Flesh

in the Old Testament denotes (1) a particular part of the body of man and animals (Gen. 2:21; 41:2; Ps. 102:5, marg.); (2) the whole body (Ps. 16:9); (3) all living things having flesh, and particularly humanity as a whole (Gen. 6:12, 13); (4) mutability and weakness (2 Chr. 32:8; comp. Isa. 31:3; Ps. 78:39). As suggesting the idea of softness it is used in the expression "heart of flesh" (Ezek. 11:19). The expression "my flesh and bone" (Judg. 9:2; Isa. 58:7) denotes relationship.

In the New Testament, besides these it is also used to denote the sinful element of human nature as opposed to the "Spirit" (Rom. 6:19; Matt. 16:17). Being "in the flesh" means being unrenewed (Rom. 7:5; 8:8, 9), and to live "according to the flesh" is to live and act sinfully (Rom. 8:4, 5, 7, 12).

This word also denotes the human nature of Christ (John 1:14, "The Word was made flesh." Comp. also 1 Tim. 3:16; Rom. 1:3).

1. Etymology:

Used in all senses of the word, the latter, however, most frequently in the sense of kin, family, relationship (compare sha'arah, "kins-woman," Lev 18:17): Lev 18:6; 25:49; Prov 11:17; Jer 51:35, and probably Ps 73:26. In all other places she'er means "flesh" = body (Prov 5:11) or = food (Ps 78:20,27; Mic 3:2,3). Tibhchah, is "(slaughtered) flesh for food," "butcher's meat" (1 Sam 25:11). The word 'eshpar, found only in two parallel passages (2 Sam 6:19 = 1 Ch 16:3), is of very uncertain meaning. The English versions translate it with "a good piece (portion) of flesh," the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) with "a piece of roast meat," others with "a portion of flesh" and "a measure of wine." It probably means simply "a measured portion." lachum, literally, "eaten," then food (compare lechem, "bread"), has been rarely specialized as flesh or meat (compare Arabic lachm, "meat," "flesh," so in Zeph 1:17, where it stands in parallelism with "blood"). The Greek terms are sarx, and kreas, the latter always meaning "butcher's meat" (Rom 14:21; 1 Cor 8:13).

We can distinguish the following varieties of meaning in Biblical language:

2. Ordinary Sense:

In a physical sense, the chief substance of the animal body, whether used for food and sacrifice, or not; also the flesh of man (Gen 2:21; Ex 21:10 m; Isa 31:3; Ezek 23:20; 1 Cor 15:39; Rev 19:18,21).

3. The Body:

The whole body. This meaning is the extension of the preceding (pars pro toto). This is indicated by the Septuagint, where basar is often translated by the plural hai sarkes (Gen 40:19; Nu 12:12; Job 33:25), and occasionally by soma, i.e. "body" (Lev 15:2; 1 Ki 21:27). This meaning is also very clear in passages like the following: Ex 4:7; Lev 17:14; Nu 8:7; 2 Ki 4:34; Prov 5:11, where basar and she'er are combined; and Prov 14:30; Eccl 12:12.

4. The Term "All Flesh":

Flesh, as the common term for living things, animals and men, especially the latter (Gen 6:13,17,19; Nu 16:22; Jer 12:12; Mk 13:20); often in the phrase "all flesh" (Ps 65:2; Isa 40:5,6; Jer 25:31; Ezek 20:48; Joel 2:28; Lk 3:6).

5. As Opposed to the Spirit:

Flesh as opposed to the spirit, both of which were comprised in the preceding meaning (Gen 6:3; Ps 16:9; Lk 24:39, where "flesh and bones" are combined; Jn 6:63). Thus we find in Jn 1:14, "The Word became flesh"; 1 Tim 3:16, "He who was manifested in the flesh"; 1 Jn 4:2, and all passages where the incarnation of Christ is spoken of. The word in this sense approaches the meaning of "earthly life," as in Phil 1:22,24, "to live in the flesh," "to abide in the flesh"; compare Philem 1:16 and perhaps 2 Cor 5:16. Under this meaning we may enumerate expressions such as "arm of flesh" (2 Ch 32:8; Jer 17:5), "eyes of flesh" (Job 10:4), etc. Frequently the distinction is made to emphasize the weakness or inferiority of the flesh, as opposed to the superiority of the spirit (Isa 31:3; Mt 26:41; Mk 14:38; Rom 6:19). In this connection we mention also the expression "flesh and blood," a phrase borrowed from rabbinical writings and phraseology (see also Sirach 14:18, "the generation of flesh and blood," and 17:31, "man whose desire is flesh and blood" the King James Version). The expression does not convey, as some have supposed, the idea of inherent sinfulness of the flesh (a doctrine borrowed by Gnostic teachers from oriental sources), but merely the idea of ignorance and frailty in comparison with the possibilities of spiritual nature. The capabilities of our earthly constitution do not suffice to reveal unto us heavenly truths; these must always come to us from above. So Peter's first recognition of the Divine sonship of Jesus did not proceed from a logical conviction based upon outward facts acting upon his mind, but was based upon a revelation from God vouchsafed to his inner consciousness. Christ says therefore to him: "Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jonah: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who is in heaven" (Mt 16:17). Similarly the kingdom of God, being a realm of perfect spiritual submission to God, cannot be inherited by flesh and blood (1 Cor 15:50), nor was the richly endowed mind a competent tribunal to which Paul could refer his heaven-wrought conviction of his great salvation and the high calling to be a witness and apostle of Christ, so he did well that he "conferred not with flesh and blood" (Gal 1:16). That "flesh and blood" does not imply a sense of inherent sinfulness is moreover shown in all passages where Christ is declared a partaker of such nature (Eph 6:12; Heb 2:14, where, however, we find in the original text the inverted phrase "blood and flesh").

6. Applied to the Carnal Nature:

Flesh in the sense of carnal nature (sarkikos, "carnal"; the King James Version uses sarkinos in Rom 7:14). Human nature, being inferior to the spiritual, is to be in subjection to it. If man refuses to be under this higher law, and as a free agent permits the lower nature to gain an ascendancy over the spirit, the "flesh" becomes a revolting force (Gen 6:3,12; Jn 1:13; Rom 7:14; 1 Cor 3:1,3; Col 2:18; 1 Jn 2:16). Thus, the fleshly or carnal mind, i.e. a mind in subjection to carnal nature, is opposed to the Divine spirit, who alone is a sufficient corrective, Christ having secured for us the power of overcoming (Rom 8:3), if we manifest a deep desire and an earnest endeavor to overcome (Gal 5:17,18).

7. In the Sense of Relationship:

Flesh in the sense of relationship, tribal connection, kith and kin. For examples, see what has been said above on Hebrew she'er. The following passages are a few of those in which basar is used: Gen 2:24; 37:27; Job 2:5; compare the New Testament passages: Mt 19:5,6; Rom 1:3; 9:3,5,8. The expressions "bone" and "flesh" are found in combination (Gen 2:23; 29:14; Jdg 9:2; 2 Sam 5:1; 19:12,13; Eph 5:31, the latter in some manuscripts only).

8. Other Meanings:

Some other subdivisions of meanings might be added, for example where "flesh" takes almost the place of "person," as in Col 2:1: "as many as have not seen my face in the flesh," i.e. have not known me personally, or 2:5, "absent in the flesh, yet am I with you in the spirit," etc.

H. L. E. Luering

The range of meanings borne by this term in the Bible starts from the literal use denoting the material of which the human body is chiefly constructed, but quickly takes on other senses derived from the writers' understanding of the created order and its relation to God. Careful attention to context is needed to catch the precise nuance in any given case.

The Old Testament. Fundamental Data. The Old Testament employs two terms to denote flesh: basar [r'f'B], which occurs 266 times; and seer [rea.v] which occurs 17 times. The two terms are identical in meaning. Their basic reference is to the material substance of which earthly creatures are made. This is true of humans (Gen 2:21; Lev 13:10-11; Ezek 37:6; Dan 1:15; Micah 3:3) and animals alike (Exod 21:28), including animal flesh used for food (Gen 9:2-4) and in sacrifice (1 Sam 2:13; Isa 65:4; Hosea 8:13).

Extended Senses. What one individual is all kindred individuals will be. Flesh thus comes to denote blood-relationship (Gen 2:23-24; Lev 18:6), and beyond that, kinship to all humans, "all flesh" (Psalm 65:2; Isa 40:5; 49:26). Yet another extension of significance is the use of flesh in reference to the human body as a whole (Lev 13:13; 16:4; 2 Kings 6:30). While in such uses it can denote a corpse (1 Sam 17:44; 2 Kings 9:36), it more commonly denotes the whole life of the individual viewed from an external perspective so that safety of the flesh is life (Psalm 16:9; Prov 4:20-22) and its endangerment a threat to life (Job 13:14; Prov 5:11).

Transferred Senses. It is an easy step from flesh as denoting life viewed externally to life viewed more comprehensively. "Flesh" is thus used interchangeably with "soul" and "body, " and credited with the emotions and responses of the whole person (Psalm 63:1; 84:2). In some instances it carries the sense of self (Lev 13:8). In short, the human creature is flesh in essence. Implicit in this is the idea that humans do not have flesh, but are flesh. If at times the outer being ("flesh") is distinguished from the inner ("heart" or "soul"), this is not because one is seen as more important than the other, but because both are indispensable for the existence of a whole person. In the Hebrew understanding of a human being there is nothing that is merely physical. As constituted essentially of flesh the human creature stands over against God. By virtue of being God's creation flesh is good, like all other parts of God's creation (Job 10:8-12; Psalm 119:73; Isa 45:12). At the same time, flesh as dependent on God, and in particular God's spirit (Gen 2:7; 6:3; Isa 31:3), is frail and transitory (Psalm 78:39; Isa 40:6). While at no time is flesh said to be sinful, it is implied that, by virtue of its frailty, flesh is exposed to the onslaught of sin (Gen 6:3,5,13). It is safe to say that all of the New Testament uses of flesh are made from these Old Testament building blocks.

The New Testament. Terms. The Greek word used most commonly in the New Testament to render the Hebrew word for flesh (basar [r'f'B]) is sarx [savrx], which occurs 147 times. Of this total, 91 are found in the Pauline writings, mostly in Romans and Galatians. While the New Testament appropriates the Old Testament foundation, it also builds on it, some writers giving the term their own distinctive twist. From this perspective it is possible to group the New Testament writings into three categories.

Writings Employing Chiefly the Old Testament Usages. In the Synoptic Gospels "flesh" is used only four times (aside from Old Testament quotations in Mark 10:8; and Luke 3:6). In Matthew 16:17 "flesh and blood" stands for human beings in their wholeness, but especially in their mental and religious aspect. At the same time they stand over against God, the true revealer. Mark 13:20 is a typical use of the Old Testament expression "all flesh." Mark 14:38 has a dualistic ring, but need not do more than contrast the human and the divine as in Isaiah 31:3. In Luke 24:39 the "flesh and bones" of the risen Jesus contrast with the immateriality of ghosts, implying a positive estimate of materiality that again harmonizes with the Old Testament. In Acts there are 3 instances of "flesh" (2:17, 26, 31). The first two are Old Testament quotations. In 2:31 "flesh" clearly refers to Jesus in his wholeness, but with the important idea added that in his wholeness he survived death. The Epistle to the Hebrews likewise reflects Old Testament usage. Of its six examples, three are literal in meaning (2:14; 5:7; 12:9). The first two, however, use the term to make the significant point that it was "flesh"—true human nature—that Christ assumed in his incarnation. In 9:10, 13 the rituals of the old order affect only external purification, leaving the conscience untouched. Jesus, through the spilling of his blood, opened the way into God's presence through the veil, which is interpreted as his flesh (10:20). Just as it was only when the curtain was torn open that access to the Most Holy Place was possible, so it was only by the tearing of Jesus' flesh in death that access to God's presence was made permanently available. Here, then, flesh stands for Jesus' life in its wholeness: incarnate and surrendered in death. The remaining concentration of instances of flesh in this grouping is found in the First Epistle of Peter, where there are examples (aside from the Old Testament quotation in 1:24). First Peter 3:21 echoes the same contrast found in Hebrews 9 between the cleansing of the flesh and the conscience. The remaining examples (3:18; 4:1, 2, 6) contrast death in the flesh with life in the Spirit in reference both to Christ and the believer. They are best taken to refer to the death and resurrection of Christ, which is reproduced in the life of the believer, bringing death to sin and resurrection to new life. The contrast throughout, then, is between "flesh" understood as earthly existence and "spirit" as life in the Spirit. The adjectival form sarkikos [sarkikov"], "fleshly, " occurs at 2:11 and is probably best understood within the same frame of reference as the examples of the noun.

The Johannine Writings. In the Gospel of John the term occurs thirteen times, seven in 6:51-63. The strictly literal sense is not found, but the extended sense, "all flesh, " occurs at 17:2. In other examples the idea present is that of limitation, in which the flesh or the sphere of the flesh is contrasted with the divine sphere (1:13; 3:6). The flesh is not evil; it simply is not the sphere of salvation, which rather is that of the Spirit. Both of these uses are in line with Old Testament thought. Cognate with these uses, though advancing beyond them, are passages in which flesh denotes mere appearance rather than inner reality. To measure Jesus thus, rather than by the insight of faith, is to be blind to his identity (6:63; 8:15). The obverse of this is that flesh may indeed be the medium of the revelation of God himself. It is against the background of the affirmation of the incarnation that the six examples in 6:51-58 are to be read. The Incarnate One is he who has come from above from whence alone life can come. Therefore to feed on his flesh and blood is to share in his life (6:57-58). In the Epistles of John the accent falls on confession of Christ's coming in the flesh as decisive for salvation (1 John 4:2; 2 John 7). "The desire of the flesh" (1 John 2:16) is condemned not because it refers to the material realm, but because it refers to what is earthly and therefore transitory (v. 17).

The Pauline Writings. The uniqueness of these in this regard is sufficiently indicated in that approximately two-thirds of the New Testament occurrences of flesh are found in them, almost half of these in Romans and Galatians. They may be considered in two broad categories.

Uses Akin to the Old Testament. Most of the uses found in the Old Testament are also present in the Pauline literature. There flesh can denote the physical flesh (1 Cor 15:39; 2 Cor 12:7) and, by extension, the human body (Gal 4:13-14), humanity as a whole (Rom 3:20; Gal 2:16), human descent (Rom 1:3; 9:3), and human relationships (Rom 4:1; 9:3-5). By this point the term acquires the transferred sense of that which is frail and provisional (1 Cor 1:26; Gal 1:16; Php 3:3). As transient, it is not the sphere of salvation, which is rather the sphere of the Spirit. This does not imply that flesh is evil per se: life "in the flesh" is normal human existence (Gal 2:20), but it is still merely human. This picture accords generally with that of the Old Testament.

Distinctive Pauline Uses. The uniquely Pauline understanding begins from the idea that flesh, as weak, becomes the gateway to sin (Rom 8:3; 2 Cor 12:7; Gal 4:14). Still more, as the arena in which sin entrenches itself it becomes the instrument of sin (Rom 6:12-14) to the extent that it becomes sinful itself (Rom 8:3), and so an occupying alien power (Rom 7:17-20). The accompanying war Paul describes as a struggle between flesh and Spirit (Rom 8:5-17; Gal 5:16-24). The seriousness of the struggle is indicated by the fact that the mind-set of the flesh leads to death (Rom 8:6), and that those living in the flesh cannot please God (Rom 8:8). Accounts of this conflict are most vivid in contexts where Paul is describing the demands of the law on the one hand (Rom 7:4, 7-11; Gal 5:2-5), and its impotence to enable the believer to meet them on the other (Rom 8:3; Gal 3:10-12). Flesh, however, is not intrinsically sinful, and may therefore be the scene of sin's defeat. This it became through Christ's coming and crucifixion in the flesh (Rom 8:3). Those who identify themselves with him by faith likewise crucify the flesh (Gal 2:20; 5:24) so being emancipated from the power of sin in the flesh (Rom 6:14; 8:9). This reading appears to be confirmed by the Pauline use of the largely parallel term "body." The "body of sin" was done away with at the cross (Rom 6:6). The "body of our humiliation" (Php 3:21), which is weak and still subject to the attack of sin, is the body of the interim. The "body of glory" (Php 3:21), transformed and imperishable (1 Cor 15:42-44,50-53), is the body of the age to come.

A. R. G. Deasley

See also Body; Sin

Bibliography. J. Christiaan Beker, Paul the Apostle: The Triumph of God in Life and Thought; R. Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament; R. Jewett, Paul's Anthropological Terms; A. Sand, EDNT, 3:230-33; H. Seebass and A. C. Thiselton, NIDNTT, 1:671-82; C. Ryder Smith: The Bible Doctrine of Man.

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[N] indicates this entry was also found in Nave's Topical Bible

[E] indicates this entry was also found in Easton's Bible Dictionary

[S] indicates this entry was also found in Smith's Bible Dictionary

Physical life

Among the expressions that use ‘flesh’ in relation to the physical nature of human beings are ‘flesh and blood’, ‘flesh and bone’ and ‘flesh and heart’. These may mean no more than body, person, human life, the human race, or something similar (Gen 6:12; Job 2:5; Ps 73:26; 78:39; Luke 3:6; John 1:14; 8:15; 2 Cor 5:16; 12:7; Gal 1:16; Phil 1:22-24; Heb 2:14; 1 Peter 1:24). A man and a woman united in marriage become one flesh, and people related to each other share the same flesh (Gen 2:24; 29:14; Rom 1:3; 4:1; 9:3; see also BODY).

On account of the usage of ‘flesh’ in reference to the physical aspect of human life, the word is sometimes contrasted with ‘spirit’, that inner and higher aspect of human life (Matt 26:41; 2 Cor 7:1; 1 Peter 3:18; see SPIRIT). This physical life, however, has been corrupted through sin, and this gives ‘flesh’ its particular meaning in the writings of Paul. There it refers to sinful human nature (Rom 8:5; Eph 2:3).

Sinful human nature

The nature of men and women everywhere is infected by sin from birth. Adam, as the father and head of the human race, rebelled against God and corrupted human nature from the beginning. All human beings, because of their union with Adam, are born with this sinful nature (Ps 51:5; Rom 5:12; 7:18; see SIN).

Human nature (the flesh) is directed and controlled by sin, and rebels against God’s law. It is incapable of being reformed and produces all the evil in the world. Like a deadly disease it cannot be cured, and leads only to moral decay and death (Rom 7:5; 8:6-8; Gal 6:8; Col 2:23). The evil results of the flesh affect every part of human life and activity (Gal 5:19-21; cf. Matt 7:18).

Although Jesus was born with a human nature, his nature was not affected by sin. By living in complete obedience to God’s law, dying for sin and rising victoriously from the dead, he condemned the flesh, so that people might no longer be enslaved by it (Rom 8:3-4; Heb 2:14-15; 4:15).

When sinners repent and trust in the saving power of Christ, they receive new life and freedom through the Spirit of Christ who comes to dwell within them. But the flesh is not destroyed. Believers still lives in a world where everything, even their own nature, suffers from the effects of sin. The original sinful human nature remains with them till the end of their present earthly existence, but through Christ they are now free from its power (Rom 6:14,18; 8:1-2,10-12; see JUSTIFICATION).

Therefore, there is a continual conflict in the lives of believers, the flesh fighting against the Spirit (Rom 8:5; Gal 5:17). Before they trusted in Christ and became indwelt by the Spirit, the flesh had ruled them as a cruel master. If, now that they are believers, they readily give in to the flesh, it will soon bring them under its power again. In view of this, they must ensure that their behaviour is controlled and directed by the Spirit (Rom 6:12-18; 8:4,13; 1 Cor 3:1-3; Gal 5:16). They have no obligation to the flesh; they owe it nothing. They must neither trust in it nor give it any opportunity to satisfy its evil desires (Rom 8:12; 13:14; Phil 3:3).

Christ has condemned the old nature by his crucifixion (Rom 6:6; 8:3). Those who belong to Christ must accept this by faith and show it to be true by living according to the new nature (Rom 6:7-14; Gal 2:20; 5:24; Eph 4:22,24; Col 2:11; 3:5-10; see REGENERATION; SANCTIFICATION).