biblical Consensus : Historical Backgrounds to Reformed Theology." In Baptism and the Remission of Sins , ed. David W. Fletcher, pp. 17-38. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1990.

. Faith's Fundamentals : Seven Essentials of Christian Belief . Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, 1995.

. Feminism and the Bible: An Introduction to Feminism for Christians . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1992.

. " 1 Timothy 2:12 and the Role of Women." Four parts. Christian Standard , January 10, 1993, pp. 4-6; January 17, 1993, pp. 4-6; January 24, 1993, pp. 4-6; January 31, 1993, pp. 4-6.

. " Priscilla , Phoebe, and Company." Christian Standard , December 12, 1993, pp. 4-5.

. " Response to My Critics." Three parts. Christian Standard , November 21, 1993, pp. 5-6; November 28, 1993, pp. 4-6; December 5, 1993, pp. 4-6.

. Tough Questions , Biblical Answers. Part Two. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1986.

. What the Bible Says about God the Creator . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1983.

. What the Bible Says about God the Redeemer . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1987.

. What the Bible Says about God the Ruler . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1984.

Delling, Gerhard. " , ." TDNT . VIII:523-524.

. "tavssw [etc.]." TDNT . VIII:27-32.

Donfried, Karl P., ed. The Romans Debate , revised & expanded edition. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991.

. "A Short Note on Romans 16." RomDeb , 44-52.

Forster, Roger T., and V. Paul Marston. God's Strategy in Human History . Wheaton: Tyndale House, 1974.

Fürst, Dieter. " Confess ." In The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology , ed. Colin Brown, I:344-348. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1975.

Gaertner, Dennis. Acts . The College Press NIV Commentary. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1993.

Hoekema, Anthony A. The Bible and the Future . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979.

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Köster, Helmut. "tevmnw [etc.]." TDNT . VIII:106-112.

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. "skavndalon, skandalivzw." TDNT . VII:339-358.

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. "The Messiah and the People of God." Oxford University: D.Phil. dissertation, 1980.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

ABBREVIATIONS

AG Arndt and Gingrich, Greek lexicon

ASV American Standard Version

GC God the Creator, by Jack Cottrell

GRe God the Redeemer, by Jack Cottrell

GRu God the Ruler, by Jack Cottrell

KJV King James Version

LB Living Bible

LXX Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT)

MP McGarvey-Pendleton Romans commentary

NAB New American Bible

NASB New American Standard Bible

NEB New English Bible

NIV New International Version

NRSV New Revised Standard Version

NT New Testament

OT Old Testament

RomDeb The Romans Debate, by Karl Donfried

RSV Revised Standard Version

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the NT, ed. Kittel

TEV Today's English Version

For fuller titles and publishing information on books, see the Bibliography.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

College: Romans (Outline)

VIII. OUTLINE

PROLOGUE - 1:1-17

I. EPISTOLARY GREETING - 1:1-7

A. The Author Introduces Himself - 1:1

1. A Slave of Christ Jesus

2. Called to Be an Apostle

3. Set Apart for the Gospel of God

B. The Gospel and the Old Testament - 1:2

C. The Subject of the Gospel Is Jesus - 1:3-4

1. The Two Natures of Jesus

2. The Incarnation

3. Messiahship

4. The Two States of Jesus

5. The Resurrection of Jesus

6. The Son's Full Identity

D. Paul's Apostleship - 1:5

1. The Origin of Paul's Apostleship

2. The Character of Paul's Apostleship

3. The Focus of Paul's Apostleship

4. The Purpose of Paul's Apostleship

5. The Goal of Paul's Apostleship

E. The Recipients of Paul's Letter - 1:6-7a

F. The Blessing - 1:7b

II. PERSONAL REMARKS - 1:8-15

A. Paul's Prayers for the Romans - 1:8-10

B. Paul's Desires Regarding Rome - 1:11-13

C. Paul's Debt to the Romans - 1:14-15

III. TRANSITIONAL STATEMENT - 1:16-17

A. The Glory of the Gospel - 1:16a

B. The Power of the Gospel - 1:16b

C. The Scope of the Gospel - 1:16c

D. Faith and the Gospel - 1:16c

1. Faith Is a Condition for Salvation

2. Faith Is Not the Only Condition

E. The Heart of the Gospel - 1:17a

F. The Golden Text of the Gospel - 1:17b

PART ONE:

THE IMPOTENCE OF LAW AS A WAY OF SALVATION - 1:18-3:20

I. THE SINFULNESS OF THE GENTILES - 1:18-32

A. Universal Knowledge of God and His Law - 1:18-20

B. Universal Rejection of the True God - 1:21-25

C. The Utter Depths of Gentile Depravity - 1:26-32

II. THE SINFULNESS OF THE JEWS - 2:1-3:8

A. Jews Are Under the Wrath of God, No Less Than the Gentiles - 2:1-5

B. God Will Be Partial to No One in the Judgment - 2:6-11

C. Under Law, the Criterion of Judgment Is Obedience Alone- 2:12-16

D. Jews Who Look to the Law for Salvation Are Condemned by Their Own Disobedience - 2:17-24

E. True Jewishness Is Identified Not by Circumcision but by the Inward State of the Heart - 2:25-29

F. Such Equal Treatment of Jews and Gentiles Does Not Nullify But Rather Magnifies God's Righteousness - 3:1-8

III. UNIVERSAL SINFULNESS AND HOPELESSNESS UNDER LAW - 3:9-20

PART TWO:

