Law [nave]
LAW.Psa. 19:7-9; Psa. 119:1-8; Prov. 28:4, 5; Matt. 22:21 Luke 20:22-25. Luke 16:17; Rom. 2:14, 15; Rom. 7:7, 12, 14; Rom. 13:10; 1 Tim. 1:5, 8-10; Jas. 1:25; 1 John 3:4; 1 John 5:3 See: Litigation; Commandments; Duty to God.
Of Moses
Contained in the books, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Given at Sinai, Ex. 19; Deut. 1:1; 4:10-13, 44-46; 33:2; Hab. 3:3.
Received by the disposition of angels, Deut. 33:2; Psa. 68:17; Acts 7:53; Gal. 3:19; Heb. 2:2.
Was given because of transgressions until the Messiah come, Gal. 3:19.
Engraved on stone, Ex. 20:3-17, with Ex. 24:12; 31:18; 32:16; 34:29; 40:20; Deut. 4:13; 5:4-22; 9:10.
See: Tables; Commandments.
Preserved in the Ark of the Covenant, Ex. 25:16; Deut. 31:9, 26.
Found by Hilkiah in the house of the Lord, 2 Kin. 22:8.
Engraved upon monuments, Deut. 27:2-8; Josh. 8:30-35.
To be written on door posts, Deut. 6:9; 11:20; on frontlets for the forehead, and parchment for the hand, Ex. 13:9, 16; Deut. 6:4-9; 11:18-21.
Children instructed in. See: Children; Instruction.
Expounded by the priests and Levites, Lev. 10:11; Deut. 33:10; 2 Chr. 35:3; princes, priests, and Levites publicly taught, Ezra 7:10; Neh. 8:1-18; from city to city, 2 Chr. 17:7-10; in synagogues, Luke 4:16-32; Acts 13:14-52; 15:21, with Acts 9:20; 14:1; 17:1-3; 18:4, 26.
Expounded to the assembled nation at the feast of tabernacles in the sabbatic year, Deut. 31:10-13.
Renewed by Moses, 4:44-46
Curses of, responsively read by Levites and people at Ebal and Gerizim, Deut. 27:12-26; Josh. 8:33-35.
Formed a constitution on which the civil government of the Israelites was founded, and according to which rulers were required to rule, Deut. 17:18-20; 2 Kin. 11:12; 2 Chr. 23:11.
See: Government, Constitutional.
Divine authority for, Ex. 19:16-24; 20:1-17; 24:12-18; 31:18; 32:15, 16; 34:1-4, 27, 28; Lev. 26:46; Deut. 4:10-13, 36; 5:1-22; 9:10; 10:1-5; 33:2-4; 1 Kin. 8:9; Ezra 7:6; Neh. 1:7; 8:1; 9:14; Psa. 78:5; 103:7; Isa. 33:22; Mal. 4:4; Acts 7:38, 53; Gal. 3:19; Heb. 9:18-21.
Prophecies in, of the Messiah, Luke 24:44; John 1:45; 5:46; 12:34; Acts 26:22, 23; 28:23; Rom. 3:21, 22.
See: Jesus, Prophecies Concerning.
Epitomized by Jesus, Matt. 22:40; Mark 12:29-33; Luke 10:27.
Book of found by Hilkiah in the temple, 2 Kin. 22:8; 2 Chr. 34:14.
Temporary
Jer. 3:16; Dan. 9:27; Matt. 5:17-45; Luke 16:16, 17; John 1:17; John 4:20-24; John 8:35 with Gal. 4:30, 31, below.Acts 6:14; Acts 10:28; Acts 13:39; Acts 15:1-29; Acts 21:20-25; Rom. 3:1, 2; Rom. 7:1-6; Rom. 8:3; Rom. 10:4; 2 Cor. 3:7-14; Gal. 2:3-9; Gal. 4:30, 31; Eph. 2:15; Col. 2:14-23; Heb. 8:4-13; Heb. 9:8-24; Heb. 10:1-18; Heb. 11:40; Heb. 12:18, 19, 27
Law [ebd]
a rule of action. (1.) The Law of Nature is the will of God as to human conduct, founded on the moral difference of things, and discoverable by natural light (Rom. 1:20; 2:14, 15). This law binds all men at all times. It is generally designated by the term conscience, or the capacity of being influenced by the moral relations of things.
(2.) The Ceremonial Law prescribes under the Old Testament the rites and ceremonies of worship. This law was obligatory only till Christ, of whom these rites were typical, had finished his work (Heb. 7:9, 11; 10:1; Eph. 2:16). It was fulfilled rather than abrogated by the gospel.
(3.) The Judicial Law, the law which directed the civil policy of the Hebrew nation.
(4.) The Moral Law is the revealed will of God as to human conduct, binding on all men to the end of time. It was promulgated at Sinai. It is perfect (Ps. 19:7), perpetual (Matt. 5:17, 18), holy (Rom. 7:12), good, spiritual (14), and exceeding broad (Ps. 119:96). Although binding on all, we are not under it as a covenant of works (Gal. 3:17). (See COMMANDMENTS.)
(5.) Positive Laws are precepts founded only on the will of God. They are right because God commands them.
(6.) Moral positive laws are commanded by God because they are right.
LAW [smith]
The word is properly used, in Scripture as elsewhere, to express a definite commandment laid down by any recognized authority; but when the word is used with the article, and without any words of limitation, it refers to the expressed will to God, and in nine cases out of ten to the Mosaic law, or to the Pentateuch of which it forms the chief portion. The Hebrew word torah (law) lays more stress on its moral authority, as teaching the truth and guiding in the right way; the Greek nomos (law), on its constraining power as imposed and enforced by a recognized authority. The sense of the word, however, extends its scope and assumes a more abstracts character in the writings of St. Paul. Nomos , when used by him with the article, still refers in general to the law of Moses; but when used without the article, so as to embrace any manifestation of "law," it includes all powers which act on the will of man by compulsion, or by the pressure of external motives, whether their commands be or be not expressed in definite forms. The occasional use of the word "law" (as in (Romans 3:27) "law of faith") to denote an internal principle of action does not really mitigate against the general rule. It should also be noticed that the title "the Law" is occasionally used loosely to refer to the whole of the Old Testament, as in (John 10:34) referring to (Psalms 82:6) in (John 15:25) referring to (Psalms 35:19) and in (1Â Corinthians 14:21) referring to (Isaiah 28:11,12)Law [baker]
[N] [E] [S]The Nature of Biblical Law. The usual Hebrew term translated as "law" is tora [h'r/T]. Tora [h'r/T], used 220 times in the Old Testament, more specifically means "instruction." Our English term "law" usually brings to mind the norms of society as enforced by the state. The Old Testament, however, often presents moral admonitions that are hardly amenable to state enforcement (e.g., Exod 20:17; 23:4-5); is silent about state enforcement (Exod 21:2-6); or specifies God rather than the state as the enforcer (Exod 22:21-27). In addition, the label "law" seems inappropriate for certain ceremonial instructions.
Biblical civil laws differ from the "positive law" of modern jurisprudence, which tries to legislate in exhaustive detail. Biblical laws are insufficiently comprehensive to be considered a "law-code, " but served as paradigmatic illustrations (not rigid rules) of justice that a judge could apply or modify according to circumstances. For example, whereas capital offenses state the maximum penalty for certain crimes, extenuating factors could lead a judge, legitimately, not to execute the offender. This is stated explicitly in the case of murder (Exod 21:12-14), and is implicit elsewhere. Thus, although Exodus 21:15 states "Whoever strikes his father or his mother shall surely be put to death" (NASB), it would be absurd to apply this rule to an angry toddler.
Many biblical precepts are expressed as broad principles without legalistic detail. For example, "work" is prohibited on the sabbath yet is never defined legally. This ambiguity, which allowed for some flexibility, was considered a liability by Pharisaic Judaism. In an attempt to make sure the command proper was never violated, the rabbis created secondary, rigid rules which, if followed, would theoretically prevent a person from ever violating the biblical command itself. This was known as "putting a fence around the law." Such nonbiblical rules (e.g., the sabbath day's journey) are prescribed exhaustively in the Talmud, but this burdensome "tradition" is contrary to the spirit of biblical law (Matt 15:3; 23:4).
An important law is the lex talionis, "life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth" (Exod 21:22-25; Lev 24:19-20; Deut 19:15-21), which is sometimes misunderstood as a barbaric justification of personal vengeance and maiming. On the contrary, it expresses the just principle that judicial punishments should fit the crime, thereby limiting permissible punishment. One who is responsible for the loss of another's eye deserves, in principle, to give up his own eye. In practice, however, the offender ordinarily would placate the aggrieved party by paying an amount proportional to the degree of the maiming to substitute for the infliction of literal talion. Note how such "ransoming" operates in Exodus 21:29-30, and how literal talion fails to occur in 21:18-19 and 21:26-27 where it might be expected. The availability of ransom seems to be so prevalent that it must be explicitly prohibited to exclude it (Num 35:31). Jesus, in accord with Leviticus 19:18, teaches patient suffering instead of the misapplication of lex talionis for personal revenge (Matt 5:38-42).
Legal Corpora in the Old Testament. The laws (traditionally 613 in number) are concentrated in certain passages in the Pentateuch. Some of these are given special names.
The Decalog was given at Mount Sinai (Exod 20:1-17) and repeated in Moses' sermon over forty years later (Deut 5:6-21). The formulation in the Decalogue (the traditional "thou shalt/shalt not") is apodictic, that is, unqualified; God as King imposes demands upon his subjects. These commandments represent the minimum moral and religious requirements for those in covenant relationship with God.
The Book of the Covenant (Exod 20:22-23:33, ; partially repeated in 34:10-26) consists of cultic, humanitarian, and civil regulations. Most of its civil regulations follow the casuistic formulation of cuneiform laws: "If X happens (protasis), then Y will be the legal consequences (apodosis)."
Deuteronomy has many regulations. Chapters 5-11 emphasize the general requirement to obey God; chapters 12-25 offer specifics in various areas of life (worship, festivals, officials of the theocratic state, manslaughter, warfare, sexuality, etc.). The structure of Deuteronomy follows that of second-millennium covenant treaties in which the laws correspond to stipulations within the covenant. The topical units of chapters 12-25 are arranged according to the order of the Ten Commandments.
Cultic laws concerning the tabernacle, sacrifices, priests, ritual purity, festivals, and ethical and ritual holiness (especially in sexual and social matters; cf. Lev. 18-26, the so-called Holiness Code) are scattered throughout Genesis through Numbers, Leviticus consisting almost entirely of this kind of material. Some call these laws the Priestly Code on the dubious assumption that they once existed as an independent collection.
Biblical and Cuneiform Laws. Scholars commonly compare biblical civil laws with contemporary laws found by archaeologists in the ancient Near East. Extrabiblical laws include those by Ur-Nammu of Ur (ca. 2112-2095 b.c.), Lipit-Ishtar of Isin (ca. 1925 b.c.), some ten Sumerian Laws (ca. 1800 b.c.) of unknown provenance, the Laws of Eshnunna (ca. 1800 b.c.), the Laws of Hammurapi (ca. 1750 b.c.), the Edict of Ammisaduqa (ca. 1650 b.c.), Middle Assyrian Laws (ca. 1100 b.c.), Hittite Laws (before ca. 1200 b.c.), and Neo-Babylonian Laws (seventh century b.c.).
Biblical civil laws resemble extrabiblical laws in topics covered and formulation. For example, cases of striking pregnant women resulting in miscarriage (presumably an unusual circumstance) occur in HL §17, Sumerian Laws §§1-2, LH §§209-214, MAL §§A 21, 50-52 as well as Exodus 21:22-25. There are general parallels with laws on slaves and goring oxen, and in one (but only one) case, a cuneiform law's reading is identical with a biblical one: LE §53 and Exodus 21:35. The parallels are insufficient to suppose biblical laws were simply borrowed from ancient Near Eastern ones. On the other hand, the parallels seem too close for chance. It is best to say that the Bible shows awareness of extrabiblical laws and often deliberately chooses type cases from such laws on which to make moral comment. Where an existing law is just, the Bible can happily adopt it (e.g., Exod 21:35). Accordingly, comparison with cuneiform law is useful; nonetheless, the contrasts with cuneiform laws are usually more telling than the similarities.
These contrasts reflect differences in ideology between Israel and Mesopotamia. Cuneiform laws are overwhelmingly secular whereas the Bible freely mixes moral, civil, and cultic laws, and more often includes religious motivations for compliance. It is true that Hammurapi receives authority to rule from the god Shamash, but Shamash is custodian of impersonal cosmic truth that Hammurapi uses to make his own laws that are only indirectly attributable to deity. In the Bible, however, the laws are directly from God; Moses is only a mediator. Biblical law is designed to educate the public, to mold the national character, and to glorify Yahweh as a just lawgiver; cuneiform laws are meant to glorify the kings who created them and lack pedagogic application, being placed in a temple outside public view in a script (cuneiform) only academics could read.
Contrasting ideology is reflected in biblical law's setting limits on the authority of kings (Deut 17:14-20), cuneiform laws reflect the unlimited authority of the king. Biblical laws elevate human life over property to a greater degree than do cuneiform laws. Hence, cuneiform laws required up to thirtyfold restitution for theft and the execution of the thief who could not pay (LH §§8, 265; HL §§57-59, 63, 67, 69); biblical law limits restitution to no more than fivefold and prohibits the execution of a thief (Exod 22:1-4). Similarly, cuneiform laws make no sharp distinction between cases involving an ox goring a slave, and that of an ox goring an ox, both being property (LE §§53-55); biblical law deliberately separates these cases (Exod 21:28-31,35-36), expressing by its structure the ideology that cases involving humans are of an entirely different category than those involving animals.
Cuneiform law agrees with biblical law in condemning murder, adultery, and incest (LH §1, 129, 157); however, biblical law differs by making many religious sins, so-called victimless crimes, and crimes against family capital offenses.
"Law" and "Covenant." All biblical laws are placed in the context of God's covenant with Israel. Covenant, not law-keeping, establishes a relationship, just as signing a contract, rather than doing the specified Job, establishes an employment relationship. The covenant in Genesis 15 was not established by "law" but by God's gracious offer accompanied by Abram's faith (although he later in some sense kept "the law, " Gen 26:5). Nor did Israel establish a relationship with God by keeping "law." The commandments are given to a people who are already "saved" (Exod 20:2) through a covenant relationship based on God's gracious love and despite Israel's lack of merit (Deut 7:7-9; 9:4-6). "Legalism" that makes "law-keeping" a means of salvation is not taught in the Old Testament.
The role of law is to administrate the covenant. Laws prohibit things destructive to a relationship with God (e.g., worshiping other gods). The law gives direction to what a loving response to God should be, and tells how to reap the full benefits of the relationship. Viewed from one perspective, the promises formalized by covenant were unconditional; but from an individual's perspective, benefits could be forfeited by disobedience. Disobedience does not automatically invalidate a covenant, any more than a husband's rudeness to a wife he vowed to cherish invalidates his marriage covenant. Yet disobedience mars the relationship, and may reduce its benefits. In the desert a whole generation of Israelites forfeited their covenant benefits (the promised land) through disobedience, yet the covenant continued.
The Law under the New Covenant. The New Testament's statements about Old Testament law are difficult to harmonize. On the one hand, some New Testament statements indicate that under the new covenant the whole law is in some sense abrogated (Rom 6:14, "you are not under law" Rom 10:4, "Christ is the end of the law" ). Direct application of cultic laws is clearly excluded in the New Testament. Food laws, circumcision, sacrifices, temple, and priesthood have been superseded (Mark 7:19; 1 Cor 7:19; Heb 7:11-19, 28; 8:13; 10:1-9). Christ has abolished in his flesh the commandments and regulations that separated Jew from Gentile (Eph 2:15). Dispensationalism concludes from these statements that Christians are under no Mosaic laws, not even the Decalogue, but are instead under the law of Christ (Gal 6:2; 1 Cor 9:21).
On the other hand, the law cannot be altogether invalid since the New Testament affirms its abiding applicability. "All Scripture is … useful" (2 Tim 3:16-17), including Old Testament laws. Jesus came not to abolish the law, but to fulfill it (Matt 5:17-20). The law is the embodiment of truth that instructs (Rom 2:18-19). It is "holy" and "spiritual, " making sin known to us by defining it; therefore, Paul delights in it (Rom 7:7-14,22). The law is good if used properly (1 Tim 1:8), and is not opposed to the promises of God (Gal 3:21). Faith does not make the law void, but the Christian establishes the law (Rom 3:31), fulfilling its requirements by walking according to the Spirit (Rom 8:4) through love (Rom 13:10). When Paul states that women are to be in submission "as the Law says" (1 Cor 14:34) or quotes parts of the Decalogue (Rom 13:9), and when James quotes the law of love (2:8 from Lev 19:18) or condemns partiality, adultery, murder, and slander as contrary to the law (2:9, 11; 4:11), and when Peter quotes Leviticus, "Be holy, because I am holy" (1 Peter 1:16; from Lev 19:2), the implication is that the law, or at least part of it, remains authoritative.
Part of the problem is that not all the "laws" are of the same order. Jesus designates justice, mercy, and faithfulness as "more important" matters in the law (Matt 23:23). A similar distinction was made by the prophets who indicate that cultic observance was less important than treating people decently, and ritual without repentance was ineffective. That these cultic regulations were, even in the Old Testament, considered of secondary value, prepares the way for their elimination in Christ.
Covenant theologians have traditionally divided laws into three categories: moral, civil, and ceremonial. Moral laws (e.g., the Decalogue), based on the unchanging character of God, are eternally binding. Civil laws (e.g., Exod. 21-23), although they may illustrate moral law, were limited historically to the theocratic state of Israel and are not binding on the church. Ceremonial laws (e.g., sacrifices) were intended to prefigure Christ, and ceased to be applicable upon his first advent. A problem with this approach is that the categories "moral, civil, and ceremonial" are artificial. There is often a mixture of these categories: the ceremonial sabbath among "moral" laws (Exod 20:8), ceremonial food regulations among "civil" laws (Exod 21:28; 22:31), "moral" motivations in civil laws (Exod 22:21,26-27) and in cultic laws (Exod 20:26). There is considerable subjectivity in labeling laws as "moral, " "civil, " or "ceremonial."
Another approach is that of theonomy or Christian reconstructionism. Theonomists wish to work toward a theocratic state where Mosaic civil laws can again be instituted into modern society. However, this approach takes insufficient account of the new theological and cultural setting of the new covenant. Some laws became impractical and unenforceable if applied literally even in Old Testament times. The Year of Jubilee regulations, requiring the return of property to original families every forty-nine years, seem never to have been enforced as law because (among other reasons) by the time Israel controlled the land, there were no records of the original owners. Moreover, although Jubilee was a practical solution for a tribal, agricultural society, this model would already be somewhat antiquated under Israel's urbanization during the monarchy, and is certainly impractical in modern, mobile, urban societies. Some laws assume the existence of conditions such as debt slavery (Exod 21:2-11), specific species of animals (Exod 29:22-fat; tail sheep ), or the climate of Palestine (feast held at end of harvest season, Lev 23:33-39), which make these laws inapplicable in other cultural environments. Some laws seem tied to the specific theological context of the Old Testament. The death penalty for cultic offenses was based on the special holiness of Israel with the tabernacle of God among them. Violation could bring immediate wrath upon the people. However, the church is not a nation, and does not camp around the tabernacle.
Usage of Old Testament laws suggests that biblical authors sought out and applied the inherent religious and moral principles in the laws even when changed historical, cultural, and theological settings made literal application inappropriate. Ezra applied a law prohibiting marriage to Canaanites, who had ceased to exist historically, broadly to marriage with non-Canaanite foreigners, because in that situation the same principle (marriage to foreigners leads to religious assimilation) applied, even though the letter of the law could not (Ezra 9:1-2; cf. Deut 7:1-5).
The New Testament writers also apply the principles in the law. From Deuteronomy 25:4 ("Do not muzzle an ox while it is treading out grain"), Paul derives a principle that workers ought to be rewarded for their labors and applies that principle in the case of Christian workers (1 Cor 9:9-14). In 1 Timothy 5:18, Paul again quotes Deuteronomy 25:4, this time in parallel with a saying of Jesus (Matt 10:10) as if both are equally authoritative. Likewise, the principle of establishing truth by two or three witnesses (Deut 19:15), originally limited to courts, is applied more broadly to a church conference (2 Cor 13:1). The principle that believers are not to be unequally yoked together with unbelievers is derived from a law concerning the yoking animals (2 Cor 6:14; cf. Deut 22:10).
In 1 Corinthians 5:1-5, 13, Paul affirms on the basis of Leviticus 18:29 that incest, a capital offense in the Old Testament, is immoral and deserves punishment. A person practicing incest in the church must be excommunicated to maintain the church's practical holiness. Paul maintains the law's moral principle, yet in view of the changed redemptive setting, makes no attempt to apply the law's original sanction.
The Law and the Christian Today. Mosaic law is of value for the Christian in several ways.
The Law Prepares Sinners for the Gospel. No one can receive eternal salvation by works of the law (Ga 2:16) because none perfectly keeps the law (Rom 3:23), and violation of any part of it makes one guilty of the whole (James 2:10; cf. Rom 2:25; Gal 3:10). Instead, salvation is a gift obtained by faith, not works (Rom 4:4-5; Eph 2:8-10; Php 3:9). Nonetheless, the law was meant to lead us to Christ (Ga 3:24). It makes the sinner conscious of sin (Rom 3:20; 7:7; 1 John 3:4). It provokes and incites rebellion (Rom 5:20; 7:13), thereby making one fully accountable before God for violation of God's moral requirements (Rom 3:19; 4:15; 5:13; 7:8-10). By this means, the law shows sinners their need for a mediator to redeem them from the law's condemnation (Ga 3:13). Hence, the law is an essential prerequisite in preparing sinners for the gospel.
The Law Is a Guide for Christian Living. The believer, through the Spirit, keeps the righteousness requirements of the law (Rom 8:3-4), following the principle of love which is the fulfillment of the law (Rom 13:8-10; Gal 5:14; Mark 12:31, ; cf. Lev 19:18). As the New Testament use of Old Testament laws shows, the moral aspect of the law continues to define proper and improper behavior for Christians. Old Testament laws supplement New Testament morality by addressing some issues not directly treated in the New Testament. God's commandments were intended to bring life (Rom 7:10), and the promises of life associated with the law remain applicable (Eph 6:2-3; cf. Exod 20:12).
The Law Is of Value for Jurisprudence. Law, when enforced by the state, serves to restrain evildoers (1 Tim 1:9-10). Biblical civil laws, although not directly applicable under the new covenant, are at least suggestive for improving modern jurisprudence. The Bible treats theft and manslaughter as torts against the victim (or the victim's family) rather than crimes against the state, and requires monetary restitution to the victim's family rather than imprisonment or fines to the state. This is arguably superior to the modern system where victims often get nothing, and where incarceration is ineffective for rehabilitation and extraordinarily expensive. The capital offenses in the Bible are suggestive for what crimes might legitimately be permitted as capital offenses for today (e.g., intentional murder), and crimes that should never be capital offenses (e.g., crimes of property).
The Law Points Typologically to Christ. The laws foreshadow Christ typologically in many ways. Moral and civil laws reflect the righteousness of Christ and his kingdom, while the cultic laws emphasize his holiness. The tabernacle prefigures the presence of Christ among his people; the sacrifices foreshadow the sacrifice of Christ on the cross. The priesthood anticipates Jesus' priestly function. The whole cultic system with tabernacle, sacrifices, and priests prefigures union with Christ through the atonement. The penalties in the law anticipate Christ's judgments; the annihilation of the Canaanites anticipates the judgment of hell. Commands concerning occupying the promised land anticipate the future kingdom of God, heaven and the blessings in Christ himself.Joe M. Sprinkle
See also Command, Commandment; Decrees; Ordinance; Requirement; Statute; Ten Commandments
Bibliography. G. Bahnsen, Theonomy in Christian Ethics; W. S. Barker and W. R. Godfrey, eds., Theonomy: A Reformed Critique; H. J. Boecker, Law and the Administration of Justice in the Old Testament and the Ancient Near East; U. Cassuto, A Commentary on the Book of Exodus; D. A. Dorsey, JETS 34/3 (Sept. 1991): 321-34; H.-H. Esser, NIDNTT2:438-51; M. Greenberg, Yehezkel Kaufmann Jubilee Volume, pp. 3-28; idem, Studies in Bible: 1986, pp. 3-28; idem, Religion and Law, pp. 101-12, 120-25; H. W. House and T. Ice, Dominion Theology: A Blessing or a Curse?; W. C. Kaiser, Jr., Toward Old Testament Ethics; idem, JETS33/3 (Sept. 1990): 289-302; G. E. Mendenhall, Religion and Law, pp. 85-100; Dale Patrick, Old Testament Law; V. Poythress, The Shadow of Christ in the Law of Moses; R. J. Rushdooney, The Institutes of Biblical Law; R. Sonsino, Judaism33 (1984): 202-9; J. Sprinkle, A Literary Approach to Biblical Law: Exodus 20:22-23:19.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[N] indicates this entry was also found in Nave's Topical Bible
[E] indicates this entry was also found in Easton's Bible Dictionary
[S] indicates this entry was also found in Smith's Bible Dictionary
LAW [bridgeway]
The word ‘law’ is used in many ways in the Bible. It may be used of commandments or instructions in general, whether given by God, civil administrators, teachers or parents (Gen 26:5; Exod 18:20; Prov 3:1; 6:20; see also GOVERNMENT). Frequently it is used of the written Word of God (Ps 119:18-20,57-61), sometimes applying to the Old Testament as a whole and sometimes to part of the Old Testament, such as the five books of Moses (Matt 5:17; Luke 24:44; John 1:45; 15:25; see PENTATEUCH). Occasionally it means a principle of operation (Rom 7:21,23; 8:2). The most common usage of the term, however, concerns the law of God given to Israel through Moses at Mt Sinai (Exod 24:12; Deut 4:44; Ezra 7:6; John 1:17; Gal 3:17,19). This meaning of ‘law’ is the chief concern of the present article.God’s covenant with Israel
In his grace God made a covenant with Abraham to make his descendants into a great nation and to give them Canaan as their national homeland (Gen 17:1-8). Over the next four hundred years God directed the affairs of Abraham’s descendants so that their numbers increased and they became a distinct people. They were then ready to be formally established as a nation and to receive the land God had promised them. At Mt Sinai God confirmed the covenant made previously with Abraham, this time making it with Abraham’s descendants, the nation Israel (Exod 24:7-8; see COVENANT).
God had chosen Israel to be his people, saved them from slavery in Egypt, and taken them into a close relationship with himself, all in fulfilment of his covenant promise made to Abraham. Everything arose out of the sovereign grace of God (Exod 2:24; 3:16; 6:6-8). But if the people were to enjoy the blessings of that covenant, they had to respond to God’s grace in faithful obedience. The people understood this and promised to be obedient to all God’s commands (Exod 24:7-8).
The law that God gave to the people of Israel at Sinai laid down his requirements for them. Through obedience to that law the people would enjoy the life God intended for them in the covenant relationship (Lev 18:5; cf. Rom 7:10; 10:5; Gal 3:12). The ten commandments were the principles by which the nation was to live, and formed the basis on which all Israel’s other laws were built (Exod 20:1-17).
Characteristics of Israelite law
No part of the lives of the Israelites was outside the demands of the covenant. The law applied to the whole of their lives and made no distinction between moral, religious and civil laws. Laws may have been in the form of absolute demands that allowed no exceptions (e.g. ‘You shall not steal’; Exod 20:15), or in the form of guidelines concerning what to do when various situations arose (e.g. ‘If a person borrows anything and it is hurt or dies . . .’; Exod 22:14), but the two kinds were equally binding.
Israel’s law-code was suited to the customs of the time and was designed to administer justice within the established culture. Unlike some ancient law-codes, it did not favour the upper classes, but guaranteed a fair hearing for all. It protected the rights of people who were disadvantaged or defenceless, such as orphans, widows, foreigners, slaves and the poor (Exod 22:22; 23:6,9,12). The penalties it laid down were not brutal or excessive, as in some nations, but were always in proportion to the crime committed (Exod 21:23-24).
Jesus’ attitude to the law
The covenant made with Israel at Sinai and the law that belonged to that covenant were not intended to be permanent. They were part of the preparation for the coming of Jesus Christ, through whom God would make a new and eternal covenant (Gal 3:19,24; Heb 9:15).
Jesus was born under the law (Gal 4:4) and was brought up according to the law (Luke 2:21-24,42). He obeyed the law (Matt 17:27; John 2:13) and he commanded others to obey the law (Matt 8:4; 23:1-3,23). Jesus did not oppose the law, though he certainly did oppose the false interpretations of the law that the Jewish leaders of his time taught. He upheld and fulfilled the law by demonstrating its true meaning (Matt 5:17-19,21,27,31,33,38,43).
Frequently Jesus pointed out that the law was good and holy and that God gave it for people’s benefit (Matt 22:36-40; Luke 10:25-28; cf. Rom 7:12,14). By contrast the Jewish leaders used the law to oppress people, adding their own traditions and forcing people to obey them. In so doing they forgot, or even opposed, the purpose for which God gave the law (Matt 23:4; Mark 7:1-9; see TRADITION). Jesus knew that the law, as a set of regulations, was part of a system that was about to pass away (Matt 9:16-17; cf. Heb 8:13). His death and resurrection would mark the end of the old covenant and the beginning of the new (Heb 9:15).
Under the new covenant people still have to respond to God’s covenant grace with obedience, but the expression of that obedience has changed. Instead of being bound by a set of rules, they have inner spiritual power to do God’s will. Instead of having to offer sacrifices repeatedly, they have their sins taken away once and for all. Instead of having to approach God through priests, they have direct fellowship with God (Jer 31:31-34; Heb 8:8-13; 10:1-4,16-18).
Salvation apart from the law
People have never received forgiveness of sins through keeping the law. Under the old covenant, as under the new, they were saved only through faith in the sovereign God who, in his grace, forgave them and accepted them. Abraham, David and Paul lived respectively before, during and after the period when the old covenant and its law-code operated in Israel, but all three alike were saved by faith (Gen 15:6; Rom 3:28; 4:1-16,22; Gal 3:17-18; Eph 2:8; 1 Tim 1:14-16). Salvation depended upon God’s promise, not upon human effort. It was a gracious gift received by faith, not a reward for keeping the law (Gal 3:18,21-22; see PROMISE).
Contrary to popular Jewish opinion, the law was not given as a means of salvation (Rom 9:31-32). It was given to show the standard of behaviour God required from his covenant people. As a set of official regulations, it was given solely to the nation Israel and was in force for the period from Moses to Christ. But as an expression of the character and will of God, it operated on principles that are relevant to people of all nations and all eras. It expressed in a legal code for one nation the principles that are applicable to people in general (Rom 2:12-16; 13:8-10). Through the law given to Israel, God showed the righteous standards that his holiness demanded.
At the same time the law showed the extent of people’s sinfulness, for their behaviour repeatedly fell short of the law’s standards. The law therefore showed up human sin; but when sinners acknowledged their sin and turned in faith to God, God in his grace forgave them (Rom 3:19-20,31; 5:20; 7:7; Gal 3:11,19). (Concerning the rituals of the law for the cleansing of sin see SACRIFICE.)
Those who broke the law were under the curse and condemnation of the law (Deut 27:26; Gal 3:10). Jesus Christ, however, lived a perfect life according to the law, and then died to bear the law’s curse. By his death he broke its power to condemn those who take refuge in him. Believers in Jesus are freed from the law’s curse. They have their sins forgiven and are put right with God (Rom 7:6; 8:1-3; 10:4; Gal 3:13; Eph 2:15; Col 2:14).
Jesus Christ is the true fulfilment of the law. The law prepared the way for him and pointed to him. Before his coming, the people of Israel, being under the law, were like children under the control of a guardian. With his coming, the law had fulfilled its purpose; the guardian was no longer necessary. Believers in Jesus are not children under a guardian, but full-grown mature children of God (Gal 3:23-26; 4:4-5; cf. Rom 10:4; see ADOPTION).
Christian life apart from the law
It was some time before Jewish Christians in the early church understood clearly that the law was no longer binding upon them. They still went to the temple at the set hours of prayer and possibly kept the Jewish festivals (Acts 2:1,46; 3:1). Stephen seems to have been the first Christian to see clearly that Christianity was not part of the Jewish system and was not bound by the Jewish law (Acts 6:13-14). Then Peter had a vision through which he learnt that Jewish food laws no longer applied. He was harshly criticized by certain Jews in the Jerusalem church when they found he had been eating freely with the Gentiles (Acts 10:15; 11:2-3).
These Jews later tried to force Gentile converts to keep the law of Moses (Acts 15:1), and argued so cleverly that Peter tended to follow them, until Paul corrected him (Gal 2:11-16). When some of the leading Christians met at Jerusalem to discuss the matter, they agreed that Gentiles were not to be put under the law of Moses (Acts 15:19). It was now becoming clear, and Paul’s teaching soon made it very clear, that there was no difference between Jews and Gentiles concerning requirements for salvation and Christian living. People were saved by faith alone, not by the law, and they lived their Christian lives by faith alone, not by the law (Rom 3:21-31; Gal 3:28).
When he met opposition to his teaching, Paul pointed out the impossibility of being saved through keeping the law (Rom 9:30-32; Gal 2:16; 5:4; Phil 3:9). An equal impossibility was to grow in maturity and holiness through keeping the law, or even selected parts of it (Gal 3:2-5; 5:1-3; James 2:10-11).
The actions of Paul in occasionally observing Jewish laws were not for the purpose of pursuing personal holiness. They were for the purpose of gaining him acceptance among Jewish opponents whom he wanted to win for Christ. Such actions were purely voluntary on Paul’s part (1 Cor 9:19-23; cf. Acts 15:19-21; 16:3; 21:20-26). If people tried to force Paul to keep the law, he would not yield to them under any circumstances (Gal 2:3-5).
Paul explained the uselessness of trying to grow in holiness through placing oneself under the law. He pointed out that the more the law forbids a thing, the more the sinful human heart wants to do it (Rom 7:7-11). This does not mean that there is anything wrong with the law. On the contrary, the law is holy, just and good. The fault lies rather with sinful human nature (Rom 7:12-14; see FLESH).
Free but not lawless
Although the law aims at righteous behaviour, people cannot produce righteous behaviour by keeping the law. They can produce it only by claiming true Christian liberty and living by the inner spiritual power of the Holy Spirit (Rom 6:14; 8:3-4; Gal 5:13-23; see FREEDOM; HOLY SPIRIT). But the same Holy Spirit who empowers inwardly has given clear guidelines for behaviour in the written Word. It is not surprising, then, to find that those guidelines contain quotations from the law of Moses to indicate the sort of character and conduct that a holy God requires (Matt 22:36-40; Rom 7:12; 13:8-10; Eph 6:2; Heb 8:10; James 2:8-12).
Christians are not under law but under grace. Yet they are not lawless (Rom 6:15). They have been freed from the bondage of the law and are now bound to Christ (Rom 7:1-4). The law of Christ is a law of liberty, one that Christians obey not because they are forced to but because they want to. The controlling force in their lives is not a written code but a living person (1 Cor 9:21; Gal 6:2; James 1:25; 2:12).
As Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by keeping the Father’s commandments, so those who truly love Jesus will keep his commandments (John 14:15,21; 15:10; 1 John 2:3-4,7; 5:3). And in so doing they will practise love, which itself is the fulfilment of the law (John 13:34; Rom 13:8-10; Gal 5:14; 1 John 5:2-3).