THE ALL-SUFFICIENCY OF GRACE AS A WAY OF SALVATION - 3:21-5:21

I. GRACE AS JUSTIFICATION BY CHRIST'S BLOOD THROUGH FAITH - 3:21-31

A. Righteousness Through Faith Is Now Fully Revealed - 3:21-23

B. Sinners Are Justified by the Blood of Christ - 3:24-26

C. Sinners Are Justified by Faith Apart from Works of Law - 3:27-28

D. The Way of Grace Is Available to All - 3:29-30

E. Grace Lets Law Do Its Proper Work - 3:31

II. ABRAHAM: PARADIGM OF GRACE - 4:1-25

A. Abraham Was Justified by Faith Apart from Works - 4:1-5

B. David Explains and Confirms Justification by Faith Apart from Works - 4:6-8

C. Membership in Abraham's Family Is by Faith, Not by Circumcision - 4:9-12

D. The Inheritance Promised to Abraham Comes by Faith, Not by Law - 4:13-17a

E. Faith Means Giving Glory to God and Believing His Promises - 4:17b-22

F. Those Who Believe Like Abraham Are Justified Like Abraham - 4:23-25

III. GRACE AND ASSURANCE - 5:1-21

A. Assurance of Personal Salvation - 5:1-11

1. Justification by Faith Is the Key to Assurance - 5:1-2

2. Tribulations of Believers Do Not Nullify Assurance - 5:3-5

3. Christ Died for Us While We Were Still Sinners - 5:6-8

4. Our Hope Is Even More Secure Now That We Are His Friends - 5:9-11

B. The All-Sufficiency of the Death of Christ - 5:12-21

1. One Sin of One Man (Adam) Brought Sin and Death to All - 5:12-14

2. Christ and His Sacrifice Are Greater Than Adam and His Sin - 5:15-17

3. Christ's Cross Completely Cancels the Results of Adam's Sin - 5:18-19

4. Grace Triumphs over Sin and Death - 5:20-21

PART THREE:

THE ALL-SUFFICIENCY OF GRACE GIVES VICTORY OVER SIN - 6:1-8:39

I. OBJECTIONS TO GRACE BASED ON A FEAR OF ANTINOMIANISM - 6:1-7:13

A. Does Grace Make Sin Irrelevant? NO! - 6:1-14

B. Does Freedom from Law Mean We Are Free to Sin? NO!- 6:15-7:6

1. We Are Slaves to God - 6:15-23

2. We Obey God from Our Hearts - 7:1-6

C. Does Grace Mean That Law Is Bad? NO! - 7:7-13

II. GRACE GIVES VICTORY OVER SIN - 7:14-8:13

A. The Christian Continues to Struggle Against Sin - 7:14-25

1. The Nature of the Struggle - 7:14-20

2. The Source of the Struggle - 7:21-25

B. Victory over Sin Comes Through the Holy Spirit - 8:1-13

1. God Frees Us from Sin's Penalty and Power - 8:1-4

2. Sin and Death Are Defeated in Us Through the Holy Spirit - 8:5-13

III. THE ASSURANCE OF FINAL AND TOTAL VICTORY OVER THE FALLEN WORLD - 8:14-39

A. The Holy Spirit Marks Us as Sons and Heirs - 8:14-17

B. The Redeemed Cosmos Is Our Inheritance - 8:18-25

C. God Promises to Bring His Family Through Earthly Trials - 8:26-30

D. God's Gracious Love Gives Us Unshakable Assurance - 8:31-39

PART FOUR:

THE FAITHFULNESS OF GOD

IN HIS DEALINGS WITH THE JEWS - 9:1-11:36

I. THE PROBLEM OF ISRAEL: THE AGONY AND THE ECSTASY OF THE JEWISH NATION - 9:1-5

A. Israel's Agony: They Are Accursed - 9:1-3

B. Israel's Ecstasy: They Are Recipients of Unspeakably Glorious Privileges - 9:4-5

II. THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN ETHNIC AND SPIRITUAL ISRAEL - 9:6-29

A. Israel's Situation and God's Faithfulness - 9:6-13

1. God's Word Concerning Israel Has Not Failed - 9:6a

2. The Key to the Puzzle: the Existence of Two Israels - 9:6b

3. Ethnic Israel Exists by God's Sovereign Choice - 9:7-13

a. The Choice of Isaac - 9:7-9

b. The Choice of Jacob - 9:10-13

B. God's Right to Choose and Use People without Saving Them - 9:14-18

1. God's Righteousness Is Challenged - 9:14

2. God's Sovereignty in Election for Service - 9:15-16

3. God's Purposes Can Be Served by the Unsaved - 9:17-18

C. God Used Ethnic Israel to Produce Spiritual Israel - 9:19-29

1. The Objection - 9:19

2. Paul's Initial Rebuke of the Objector's Attitude - 9:20-21

3. Beyond Ethnic Israel to Spiritual Israel - 9:22-24

a. The Calvinist View

b. Seeing Paul Through Non-Calvinist Eyes

4. Prophetic Confirmation of God's Purpose - 9:25-29

III. ISRAEL'S CHOICE OF LAW RATHER THAN GRACE 9:30-10:21

A. Personal Righteousness Versus the Righteousness of God- 9:30-10:3

1. The Reason for the Gentiles' Acceptance - 9:30

2. The Reason for the Jews' Lostness - 9:31-33

3. The Jews' Rejection of God's Righteousness - 10:1-3

B. Christ Alone Is the Source of Saving Righteousness - 10:4-13

1. An Either-Or Choice: Works-Righteousness, or Faith in Christ - 10:4

2. The Futility of Law-Righteousness - 10:5

3. Saving Righteousness Comes through Trusting Christ's Works, Not Our Own - 10:6-10

4. God's Righteousness Is Available Equally to Jews and Gentiles - 10:11-13

C. The Jews Have Not Believed in Christ, and Their Unbelief Is Inexcusable - 10:14-21

1. The Necessary Prerequisites to Saving Faith - 10:14-15

2. Most Jews Have Not Believed the Gospel Message - 10:16

3. The Jews' Problem Is Not Ignorance but Stubbornness of Will - 10:17-21

IV. THE SALVATION OF GOD'S TRUE ISRAEL - 11:1-32

A. God's True Israel Is the Remnant Chosen by Grace - 11:1-6

1. God Has Not Rejected His People - 11:1-2a

2. God Had a Remnant of Believers in the OT - 11:2b-4

3. Those under Grace Are God's New Covenant Israel - 11:5-6

B. Unbelieving Israel Has Been Hardened - 11:7-10

C. The Hardening of Unbelieving Israel Becomes a Blessing

for Both the Gentiles and the Jews - 11:11-16

D. The Olive Tree: A Metaphor of Judgment and Hope - 11:17-24

1. Words of Warning to Gentile Christians - 11:17-22

2. Words of Hope for Hardened Jews - 11:23-24

E. God's Plan for Israel's Salvation - 11:25-32

1. The Mystery of Israel's Salvation - 11:25-27

2. God's Continuing Love for Israel - 11:28-29

3. God's Ultimate Purpose Is Mercy - 11:30-32

V. DOXOLOGY: GOD'S WAY IS RIGHT - 11:33-36

PART FIVE:

LIVING THE SANCTIFIED LIFE - 12:1-15:13

I. A CATALOGUE OF VIRTUES - 12:1-13:14

A. Grace Demands a Transformed Life - 12:1-2

B. Using the Gifts of Grace for Unselfish Service - 12:3-8

C. Miscellaneous Moral Teaching - 12:9-16

D. Personal Vengeance Is Forbidden - 12:17-21

E. The Relation between Citizens and Government - 13:1-7

F. The Relation between Love and Law - 13:8-10

G. Walking in the Light - 13:11-14

II. CHRISTIAN LIBERTY IN MATTERS OF OPINION - 14:1-15:13

A. Do Not Judge Others in Matters of Opinion - 14:1-12

1. We Should Accept All Whom God Has Accepted - 14:1-3

2. We Answer to Our Lord and Not to Each Other - 14:4-9

3. Each of Us Will Be Judged by God - 14:10-12

B. The Stewardship of Christian Liberty 14:13-23

1. We Must Sacrifice Our Liberty for the Sake of the Weak - 14:13-15

2. Do Not Allow What You Consider Good to Be Spoken of as Evil - 14:16-18

3. We Must Do Only Those Things Which Build Others Up - 14:19-21

4. Each Christian Must Be True to His Own Convictions - 14:22-23

C. Living in Unity and Hope - 15:1-13

1. Selfless Service Produces a Unified Witness - 15:1-6

2. Through Christ's Selfless Service, Jews and Gentiles Glorify God Together - 15:7-12

3. A Prayer That All Believers May Abound in Hope - 15:13

PART SIX:

PERSONAL MESSAGES FROM PAUL - 15:14-16:27

I. PAUL'S MINISTRY AS THE APOSTLE TO THE GENTILES - 15:14-33

A. Reflections on His Past Service - 15:14-22

B. His Plans for the Future - 15:23-29

C. His Request for Prayer - 15:30-33

II. PAUL AND HIS FELLOW WORKERS - 16:1-24

A. Commendation of Phoebe - 16:1-2

B. Greetings to Individual Acquaintances - 16:3-16

C. Warnings against False Teachers - 16:17-20

D. Greetings from Paul's Companions - 16:21-24

III. CONCLUDING DOXOLOGY - 16:25-27

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV