Text -- 2 Corinthians 8:18 (NET)

8:18 And we are sending along with him the brother who is praised by all the churches for his work in spreading the gospel.

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Robertson: 2Co 8:18

We have sent with him ( sunepempsamen met' autou ).

Epistolary aorist.

Robertson: 2Co 8:18

The brother ( ton adelphon ).

This may be, probably is, Luke who may also be the brother of Titus (see also 2Co 12:18) according to a common Greek idiom where the article is used as "his."But this idiom is not necessary. As a matter of fact, we do not know who this brother is.

Robertson: 2Co 8:18

Is spread through all the churches ( dia pasōn tōn ekklēsiōn ).

No verb in the Greek (ellipsis).

Vincent: 2Co 8:18

The brother whose praise is in the Gospel

Is should be joined with throughout all the churches ; as Rev., whose praise in the Gospel is spread throughout , etc. The person referred to has been variously identified with Titus' brother, Barnabas, Mark, Luke, and Epaenetus, mentioned in Rom 16:5. The reference to Epaenetus has been urged on the ground of a supposed play upon the word praise , epainos ; Epaenetus meaning praiseworthy ; and the parallel is cited in the case of Onesimus profitable , of whom Paul says that he will henceforth be useful, Phm 1:11.

Wesley: 2Co 8:18

I and Timothy.

Wesley: 2Co 8:18

The ancients generally supposed this was St. Luke.

Wesley: 2Co 8:18

For faithfully dispensing the gospel, is through all the churches.

JFB: 2Co 8:18

Whose praise is known in connection with the Gospel: Luke may be meant; not that "the Gospel" here refers to his written Gospel; but the language implies some one well known throughout the churches, and at that time with Paul, as Luke then was (Act 20:6). Not a Macedonian, as appears from 2Co 9:4. Of all Paul's "companions in travel" (2Co 8:19; Act 19:29), Luke was the most prominent, having been his companion in preaching the Gospel at his first entrance into Europe (Act 16:10). The fact that the person here referred to was "chosen of the churches" as their trustee to travel with Paul in conveying the contribution to Jerusalem, implies that he had resided among them some time before: this is true of Luke, who after parting from Paul at Philippi (as he marks by the change from "we" to "they," Act 16:11) six years before, is now again found in his company in Macedonia. In the interim he had probably become so well known that "his praise was throughout all the churches." Compare 2Co 12:18; Phm 1:24. He who is faithful in the Gospel will be faithful also in matters of inferior importance [BENGEL].

Clarke: 2Co 8:18

The brother, whose praise is in the Gospel - Who this brother was we cannot tell; some suppose it was St. Luke, who wrote a gospel, and who was the companion of St. Paul in several of his travels; others think it was Silas; others, Barnabas; others, Mark; and others, Apollos. Neither ancients nor moderns agree in either; but Luke, John, and Mark, seem to have the most probable opinions in their favor. Whoever the person was he was sufficiently known to the Corinthians, as we learn by what the apostle says of him in this place.

Calvin: 2Co 8:18

18.We have sent with him the brother The circumstance that three persons are sent, is an evidence, that great expectations were entertained respecting the Corinthians, and it became them to be so much the more attentive to duty, that they might not disappoint the hopes of the Churches. It is uncertain, however, who this second person was; only that some conjecture that it was Luke, others that it was Barnabas. Chrysostom prefers to consider it to have been Barnabas. I agree with him, because it appears that, by the suffrages of the Churches, ⁶⁹⁰ he was associated with Paul as a companion. As, however, it is almost universally agreed, that Luke was one of those who were the bearers of this Epistle, I have no objection that he be reckoned to be the third that is made mention of.

Now the second person, whoever he may be, he honors with a signal commendation, that he had conducted himself as to the gospel in a praiseworthy manner, that is, he had earned applause by promoting the gospel. For, although Barnabas gave place to Paul in the department of speaking, yet in acting they both concurred. He adds farther, that he had received praise, not from one individual, or even from one Church merely, but from all the Churches. To this general testimony he subjoins a particular one, that is suitable to the subject in hand — that he had been chosen for this department by the concurrence of the Churches. Now it was likely, that this honor would not have been conferred upon him, had he not been long before known to be qualified for it. We must observe, however, the mode of election — that which was customary among the Greeks — χειροτονία, ( a show of hands,) ⁶⁹¹ in which the leaders ⁶⁹² took the precedence by authority and counsel, and regulated the whole proceeding, while the common people intimated their approval. ⁶⁹³

TSK: 2Co 8:18

the brother : This is generally supposed to have been Said. Luke, ""whose praise was in all the churches,""on account of the gospel which he had written, and for many zealous services in its cause. 2Co 8:19, 2Co 8:22, 2Co 8:23, 2Co 12:18

throughout : Rom 16:4

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: 2Co 8:18

And we have sent with him the brother - It has been generally supposed that this anonymous brother was Luke. Some have supposed however that it was Mark, others that it was Silas or Barnabas. It is impossible to determine with certainty who it was; nor is it material to know. Whoever it was, it was some one well known, in whom the church at Corinth could have entire confidence. It is remarkable that though Paul mentions him again 2Co 12:18, he does it also in the same manner, without specifying his name. The only circumstances that can throw any light on this are:

(1) That Luke was the companion and intimate friend of Paul, and attended him in his travels. From Act 16:10-11, where Luke uses the term "we,"it appears that he was with Paul when he first went into Macedonia, and from Act 16:15 it is clear that he went with Paul to Philippi. From Act 17:1, where Luke alters his style and uses the term "they,"it is evident that he did not accompany Paul and Silas when they went to Thessalonica, but either remained at Philippi or departed to some other place. He did not join them again until they went to Troas on the way to Jerusalem; Act 20:5. In what manner Luke spent the interval is not known. Macknight supposes that it might have been in multiplying copies of his gospel for the use of the churches. Perhaps also he might have been engaged in preaching, and in services like that in the case before us.

\caps1 (2) i\caps0 t seems probable that Luke is the person referred to by the phrase "whose praise is in the gospel throughout all the churches."This would be more likely to be applied to one who had written a gospel, or a life of the Redeemer that had been extensively circulated, than to any other person. Still it is by no means certain that he is the person here referred to, nor is it of material consequence.

Whose praise - Who is well known and highly esteemed.

Is in the gospel - Either for writing the gospel, or for preaching the gospel. The Greek will bear either construction. In some way he was celebrated for making known the truths of the gospel.

Poole: 2Co 8:18

Who this other brother was, whether Luke, or Barnabas or Silas, or Apollos, or Mark, is not much material; it is plain, whoever he was, that he was a brother and a minister one who had a good repute for preaching the gospel.

Haydock: 2Co 8:18

Brother, whose praise is in the gospel, through all the Churches. [2] It may either signify in writing or in preaching the gospel, so that though St. Jerome expound this of St. Luke, who wrote his gospel, (but probably not till after this time) yet St. John Chrysostom rather understands it of Barnabas, by the words that follow, who was ordained by the Churches companion of our travels. Others also guess it might be Silas or Silvanus. Who the third brother was, is also uncertain. (Witham) ---

Commentators very in their opinions upon the person here mentioned. St. John Chrysostom and Theo. are of opinion, that this person is St. Luke or Barnabas; St. Jerome also thinks that it must be St. Luke the evangelist.

===============================

[BIBLIOGRAPHY]

Cujus laus est in evangelio, Greek: ou o epainos en to euaggelio. See St. John Chrysostom, Greek: om. in. p. 645. Greek: othen moi dokei ton barnaban ainittesthai.

====================

Gill: 2Co 8:18

And we have sent with him the brother,.... The Syriac and Ethiopic versions read, "our brother"; and one of Stephens's copies, "your brother": who this brother was, is not certain; some think it was Luke the evangelist, the companion of the apostle in his travels:

whose praise is in the Gospel, throughout all the churches; being known and highly commended by all the churches, for the Gospel he wrote; but it is not certain that Luke as yet had wrote his Gospel; and much less that it was so much known at present among the churches; and besides, this brother's praise seems to be on account of his preaching the Gospel, and not writing one: others think Barnabas is intended, who was chosen and sent out by the churches along with the apostle; but these in a short time separated from each other, nor do we read of their coming together again: others are of opinion, that Apollos is designed, who was a very eloquent preacher, and of whom the apostle had given the Corinthians an intimation in his former epistle, that he would come to them at a convenient time; but to him is objected, that he never was chosen of the churches, to travel with the apostle on such an account as here mentioned: others would have it that Silas or Silvanus is meant, who was a very constant companion of the apostle, and of whom he makes mention in most of his epistles; and others have made no doubt of it, but John Mark is here meant, who not only wrote a Gospel, but was an excellent preacher of it, and was chosen by the churches to go along with Paul and Barnabas; and though there was some distaste taken to him by Paul, he was afterwards reconciled to him, and for his profitableness in the ministry was greatly desired by him; but after all, it is difficult to determine who it was, nor is it of any great moment: a "brother" he was; being not only a regenerate person, but a preacher of the Gospel; a brother in the ministry, and "one whose praise was in the Gospel"; greatly admired, and much commended, for his excellent talent in preaching the Gospel; and for this he was famous "throughout all the churches"; a very great commendation indeed; but this is not all, it follows,

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

NET Notes: 2Co 8:18

¹ tn This verb has been translated as an epistolary aorist.

² tn Grk “the brother of whom the praise in the gospel [is] throughout all the churches.”

Geneva Bible: 2Co 8:18

And we have sent with him the brother, whose praise [is] ^{( i )} in the gospel throughout all the churches;

^{( i )} In the preaching of the Gospel.

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: 2Co 8:1-24

1 He stirs them up to a liberal contribution for the poor saints at Jerusalem, by the example of the Macedonians;

7 by commendation of their former forwardness;

9 by the example of Christ;

14 and by the spiritual profit that shall redound to themselves thereby;

16 commending to them the integrity and willingness of Titus, and those other brethren, who upon his request, exhortation, and commendation, were purposely come to them for this business.

MHCC: 2Co 8:16-24

The apostle commends the brethren sent to collect their charity, that it might be known who they were, and how safely they might be trusted. It is the duty of all Christians to act prudently; to hinder, as far as we can, all unjust suspicions. It is needful, in the first place, to act uprightly in the sight of God, but things honest in the sight of men should also be attended to. A clear character, as well as a pure conscience, is requisite for usefulness. They brought glory to Christ as instruments, and had obtained honour from Christ to be counted faithful, and employed in his service. The good opinion others have of us, should be an argument with us to do well.

Matthew Henry: 2Co 8:16-24

In these verses the apostle commends the brethren who were sent to them to collect their charity; and as it were, gives them letters credential, that, if they were enquired after (2Co 8:23), if any should be inquisitive or suspicious concerning them, it might be known who they were and how safely they might be trusted.

I. He commends Titus, 1. For his earnest care and great concern of heart for them, and desire in all things to promote their welfare. This is mentioned with thankfulness to God (2Co 8:16), and it is cause of thankfulness if God hath put it into the hearts of any to do us or others any good. 2. For his readiness to this present service. He accepted the office, and was forward to go upon this good errand, 2Co 8:17. Asking charity for the relief of others is by many looked upon as a thankless office; yet it is a good office, and what we should not be shy of when we are called to it.

II. He commends another brother, who was sent with Titus. It is generally thought that this was Luke. He is commended, 1. As a man whose praise was in the gospel through all the churches, 2Co 8:18. His ministerial services of several kinds were well known, and he had approved himself praiseworthy in what he had done. 2. As one chosen of the churches (2Co 8:19) and joined with the apostle in his ministration. This was done, it is most likely, at the motion and request of Paul himself; for this reason, that no man might blame him in that abundance which was administered by him (2Co 8:20), so cautious was the apostle to avoid all occasions that evil-minded men might lay hold on to blacken him. He would not give occasion to any to accuse him of injustice or partiality in this affair, and thought it to be his duty, as it is the duty of all Christians, to provide for things honest, not only in the sight of the Lord, but also in the sight of men; that is, to act so prudently as to prevent, as far as we can, all unjust suspicions concerning us, and all occasions of scandalous imputations. Note, We live in a censorious world, and should cut off occasion from those who seek occasion to speak reproachfully. It is the crime of others if they reproach or censure us without occasion; and it is our imprudence at least if we give them any occasion, when there may not be a just cause for them so to do.

III. He commends also another brother who was joined with the two former in this affair. This brother is thought to be Apollos. Whoever he was, he had approved himself diligent in many things; and therefore was fit to be employed in this affair. Moreover, he had great desire to this work, because of the confidence or good opinion he had of the Corinthians (2Co 8:22), and it is a great comfort to see those employed in good works who have formerly approved themselves diligent.

IV. He concludes this point with a general good character of them all (2Co 8:23), as fellow-labourers with him for their welfare; as the messengers of the churches; as the glory of Christ, who were to him for a name and a praise, who brought glory to Christ as instruments and had obtained honour from Christ to be counted faithful and employed in his service. Wherefore, upon the whole, he exhorts them to show their liberality, answerable to the great expectation others had concerning them at this time, that these messengers of the churches, and the churches themselves, might see a full proof of their love to God and to their afflicted brethren, and that it was with good reason the apostle had even boasted on their behalf, 2Co 8:24. Note, The good opinion others entertain of us should be an argument with us to do well.

Barclay: 2Co 8:16-24

The great interest of this passage is its intensely practical character. Paul knew he had his enemies and his critics. He knew well that there would be those who would not hesitate to charge him with turning part of the collection to his own use, and so he takes steps to see that it would be impossible to level that charge against him, by ensuring that others will share with him the task of taking it to Jerusalem. Who the two unnamed brothers were no one knows. The first, the brother whose praise is in all the Churches, is usually identified with Luke. The Collect for St. Luke's Day assumes this identification. "Almighty God, who calledst Luke the Physician, whose praise is in the gospel, to be an Evangelist and Physician of the soul; may it please thee that by the wholesome medicines of the doctrine delivered by him, all the diseases of our souls may be healed." It was Paul's aim to make clear not only to God but also to men that he was above suspicion.

It is most interesting to note that this same Paul, who could write like a lyric poet and think like a theologian could, when it was necessary, act with the meticulous accuracy of a chartered accountant. He was a big enough man to do the little things and the practical things supremely well.

Constable: 2Co 8:1--10:1

III. INSTRUCTIONS CONCERNING THE COLLECTION FOR THE POOR SAINTS IN JUDEA 8:1--9:15

The New Testament reveals that Paul was actively collecting money for "the poor among the saints in Jerusalem" (Rom. 15:26) for about five years (52-57 A.D.). He solicited funds from the Christians in Galatia (Acts 18:23; 1 Cor. 16:1), Macedonia (Acts 19:22; 2 Cor. 8:1-5; 9:2, 4), Achaia (Rom. 15:26; 1 Cor. 16:1-4; 2 Cor. 8-9), and Asia Minor (Acts 20:35).²²⁰ Delegates from most of these regions accompanied Paul when he took the gift to Jerusalem (Acts 20:4).

The recipients were Hebrew Christians who were poor for several reasons. Conversion to Christianity and particularly baptism resulted in social and economic ostracism in Jerusalem's society where Judaism dominated all of life. The communal sharing of goods that the early Christians in Jerusalem practiced did not solve their economic problems (cf. Acts 2:44-45; 4:32, 34-35). All Palestinian residents suffered from lack of food due to a famine that descended during the reign of Emperor Claudius (46 A.D., Acts 11:27-30). As the mother church of Christianity, the Jerusalem church undoubtedly had a larger number of teachers, missionaries, and visitors to support than its daughter churches did. Finally, Jews, including Jewish Christians, who lived in Palestine had to pay double taxes, to Rome and to the Jewish authorities.

Why did Paul devote so much of his time and energy to raising and delivering this collection? Undoubtedly love for his needy Christian brethren was a primary motivation (Rom. 12:13; 13:8; Gal. 6:10). He also believed this gift would honor Jesus Christ (2 Cor. 8:19). It would help equalize God's provision for His people's physical needs too (2 Cor. 8:13-150. Moreover, it provided a visual demonstration of the equality that exists between Gentile and Jewish Christians (Eph. 2:11-22). It was something that God might use to allay Jewish suspicions of Christianity and of Paul's mission to the Gentiles (cf. Acts 11:2-3). It also illustrated the spiritual indebtedness that the Gentiles owed to their Jewish brethren (Rom. 15:19, 27; 1 Cor. 9:11). Personally it was one way that Paul could compensate in part for his earlier persecution of the Jerusalem saints (Acts 8:3; 9:1; 26:10-11; 1 Cor. 15:9; Gal. 1:13; 1 Tim. 1:13).

Paul wrote as he did in the following two chapters of 2 Corinthians to facilitate the collection and to set forth a philosophy of Christian stewardship. This is not the first that the Corinthians had heard about this collection. Paul's abrupt introduction of "the collection for the saints" in 1 Corinthians 16:1 and his subsequent discussion of it suggests that he had spoken to them about it previously. Evidently they began to participate but then dropped the project. Probably the controversy that developed concerning Paul contributed to that decision (2:5-11; 7:12). However now that Paul had learned that the Corinthian congregation was responding more positively to him again he could reintroduce the subject and press for its completion.

Constable: 2Co 8:16-24

C. The delegates of the churches 8:16-24

Having motivated his readers to finish the collection Paul proceeded to explain the practical steps he had taken to pick up their gift. He wanted the Corinthians to know what to do and what to expect. He gave a letter of commendation (cf. 3:1) in which he set forth the credentials of the three delegates who would visit them soon.

8:16 One of Paul's representatives whom he was sending to Corinth to pick up their gift was Titus. His readers had met him, received ministry from him, and would see him again shortly. Paul again affirmed Titus' love for the Corinthians so they would receive him happily. The apostle also expressed thanks to God for working in Titus to give him his good attitude. Titus, as Paul, felt concern for the Corinthians personally, not just for their money (cf. 12:14).

"The Corinthians might think that the zeal of Titus for the relief-fund was zeal on behalf of the Jerusalem poor; but it was really on behalf of the Corinthians. They would be the chief losers if a suitable sum was not raised in Corinth."²³¹

8:17 It is not clear whether Titus had already left Paul for Corinth or whether he was about to do so. The Greek aorist tense permits either translation, and no other textual reference provides a solution. He may have carried 2 Corinthians to its recipients. In any case, it was Titus' desire as well as Paul's (v. 6) that led him back to Corinth.

8:18-19 The famous brother's identity is also a mystery. He may have been Luke (cf. Acts 20:43-46)²³² or any one of a number of others who assisted Paul. The churches of Macedonia, Asia Minor, and Galatia had chosen this man as a courier. They knew him well, and he had won their respect. Paul personally supervised the project for a double reason. He saw it as an opportunity to promote the glory of the Lord and to lend a hand in helping his needy brethren (cf. Matt. 22:37-39).

8:20-21 Paul was very conscious of his need to guard his project and the people involved in it from any charge of financial mismanagement. Doing what was correct was not enough for Paul. He wanted to make sure that everyone perceived what he did as honest and above board as well. Paul had learned to anticipate the suspicions or accusations of those who viewed his ministry critically and to take necessary precautions.

"Cicero's words (De officiis 2.21.75) are appropriate: but the main thing in all public administration and public service is to avoid even the slightest suspicion of avarice' . . ."²³³

Some observers doubtless wondered if Paul was using the money of other people to his own advantage. Others probably suspected him of skimming a certain percentage of the large gift off the top as his commission. To guard against any misunderstand Paul had originally thought that he would not accompany the delegates who carried the money to Jerusalem (1 Cor. 16:3-4; cf. 2 Cor. 1:16; Rom. 15:25). He had also insisted that the churches rather than he appoint the delegates (1 Cor. 16:3) and that two delegates accompany Titus to Corinth before he arrived (vv. 18-19, 22-23). He sought to apply the wisdom of Proverbs 3:4, which verse 21 virtually restates.

We need to apply Paul's wise caution in our day when so many professed servants of the Lord have proved deceitful. We cannot afford to be naive or careless about doing things that are honorable in the sight of all men. I understand that Billy Graham makes it a policy never to enter a hotel or motel room alone. He always takes an aide with him lest someone try to set him up in a situation with a woman that would appear compromising. Most of us do not need to be that careful, but we do need to be careful and to anticipate what could happen or how some situation could appear to others.

8:22 A third member of the delegation is also unknown to us. His qualifications fit him well for his duties, however, having previously proven himself faithful for significant responsibility. As Titus, this Christian brother also had great confidence in the Corinthians and consequently would have been welcome in Corinth.

Why did Paul not mention Titus' two companions by name? Perhaps the Corinthians already knew who they were, or Paul may have wanted to heighten anticipation for their arrival by keeping their identities a secret. Paul may have sent three delegates to Corinth rather than one or two since his credibility there had been under attack. The anticipated arrival of three visitors would have also provided additional motivation for these previously slack Christians to complete the collection.

8:23 Titus was obviously the man in charge of this project. He was a special representative of the Apostle Paul (cf. Rom. 16:21). The other two delegates were Paul's spiritual brothers, the churches' envoys, and credits to Christ.

This is one place where the Greek word apostolos, usually translated "apostle," but here rendered "messenger," occurs in the non-technical sense of someone sent on a mission (cf. Phil. 2:25; Acts 14:4, 14; et al.). Usually it refers to one of the 13 apostles whom Jesus Christ personally commissioned (e.g., 2 Cor. 1:1, et al.).

8:24 Paul concluded his "letter of commendation" (vv. 16-24) with a warm appeal. He charged his readers to grant these messengers a reception that would demonstrate the Corinthians' love for Christ, Paul, and the delegates to all the other churches. They were to be openhearted toward them as Paul had urged them to be openhearted toward himself (6:11-13). Their warm reception of the messengers would confirm the genuineness of their acceptance of Paul and their positive response to his admonition concerning the offering. Other churches were watching the Corinthians and knew of their history. Therefore this positive welcome of the delegates needed to be public to dispel any doubts in the minds of others.

College: 2Co 8:1-24

2 CORINTHIANS 8

VI. PREPARATION FOR THE COLLECTION (8:1-9:15)

The collection Paul organized for the famine-plagued believers in Jerusalem, easily spanning over five years of his missionary career, must be noted as one of his greatest achievements. It was a tangible way of acknowledging the singular significance of the Jerusalem church and the debt Gentile churches felt for sponsoring worldwide Christian missionary activities. It may even have had prophetic and eschatological implications for Paul since Isa 2:2-3; 60:5-7; and Micah 4:1-2 predict that the nations and their riches will come to Jerusalem in the last days. That this collection is not just about money or famine relief is evidenced by the theologically charged words Paul uses to describe it just in 2 Corinthians 8 and 9 alone. Preeminent among these is "grace" (cavri", charis ), used ten times (8:1,4,6,7,9,16,19; 9:8,14,15). But he also refers to the collection in terms of "ministry" (8:4; 9:1,13), "fellowship" (8:4; 9:13), and "blessing" (9:5,6).

The idea of collecting money for the needy Christians in Jerusalem reaches back to the earliest days of Paul's ministry when he and Barnabas collected and delivered funds from the Christians in Antioch to Jerusalem in A.D. 46, described in Acts 11:27-30. The conditions of the famine must have been prolonged since Gal 2:10 records Paul's agreement at that time with James, Peter, and John to "remember the poor" as he expanded his ministry to Gentiles beyond Antioch. First Corinthians 16:1-4 reveals that the collection was an ongoing process, at least in the Galatian churches and Corinth, at which time Paul advises the Corinthians to collect the money every Sunday just as he had suggested to the Galatians and to appoint men to escort the money to Jerusalem.

Acts 20:4, while not mentioning the collection specifically, presumably has the collection in mind when it lists the entourage of eight delegates from a wide variety of areas who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem following his third missionary tour. Surprisingly, no delegate from Corinth is listed in Acts 20:4. The Acts list may not be exhaustive; Paul may have represented the Corinthian church, or in the end, perhaps, the Corinthian collection was so small, no delegate was required.

Like many early Christian practices, the concept of the collection has its roots in Jewish practice. Well before Christianity emerged, every Jewish male over 19 years old paid an annual temple tax of a half shekel, equivalent to two drachmas, in the month preceding Passover to offset the cost of the Passover sacrifices as well as other temple functions. The purpose of the money changers mentioned in the gospels (Matt 21:12; Mark 11:15; John 2:15) was to exchange common currency for the special, half shekel coin ceremoniously presented for this tax. According to Matt 17:24-27, Jesus paid this tax for himself and Peter with a coin extracted from the mouth of a fish.

What is striking about this Jewish temple tax is that Diaspora Jews, those scattered around the world, also paid this sum. Similar to Paul's collection, they used major cities as collection points, sent a retinue of representatives along with the money, and encouraged setting aside sums regularly to accumulate this amount. Clearly, Paul's collection was not an obligatory tax, nor was it any more than a one-time event. Nevertheless, the concept and some of the procedures are strikingly similar.

Whether the collection accomplished Paul's purposes is impossible to know for sure for since it is not mentioned in Acts 21:17-26 which describes Paul's arrival in Jerusalem. That he was greeted enthusiastically by the elders is clear. From that, it may be inferred that the collection was received warmly too. However, it would be reckless to speculate any further.

Despite the contention of some that 2 Corinthians 8 and 9 are so divorced from the preceding context it should be conjectured that they were composed as letters independent of 2 Corinthians, ideological preparation which links 2 Corinthians 8 to 2 Corinthians 1-7 is noticeable. First, the expression of confidence in the Corinthians which concludes 7:16 smooths the way for an appeal regarding the collection. Second, mention of Titus's exuberant affection for the Corinthians following his recent assignment to visit them on Paul's behalf in 7:13-15 is a fitting prelude to Paul's decision expressed in 8:6 to send him back to help the Corinthians wind up their collection efforts. Third, Paul's declaration of the Corinthians' "earnestness" (spoudhv, spoudç) in 7:11 matches his tactic in 8:7 to draw upon their "earnestness" (spoudç) as a stepping-stone for completing their collection. Fourth, Paul's mention of the Macedonians' "joy" in 8:2 follows in the train of four uses of the word and its verb cognate in chapter seven (7:7,9,13,16). Fifth, Paul's introduction in 7:5 of Macedonia as the place he currently resides prepares for his expressing his extraordinarily thorough knowledge of their giving circumstances.

A. INCENTIVES TOWARD GENEROSITY (8:1-15)

1. Excel Like the Macedonians (8:1-7)

8:1 And now, brothers, we want you to know about the grace that God has given the Macedonian churches.

Paul sets this section off from what precedes with the interjection "brothers" (ajdlefov", adelphos ). The word in the plural covers males and females in the congregation and is a common NT convention for addressing fellow Christians. Although the verb "want you to know" (gnwrivzw, gnôrizô) can refer to reviewing old information, as in 1 Cor 15:1, normally, as here, it alerts the reader to fresh, vital news to be shared, as in Gal 1:11.

The first of ten uses, "grace" (cavri", charis ) flashes as a headline over these two chapters. It is not used in relation to salvation in this or any of its uses in this context. Rather, the sense in this verse is of "divine enablement." Although his singing of the Macedonians' praises is unbridled in this context, Paul does not believe their ability to give to the collection so magnanimously comes from themselves. Ultimately, it has come from God who has supplied the means in response to their selfless attitudes.

Paul's mention of the Macedonians surely comes up because he is currently staying in this region and presumably has been bowled over by what he has learned to be the size of their collection. Yet, one wonders whether there isn't just a little twinkle in his eye as he brings up the Macedonians as model givers to the Corinthians. Surely, he knows of the longstanding political and cultural rivalry between these two regions and is aware that their mention will undoubtedly get the Corinthians' competitive juices flowing.

8:2 Out of the most severe trial,

More literally this reads "that in much ordeal of affliction." The word "affliction" (qlivyi", thlipsis ), rendered as "severe" in the NIV, refers to oppression from outward circumstances. The word "ordeal" (dokimhv, dokimç), rendered "trial" in the NIV, can refer to test or prove in a positive sense but here has a negative tone. Paul is trying to convey the enormous pressure from those outside the church which the Macedonians had to withstand simply as Christians in hostile environments. Specifically, he has in mind at least the Thessalonian and Philippian congregations, and perhaps the Berean congregation also. Acts 16:11-17:15 records troubles with both Gentiles and Jews at the initial stages of establishing these churches. Difficulties seem to have persisted even after Paul's rapid departure from each of these cities.

their overflowing joy and their extreme poverty welled up in rich generosity.

The poverty of the Macedonians must have been the result of harassment by nonbelievers since the area itself is known to have been reasonably prosperous, a thoroughfare for a major east-west trading route, excelling in agricultural products, mining, and lumber. Corinth was wealthy too. However, its Christian inhabitants do not seem to have had it as rough as those in Macedonia. Paul emphasizes the extent of the Macedonians' poverty with the phrase rendered "extreme" (hJ kataÉ bavqo", hç kata bathos) by the NIV. It refers to the depth ( bathos meaning "deep") of their poverty as at the very bottom, one commentary aptly calling it "rock bottom poverty."

Contrasted with the Macedonians' economic deprivation is their remarkably positive attitude. Paul characterizes this as a joy which knows no bounds. So much joy bubbles over in their lives that the worst economic nightmare hardly makes a dent in it. Such a demeanor parallels Paul's description of himself in 7:4. It should be recognized as a fundamentally Christian way of being, based not on mood and emotion but on the confidence of salvation through Jesus Christ. No matter the outward circumstances, a joy in Christ should characterize all believers and should be noticeable to non-Christians as a basic form of Christian witness.

The means by which the Macedonians' Christian joyfulness has been manifested to Paul is in the size of their collection. The phrase, "in rich generosity," more literally, "in the richness of their generosity," refers specifically to the large amount of money they have laid aside in their offerings for the Jerusalem Christians. In relation to their poverty, it exceeds Paul's wildest imagination. The NIV's "welled up" (perisseuvw, perisseuô) is the verb cognate of "overflowing," also used in this verse. This verb is a favorite of Paul's, used ten times in 2 Corinthians, six times just in this context (8:2, 7 - twice, 8 - twice; 9:12). It refers to having more than enough of something, often translated "abound." Paul's emphasis on this idea in this context is triggered by the astounding size of the Macedonians' collection.

The word translated "generosity" (aJplovth", haplotçs) is another favorite of Paul's in this context. Used only eight times in the NT, all by Paul, three of its five uses in 2 Corinthians are in this context (1:12; 8:2; 9:11; 9:13; 11:3). Although appropriately translated by the NIV as "generosity," this notion flows out of its more fundamental meaning of "simple" or "plain." It refers to pure, unadulterated motives and purposes which become manifest in action, allowing someone to be generous as opposed to stingy with their money.

8:3 For I testify that they gave as much as they were able, and even beyond their ability.

Being with the Macedonians as he writes, Paul knows first hand of their economic plight as well as the enormous amount of their collection. He underscores what they have achieved with a solemn statement of his eye-witness observation that what they have done borders on the miraculous. Just like Jesus fed 5,000 with seven loaves and two fish, so has God multiplied their noble effort. Given this description, it is not so surprising now that in 8:1 he could call this a manifestation of God's grace.

The NIV represents the difficult Greek fairly well here. Given that no verb is stated, it is right to state the assumed verb, "gave," carrying over from 8:1. "That they gave as much as they were able," literally "that according to ability," actually stands at the beginning of the verse, intending to express the result of their generosity. Paul's oath actually is proclaimed to verify the more spectacular reality, literally stated as "beyond ability." The word translated "were able" and "ability" (duvnami", dynamis ) in the Greek is a noun, an object of a preposition both times. It is normally translated "power" in its many NT uses but "ability" is certainly appropriate here.

Entirely on their own,

This phrase is just one word in Greek (aujqaivretoi, authairetoi ). The word is an adjective which most versions (as NASB) take as referring back to the assumed subject of "gave" in 8:1, the Macedonians. It refers, then, not to their pleading but to the generous nature of their collection as self-generated. Paul did not berate or manipulate them. This amazing result in terms of money came entirely from their own spiritual depth. The only two NT uses of this word are here and 8:17. It is a compound from a verb which means "choose" (aiJretivzw, hairetizô) and a prefix which means "self" ( auth- ).

8:4 they urgently pleaded with us for the privilege of sharing in this service to the saints.

Because of the Macedonians' poverty, Paul may not have even asked them to contribute to the collection, or they may simply have inquired about the collection before he got around to asking them. Either way, he attributes to them a depth of spiritual insight which took him by surprise. They recognized the spiritual and theological dimension to the enterprise, that it was an expression of the church's unity and singleness of purpose.

The word translated "urgently" (paravklhsi", paraklçsis) is a noun normally translated "encouragement" or "comfort." It is used eleven times in 2 Corinthians, and its verb cognate is used 18 times. Though not seen in the NIV translation, Paul modifies it with an adjective meaning "much" or "many" ( pollys ). What he wishes to get across is that the Macedonians repeatedly badgered him about participating in the collection, the opposite of what one might expect when he is the one seeking funds.

The word translated "pleaded" (deovmenoi, deomenoi , from devomai, deomai ) is a participle ("pleading") in Greek. It is a very strong word for asking, more like begging, and is sometimes used to refer to prayer (Luke 10:2; 21:36). The word "privilege" is a good, nontheological rendering of the word which is usually translated "grace" (cavri", charis ). "Benefit" or "opportunity" are other ways of getting across its intention in this context.

"Sharing" (koinwniva, koinônia) is a word which in other contexts is more blatantly theological, referring to the believer's union with Christ generally (1 Cor 1:9) or specifically to the whole church in the Lord's supper (1 Cor 10:16). True believers also are considered joined together in fellowship with the Holy Spirit (2 Cor 13:14) and ultimately with God himself (1 John 1:3,6,7). The word's presence here suggests that the Macedonians know their collection unites them, not only with the Jerusalem Christians but also with the other Gentile congregations who are gathering money for the same cause.

The word translated "service" (diakoniva, diakonia ) is used five times in this context (8:4; 9:1,12 - twice, 13) among its 13 uses in 2 Corinthians as a whole. Often translated "ministry" and its cognate noun (diavkono", diakonos ) "minister," Paul uses it to depict the various work Christians do in their service to God. The appearance of the word here in 8:4 suggests that the Macedonians, quite rightly, recognize their giving of money for the collection as ministry. As a token of their livelihood, it is a giving of their life to the ministry of the church.

8:5 And they did not do as we expected, but they gave themselves first to the Lord

Paul reiterates his delight at what the Macedonians have done with regard to the collection. The size of their collection was beyond anything he could have dreamed of. The reason they could amass such an incredible amount of money Paul recognizes to be spiritually rooted. These churches are committed to the Lord, meaning Christ. This has taken precedence over everything else in their lives, including their money. Devoting oneself to Christ "first," above all else, makes anything possible.

and then to us in keeping with God's will.

Paul realizes that in some respect anyone who gives to the collection is demonstrating their allegiance to him personally as well. After all, the collection is his idea, and he is the one promoting it. Money put in the coffers is under his jurisdiction. No one could possibly give unless they trusted him, not only to be sure the money gets to the Jerusalem Christians as he has said but also that he is truly under God's authority to oversee such a collection.

In giving so astoundingly, the Macedonians underscore their unswerving recognition of Paul's apostolic authority, something he can be rather sensitive about. This is especially significant since this authority is precisely what has been under fire in his troubles with the Corinthian church. Resolution on this issue with most of the Corinthian Christians is what has led him to this point of reigniting the collection issue. There would have been no point to do so with his apostolic authority in question.

8:6 So we urged Titus, since he had earlier made a beginning,

When exactly Titus made this beginning and what exactly Paul is thinking about as a beginning is in dispute among interpreters. Since 1 Cor 16:1-4 indicates the Corinthians knew about the collection and possibly had already begun it, some suggest that Titus must have visited the Corinthian church and initiated the collection prior to 1 Corinthians, one of many trips by Paul's team of coworkers we have no knowledge of from Acts or from Paul's epistles. However, since 1 Cor 16:1-4 does not indicate specifically that the Corinthians had begun collecting, only that they have inquired about how the collection might be enacted, it is not necessary to date a beginning of the collection until after receiving 1 Corinthians. This would fit with Paul's statement in 2 Cor 8:10 that the Corinthians began their collection "last year."

Other interpreters astutely note that Paul's statement in 2 Cor 7:14 regarding "our boasting about you to Titus" sounds like Titus's first visit to the Corinthians was as bearer of the Severe Letter. They also note that the verb "had earlier made a beginning" (proenavrcomai, proenarchomai ) need not refer to the Corinthians' perspective but to that of Titus. The Corinthians may well have begun their collecting prior to Titus's initial visit with the Severe Letter, even prior to Paul's Painful Visit. Very likely, the collecting broke off during the period of the dispute with Paul and also played a part in the accusations against him. As Titus brings about a truce between Paul and the Corinthians, he also reinstitutes the collection or at least a pledge from the Corinthians to start it up again. This, then, is what Paul most likely refers to here in 7:6.

to bring also to completion this act of grace on your part.

In sending Titus along with this letter, Paul intends to give the Corinthians every opportunity to come up with a respectable offering before all the delegates from the other churches arrive in Corinth with their collections. The target date for this gathering must be relatively soon, perhaps just a few months away, given Paul's tone of urgency for completion.

From Corinth, the initial plan is for the entourage to depart together to Jerusalem. Acts 20:2 registers that once in Greece (probably meaning Corinth), he remained three months until all the delegates gathered there. Because of a Jewish plot perhaps involving the safety of the money, Paul and the delegates hastily left Corinth for Troas from which they embarked on an alternate route to Jerusalem.

By depicting the offering as an "act of grace," literally just "grace" (cavri", charis ), Paul connects the Corinthian offering to the wonderful things he has said about the Macedonians and their offering. He intimates that similar mature attitudes among the Corinthians will reap parallel, generous results. Besides, the circumstances of the Corinthians are not nearly so grave as they are for the Macedonians. Regardless, it is time for the Corinthians to pull themselves together spiritually and bring a happy conclusion to their collection efforts.

8:7 But just as you excel in everything-in faith, in speech, in knowledge, in complete earnestness and in your love for us ^a -see that you also excel in this grace of giving.

^a 7 Some manuscripts in our love for you

It's hard to know just how to take this verse. Rather than appealing to the spiritual maturity of the Corinthians to embrace the theological scope of the collection (like the Macedonians), through tongue-in-cheek praise, Paul seems to seek to draw upon the very human desire of competitive self-improvement. He seems to list what he knows they are prideful about - even if unwarranted - in order to motivate them to shift their attention to something that would be really valuable for them to excel in, the collection. Maybe he just understands the Corinthians well enough to know the best way to hit a nerve.

The word for "excel" (perisseuvw, perisseuô), both at the beginning and at the end of this verse, is the same word used in 8:2 and numerous other times in 2 Corinthians in both noun and verb forms. It refers to having more than enough of something and is usually translated "abound" or "overflow." Whether the Corinthians actually have more than enough of the traits is debatable, but he certainly believes it is time for them to move on to an objective aspect of Christian life which can benefit others beyond their local congregation.

"Speech" (logo", logos ) and "knowledge" (gnw'si", gnôsis) in 1 Cor 1:5 are qualities of the Corinthians which have been "enriched" in the Lord. Along with "faith" (pivsti", pistis ), the three are probably intended to represent a variety of gifts which Paul says the Spirit has given to the church. If this is so, then "faith" would encompass both "healing" and "miraculous powers" (12:9-10), a kind of faith that believes God can and will take action at times. "Speech," then, includes the spiritual gifts of "prophecy" and "speaking in different kinds of tongues" (1 Cor 12:10). "Knowledge," then, includes "wisdom," "distinguishing between spirits," and "interpretation of tongues" (1 Cor 12:8,10).

"Earnestness (spoudhv, spoudç), Paul attributed to the Corinthians in 2 Cor 7:11 and 7:12. However, Paul only speaks of them in this way after they had repented for the way he had been treated by them. That he continues to regard them in this way is emphasized in 8:7 by labeling this quality as "complete." Again, whether this is simply saying that they think of themselves as completely earnest or whether Paul actually considers them so is hard to say.

The phrase "in your love for us" is hotly debated. Most interpreters back the textual option which reads "in the love from us in you." Paul would likely be somewhat reluctant to speak on their behalf regarding their love for him in light of what he said in 2 Cor 6:12. He is confident, though, that his love for them has been thoroughly expressed by him and discerned by them in what he has written up to this point.

2. Give Like Christ (8:8-9)

8:8 I am not commanding you,

As Paul understands it, a command would be a direct order which has come from his superior, either Christ or God. Similarly, he does not "command" against marriage (1 Cor 7:6,25) nor does he order Philemon to release Onesimus from slavery (Phlm 8). With no direct command from God, the higher road is to persuade the Corinthians to give themselves over to God and see the importance of the collection for themselves.

Though it was readily available (Lev 27:30-32; Num 18:21-24), noticeably absent is any appeal to the strict Jewish regulation of tithing. In fact, tithing even as a principle is not brought up anywhere in the NT. Perhaps, the principle of giving from the heart is deemed more appropriate and spiritually more beneficial in the light of the freedom from the law found in Jesus Christ (Gal 5:1; Rom 8:1-4).

but I want to test the sincerity of your love

As a superior alternative to a command, Paul throws down the gauntlet of gauging the Corinthians' love by what they do in reference to the collection. The love he has in mind is not love for himself but rather love for the Lord, meaning Christ. This is what he praised the Macedonians for doing "first" in 8:5 and what he calls the Corinthians to do in 8:9 in response to "the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ."

The word for "test" (dokimavzw, dokimazô), actually a participle rather than a main verb, has its origins in assaying metal ores for the amount of genuine copper, gold, or silver in them. This could be done by heating them, imagery Paul borrows specifically when he uses the word in 1 Cor 3:13 in reference to God's assessing of "each man's work." The word for "sincerity" (gnhvsio", gnçsios) usually focuses on racial ancestry, signifying the genuine purity of a person's racial make up. Playing on this idea, 1 Tim 1:2 speaks of Timothy as Paul's "true son in the faith" and Titus 1:4 speaks likewise of Titus. The collection, Paul believes, will be a fair test of the legitimacy of the Corinthians' claim to love Christ. It is perhaps no coincidence that all money at that time was formed from metals. The amount of metal will be a proof of their mettle.

by comparing it with the earnestness of others.

Paul reminds the Corinthians that he has a specimen by which to gauge their love. This is the Macedonians, not just the size of their offering but, more importantly, the quality of their attitude. Later, in 8:12, Paul will back off from implying that the Corinthians must measure up to the Macedonians completely. Something less than the Macedonians monetarily will be acceptable but not in terms of attitude. The "earnestness" (spoudhv, spoudç), the same word used in 8:7 and 7:11 to describe the Corinthians, must be the same. It's the genuine attitude of love for the Lord and his purposes that is nonnegotiable in terms of determining giving which is acceptable to him.

8:9 For you know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ,

Fortunately for everyone involved, Paul does not leave the bar set where the Macedonians put it. Rather, he raises it to a height beyond compare, to the incalculable level set by Jesus Christ himself. This is the fifth use of "grace" (cavri", charis ) in this context (previously 8:1,4,6,7). Here it relates to the "love" of 8:8. Jesus' love for humankind is expressed in his gracious act of giving himself for our salvation. This Paul will elaborate in his own memorable way as the verse continues. Paul does not expect believers to leap to the heights of Jesus' love. However, he does expect Jesus' love to energize them to unparalleled expressions of love well beyond what they could have imagined for themselves. This is true for the Macedonians as well as the Corinthians, really, all believers.

The formulaic manner in which Paul expresses himself, especially the "our Lord," suggests that he has made this statement numerous times before. Indeed, such a phrase, with slight variations, commonly appears in the closing of his letters (Rom 16:10; 1 Cor 16:23; 2 Cor 13:13; Gal 6:18; Phil 4:23; 1 Thess 5:28; Phlm 25).

that though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor, so that you through his poverty might become rich.

This poignant way of describing Christ's incarnation Paul apparently expands in Phil 2:5-11. Although he neither uses "poor" nor "rich" there, he does contrast what the preincarnate Christ set aside with what the incarnate Christ became, divinity for servanthood, equality with God for the humility of manhood. Awareness of this parallel makes it relatively simple to grasp Paul's focus when he says he "became poor." Philippians 2:8 expresses unequivocally that Christ's humility, though seen in the totality of his humanity, reaches its epicenter on the cross. He "became obedient to death even death on a cross." Parallel to this idea is also Paul's statement earlier in 2 Cor 5:21, "God made him who had no sin to be sin for us, so that in him we might become the righteousness of God."

Though interpreters occasionally call attention at this point to Jesus' poor socioeconomic status, his lowly birth, carpenter trade, and lack of a place to lay his head, these aspects of his human existence are, at the most, tangential to Paul's point. He wants to get at how Christ divested his poverty into wealth for those who believe, the Corinthians, the Macedonians, anybody. This occurred on the cross when, through his sacrifice, he gave us our freedom from sin. He paid our debt and made our lives rich "so that you through his poverty might become rich."

From this statement, it is apparent that Paul does not so much intend for the Corinthians to model Christ's unique kind of poverty. He gave up absolutely everything, his very life, even his dignity. Rather, he seeks to motivate by reminding them of the wealth of salvation which they have received from Christ. Its value is inestimable, eternal life. Sharing material resources in the name of Christ with other needy believers is a drop in the bucket compared to that.

3. Complete Your Offering (8:10-12)

8:10 And here is my advice about what is best for you in this matter:

Having provided the ultimate motivational principle for giving to the collection instead of a command, Paul now shares with the Corinthians some practical advice on the matter. Even though he offers this as his personal opinion, the Corinthians dare not simply shrug it off. He still maintains his status as their apostle. Also, the word "advice" (gnwvmh, gnômç) normally conveys more the sense of a decision after considerable thought, as in 1 Cor 7:25,40; Acts 20:3, than merely some offhand comment which someone can take or leave.

Although the NIV's rendering adds a considerable number of words that are not in the text, namely "about what is best for you," and does not translate the main verb, "I give," (divdwmi, didômi), it is not out of line to the intended sense.

Last year you were the first not only to give but also to have the desire to do so.

Preliminary to Paul's recommendation, like a stern father he reminds them of a couple of historical points that may have slipped their minds. At one time, not so long ago, they were the model congregation leading out in this endeavor, first to volunteer, first to contribute. Notably, as he says in 9:2, he had initially used their example as a stimulus to the Macedonians. That the situation is now reversed would surely cause the Corinthians to cringe.

The word "last year" (pevrusi, perysi ), only used here and in 9:2 in the NT, assumes a calendar year and does not simply mean "a year ago." If one stood at the beginning of a new year, it could refer to just a few months back, or if at the end of a new year it could mean nearly two years ago.

Significantly, it is not known for sure under which calendar Paul operated, Jewish religious (which is a lunar calendar beginning in the Spring), Jewish civil (which begins in the fall), or Roman (a solar calendar beginning in winter, January 1). Being a Roman traveling in Roman territories and writing to Roman governed cities, he most likely used the Roman, the same used today.

Paul's correspondence to the Corinthians in 1 Cor 16:1-4, written about a year or so before 2 Corinthians stands in between the two events he brings to their attention. Their request for advice on how to take up the collection bridges their desire to do so and their formerly initiating the task.

8:11 Now finish the work, so that your eager willingness to do it may be matched by your completion of it,

Now comes Paul's firm counsel, the only imperative expression in this whole context of 2 Corinthians 8 and 9. It is simple and pointed, "Finish!" How far they had to go to complete their collection is not known. Were they half finished, a quarter finished, 90% there? We don't know. But they were not done, not because they had not collected enough money but because they had quit collecting sometime during the past year. Now that their rift with Paul has been mended, it's time to get the weekly collection going again and perhaps to pick up the pace to make up for lost time.

The words "finish" and "completion" in this verse translate the same Greek word (ejpitelevw, epiteleô), used previously in 8:6 and 7:1. Used seven times in Paul's letters (Rom 15:28; Gal 3:3; Phil 1:6), it seems to be preferred by Paul to its synonym (teleiovw, teleioô) which is used only once by Paul (Phil 3:12) but 21 other times outside of Paul's writings.

"Eager willingness" harkens back once again to the good old days when the Corinthians' enthusiasm for the collection and for Paul knew no bounds. Can they rekindle it now and throttle full steam ahead to a worthy completion? The word "eager" (proqumiva, prothymia ), except for Acts 17:11, only appears in this context in the NT, albeit four times beginning with this verse (8:11,12,19; 9:2). It indicates that someone is ready and determined to act. Pairing it as the internal drive to do something with the actual activity of doing it, as Paul does here, is fitting. In Greek, "willingness" appropriately renders the infinitive of "will" or "desire" (qevlw, thelô).

according to your means.

As he will clarify in 8:12, Paul does not expect the Corinthians to put themselves into a state of poverty in order to give to this collection. Neither does he wish for the Corinthians to think that they must somehow outgive or outsacrifice the Macedonians. It is not some Olympic event. Clearly, Paul ranks what the Macedonians have done to be extraordinary. The Corinthians must give what they are able to give, out of earnings that are available for them to give. Just before he praised the Macedonians for giving "beyond their ability," he praised them in similar terms to what appears here in 8:11 for giving "as much as they were able." This level is quite satisfactory as far as he is concerned.

The word translated "means" (e[cw, echô) is the infinitive of the verb "have." They must give what they actually have, not pie in the sky. Paul desires them to be realistic as well as generous.

8:12 For if the willingness is there, the gift is acceptable

Paul delineates the most important biblical principle there is regarding Christians' contributing money or their material possessions to God's causes, whether it be regular church giving or missionary giving or special cause giving. No matter the amount given, it is spiritually worthless if it is not thoughtfully, wholeheartedly presented. Arm twisting, guilt, showmanship, these motivations are out. The well worn KJV adage, "God loves a cheerful giver," from a little farther down in this context (2 Cor 9:7), captures this truth as well as anything. God doesn't need our money as much he wants our hearts.

according to what one has, not according to what one does not have.

The principle of faith-promise giving is a staple in many churches today. Pledging in faith what one believes God will make available has its merits. However, Paul's guidance here should be sobering. Even pledges of this type should be based on some level of realism. Pledging $100,000 annually to a cause when one earns $40,000 a year breaks the bonds even of faith-promise. This does not mean, though, that Christians should not push themselves, as a matter of spiritual growth, to give more sacrificially from one year to the next.

As far as the Corinthians are concerned, Paul does not want them to give simply out of the competitive drive to raise more money than the Macedonians or other churches. They can and should do more than they have by reinstituting the weekly offerings. However, it's their spiritual condition Paul is most concerned about. They should feel good about whatever they have come up with in the end, as long as they have given with the right motives.

Some question whether or not Jesus' praise in Mark 12:41-44 of the widow who put in her two, meager coins as opposed to the rich who put in large amounts should be raised in conjunction with Paul's ideas in this context. While it is true that Jesus' point had to do with the proportion of her offering compared to the wealthy, it should not be overlooked that she did in fact give what she had. She simply gave extravagantly, perhaps all that she had, having no reservations that God would take care of her humble needs in the future. It would appear that she also gave "willingly," from the heart, which also was likely part of Jesus' point. The rich gave to impress, not out true conviction.

4. Achieve Equity (8:13-15)

8:13 Our desire is not that others might be relieved while you are hard pressed,

Paul extends his rationale for the Corinthians to give willingly to the cause of the Jerusalem Christians, indicated by the word "for" (gavr, gar ) which appears in the Greek and is assumed in the NIV translation with the addition of "our desire," which does not occur in the Greek text. The word "others" surely refers to the Jerusalem Christians. Its appearance, though, suggests that Paul sees wide-ranging principles of Christian giving at work in this situation and not just this particular collection. He believes that Christian giving should come out of a recognition of genuine need. It should not put the recipient on easy street, nor throw the giver into harm's way.

The word "relieved" (a[nesi", anesis ) here as in its other four uses in the NT (Acts 24:23; 2 Cor 2:13; 7:5; and 2 Thess 1:7) refers to relaxation or rest that comes after a period of stress or difficulty. It does not necessarily refer to a luxurious lifestyle but probably a way of expressing what Paul would view as the goal of the collection, to give the Jerusalem Christians relief from their economic hardship.

The word "hard pressed," employed now for the last of its nine times in 2 Cor (1:4 - twice, 8; 2:4; 4:17; 6:4; 7:4; 8:2), refers to trouble that impacts a person or a community from external forces. By using it, Paul expresses an assumption that the dire economic predicament of the Jerusalem Christians has come through no fault of their own but most likely from the regional famine which has continued for over ten years and possibly on top of that, religious persecution from loyal Jews who find the growing presence of Christians in their midst an irritation.

but that there might be equality.

"Equality" (ijsovth", isotçs) is a word which rings in the ears of those who live in a democracy like the United States. "That all men are created equal," "have certain inalienable rights," and that there should be "liberty and justice for all" are foundational to democratic principles of representative democracy. It should come as no surprise that this very word, used precious little in the NT (only here, 8:14, and Col 4:1), abounds in Greek literature expressing the equal rights and equal standing all citizens have in Greek society.

The question is whether this is the idea Paul has in mind when he uses it here and in 8:14. Certainly he believes that all believers are equal in the sense of their salvation and that they are all equally important in the functioning of the church despite a variety of functions (1 Cor 12). However, it is uncertain that such ideas are in mind here either. Does Paul really expect a financial leveling of the church, the prosperous sharing finances with the less prosperous until everyone's books balance the same, Acts 2:45 raised to a global scale? This is doubtful.

What Paul seems to be interested in is what we would call "equity" rather than "equality." The latter involves counting out equal shares of something: "You get two, I get two." The former is concerned more about what is fair, accounting for undeniable differences in people and situations. If we are handing out pieces of a pie, not every wants or needs the same size. Slices are shared fairly with respect to our differences. Significantly, this is exactly how it is translated by the NIV in Col 4:1, when it exhorts believers who have slaves to treat them in a way that could be viewed as "fair." Does this mean masters are to divide up their material resources and dole them out to all their slaves? Does it mean they are to free them and treat them as equal citizens? No, they are to treat them fairly, consistent with their station in their households, not to abuse their responsibilities as masters.

The collection, then, should help achieve a kind of equity with the Jerusalem believers, as well as among all the congregations which contribute to it, within the uneven framework of the church as a whole.

8:14 At the present time your plenty will supply what they need,

Paul spells out what he means by "equality" in 8:13. Currently, the Corinthian church, and really the new Gentile churches as a whole, are better off economically than the Jerusalem believers, and at the same time the Jerusalem Christians are hurting. Helping out would be only fair, or equitable. That the Corinthians are not being called upon to become as poor as the Jerusalem Christians in order to do this is made clear by the word "plenty" (perivsseuma, perisseuma ). It refers to the extra or surplus of material possessions which the Corinthians enjoy as God's blessings.

The word "need" (uJstevrhma, hysterçma) indicates once again that the economic plight of the Jerusalem believers is serious, and it is real.

so that in turn their plenty will supply what you need.

The "will" of the NIV might be rendered better as "might." The verb "become" (gevnetai, genetai ), not actually translated by the NIV, is subjunctive mood, which indicates the possibility, not the certainty, of something occurring. In combination with "at the present time" at the beginning of the verse, this suggests that having accounted for the present, Paul now contemplates the future possibility that the Corinthians may one day be in need, economically or in some other way that the Jerusalem believers might be able to remedy out of their resources. This makes it unlikely that Paul has in mind the debt the Gentiles currently owe the Jews for Scripture, the Messiah, or Christian missionaries like Paul.

The future possibility of interchanging roles is probably more theoretical than real. Paul would view any church as helping out another in need as a working principle. In that case, the nature of the contemplated future exchange need not be limited to material resources. Spiritual resources, leadership, or other kinds of resources could likely be involved.

Then there will be equality,

The equality Paul has in mind is created by congregations helping one another out whenever they can respond to known needs. Again, this creates not so much equality as equity.

8:15 as it is written: "He who gathered much did not have too much, and he who gathered little did not have too little." ^a

^a 15 Exodus 16:18

This quotation from Exod 16:18 assesses the result of God's provision of daily manna for the Israelites. Paul believes it proves his principle of giving as divinely underwritten. It also makes the case about his concept of "equality" being "equity." It doesn't say that each individual gathered and ate exactly the same amount. Rather, it concludes that provision was made according to each person's need, whether they be man, woman, or child, large or little, having a low metabolism rate or high. They ate different amounts but shared from the same pool of God's provision. So, Paul views the church universal as filled with God's resources - people, abilities, materials - which are shared from one church to another as needed for God to achieve his purposes.

B. TITUS PLUS TWO OTHERS SENT TO CORINTH TO HELP (8:16-9:5)

1. Criticism to Be Thwarted (8:16-21)

8:16 I thank God, who put into the heart of Titus the same concern I have for you.

Paul has organized an effort to reignite the collection gathering among the Corinthians. He is sending a group, headed by Titus, who has just returned from his successful mission to Corinth, along with two others. The purpose of this action seems to be not only to provide social peer pressure on the Corinthians to give but also to help them organize the effort in practical ways. At least the first brother mentioned appears to have experience from being involved in the collection in his own church. Most likely, these three also will carry this letter, 2 Corinthians, to the Corinthian church, and what Paul says at this point about them is to serve as their introduction. Possibly, Titus acknowledges them by name as he gets to this section in his oral reading of the letter to the Corinthians.

Paul opens this section with praise to God for his marvellous work, particularly in the heart of Titus. The word "thank" actually translates the noun normally translated "grace" (cavri", charis ). This a perfectly fitting nontheological rendering of the word, a favorite of Paul's in 2 Corinthians (used 17 times) and in this context (used 10 times). His employment of the word's full range of meanings, both theological and nontheological just within 8:1-9:15 is staggering. He will even use it in 8:19 to refer to the offering, or collection, itself.

The phrase "the same concern" most likely refers to Paul's disposition toward the Corinthians, which is why the NIV adds the interpretative phrase "I have for you." Paul previously employed this word "concern" (spoudhv, spoudç), also translated "haste" or "earnestness," in 8:7 and 8:8. In 8:7 it refers to the earnestness of the Corinthians, and in 8:8 it refers to the earnestness of others in comparison to the Corinthians. However, it is more likely, as the NIV indicates, that Paul's reference to "the same concern" in describing Titus has in view the broader picture of care for the Corinthians that Paul has evidenced generally throughout the letter thus far.

8:17 For Titus not only welcomed our appeal, but he is coming to you with much enthusiasm and on his own initiative.

One might not expect Titus to be eager to retrace his journey to Corinth after just returning from there. However, his affection for the believers there, to which Paul has already referred in 7:13-16, is proven to be real by the fact that he is excited about the prospect of going back. Even though this is Paul's plan initially, Titus jumps on board immediately.

The word "appeal" (paravklhsi", paraklçsis, used eleven times in 2 Corinthians, usually means "encouragement" or "comfort." In this the last use of it, Paul taps what is its most common meaning in Greek literature outside the NT but rare (Heb 13:22 the only other place) within the NT. Likely, Paul uses this word because he does not wish to convey in any way that he forced or commanded Titus to go along with his plan. No doubt, the plan was initiated by Paul, and he asked Titus to participate as the leader of this group back to Corinth. Since Titus had just returned from the grueling trip and carried out a most difficult task, Paul must have given Titus the option to decline his request. However, Titus more than exceeded Paul's expectations because he thought it was a great idea and quickly took over responsibility for the project.

Paul employs a rare word in the NT to convey this self-actualization by Titus, used elsewhere only in 2 Cor 8:3. The NIV's "much enthusiasm" is an intensified adjective (spoudaiovtero", spoudaioteros ) related to the word "concern" (spoudç) in 8:3. Paul is trying to convey Titus's positive emotional reaction to the idea of seeing the Corinthians again.

8:18 And we are sending along with him the brother who is praised by all the churches for his service to the gospel.

Paul now informs the Corinthians about the first of the two companions he plans to send with Titus to assist the Corinthians in organizing their collection. This one comes highly recommended by a representative group of congregations who know him well. The fact that Paul calls him brother probably means more than simply that this man is a Christian. He is someone who has worked with Paul, whom Paul knows well and trusts. Why Paul withholds the man's name and also the name of the third member of the entourage is hard to say. It may simply be the way Paul chooses to show that these two delegates are of a lessor status than Titus. Normally Paul is not shy to name names, although he also keeps to himself the name of the "loyal yokefellow" in Phil 4:2.

Not surprisingly, numerous suggestions have been made about the identity of this man so well known, at least to a significant region of churches. These include: Luke, Barnabas, Timothy, Mark, Aristarchus, Apollos, Titus's natural brother, and one of the six men (including Timothy and Aristarchus) named as being in the group of collection representatives mentioned in Acts 20:4. The most likely candidates are Luke, or one of the six men of Acts 20:4. However, most agree not enough evidence exists to mount a compelling argument for anyone already named in the NT. There is no particular reason for supposing the man should be named elsewhere in the NT when he is not named here.

Whoever he is, his reputation with reference to the gospel is widely known. The NIV's "service to the gospel" chooses to generalize his role. However, the Greek literally says "in the gospel" (ejn tw/' eujaggelivw/, en tô euangeliô). This could be intended more narrowly, though it is less likely, that this man is noted for being an effective evangelist or for dynamic preaching (see RSV).

8:19 What is more, he was chosen by the churches to accompany us as we carry the offering,

The fact the brother "is praised" has observable results. Independent of Paul's influence, a group of churches selected him as their representative to accompany Paul with their collection. This description does lend substance to the view that he was one of the delegates mentioned in Acts 20:4, though it is possible he is unnamed even there. The fact that this man has already been selected suggests that the churches who selected him have already completed their offering, or at least have it nearly completed. He is going on ahead of it with this special responsibility Paul has given him.

The presence of this "praised" man is significant for the collection in Corinth. His selection by the churches means he is not just Paul's man. His inclusion vouches for Paul's integrity regarding the collection project, possibly a lingering problem for the Corinthians according to 2 Cor 12:14. Knowing that this man comes from a group of churches who have successfully completed the project also puts pressure on the Corinthians to measure up to what he has seen believers accomplish in giving toward this collection.

Evidence is uncertain about the manner in which the "praised" man was selected by the congregations. The word Paul uses to express the NIV's "was chosen" (ceirotonevw, cheirotoneô) in Greek antiquity originally signified "choosing by the raising of hands," (ceivr, cheir being the Greek word for "hand"). Thus, some commentators suggest it means this man was "elected," which makes this passage a proof text for the idea of democratically elected leadership in the church.

However, in Acts 14:23, the only other NT use of the word, it refers to Paul and Barnabas appointing elders in the churches established on the first missionary journey with no election involved. Further, although "election" is clearly the original meaning of the word with reference to the Athenian assembly in ancient Greek culture, it is not certain that it always carries the idea of election in the first century. Thus, the man could have been appointed in some fashion which may or may not have included election.

As mentioned in comments on 9:16, the word translated "offering" by the NIV is the familiar NT word for "grace" (cavri", charis ) but employed in a wide variety of ways in 2 Corinthians. Paul has already in 8:1 attributed the generous amount of the Macedonian collection as attributable to the activity of God's grace in their lives. Although unusual, it is not really such a stretch for Paul to identify the collection as a whole with God's grace as he does here. It does nicely emphasize the vital financial stewardship principle that giving to God's causes is not our own doing as Christians but rather comes out of God's provision and should be viewed as evidence of God's work in our lives.

which we administer in order to honor the Lord himself and to show our eagerness to help.

In 8:3 the word "administer" (diakonevw, diakoneô) was already used by Paul to refer to the collection. The noun form of the word ( diakonia ) he uses often in 2 Corinthians to refer to his own ministry, or service, to God (2 Cor 3:8,9; 4:1; 5:18; 6:3). The offering is not just some job to Paul; it is integral to his apostolic ministry.

Paul verbalizes two goals for the collection from his perspective. The first has to do with God. Paul desires the collection to attribute "honor," or more literally, "glory" (dovxa, doxa ) to God. He wants people, particularly those Judean Christians, to see God's grace at work in the lives of the believers in the churches of Asia Minor and Greece.

The second goal of the collection has to do with human relationships. Paul speaks of this in terms of "eagerness," in the NIV rendition. The Greek word (proqumiva, prothymia ) is only used in the NT one time outside of 2 Corinthians (Acts 17:11). All four other times are in this context (8:11,12,19; 9:2). The word attempts to capture the positive attitude and enthusiasm humans can have toward a variety of things. Here, Paul wants the Judean Christians to be touched by the fact that the collection was not in any way coerced but rather evidences the genuine human concern of the Christians in Greece and Asia Minor as well as Paul himself for the Christians who are suffering famine in Judea.

8:20 We want to avoid any criticism of the way we administer this liberal gift.

Paul was certainly criticized by his opponents in Corinth for not accepting monetary gifts from the Corinthians (1 Cor 9:18; 2 Cor 2:17; 11:7-9; 12:13). Slander of his character regarding the collection may also be attributable to them as an aspect of their alleging superiority to him (2 Cor 12:14). Since so many philosophical hucksters flooded the cities of the ancient world (2 Cor 2:17), Paul knew he needed to be careful not to raise any more eyebrows among the Corinthians. As one interpreter puts it, "To be honest was not enough; he had to be seen to be honest, and this is where the envoy came in."

Having only just normalized his relationship with the Corinthians after the nasty falling out during his last visit with them, it is significant that Paul is not going back personally on this financial mission. Sending others, at least one of whom is not tied directly to him, should keep anyone from distrusting the validity of the collection. The word "criticism" (mwmavomai, mômaomai), actually a verb, is only used twice in the NT, here and in 6:3 in which Paul states that doing everything he can to avoid criticism for the sake of the gospel is a guiding principle of his ministry in general. This principle is now specified with respect to the delicate matter of the collection.

The phrase "liberal gift" is actually just one Greek word, used only here in all the NT. This word (aJdrovth", hadrotçs) refers to an abundance of something, sometimes describing the "fullness" of someone's human body, meaning fat. It also sometimes includes the idea of strength, the two of which bring to mind a Japanese sumo wrestler. Anyway, the word here gives expression to the enormous offering Paul expects to result from this collection project.

8:21 For we are taking pains to do what is right, not only in the eyes of the Lord but also in the eyes of men.

Paul essentially reiterates the sentiment from 8:19. The expression is modeled after Prov 3:4, part of which is also reflected in Rom 12:17. Paul desires the collection to be viewed in every respect as an acceptable offering to the Lord and as a purely motivated action of genuine concern to the Judean Christians.

The word translated "what is right" (kalov", kalos ) is an adjective often meaning "beautiful," "useful," or "good." In Greek usage outside the NT, it is frequently found in documents honoring men who contributed financially to projects that benefited the general public. Similarly, Paul desires both God and man to view the collection project as a public good, at least with respect to Christianity.

2. Measure Up to Expectations (8:22-24)

8:22 In addition, we are sending with them our brother

A third member of the special collection envoy is now noted. The identity of this one most interpreters consider to be even more shadowy than the "praised" brother introduced in the previous paragraph and, therefore, are silent in suggesting names. The only clue is drawn from the reference to this third brother as "our" as opposed to the "praised" brother who is qualified as "the" brother. To some this links this third brother more closely to Paul's circle of associates than the "praised" brother.

It is also suggested that this makes it less likely that this third brother could be one of the representatives of the churches mentioned in Acts 20:4. However, in 8:23 both he and the "praised" brother are identified as "representatives of the churches," though nothing is said about him as having any specific role in the collection previous to the one he is now being assigned to. The fact that he is mentioned last suggests that he has a lessor role in the mission than either Titus or the "praised" brother.

Sending three members in this envoy further reinforces the view that Paul is nervous about how this collection thrust among the Corinthians will be perceived. Two would normally be sufficient. Three should help the Corinthians trust that the collection is being administered honestly and will not line Paul's pockets.

who has often proved to us in many ways that he is zealous,

The word "zealous" (spoudai'o", spoudaios ) is the same word used to describe Titus in 8:17, translated there as "enthusiasm." Most likely Paul intends this word to encapsulate this brother's eagerness to serve the cause of the gospel as well as his unhesitating commitment to it. "Proved" (dokimavzw, dokimazô) indicates the observable results of being tested. Like an "A" on an exam, this "proved" brother has demonstrated to Paul personally, and probably to others among his associates, innumerable times his unwavering steadfastness in the Lord despite many kinds of trying situations.

and now even more so because of his great confidence in you.

The NIV's "more so" (poluÉ spoudaiovteron, poly spoudaioteron ) includes a repetition of the Greek word for "zealous" (this time as a comparative adjective) employed in the previous clause, literally yielding "much more zealous." It would seem that the "proved" brother's normal disposition of enthusiasm for the gospel has bubbled over into his attitude toward the Corinthians. Whether he personally knows the Corinthians or has simply found Titus's enthusiastic report about the Corinthians contagious is impossible to say. The bottom line is, for whatever reasons, he believes in the Corinthians. Such a positively geared person is just the kind Paul wants to send into this Corinthian atmosphere which, despite Titus's report, likely still has negativity in the air.

8:23 As for Titus, he is my partner and fellow worker among you;

Titus has proved his mettle to Paul in dealing successfully with the highly charged situation left in the aftermath of Paul's Painful Visit, not only carrying the Severe Letter but also bringing most of the church around to Paul's side. With regard to the Corinthians' situation anyway, then, Titus, as far as Paul is concerned, has put himself on equal footing with him. The uniqueness of Titus's status in Paul's eyes is signified by calling Titus "my partner" (koinwnov", koinônos), a word he never uses with regard to any of his other associates. In Luke 5:10, this word is used to describe James, John, and Peter as business partners. It is related to the word koinônia, commonly translated "fellowship."

The possessive adjective "my" (ejmov", emos ) stands out as underlining the personal nature of Paul's esteem for Titus, especially in this context in which Paul dominantly represents himself by the first person plural ("we," 8:22; "our brother," 8:22; "our brothers," 8:23; "our pride," 8:24).

Paul routinely employs the word "fellow worker" (sunergov", synergos ) to refer to his associates. Those he denotes by this term include: Priscilla and Aquila (Rom 16:3); Urbanus (Rom 16:9); Timothy (Rom 16:21); Epaphroditus (Phil 2:25); Aristarchus, Mark, and Jesus Justus (Col 4:11); Philemon (Phlm 1); Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, and Luke (Phlm 24).

as for our brothers, they are representatives of the churches and an honor to Christ.

Paul identifies the status of both the "praised" brother and the "proved" brother as "apostles" (ajpovstolo", apostolos ), the Greek word underlying the NIV "representatives." The NIV is probably right not to translate this literally because it might confuse those who associate this term only with the Twelve and others, like Paul, Barnabas, and James, who minister for the gospel as eyewitnesses of the risen Christ.

However, these brothers are clearly in a different, less exclusive category, indicated by the fact that they are designated "apostles of the churches" as opposed to "apostles of Christ." This is a perfectly appropriate way to describe them, as they have been chosen by different groups of churches to be their representatives, either with regard to this specialized envoy, or perhaps as official representatives for their churches' collections. In the latter sense, both may be named in the Acts 20:4 list.

In an effort to praise both men, he says they are "an honor to Christ." Literally, this reads "glory of Christ" (dovxa cristou', doxa Christou ). The word "glory" in the OT refers to God's manifestation of himself in a variety of ways. In the NT it becomes associated with Christ since he reflects the glory of God. Here, these two brothers manifest the glory of Christ in their lives. Notably, Paul's last use of "glory" refers to one of his goals in undertaking the collection, to bring glory to the Lord. Perhaps Paul's reason for associating these two church representatives with the glory of Christ, handled somewhat awkwardly in the Greek, is because of their previous successful involvement with the collections in the churches they represent.

8:24 Therefore show these men the proof of your love and the reason for our pride in you,

What constitutes proof in this case probably is twofold: receiving warmly this official envoy from Paul and, most crucially, cooperating with them in their efforts to rejuvenate and organize the Corinthian offering. Since time is of the essence, Paul is hoping his words here in this letter, 2 Corinthians, will expedite both hospitality for the envoy and speedy completion of their mission. To whom is the proof of love directed? Probably to Paul, God, and the Christian brothers and sisters suffering in Jerusalem.

The word "pride" (kauvchsi", kauchçsis) is usually rendered "boasting" even by the NIV (noting 2 Cor 1:12; 7:14; 11:10; 11:17). Although "pride" may assume "boasting," it doesn't necessarily, and it is important for the reader to be able to recognize that Paul has, in fact, been actually speaking in glowing terms about the Corinthians. Probably his boasting included what he says in 8:10 and 9:2 about their initial enthusiasm for the collection project. Further, his boasting may include exuding confidence since Titus has returned that the Corinthians will come through with flying colors on this financial project if they are given a chance to catch up. This very confidence is what motivates Paul to organize this envoy in the first place.

so that the churches can see it.

Literally, this reads that the Corinthians might show the proof of love "in the face of the churches." He envisages that at some point word will get back to the churches which the "praised" brother and the "proved" brother represent, perhaps reported by these two themselves. Paul dearly hopes that this news regarding the Corinthians' response to the envoys' collection efforts will be glowing.

With all his heart he desires and believes the Corinthians will more than exceed the flattering picture he has painted of them. Yet, this last clause of the chapter comes as a prod too; other churches, at least those in Macedonia, will know what the Corinthians have done regarding the collection, probably even the amount. If nothing else, the holy peer pressure of others' knowing is intended to raise self-pride enough for the Corinthians to do what they need to do. The rest of the church is watching.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

McGarvey: 2Co 8:18

And we have sent together with him the brother whose praise in the gospel is spread through all the churches [Baynes, in his "Horæ Lucanæ," argues very conclusively that this was Luke. He was at Philippi about this time, and was among those who accompanied Paul from Macedonia (or perhaps Corinth) to Jerusalem (Act 20:2-6). The phrase "In the gospel" can hardly be taken as indicating that at this time Luke had written his Gospel, but the Gospel which he wrote is evidently not the work of a day. No doubt at this time Luke was so versed in the gospel history as to be fittingly described by the words here used by Paul];

Lapide: 2Co 8:1-24

CHAPTER 8

SYNOPSIS OF THE CHAPTER

i. He exhorts the Corinthians to imitate the generosity of the Macedonian Christians in sending alms to the poor at Jerusalem.

ii. He points (ver. 9) to the example of Christ, who for our sakes was made poor, that through His poverty we might be rich.

iii. He urges them (ver. 10) to fulfil their purpose and half-promise, and bids each one give according to his means.

iv. He says (ver. 13) that by so doing rich and poor will be equalised, through the former giving their temporal goods in return for spiritual benefits.

v. He reminds them (ver. 16) that he had sent Titus and other Apostles to make this collection, and warns them that if they put His messengers to shame they themselves will also be put to shame before them.

The first example of the almsgiving referred to in this and the next chapters is related by S. Luke (Act 11:28). This famine under Claudius is referred by many to his fourth year, by Baronius to his second, i.e., A.D. 44. From S. Luke's narrative it appears that the Christians of Antioch zealously met the famine beforehand by sending alms by the hands of Barnabas and Paul. Many years afterwards, in A.D. 58, the collection spoken of in this chapter was made in Corinth and the neighbouring places. Further, a greater and more lasting cause of the poverty of the Christians of Jerusalem was the constant persecution suffered by them at the hands of the Jews since the death of Stephen, frequently taking the form of banishment and confiscation of their goods (Act 8:1, and Heb 10:34). From that time forward the Jews were sworn foes to Christ: and bitterly persecuted the Christians; and since the Church of Jerusalem was the mother of all others, the custom prevailed amongst Christians in all parts of the world of sending, help to the poor of that Church. When Vigilantius found fault with this custom in the time of Theodosius, S. Jerome, writing against him, testifies to its prevalence with approbation. He says: " This custom down to the present time remains, not only among us, but also among the Jews, that they who meditate in the law of the Lord day and night, and have no lot in the earth save God only, be supported by the ministry of the synagogues, and of the uhole earth."

In this chapter, then, the Apostle is urging the Corinthians, as being rich, to the duty of almsgiving. Corinth was the most frequented emporium of Greece, and in it were many wealthy merchants

Ver. 1 . — Moreover, brethren, we do you to wit of the grace. God has given to the Macedonian Christians great patience, liberality, and pity for others.

Ver. 2 . — How that in a great trial of affliction the abundance of their joy. When greatly tried by sundry tribulations, they were very joyful.

And their deep poverty abounded. Having sounded the depths of poverty, the Macedonians, as it were, broke out into plentiful and abundant kindness and almsgiving

Liberality is given in the Latin version simplicity, and denotes a pure, liberal, and ready will to give. Liberality is measured not by the greatness of the gift, but by the promptitude of the mind, as Chrysostom and Theophylact say. " Simplicity " says Ambrose ( Ep. 10), " weighs not pros and cons, has no mean suspicions or dishonest thoughts, but overflows with pure affection." Cf. Rom 12:8.

Ver. 3.— For to their power. . . they were willing. Of their own free will, without being solicited, they came forward and contributed as much as and more than they were able to afford.

Ver.4.— Praying us. Begging us to undertake the gracious work of collection, and take our part in it. The Apostle often applies the word χάρις (gift) to what is gratuitous and munificent. Here he applies it to the work of collection. In ver. 7 and elsewhere he applies it to the alms itself.

Ver. 5. — Not as we hoped They gave much more than we expected.

But first gave their own selves to the Lord and unto us. They first surrendered themselves to the will of God and then to ours, to do and give whatever I wished.

Observe here that they who give alms ought, if they are to do it properly, first to give their hearts to God, and in token that they have so surrendered themselves to Him, they ought then to give alms, as tribute paid to Him.

By the will of God. God wishes people to follow our directions, and regard our wish as His, and us as the interpreters of His will, so what we will God also wills to be done by those under us. He Himself says: "He that heareth you heareth Me" (Anselm and Theophylact).

Ver. 6. — Insomuch that we desired Titus. We asked Titus to collect these alms, just as we had collected them in Macedonia. We doubted not for a moment that the liberality of the rich Corinthians would not be outshone in readiness and amount by the poverty of the Macedonians. This is to stimulate the Corinthians to liberality by the example of the Macedonians.

Ver. 7. — See that ye abound in this grace also. See that, as ye abound in faith, care, and love towards me, so ye abound in almsgiving to the poor (Anselm).

Ver. 8. — By occasion of the forwardness of others. I do not command, but seek to move you by the example of the Macedonians, who were so anxious to help the poor.

And improve the sincerity of your love. I say this to make test of your love, sincerity, and goodness, and to stimulate you by others' example. The Latin ingenium, which is the rendering of the Greek γνήσιον, does not here denote the good disposition of charity, as Anselm thinks, in which case the meaning would be: I say this, not to test and show that your charity has a good disposition, by its suggesting, dictating, and advising that you do this good deed without any order from me; but γνήσιον denotes, not ingenium, but ingenuum, or an innate disposition. Again, the word for prove has the double idea of testing and then demonstrating. Maldonatus, indeed ( Notæ Manusc.), renders it, "longing to prove to others;" for, as he says, the Greek verb here denotes not the effect but the affection.

Ver. 9. — For ye know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ. This is a fresh stimulus to almsgiving. Christ, the King of kings, for your sakes became poor when He was born in the stable, because there was no room for Him in the inn. Instead of His royal throne He had a manger; for bedding, hay; for fire, the breath of ox and ass; for curtains, spiders' webs; for sweet perfumes, stable ordure; for purple, filthy rags; for His stud, ox and ass; for a crowd of nobles, Joseph and Mary. So, too, His whole after-life was stamped with poverty, or, as Erasmus renders the Greek here, with beggary. From this it appears that Christ was not merely poor, but was also an actual beggar.

That ye through His poverty might be rich. Rich with spiritual riches, with lessons of godliness, with forgiveness of sins, righteousness, holiness, and other virtues. The Corinthians are tacitly bidden, if they wish to imitate Christ closely, to enrich the poor with their alms, to impoverish themselves so as to enrich others. Cf. Anselm on the riches and poverty of Christ, and Chrysostom ( Hom. 17), who points out how the Christian should not be ashamed of or shrink from poverty.

S. Gregory Nazianzen (Oral. 1 in Pascha ) beautifully contrasts our benefits and Christ's loving-kindness. He says: " Christ was made poor that we through His poverty might be rich. He took the form of a servant that we might regain liberty. He descended that we might be exalted. He was tempted that we might overcome. He was despised that He might fill us with glory. He died that we might be saved. He ascended, to draw to Himself those lying prostrate on the ground through sin's stumblingblock." S. Augustine again says beautifully: " What will His riches do if His poverty made us rich?" Lastly, from these words of the Apostle, Bede infers: " All good faithful souls are rich: let none despise himself. The poor in his cell, being rich in his conscience, sleeps more quietly on the hard ground than he that is Rich in gold sleeps in purple."

Ver. 10.— And herein I give my advice. Bede takes this: "Herein I give my opinion," but wrongly; for advice is here contrasted with precept.

Not only to do but also to be forward. Or "to be willing," i.e., of your own accord, no one forcing you. This, as S. Paul hints, is more than to do it when asked (Anselm). Gregory ( Hom. 18 in Ezek.) says: " This very exhortation contains a reproach. 'A year ago,' he says. They did well then, but slowly. Their teacher, therefore, while he praises, chides. He is a physician who applies to the wound a remedy which both soothes what has been already cleansed, and bites the parts that are found unsound."

Ver. 11 . — So there may be a performance. Lucian's lines are well known:—

"Sweeter is grace that is prompt;

 If slow is the hand that bestows,

 Its grace becomes empty and vain

 And title to grace must resign."

And again:—

"He double gives who promptly gives."

Ver. 12.— It is accepted according to that a man hath. In other words, "Give what you can" (Ambrose, Chrysostom, Anselm). Observe here 1. that the perfection and merit of almsgiving and of every virtue consists in the readiness of the will and not in the greatness or the number of the gifts; and, therefore, before God, when this readiness is greater then the virtue is greater, even if, on account of poverty or some other cause, the wish is unable to issue in the external act of giving. Hence S. Paul says that the willing mind is accepted, not the gift. Cf. S. Mar 12:43.

2. Notwithstanding, in order that this readiness be accepted before God, says S. Thomas, as true, earnest, and efficacious, it must issue in act according to what it has, i.e., give of what it has according to its power; otherwise it would be merely a wish, not an earnest and ready will. It is not expected to give what it has not, as S. Paul says. "Let him who has," says Theophylact, "carry out his work; he who has not has already carried out his work by willing it." S. Leo ( Serm. 4 de Jej. Dec. Mensis ) says: "Unequal expenditure may give equal merits; for the intention may be the same, though the incomes be widely different;" and Anselm says: "Here all, whether poor or rich, give equally, if each gives in proportion to what he has."

3. It follows that amongst those who are equally rich or equally poor that one is the more liberal and has more merit who gives more. Amongst those, however, whose wealth is unequal, that one merits more who gives the more in proportion to his means, although absolutely he may give less than his richer neighbour. Cf. Tob. 4:9.  S. Augustine ( Enarr. in Ps. 104) says: " If you can give, give. If you cannot, give courtesy. God crowns the goodness within when He finds not means without. Let no one say, I have not.' Charity is not paid from the pocket."

Ver. 13. — For I mean not that other men be eased, and ye burdened. I do not enjoin on you such liberal almsgiving as to enable the poor to live in luxury and you in need, but I wish every one to think of the necessities of others according to his power, without neglecting his own (Theophylact).  S. Paul does not enjoin this, but he counsels it. It is, say S. Thomas and Anselm, an evangelical counsel, and, therefore, a sign of greater perfection, to give all your goods to the poor and become wholly poor yourself. "If thou wilt be perfect, go and sell that thou hast and give to the poor," said Christ (S. Mat 19:21). This can be done not only by those who are going to devote themselves to the religious life, but even by those who remain in the world, as, e.g., by the poor widow (S. Mar 12:43). Do not mistake me: any one may do this provided he do not bring himself into extreme necessity, and if he has no family, for whom he is bound to provide. Theophylact adds that in the next verse the Apostle exhorts the Corinthians to give beyond their strength, when he says "that now at this time your abundance may be a supply for their want," meaning: If you wish for a great reward, give liberally; if for the whole reward, give your all. He takes abundance to mean profuse almsgiving, abounding beyond their strength, such as S. Paul praised in the Macedonians. The reason is this, that such an act is one of supreme, heroic almsgiving, poverty, fortitude, and hope in God.

We have a striking example of this in S. Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, who, after spending all his goods on the poor, at last gave himself up to the Vandals to be enslaved in the place of the son of a widow. His self-abnegation is praised by S. Augustine ( de Civ. Dei, lib. i. c. 10). The event showed that his action was pleasing to God, for, when he was living as a slave, he was recognised by the Vandals under the inspiration of God, and was honourably treated and sent back home.  S. Paula, again, was so liberal to the poor that her frequent prayer was heard, and, according to her wish, she had to be buried at the expense of others, and in another's garments. S. Jerome, in his Life of her, praises her warmly for this.  S. Martin,  S. John the Almoner, and many others are examples of the same liberality. But abundance in this verse more properly denotes the abundant wealth of the Corinthians; for S. Paul contrasts it with the poverty of the Christians of Jerusalem, and desires that one may relieve the other.

Ver. 14 . — But by an equality. I do not command so large almsgiving that your homes be pauperised while the poor have ample, but of your superfluity, which supplies the proper matter of almsgiving, I beg you to communicate with the poor, and supply their want, so that you may both have the necessities of life, and may each hold the mean between the two extremes of poverty and abundance. Let there be nothing superfluous in the means of them that give, and nothing deficient in the way of the necessaries of life to them that receive (Theophylact).

That their abundance also may be a supply for your want. So their abundant supply of faith and hope and all graces will, by their prayers and merits before God, assist your spiritual poverty in this life, and in the other life they will, when you die, receive you into everlasting habitations. The kingdom of heaven is the possession of Christ's poor (Anselm).

That there may be equality. By an interchange of spiritual goods as well as temporal.

Ver. 15. — As it is written. Exo 16:18. Paul applies what is said of the gathering and eating of manna, to show that God wishes men to strive after equality in communion of goods.

He that had gathered much. He that gathered much had no more than he that gathered little, and vice versâ. The passage quoted from Exodus declares that by a continuous miracle God rained down manna for forty years in the wilderness on so many hundreds of thousands of Jews, in such a way that the greedy who gathered much, and the idle who gathered little, both found, when they returned home and measured what they had got, that they had but an homer full, or enough for a day's food for each. If they collected either more or less, God or an angel subtracted from it or added to it invisibly, to bring all to an equality. So, then, an homer was the measure for men, women, and children, and it contained as much only as a man would ordinarily eat in a day (Nyssen, de Vita Moysis, Chrysostom, Anselm, Vatablus, Theophylact).

The reason for this was (1.) that God would in this way restrain the greediness and gluttony of the Jews, and their excessive love of earthly things (Chrysostom and Theophylact). (2.) By this continuous miracle God would remind us that in all our necessity we should look to His Providence, and recollect that He provides for each all that is needful for his life; therefore, as we sit at table, let us regard God as raining down manna upon us from heaven. So now God supplies, not only to the rich but the poor also, and those that have bad health or are burdened with a large family, their daily portion, which is enough to maintain the life of all. This will seem to any one who considers the matter, and compares the small gain made with the great expenditure of so many heads of families, a wonderful and incredible thing; and by this test alone any one may see God's sweet and wondrous care for all. Let not the poor, therefore, bewail their lot, nor desire great riches, " For since we all," says S. Chrysostom, " have but one belly to fill, and one time to live in, and one body to cover, the rich man has no more from his abundance, nor the poor man less from his poverty; but both have food and clothing, and in this they are equal."

Observe, again, the beautiful application S. Paul makes of the symbolic manna. As God gave of it an equal measure to all, so is it right that Christians should cultivate an equality: those who have abundant wealth should distribute to the poor, and make them equal to themselves, so far as the necessaries of life go, that all may be content, and, having what is necessary, live equally (Theophylact and Chrysostom). Observe, however, that as the rich, by giving of their superfluous wealth to the poor, make them equal to themselves, so too do the poor, by a fellowship of merits, make the rich equal to them, not altogether absolutely, but by way of proportion, in such a way that neither has any lack of either kind of benefits, or has an excessive supply when compared with others; for otherwise the rich would not by giving to the poor make them as rich as themselves, nor would the poor by giving in return his prayers and other spiritual goods give an equal gift, but rather a far more valuable gift than he received. Nor again does he give of his spiritual goods as much as he has (S. Thomas).

Analogically, S. Chrysostom and Anselm refer this passage to the glory of heaven, which all will share equally. But this must he understood of the objective bliss; for all will see the same God, and in Him will be satisfied and blessed; but in this vision, and consequently in joy and glory, there will be degrees, and a disparity proportioned to merit. It was so in the case of the manna: an equal share was given to each, satisfying all equally, yet it tasted differently to different people.

Ver. 16 . — But thanks be to God. For having made Titus anxious for you and for your spiritual progress and gain, whereby he was led to exhort you to liberality towards the poor. "The same earnest care" refers to the fact that S. Paul as well as Titus was exhorting them to this liberality.

Ver. 17. — For indeed he accepted the exhortation. The duty of exhorting you to almsgiving (Anselm).

Of his own accord. Without being bidden by me, he took on himself this task of exhorting you to this pious work.

Ver. 18 . — And we have sent with him the brother whose praise is in the Gospel. Barnabas, whose praise is in the preaching of the Gospel. He was ordained as S. Paul's companion (Act 13:3) (Theodoret, Chrysostom, Œcumenius); but since Barnabas and Paul were now separated, and Silas had taken S. Barnabas' place at S. Paul's side (Act 15:40), it is better with Baronius to take the reference as being to Silas, or, with Anselm and Jerome, to Luke.  S. Paul calls him brother, not Apostle, and this applies better to S. Luke, who wrote a Gospel, and was the inseparable companion of S. Paul. S. Ignatius, writing to the Ephesians, assigned this eulogy to Luke in the words: "As Luke testifies, whose praise is in the Gospel."

Ver. 19. — But who was also chosen of the churches. For this work of grace of collecting the alms of the Church. The word rendered here chosen is χειροτονηθεὶς, i.e., ordained by imposition of hands—consecrated either deacon or priest. It was the deacon's office to have care of the poor, and to distribute the alms to them; but the priest's to help the Apostle on his journeys in preaching and administration of the sacraments. The sacrament of Order is called by the Greeks χειροτονία, from the imposition of the Bishop's hands on the ordinands. Cf.

1Ti 4:14; 1Ti 5:22; Act 14:22. From this it is evident that to lay hands on presbyters is to ordain them, and by ordaining to make them presbyters.

Which is administered by us to the glory of the same Lord. The Latin version reads, in the last clause of this verse, "to our destined mind;" the meaning of this is, to show the readiness of our mind in this pious service to God and the poor. The Greek is χειροτονία. "Destined," therefore, as S. Thomas remarks, does not here mean "predestinated by God," but ready, prompt, and cheerful. But the Greek MSS. give your, not our. We have received, says S. Paul, this grace, this ministry of almsgiving, to glorify God by it, and to make you more ready for it by the exhortations of Titus and Luke (Theophylact).

Ver. 20. — Avoiding this. I have sent Titus and Luke to collect such large alms that no one may suspect me of collecting for my own private use (Anselm). The possession of large sums of money is wont to expose a man to suspicion of fraud, because it is easy to abstract a little secretly from a large amount without any one being aware of it.

Ver. 21 . — Providing for honest things. I endeavour to act honourably, not only before God but also before men, lest suspicious persons should have some occasion for suspecting me of some wrongdoing. Wherefore, to show that I administer this collection honestly, I make Titus and Luke my witnesses, I make them the treasurers of it, and refrain from handling it myself. Hence learn this practical rule: We owe a good conscience to God, a good report to our neighbour. He who neglects good report acts cruelly towards his neighbour's salvation (Anselm).

Ver. 22. — And we have sent with them our brother. Who this is is uncertain. Some, says Anselm, think that it is Apollos; but they suspect only, for S. Paul neither names him nor describes him, but leaves the Corinthians to their personal knowledge of him.

Upon the great confidence which I have in you. Having great confidence and hope that, as is right, they will be received honourably and lovingly by you, and also partly out of love and respect for Titus, who is my companion and fellow-helper. Hence Titus was now at Corinth, having been sent there by S. Paul to collect these alms and to transact other business.

Maldonatus supplies the verb show, and makes the sentence run: "Upon the great confidence that whatever love you show to Titus you will show to me, for he is my partner." But there is no need to supply anything—the sense given above is clear enough without it.

Ver. 23.— Or our brethren. I trust that you will, as is right, receive them worthily, partly because of the brethren sent with Titus, and partly because of Titus himself.

The glory of Christ. The Apostles are the glory of Christ, inasmuch as they spread and make known His glory. "Whether, therefore," says Chrysostom, "You will receive them as brethren, or as the Apostles of the Churches, or as those who promote the glory of Christ, you will have many reasons for showing them kindness." By metonymy, glory is put for the cause and care of Christ's glory.

Ver. 24.— Therefore shew ye to them. Show to Titus and his companions that signal love which becomes you and your generous love, as well as my boasting of you.

Introduction / Outline

Robertson: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

Second Corinthians

From Macedonia a.d. 54 Or 55

By Way of Introduction

The Pauline authorship is admitted by all real scholars, though there is doubt by some as to the unity of the Epistle. J.H. Kennedy ( The Second and Third Letters of St. Paul to the Corinthians , 1900) has presented the arguments in a plausible, but not wholly convincing, manner for the plea that chapters 2 Corinthians 10-13 really represent a separate and earlier letter, the one referred to in 2Co_2:3, which was later tacked on to chapters 1-9 as part of the same Epistle. This theory does explain the difference in tone between chapters 1 to 7 and 10 to 13, but that fact is sufficiently clear from the stubborn minority against Paul in Corinth reported by Titus after the majority had been won to Paul by First Corinthians and by Titus (2Co_2:1-11). There are in fact three obvious divisions in the Epistle. Chapters 1 to 7 deal with the report of Titus about the victory in Corinth and Paul’s wonderful digression on the glory of the ministry in 2 Corinthians 2:12-6:10; chapters 8 and 2Co_9:1-15 discuss the collection for the poor saints in Jerusalem already mentioned in 1Co_16:1. and which Titus is to press to completion on his return to Corinth; chapters 10 to 13 deal sharply with the Judaizing minority who still oppose Paul’s leadership. These three subjects are in no sense inconsistent with each other. The letter is a unity. Nowhere do we gain so clear an insight into Paul’s own struggles and hopes as a preacher. It is a handbook for the modern minister of inestimable value. One can hear Paul’s heart throb through these chapters. The syntax is often broken by anacolutha. The sentences are sometimes disconnected. Grammatical agreements are overlooked. But there is power here, the grip of a great soul holding on to the highest ideals in the midst of manifold opposition and discouragements. Christ is Master of Paul at every turn.

The date of the Epistle is clearly after I Corinthians, for Paul has left Ephesus and is now in Macedonia (2Co_2:13), probably at Philippi, where he met Titus, though he had hoped to meet him at Troas on his return from Corinth. At a guess one may say that Paul wrote in the autumn of a.d. 54 or 55 of the same year in the spring of which he had written I Corinthians, and before he went on to Corinth himself where he wrote Romans (Act_20:1-3; Rom_16:1).

The occasion for writing is the return of Titus from Corinth with mixed news of the Pauline majority and the minority in opposition. So Titus is sent back with this Epistle to finish the task while Paul waits awhile for matters to clear up (2Co_13:1-10).

It is not certain whether the letter mentioned in 2Co_2:3 is our I Corinthians or a lost letter like the one alluded to in 1Co_5:9. If it is a lost one, we know of four Corinthian Epistles (the one in 1Co_5:9, our I Corinthians, the one in 2Co_2:3, our II Corinthians), assuming the unity of II Corinthians. Few things in Paul’s ministry gave him more concern than the troubles in Corinth. The modern city pastor finds little in his work that Paul has not faced and mastered. There is consolation and courage for the preacher in the conduct and counsels of this greatest of all preachers.

JFB: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

THE following reasons seem to have induced Paul to write this Second Epistle to the Corinthians: (1) That he might explain the reasons for his having deferred to pay them his promised visit, by taking Corinth as his way to Macedonia (1Co 4:19; 2Co 1:15-16; compare 1Co 16:5); and so that he might set forth to them his apostolic walk in general (2Co 1:12, 2Co 1:24; 2Co 6:3-13; 2Co 7:2). (2) That he might commend their obedience in reference to the directions in his First Epistle, and at the same time direct them now to forgive the offender, as having been punished sufficiently (2Co 2:1-11; 2Co 7:6-16). (3) That he might urge them to collect for the poor saints at Jerusalem (2Co 8:1-9, 2Co 8:15). (4) That he might maintain his apostolic authority and reprove gainsayers.

The external testimonies for its genuineness are IRENÆUS [Against Heresies, 3,7,1]; ATHENAGORAS [Of the Resurrection of the Dead]; CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA [Miscellanies, 3, p. 94; 4, p. 101]; TERTULLIAN [On Modesty, 13].

The TIME OF WRITING was after Pentecost, A.D. 57, when Paul left Ephesus for Troas. Having stayed in the latter place for some time preaching the Gospel with effect (2Co 2:12), he went on to Macedonia, being eager to meet Titus there, having been disappointed in his not coming to Troas, as had been agreed on between them. Having heard from him the tidings he so much desired of the good effect produced on the Corinthians by his First Epistle, and after having tested the liberality of the Macedonian churches (2Co 8:1), he wrote this Second Epistle, and then went on to Greece, where he abode for three months; and then, after travelling by land, reached Philippi on his return at Passover or Easter, A.D. 58 (Act 20:1-6). So that this Epistle must have been written about autumn, A.D. 57.

Macedonia was THE PLACE from which it was written (2Co 9:2, where the present tense, "I boast," or "am boasting," implies his presence then in Macedonia). In Asia (Lydian Asia) he had undergone some great peril of his life (2Co 1:8-9), whether the reference be [PALEY] to the tumult at Ephesus (Acts 19:23-41), or, as ALFORD thinks, to a dangerous illness in which he despaired of life. Thence he passed by Troas to Philippi, the first city which would meet him in entering Macedonia. The importance of the Philippian Church would induce him to stay there some time; as also his desire to collect contributions from the Macedonian churches for the poor saints at Jerusalem. His anxiety of mind is recorded (2Co 7:5) as occurring when he came into Macedonia, and therefore must have been at Philippi, which was the first city of Macedonia in coming from Troas; and here, too, from 2Co 7:6, compared with 2Co 7:5, must have been the scene of his receiving the comforting tidings from Titus. "Macedonia" is used for Philippi in 2Co 11:9, as is proved by comparison with Phi 4:15-16. So it is probably used here (2Co 7:5). ALFORD argues from 2Co 8:1, where he speaks of the "grace bestowed on the churches (plural) of Macedonia," that Paul must have visited other churches in Macedonia, besides Philippi, when he wrote, for example, Thessalonica, Berea, &c., and that Philippi, the first on his route, is less likely to have been the scene of his writing than the last on his route, whichever it was, perhaps Thessalonica. But Philippi, as being the chief town of the province, was probably the place to which all the collections of the churches were sent. Ancient tradition, too (as appears from the subscription to this Epistle), favors the view that Philippi was the place from which this Epistle was sent by the hands of Titus who received, besides, a charge to prosecute at Corinth the collection which he had begun at his first visit (2Co 8:6).

The STYLE is most varied, and passes rapidly from one phase of feeling to another; now joyous and consolatory, again severe and full of reproof; at one time gentle and affectionate, at another, sternly rebuking opponents and upholding his dignity as an apostle. This variety of style accords with the warm and earnest character of the apostle, which nowhere is manifested more beautifully than in this Epistle. His bodily frailty, and the chronic malady under which he suffered, and which is often alluded to (2Co 4:7; 2Co 5:1-4; 2Co 12:7-9; compare Note, see on 2Co 1:8), must have been especially trying to one of his ardent temperament. But besides this, was the more pressing anxiety of the "care of all the churches." At Corinth, as elsewhere, Judaizing emissaries wished to bind legal fetters of letter and form (compare 2Co. 3:3-18) on the freedom and catholicity of the Church. On the other hand, there were free thinkers who defended their immorality of practice by infidel theories (1Co 15:12, 1Co 15:32-36). These were the "fightings without," and "fears within" (2Co 7:5-6) which agitated the apostle's mind until Titus brought him comforting tidings from Corinth. Even then, while the majority at Corinth had testified their repentance, and, as Paul had desired, excommunicated the incestuous person, and contributed for the poor Christians of Judea, there was still a minority who, more contemptuously than ever, resisted the apostle. These accused him of crafty and mercenary motives, as if he had personal gain in view in the collection being made; and this, notwithstanding his scrupulous care to be above the possibility of reasonable suspicion, by having others besides himself to take charge of the money. This insinuation was palpably inconsistent with their other charge, that he could be no true apostle, as he did not claim maintenance from the churches which he founded. Another accusation they brought of cowardly weakness; that he was always threatening severe measures without daring to execute them (2Co 10:8-16; 2Co 13:2); and that he was vacillating in his teaching and practice, circumcising Timothy, and yet withholding circumcision from Titus; a Jew among the Jews, and a Greek among the Greeks. That most of these opponents were of the Judaizing party in the Church, appears from 2Co 11:22. They seem to have been headed by an emissary from Judea ("he that cometh," 2Co 11:4), who had brought "letters of commendation" (2Co 3:1) from members of the Church at Jerusalem, and who boasted of his purity of Hebrew descent, and his close connection with Christ Himself (2Co 11:13, 2Co 11:23). His partisans contrasted his high pretensions with the timid humility of Paul (1Co 2:3); and his rhetoric with the apostle's plain and unadorned style (2Co 11:6; 2Co 10:10, 2Co 10:13). It was this state of things at Corinth, reported by Titus, that caused Paul to send him back forthwith thither with this Second Epistle, which is addressed, not to Corinth only (1Co 1:2), but to all the churches also in Achaia (2Co 1:1), which had in some degree been affected by the same causes as affected the Corinthian Church. The widely different tone in different parts of the Epistle is due to the diversity which existed at Corinth between the penitent majority and the refractory minority. The former he addresses with the warmest affection; the latter with menace and warning. Two deputies, chosen by the churches to take charge of the contribution to be collected at Corinth, accompanied Titus (2Co 8:18-19, 2Co 8:22).

JFB: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

• THE HEADING; PAUL'S CONSOLATIONS IN RECENT TRIALS IN ASIA; HIS SINCERITY TOWARDS THE CORINTHIANS; EXPLANATION OF HIS NOT HAVING VISITED THEM AS HE HAD PURPOSED. (2Co. 1:1-24)
• REASON WHY HE HAD NOT VISITED THEM ON HIS WAY TO MACEDONIA; THE INCESTUOUS PERSON OUGHT NOW TO BE FORGIVEN; HIS ANXIETY TO HEAR TIDINGS OF THEIR STATE FROM TITUS, AND HIS JOY WHEN AT LAST THE GOOD NEWS REACHES HIM. (2Co. 2:1-17)
• THE SOLE COMMENDATION HE NEEDS TO PROVE GOD'S SANCTION OF HIS MINISTRY HE HAS IN HIS CORINTHIAN CONVERTS: HIS MINISTRY EXCELS THE MOSAIC, AS THE GOSPEL OF LIFE AND LIBERTY EXCELS THE LAW OF CONDEMNATION. (2Co. 3:1-18) Are we beginning again to recommend ourselves (2Co 5:12) (as some of them might say he had done in his first Epistle; or, a reproof to "some" who had begun doing so)!
• HIS PREACHING IS OPEN AND SINCERE, THOUGH TO MANY THE GOSPEL IS HIDDEN. (2Co. 4:1-18)
• THE HOPE (2Co 4:17-18) OF ETERNAL GLORY IN THE RESURRECTION BODY. (2Co. 5:1-21)
• HIS APOSTOLIC MINISTRY IS APPROVED BY FAITHFULNESS IN EXHORTATION, IN SUFFERINGS, IN EXHIBITION OF THE FRUITS OF THE HOLY GHOST: HIS LARGENESS OF HEART TO THEM CALLS FOR ENLARGEMENT OF THEIR HEART TO HIM. EXHORTATIONS TO SEPARATION FROM POLLUTION. (2Co. 6:1-18)
• SELF-PURIFICATION THEIR DUTY RESULTING FROM THE FOREGOING. HIS LOVE TO THEM, AND JOY AT THE GOOD EFFECTS ON THEM OF HIS FORMER EPISTLE, AS REPORTED BY TITUS. (2Co. 7:1-16)
• THE COLLECTION FOR THE SAINTS; THE READINESS OF THE MACEDONIANS A PATTERN TO THE CORINTHIANS; CHRIST THE HIGHEST PATTERN; EACH IS TO GIVE WILLINGLY AFTER HIS ABILITY; TITUS AND TWO OTHERS ARE THE AGENTS ACCREDITED TO COMPLETE THE COLLECTION. (2Co. 8:1-24)
• REASONS FOR HIS SENDING TITUS. THE GREATER THEIR BOUNTIFULNESS, THE MORE SHALL BE THE RETURN OF BLESSING TO THEM, AND THANKSGIVING TO GOD. (2Co 9:1-15)
• HE VINDICATES HIS APOSTOLIC AUTHORITY AGAINST THOSE WHO DEPRECIATED HIM FOR HIS PERSONAL APPEARANCE. HE WILL MAKE HIS POWER FELT WHEN HE COMES. HE BOASTS NOT, AS THEY, BEYOND HIS MEASURE. (2Co. 10:1-18)
• THROUGH JEALOUSY OVER THE CORINTHIANS, WHO MADE MORE ACCOUNT OF THE FALSE APOSTLES THAN OF HIM, HE IS OBLIGED TO COMMEND HIMSELF AS IN MANY RESPECTS SUPERIOR. (2Co. 11:1-33)
• REVELATIONS IN WHICH HE MIGHT GLORY: BUT HE RATHER GLORIES IN INFIRMITIES, AS CALLING FORTH CHRIST'S POWER: SIGNS OF HIS APOSTLESHIP: HIS DISINTERESTEDNESS: NOT THAT HE IS EXCUSING HIMSELF TO THEM; BUT HE DOES ALL FOR THEIR GOOD, LEST HE SHOULD FIND THEM NOT SUCH AS HE DESIRED, AND SO SHOULD HAVE TO BE SEVERE AT HIS COMING. (2Co. 12:1-21) He proceeds to illustrate the "glorying in infirmities" (2Co 11:30). He gave one instance which might expose him to ridicule (2Co 11:33); he now gives another, but this one connected with a glorious revelation of which it was the sequel: but he dwells not on the glory done to himself, but on the infirmity which followed it, as displaying Christ's power. The oldest manuscripts read, "I MUST NEEDS boast (or glory) though it be not expedient; for I will come." The "for" gives a proof that it is "not expedient to boast": I will take the case of revelations, in which if anywhere boasting might be thought harmless. "Visions" refers to things seen: "revelations," to things heard (compare 1Sa 9:15) or revealed in any way. In "visions" their signification was not always vouchsafed; in "revelations" there was always an unveiling of truths before hidden (Dan 2:19, Dan 2:31). All parts of Scripture alike are matter of inspiration; but not all of revelation. There are degrees of revelation; but not of inspiration.
• HE THREATENS A SEVERE PROOF OF HIS APOSTOLIC AUTHORITY, BUT PREFERS THEY WOULD SPARE HIM THE NECESSITY FOR IT. (2Co 13:1-14)

TSK: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

The most remarkable circumstance in this Epistle, observes Mr. Scott, is the confidence of the Apostle in the goodness of his cause, and in the power of God to bear him out in it. Opposed as he then was by a powerful and sagacious party, whose authority, reputation, and interest were deeply concerned, and who were ready to seize on every thing that could discredit him, it is wonderful to hear him so firmly insist upon his apostolical authority, and so unreservedly appeal to the miraculous power which he has exercised and conferred at Corinth. So far from shrinking from the contest, as afraid of some discovery being made, unfavourable to him and the common cause, he, with great modesty and meekness indeed, but with equal boldness and decision, expressly declares that his opposers and despisers were the ministers of Satan, and menaces them with miraculous judgments, when as many of their deluded hearers had been brought to repentance and re-established in the faith, as proper means could in a reasonable time effect. It is inconceivable that a stronger internal testimony, not only of integrity, but of divine inspiration, can exist. Had there been anything of imposture among the Christians, it was next to impossible but such a conduct must have occasioned a disclosure of it. Of the effects produced by this latter epistle we have no circumstantial account; for the journey which St. Paul took to Corinth, after he had written it, is mentioned by St. Luke only in a few words (Act 20:2, Act 20:3). We know, however, that St. Paul was there after he had written this Epistle; that the contributions for the poor brethren at Jerusalem were brought to him from different parts to that city (Rom 15:26); and that, after remaining there several months, he sent salutations from some of the principal members of that church, by whom he must have been greatly respected, to the church of Rome (Rom 16:22, Rom 16:23). From this time we hear no more of the false teacher and his party; and when Clement of Rome wrote his epistle to the Corinthians, St. Paul was considered by them as a divine apostle, to whose authority he might appeal without fear of contradiction. The false teacher, therefore, must either have been silenced by St. Paul, by virtue of his apostolical powers, and by an act of severity which he had threatened (2Co 13:2, 2Co 13:3); or this adversary of the apostle had, at that time, voluntarily quitted the place. Whichever was the cause, the effect produced must operate as a confirmation of our faith, and as a proof of St. Paul’s divine mission.

TSK: 2 Corinthians 8 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

2Co 8:1, He stirs them up to a liberal contribution for the poor saints at Jerusalem, by the example of the Macedonians; 2Co 8:7, by commendation of their former forwardness; 2Co 8:9, by the example of Christ; 2Co 8:14, and by the spiritual profit that shall redound to themselves thereby; 2Co 8:16, commending to them the integrity and willingness of Titus, and those other brethren, who upon his request, exhortation, and commendation, were purposely come to them for this business.

Poole: 2 Corinthians 8 (Chapter Introduction)

CORINTHIANS CHAPTER 8

MHCC: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

The second epistle to the Corinthians probably was written about a year after the first. Its contents are closely connected with those of the former epistle. The manner in which the letter St. Paul formerly wrote had been received, is particularly noticed; this was such as to fill his heart with gratitude to God, who enabled him fully to discharge his duty towards them. Many had shown marks of repentance, and amended their conduct, but others still followed their false teachers; and as the apostle delayed his visit, from his unwillingness to treat them with severity, they charged him with levity and change of conduct. Also, with pride, vain-glory, and severity, and they spake of him with contempt. In this epistle we find the same ardent affection towards the disciples at Corinth, as in the former, the same zeal for the honour of the gospel, and the same boldness in giving Christian reproof. The first six chapters are chiefly practical: the rest have more reference to the state of the Corinthian church, but they contain many rules of general application.

MHCC: 2 Corinthians 8 (Chapter Introduction)

(2Co 8:1-6) The apostle reminds them of charitable contributions for the poor saints.

(2Co 8:7-9) Enforces this by their gifts, and by the love and grace of Christ.

(2Co 8:10-15) By the willingness they had shown to this good work.

(2Co 8:16-24) He recommends Titus to them.

Matthew Henry: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians

In his former epistle the apostle had signified his intentions of coming to Corinth, as he passed through Macedonia (1Co 16:5), but, being providentially hindered for some time, he writes this second epistle to them about a year after the former; and there seem to be these two urgent occasions: - 1. The case of the incestuous person, who lay under censure, required that with all speed he should be restored and received again into communion. This therefore he gives directions about (ch. 2), and afterwards (ch. 7) he declares the satisfaction he had upon the intelligence he received of their good behaviour in that affair. 2. There was a contribution now making for the poor saints at Jerusalem, in which he exhorts the Corinthians to join (ch. 8, 2Co 9:1-15).

There are divers other things very observable in this epistle; for example, I. The account the apostle gives of his labours and success in preaching the gospel in several places, ch. 2. II. The comparison he makes between the Old and New Testament dispensation, ch. 3. III. The manifold sufferings that he and his fellow-labourers met with, and the motives and encouragements for their diligence and patience, ch. 4, 5. IV. The caution he gives the Corinthians against mingling with unbelievers, ch. 6. V. The way and manner in which he justifies himself and his apostleship from the opprobrious insinuations and accusations of false teachers, who endeavoured to ruin his reputation at Corinth, ch. 10-12, and throughout the whole epistle.

Matthew Henry: 2 Corinthians 8 (Chapter Introduction)

In this and the following chapter Paul is exhorting and directing the Corinthians about a particular work of charity - to relieve the necessities of the poor saints at Jerusalem and in Judea, according to the good example of the churches in Macedonia, Rom 15:26. The Christians at Jerusalem, through war, famine, and persecution, had become poor, many of them had fallen into decay, and perhaps most of them were but poor when they first embraced Christianity; for Christ said, " The poor receive the gospel." Now Paul, though he was the apostle of the Gentiles, had a fonder regard, and kind concern, for those among the Jews who were converted to the Christian faith; and, though many of them had not so much affection to the Gentile converts as they ought to have had, yet the apostle would have the Gentiles to be kind to them, and stirred them up to contribute liberally for their relief. Upon this subject he is very copious, and writes very affectingly. In this eighth chapter he acquaints the Corinthians with, and commends, the good example of the Macedonians in this work of charity, and that Titus was sent to Corinth to collect their bounty (2Co 8:1-6). He the proceeds to urge this duty with several cogent arguments (2Co 8:7-15), and commends the persons who were employed in this affair (2Co 8:16-24).

Barclay: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO THE LETTERS TO THE CORINTHIANS

The Greatness Of Corinth

A glance at the map will show that Corinth was made for greatness. The southern part of Greece is very nearly an island. On the west the Corinthian Gulf deeply indents the land and on the east the Saronic Gulf. All that is left to join the two parts of Greece together is a little isthmus only four miles across. On that narrow neck of land Corinth stands. Such a position made it inevitable that it should be one of the greatest trading and commercial centres of the ancient world. All traffic from Athens and the north of Greece to Sparta and the Peloponnese had to be routed through Corinth, because it stood on the little neck of land that connected the two.

Not only did the north to south traffic of Greece pass through Corinth of necessity, by far the greater part of the east to west traffic of the Mediterranean passed through her from choice. The extreme southern tip of Greece was known as Cape Malea (now called Cape Matapan). It was dangerous, and to round Cape Malea had much the same sound as to round Cape Horn had in later times. The Greeks had two sayings which showed what they thought of it--"Let him who sails round Malea forget his home," and, "Let him who sails round Malea first make his will."

The consequence was that mariners followed one of two courses. They sailed up the Saronic Gulf, and, if their ships were small enough, dragged them out of the water, set them on rollers, hauled them across the isthmus, and re-launched them on the other side. The isthmus was actually called the Diolkos, the place of dragging across. The idea is the same as that which is contained in the Scottish place name Tarbert, which means a place where the land is so narrow that a boat can be dragged from loch to loch. If that course was not possible because the ship was too large, the cargo was disembarked, carried by porters across the isthmus, and re-embarked on another ship at the other side. This four mile journey across the isthmus, where the Corinth Canal now runs, saved a journey of two hundred and two miles round Cape Malea, the most dangerous cape in the Mediterranean.

It is easy to see how great a commercial city Corinth must have been. The north to south traffic of Greece had no alternative but to pass through her; by far the greater part of the east to west trade of the Mediterranean world chose to pass through her. Round Corinth there clustered three other towns, Lechaeum at the west end of the isthmus, Cenchrea at the east end and Schoenus just a short distance away. Farrar writes, "Objects of luxury soon found their way to the markets which were visited by every nation in the civilized world--Arabian balsam, Phoenician dates, Libyan ivory, Babylonian carpets, Cilician goatsair, Lycaonian wool, Phrygian slaves."

Corinth, as Farrar calls her, was the Vanity Fair of the ancient world. Men called her The Bridge of Greece; one called her The Lounge of Greece. It has been said that if a man stands long enough in Piccadilly Circus he will in the end meet everyone in the country. Corinth was the Piccadilly Circus of the Mediterranean. To add to the concourse which came to it, Corinth was the place where the Isthmian Games were held, which were second only to the Olympics. Corinth was a rich and populous city with one of the greatest commercial trades in the ancient world.

The Wickedness Of Corinth

There was another side to Corinth. She had a reputation for commercial prosperity, but she was also a byword for evil living. The very word korinthiazesthai, to live like a Corinthian, had become a part of the Greek language, and meant to live with drunken and immoral debauchery. The word actually penetrated to the English language, and, in Regency times, a Corinthian was one of the wealthy young bucks who lived in reckless and riotous living. Aelian, the late Greek writer, tells us that if ever a Corinthian was shown upon the stage in a Greek play he was shown drunk. The very name Corinth was synonymous with debauchery and there was one source of evil in the city which was known all over the civilized world. Above the isthmus towered the hill of the Acropolis, and on it stood the great temple of Aphrodite, the goddess of love. To that temple there were attached one thousand priestesses who were sacred prostitutes, and in the evenings they descended from the Acropolis and plied their trade upon the streets of Corinth, until it became a Greek proverb, "It is not every man who can afford a journey to Corinth." In addition to these cruder sins, there flourished far more recondite vices, which had come in with the traders and the sailors from the ends of the earth, until Corinth became not only a synonym for wealth and luxury, drunkenness and debauchery, but also for filth.

The History Of Corinth

The history of Corinth falls into two parts. She was a very ancient city. Thucydides, the Greek historian, claims that it was in Corinth that the first triremes, the Greek battleships, were built. Legend has it that it was in Corinth that the Argo was built, the ship in which Jason sailed the seas, searching for the golden fleece. But in 146 B.C. disaster befell her. The Romans were engaged in conquering the world. When they sought to reduce Greece, Corinth was the leader of the opposition. But the Greeks could not stand against the disciplined Romans, and in 146 B.C. Lucius Mummius, the Roman general, captured Corinth and left her a desolate heap of ruins.

But any place with the geographical situation of Corinth could not remain a devastation. Almost exactly one hundred years later, in 46 B.C. Julius Caesar rebuilt her and she arose from her ruins. Now she became a Roman colony. More, she became a capital city, the metropolis of the Roman province of Achaea, which included practically all Greece.

In those days, which were the days of Paul, her population was very mixed. (i) There were the Roman veterans whom Julius Caesar had settled there. When a Roman soldier had served his time, he was granted the citizenship and was then sent out to some newly-founded city and given a grant of land so that he might become a settler there. These Roman colonies were planted all over the world, and always the backbone of them was the contingent of veteran regular soldiers whose faithful service had won them the citizenship. (ii) When Corinth was rebuilt the merchants came back, for her situation still gave her commercial supremacy. (iii) There were many Jews among the population. The rebuilt city offered them commercial opportunities which they were not slow to take. (iv) There was a sprinkling of Phoenicians and Phrygians and people from the east, with their exotic customs and their hysterical ways. Farrar speaks of "this mongrel and heterogeneous population of Greek adventurers and Roman bourgeois, with a tainting infusion of Phoenicians; this mass of Jews, ex-soldiers, philosophers, merchants, sailors, freedmen, slaves, trades-people, hucksters and agents of every form of vice." He characterizes her as a colony "without aristocracy, without traditions and without well-established citizens."

Remember the background of Corinth, remember its name for wealth and luxury, for drunkenness and immorality and vice, and then read 1Co_6:9-10 .

Are you not aware that the unrighteous will not inherit the

Kingdom of God? Make no mistake--neither fornicators, nor

idolaters, nor adulterers, nor sensualists, nor homosexuals, nor

thieves, nor rapacious men, nor drunkards, nor slanderers, nor

robbers shall inherit the Kingdom of God--and such were some of

you.

In this hotbed of vice, in the most unlikely place in all the Greek world, some of Paulgreatest work was done, and some of the mightiest triumphs of Christianity were won.

Paul In Corinth

Paul stayed longer in Corinth than in any other city, with the single exception of Ephesus. He had left Macedonia with his life in peril and had crossed over to Athens. There he had had little success and had gone on to Corinth, and he remained there for eighteen months. We realize how little we really know of his work when we see that the whole story of that eighteen months is compressed by Luke into 17 verses (Act_18:1-17 ).

When Paul arrived in Corinth he took up residence with Aquila and Prisca. He preached in the synagogue with great success. With the arrival of Timothy and Silas from Macedonia, he redoubled his efforts, but the Jews were so stubbornly hostile that he had to leave the synagogue. He took up his residence with one Justus who lived next door to the synagogue. His most notable convert was Crispus, who was actually the ruler of the synagogue, and amongst the general public he had good success.

In the year A.D. 52 there came to Corinth as its new governor a Roman called Gallio. He was famous for his charm and gentleness. The Jews tried to take advantage of his newness and good nature and brought Paul to trial before him on a charge of teaching contrary to their law. But Gallio, with impartial Roman justice, refused to have anything to do with the case or to take any action. So Paul completed his work in Corinth and moved on to Syria.

The Correspondence With Corinth

It was when he was in Ephesus in the year A.D. 55 that Paul, learning that things were not all well in Corinth, wrote to the church there. There is every possibility that the Corinthian correspondence as we have it is out of order. We must remember that it was not until A.D. 90 or thereby that Paulcorrespondence was collected. In many churches it must have existed only on scraps of papyrus and the putting it together would be a problem: and it seems that, when the Corinthian letters were collected, they were not all discovered and were not arranged in the right order. Let us see if we can reconstruct what happened.

(i) There was a letter which preceded 1 Corinthians. In 1Co_5:9 Paul writes, "I wrote you a letter not to associate with immoral men." This obviously refers to some previous letter. Some scholars believe that letter is lost without trace. Others think it is contained in 2Co_6:14-18 and 2Co_7:1 . Certainly that passage suits what Paul said he wrote about. It occurs rather awkwardly in its context, and, if we take it out and read straight on from 2Co_6:13 to 2Co_7:2 , we get excellent sense and connection. Scholars call this letter The Previous Letter. (In the original letters there were no chapter or verse divisions. The chapters were not divided up until the thirteenth century and the verses not till the sixteenth, and because of that the arranging of the collection of letters would be much more difficult).

(ii) News came to Paul from various sources of trouble at Corinth. (a) News came from those who were of the household of Chloe (1Co_1:11 ). They brought news of the contentions with which the church was torn. (b) News came with the visit of Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus to Ephesus. (1Co_16:17 ). By personal contact they were able to fill up the gaps in Paulinformation. (c) News came in a letter in which the Corinthian Church had asked Paul guidance on various problems. In 1Co_7:1 Paul begins, "Concerning the matters about which you wrote..." In answer to all this information Paul wrote 1 Corinthians and despatched it to Corinth apparently by the hand of Timothy (1Co_4:17 ).

(iii) The result of the letter was that things became worse than ever, and, although we have no direct record of it, we can deduce that Paul paid a personal visit to Corinth. In 2Co_12:14 he writes, "The third time I am ready to come to you." In 2Co_13:1-2 , he says again that he is coming to them for the third time. Now, if there was a third time, there must have been a second time. We have the record of only one visit, whose story is told in Act_18:1-17 . We have no record at all of the second, but Corinth was only two or three daysailing from Ephesus.

(iv) The visit did no good at all. Matters were only exacerbated and the result was an exceedingly severe letter. We learn about that letter from certain passages in 2 Corinthians. In 2Co_2:4 Paul writes, "I wrote to you out of much affliction and anguish of heart and with many tears." In 2Co_7:8 he writes, "For even if I made you sorry with my letter, I do not regret it though I did regret it; for I see that that letter has grieved you, though only for a while." It was a letter which was the product of anguish of mind, a letter so severe that Paul was almost sorry that he ever sent it.

Scholars call this The Severe Letter. Have we got it? It obviously cannot be I Corinthians, because it is not a tear-stained and anguished letter. When Paul wrote it, it is clear enough that things were under control. Now if we read through 2 Corinthians we find an odd circumstance. In 2Cor 1-9 everything is made up, there is complete reconciliation and all are friends again; but at 2Cor 10 comes the strangest break. 2Cor 10-13 are the most heartbroken cry Paul ever wrote. They show that he has been hurt and insulted as he never was before or afterwards by any church. His appearance, his speech, his apostleship, his honesty have all been under attack.

Most scholars believe that 2Cor 10-13 are the severe letter, and that they have become misplaced when Paulletters were put together. If we want the real chronological course of Paulcorrespondence with Corinth, we really ought to read 2Cor 10-13 before 2Cor 1-9. We do know that this letter was sent off with Titus. (2Co_2:13 ; 2Co_7:13 ).

(v) Paul was worried about this letter. He could not wait until Titus came back with an answer, so he set out to meet him (2Co_2:13 ; 2Co_7:5 , 2Co_7:13 ). Somewhere in Macedonia he met him and learned that all was well, and, probably at Philippi, he sat down and wrote 2Cor 1-9, the letter of reconciliation.

Stalker has said that the letters of Paul take the roof off the early churches and let us see what went on inside. Of none of them is that truer than the letters to Corinth. Here we see what "the care of all the churches" must have meant to Paul. Here we see the heart-breaks and the joys. Here we see Paul, the shepherd of his flock, bearing the sorrows and the problems of his people on his heart.

The Corinthian Correspondence

Before we read the letters in detail let us set down the progress of the Corinthian correspondence in tabular form.

(i) The Previous Letter, which may be contained in 2Co_6:14-18 and 2Co_7:1 .

(ii) The arrival of Chloepeople, of Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus, and of the letter to Paul from the Corinthian Church.

(iii) 1 Corinthians is written in reply and is despatched with Timothy.

(iv) The situation grows worse and Paul pays a personal visit to Corinth, which is so complete a failure that it almost breaks his heart.

(v) The consequence is The Severe Letter, which is almost certainly contained in 2Cor 10-13, and which was despatched with Titus.

(vi) Unable to wait for an answer, Paul sets out to meet Titus. He meets him in Macedonia, learns that all is well and, probably from Philippi, writes 2Cor 1-9, The Letter of Reconciliation.

The first four chapters of 1 Corinthians deal with the divided state of the Church of God at Corinth. Instead of being a unity in Christ it was split into sects and parties, who had attached themselves to the names of various leaders and teachers. It is Paulteaching that these divisions had emerged because the Corinthians thought too much about human wisdom and knowledge and too little about the sheer grace of God. In fact, for all their so-called wisdom, they are really in a state of immaturity. They think that they are wise men, but really they are no better than babies.

FURTHER READING

2 Corinthians

F. F. Bruce, 1 and 2 Corinthians (NCB; E)

J. Hering, The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians (translated by A. W. Heathcote and P. J. Allcock)

A. Plummer, 2 Corinthians (ICC; G)

R. V. G. Tasker, The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians (TC; E)

Abbreviations

ICC: International Critical Commentary

MC: Moffatt Commentary

NCB: New Century Bible

TC: Tyndale Commentary

E: English Text

G: Greek Text

Barclay: 2 Corinthians 8 (Chapter Introduction)

An Appeal For Generosity (2Co_8:1-15)

Practical Arrangements (2Co_8:16-24)

Constable: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Historical background

First Corinthians did not dispel the problems in the church at Corinth completely. While it resolved some of these, opposition to the Apostle Paul persisted and Paul's critics continued to speak out against him in the church. One man in particular seems to have been the ringleader of the opposition (10:7). He had rallied the support of a significant minority. The issue was Paul's apostolic authority. His critics were claiming authority equal with Paul's. This was in effect a claim to apostolic authority on their part or a denial of the full apostolic authority of Paul.

News of continuing problems in Corinth reached Paul in Ephesus during his prolonged stay there during his third missionary journey. He then made a brief visit to Corinth. However his efforts to resolve the conflicts fell through (2:1; 12:14; 13:1-2). Paul apparently suffered insult and lost face during that visit (2:5-8; 7:12). Consequently this was a painful visit for Paul. He then returned to Ephesus.

Paul's next step in dealing with the situation in Corinth was to send a severe letter from Ephesus by the hand of Titus and another unnamed brother (2:3-4; 7:8-12; 12:18). He apparently directed this letter, now lost, at the party opposed to him and particularly its leader. Some commentators believe that 2 Corinthians 10-13 contains part of this letter, but the evidence for this is not convincing.¹

Paul evidently intended to receive Titus' report concerning the effects of this severe letter in Ephesus. However, persecution there made it expedient for Paul to leave that city earlier than he had anticipated (Acts 20:1). He found an open door for the gospel to the north in Troas. Eager to meet Titus who was taking the land route from Corinth back to Ephesus Paul moved west into Macedonia (2:12-13). There Titus met him and gave him an encouraging report (7:6-16). Most of the church had responded to Paul's directives and the church had disciplined the troublemakers (2:5-11). Unfortunately some in the congregation still refused to acknowledge Paul's authority over them (10:1-13:10).

Paul rejoiced at the repentance of the majority. However his concern for the unrepentant minority and his desire to pick up the money the Corinthians had begun to collect for their poorer brethren in Jerusalem led him to write 2 Corinthians. Along with these primary motives Paul also felt compelled to refute the charge of fickleness leveled at him by his critics. He had changed his travel plans and had not come to see them as he had said he would.

The whole situation provided him an opportunity to clarify the nature of Christian ministry.

Paul wrote the Second Epistle to the Corinthians from Macedonia, perhaps Philippi, Thessalonica, or Berea, probably in the fall or winter of 56 A.D. A date a year earlier or later is possible.

Some commentators believe Paul wrote 1 Corinthians after his painful visit and after he wrote the severe letter.² I believe it is more probable that he wrote 1 Corinthians before these two events.³ It is very difficult to reconstruct the details of Paul's activities since the data available to us is incomplete.

Paul's Corinthian Contacts
Paul's founding visit	His "former letter"	The Corin-thians' letter to him	First Corin-thians	Paul's "painful visit"	His "severe letter"	Second Corin-thians	Paul's antici-pated visit

"2 Corinthians is very different from the letters between which it was written, 1 Corinthians and Romans. Whereas each of those letters is, in its own way, systematic and orderly, 2 Corinthians is, on the face of it, uneven and digressive. It is no surprise, therefore, that many scholars have suggested that 2 Corinthians is really a collection of letters put together later as a single letter."⁴

"Second Corinthians presents many inspiring texts and passages to the reader and teacher of God's Word. A quick survey reveals approximately eighty individual verses lending themselves to extended meditation and exposition, apart from the sixty or so constituent paragraphs of the letter. This letter is a rich lode for the edification of God's people."⁵

Message⁶

The subject of 2 Corinthians is ministry, the church's work of service in the world. This is the central concept Paul dealt with in this epistle. What did he say about ministry?

He spoke of ministry in two ways. There is ministry per se (philosophy of ministry), and there is ministry to the world (practice of ministry).

Let's consider first what Paul revealed about the ministry of the church per se. This is the way Paul spoke of ministry most often in 2 Corinthians. In 1 Corinthians there is more emphasis on the practice of ministry than on the philosophy of ministry.

Paul had a lot to say about the authority of the church's ministry. Jesus Christ is the church's authority. He is the One who assigns each believer particular ministry within the body of Christ (cf. 1 Cor. 12:11, 18, 28; Eph. 4:11-13). The Corinthian church was having a major problem because some in its company were failing to accept Paul's appointment by Christ as an apostle and their own appointment as non-apostles. This was a practical repudiation of Jesus Christ's authority in the church. We must bow to the authority of Christ in the church by recognizing and responding appropriately to those He has appointed to various roles in the body. We identify these people by their gifts (divinely given abilities) and by their offices (divinely given positions).

Paul also had a lot to say in this epistle about the resources of the church's ministry. He emphasized three primarily.

One important resource is the encouragement of God. Paul spoke of this in the first part of the epistle especially. We read "comfort" in our texts, but the Greek word paraklesis means comfort through encouragement. The same Greek root describes the Holy Spirit as our Paraclete in John 14-16. Paul both taught and demonstrated in this letter that God's encouraging comfort always exceeds our discouragement and distress in ministry. The secret to finding it sufficient is taking God's view of how our ministry is really proceeding. This viewpoint Paul revealed, too.

A second resource is divine revelation. Paul did not preach himself or a message that he had concocted. He preached what God had revealed. Thus, revelation constituted both Paul's public message and his personal encouragement. We, too, have received the same message to communicate as ambassadors of Christ. It is a message of reconciliation, and it is the source of our encouragement.

A third resource is the prayers of the saints. Paul called for and counted on the prayers of God's people to bring God's power into play through him as he ministered (1:11). He realized that his own prayers would not move God to work as well as the concerted prayers of many of God's children (cf. James 4:2). Lack of prayer is often a sign of confidence in self rather than confidence in God.

In addition to the authority and resources of our ministry, Paul also had a lot to say in this epistle about experience in ministry. Three features mark experience in ministry.

First, one thing that marks ministry is tribulation. Paul spoke extensively in 2 Corinthians about the afflictions he experienced during his ministry. Furthermore he revealed that these are part of ministry, anyone's ministry who is carrying it out as God has directed. Some people do not welcome the gospel. To them it is a death scent. We should expect to experience tribulation in ministry. We have all experienced this in witnessing to some extent.

Second, another thing that should mark our ministry is hope. God has revealed the end of our ministry. We will all stand before Jesus Christ and receive a reward one day (5:10). This hope is a certainty. The Christian who loses sight of his or her hope is going to drift and suffer discouragement rather than press toward the mark. The end of our ministry is constantly in view in this epistle.

Third, a mark of Christian ministry is triumph. Paul revealed and illustrated by his own attitude that no matter how response to our ministry may appear to us our ministry is always triumphant. The reason for this is that God is at work through His ministers. One of the problems Paul's critics in Corinth had and that we have is that they were evaluating ministry superficially rather than realistically. We need to evaluate ministry on the basis of what God has revealed is happening, not what appears to be happening.

Paul not only revealed much about ministry per se in 2 Corinthians, he also revealed a lot about the ministry of the church to the world. Three emphases predominate.

First, Paul revealed what the message of the church is: the Word of God. Ours is a ministry of the Word. By "the Word" Paul meant the revelation God has given us. In his day it consisted of the Old Testament Scriptures plus the revelations that he and the other New Testament prophets had received that were for all Christians. Paul contrasted his message and ours with the message of Moses and exulted in its superiority. God has removed the veil and we can now see His glory clearly revealed in the face of Jesus Christ.

Second, Paul revealed the church's equipment to carry on its ministry to the world. We are ready to minister only when we separate from the world's sins and conform to God's will. Paul contrasts with his critics in this letter in all these respects. As these characteristics mark us we, too, will be ready to minister.

Third, Paul revealed the exercise of the church's ministry to the world. In exercising its ministry the church does three things according to this epistle.

1. It exercises discipline to restore the erring to effective ministry. Paul's great concern in this epistle was the restoration of the rebellious critics in the Corinthian church to unity and usefulness.

2. The church also is to give no occasion of stumbling to others. Paul's concern was that the behavior of the Corinthian Christians would be an encouragement to other believers and a base from which the gospel could proceed even farther into unevangelized regions beyond.

3. Third, the church exercises the grace of giving. It seeks to facilitate the principle of equality that God has demonstrated throughout history, namely that those who have should share with those who have not. This applies not only to the gospel message but to the physical necessities of life (chs. 8-9).

From these emphases the message of the book emerges. The church needs to submit to revealed authority, to draw upon supernatural resources and equipment, and to experience triumph through tribulation as it executes its mission. As it does so it will effectively carry out its ministry of proclaiming the message of reconciliation to the world.

Constable: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

Outline

I. Introduction 1:1-11

A. Salutation 1:1-2

B. Thanksgiving for comfort in affliction 1:3-11

1. Thanksgiving for comfort 1:3-7

2. Thanksgiving for deliverance 1:8-11

II. Answers to insinuations about the sincerity of Paul's commitment to the Corinthians and to the ministry 1:12-7:16

A. Defense of his conduct with regard to his promised visit and the offender 1:12-2:17

1. The postponement of the intended visit 1:12-2:4

2. The treatment of the offender and the result of the severe letter 2:5-17

B. Exposition of Paul's view of the ministry 3:1-6:10

1. The superiority of Christian ministry to Mosaic ministry 3:1-11

2. The great boldness of the new ministers 3:12-4:6

3. The sufferings and supports of a minister of the gospel 4:7-5:10

4. The life of a minister of Christ 5:11-6:10

C. Appeal for restoration of the Corinthians' confidence in him 6:11-7:16

1. An appeal for large-heartedness and consistency 6:11-7:4

2. The encouraging response of the Corinthians so far 7:5-16

III. Instructions concerning the collection for the poor saints in Judea 8:1-9:15

A. The example of the Macedonians 8:1-7

B. The supreme motive for giving 8:8-15

C. The delegates of the churches 8:16-24

D. The anticipated visit of Paul 9:1-5

E. The benefits of generous giving 9:6-15

IV. Appeals concerning Paul's apostolic authority 10:1-13:10

A. Replies to charges made against Paul 10:1-18

1. Reply to the charge of cowardice 10:1-6

2. Reply to the charge of weakness 10:7-11

3. Reply to the charge of intrusion 10:12-18

B. Claims made by Paul 11:1-12:18

1. Paul's reasons for making these claims 11:1-6

2. Freedom to minister without charge 11:7-15

3. Paul's service and sufferings 11:16-33

4. Special revelations Paul received 12:1-10

5. Paul's supernatural miracles and paternal love 12:11-18

C. Exhortations in view of Paul's approaching visit 12:19-13:10

1. Paul's concerns 12:19-21

2. Paul's warnings 13:1-10

V. Conclusion 13:11-14

A. The exhortation 13:11-12

B. The salutation 13:13

C. The benediction 13:14

Constable: 2 Corinthians

2 Corinthians

Bibliography

Alford, Henry. The Greek Testament. 4 vols. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, n. d.

Balge, Richard D. "Exegesis of 2 Corinthians 9:1-7." Wisconsin Lutheran Quarterly 85:3 (Summer 1988):220-29.

Barclay, William. The Letters to the Corinthians. 2nd ed. The Daily Study Bible. Edinburgh: Saint Andrew Press, 1962.

Barnett, Paul. The Second Epistle to the Corinthians. The New International Commentary on the New Testament series. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1997.

Barrett, C. K. A Commentary on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. Harper New Testament Commentaries series. New York: Harper & Row, 1973.

Batey, Richard. "Paul's Interaction with the Corinthians." Journal of Biblical Literature 84 (1965):139-46.

Baxter, J. Sidlow. Explore the Book. 6 vols. London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1965.

Broomall, Wick. "The Second Epistle to the Corinthians." In Wycliffe Bible Commentary, pp. 1261-82. Edited by Charles F. Pfeiffer and Everett F. Harrison. Chicago: Moody Press, 1962.

Brown, Perry C. "What Is the Meaning of Examine Yourselves' in 2 Corinthians 13:5?" Bibliotheca Sacra 154:614 (April-June 1997):175-88.

Bruce, F. F., ed. 1 and 2 Corinthians. New Century Bible series. London: Marshall, Morgan and Scott, Oliphants, 1971.

_____. Commentary on The Book of Acts. New International Commentary on the New Testament series. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1984.

Chafer, Lewis Sperry. Systematic Theology. 8 vols. Dallas: Dallas Seminary Press, 1948.

Chitwood, Arlen L. Judgment Seat of Christ. Norman, OK. The Lamp Broadcast, Inc., 1986.

Constable, Thomas L. "Analysis of Bible Books--New Testament." Paper submitted for course 686 Analysis of Bible Books--New Testament. Dallas Theological Seminary, January 1968.

Dahms, John V. "Dying with Christ." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 36:1 (March 1993):15-23.

Dalton, William J. "Is the Old Covenant Abrogated (2 Cor. 3:14)?" Australian Biblical Review 35 (1987):88-94.

Darby, John Nelson. Synopsis of the Books of the Bible. 5 vols. Revised ed. New York: Loizeaux Brothers Publishers, 1942.

Decker, Rodney J. "The Church's Relationship to the New Covenant." Bibliotheca Sacra 152:607 (July-September 1995):290-305; 608 (October-December 1995):431-56.

Dictionary of the Apostolic Church. Edited by James Hastings. 1915 ed. S. v. "Corinthians, Epistles to the," by G. H. Clayton.

Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by James Hastings. 1910 ed. S. v. "Corinthians, Second Epistle to the," by A. Robertson.

Dillow, Joseph C. The Reign of the Servant Kings. Miami Springs, Fl.: Schoettle Publishing Co., 1992.

Doty, W. G. Letters in Primitive Christianity. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1973.

Flanagan, James L. "The Relief Offering for the Saints in Jerusalem." Luther Rice Theological Journal 3 (Spring 1985):17-27.

Forbes, Christopher. "Comparison, Self-Praise and Irony: Paul's Boasting and the Conventions of Hellenistic Rhetoric." New Testament Studies 32:1 (January 1986):1-30.

Fung, Ronald Y. K. "The Nature of the Ministry according to Paul." Evangelical Quarterly 54 (1982):129-46.

Furnish, Victor Paul. II Corinthians. Anchor Bible series. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1984.

Gaebelein, Arno C. The Annotated Bible. 4 vols. Reprint ed. Chicago: Moody Press, and New York: Loizeaux Brothers, Inc., 1970.

Gaventa, Beverly R. "Apostle and Church in 2 Corinthians." In Pauline Theology. Vol. II: 1 & 2 Corinthians, pp. 182-99. Edited by David M. Hay. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993.

Gleason, Randall C. "Paul's Covenantal Contrasts in 2 Corinthians 3:1-11." Bibliotheca Sacra 154:613 (January-March 1997):61-79.

A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament. By C. H. Wilke. Revised by C. L. Wilibald Grimm. Translated, revised and enlarged by Joseph Henry Thayer, 1889.

Guthrie, Donald. New Testament Introduction. 3 vols. 2nd ed. London: Tyndale Press, 1966.

Harris, Gregory H. "Satan's Work as a Deceiver." Bibliotheca Sacra 156:622 (April-June 1999):190-202.

Harris, Murray J. "2 Corinthians." In Romans-Galatians. Vol. 10 of Expositor's Bible Commentary. 12 vols. Edited by Frank E. Gaebelein and J. D. Douglas. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

Hay, David M. "The Shaping of Theology in 2 Corinthians: Convictions, Doubts, Warrants." In Pauline Theology. Vol. II: 1 & 2 Corinthians, pp. 135-55. Edited by David M. Hay. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993.

Hodge, Charles. An Exposition of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. Thornapple Commentaries series. Robert Carter & Brothers, 1859; reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1980.

Hodges, Zane C. Absolutely Free! A Biblical Reply to Lordship Salvation. Dallas: Redencion Viva, and Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, Academie Books, 1989.

_____. Grace in Eclipse. Dallas: Redencion Viva, 1985.

Hoyt, Samuel L. "The Judgment Seat of Christ and Unconfessed Sins." Bibliotheca Sacra 137:545 (January-March 1980):32-40.

_____. "The Negative Aspects of the Christian's Judgment." Bibliotheca Sacra 137:546 (April-June 1980):125-32.

Hughes, Philip Edgcumbe. Paul's Second Epistle to the Corinthians. The New International Commentary on the New Testament series. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1962.

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Edited by James Orr. 1957 ed. S. v. "Corinthians, Second Epistle to the," by R. Dykes Shaw.

Ironside, Harry A. Addresses on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. New York: Loizeaux Brothers, Publishers, n.d.

Kent, Homer A., Jr. A Heart Opened Wide. New Testament Studies series. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1982.

Kinnebrew, Jim. "The Gospel of Affluence." Mid-America Theological Journal 9:2 (Fall 1985):49-65.

Kraftchick, Steven J. "Death in Us, Life in You." In Pauline Theology. Vol. II: 1 & 2 Corinthians, pp. 156-81. Edited by David M. Hay. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993.

Lange, John Peter, ed. A Commentary on the Holy Scriptures. 12 vols. Reprint ed., Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1960. Vol. 10: Romans and Corinthians, by J. P. Lange, F. R. Fay, and Christian Friedrich Kling. Translated by J. F. Hurst, Daniel W. Poor, and Conway P. Wing.

Lenski, Richard C. H. The Interpretation of St. Paul's First and Second Epistles to the Corinthians. Reprint ed., Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1961.

Lieu, Judith M. "Grace to You and Peace': The Apostolic Greeting." Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 68:1 (Autumn 1985):161-78.

Lindars, Barnabas. "The Sound of the Trumpet: Paul and Eschatology." Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 67:2 (Spring 1985):766-82.

Lowery, David K. "2 Corinthians." In Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament pp. 551-86. Edited by John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck. Wheaton: Scripture Press Publications, Victor Books, 1983.

_____. "A Theology of Paul's Missionary Epistles." In A Biblical Theology of the New Testament, pp. 243-97. Edited by Roy B. Zuck. Chicago: Moody Press, 1994.

MacArthur, John F., Jr. Faith Works: The Gospel According to the Apostles. Dallas: Word Publishing, 1993.

_____. The Gospel According to Jesus. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, Academie Books, 1988.

Machen, J. Greshem. The Origin of Paul's Religion. New York: Macmillan, 1921.

Martin, Ralph P. 2 Corinthians. Word Biblical Commentary series. Waco: Word Books, 1986.

_____. "The Setting of 2 Corinthians." Tyndale Bulletin 37 (1986):3-19.

Mason, Clarence E., Jr., "The Day of Our Lord Jesus Christ." Bibliotheca Sacra 125:500 (October-December 1968):352-59.

McCaughey, J. D. "The Glory of God in the Face of Jesus Christ." Australian Biblical Review 35 (1987):95-98.

Morgan, G. Campbell. The Corinthian Letters of Paul. New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1946.

_____. Living Messages of the Books of the Bible. 2 vols. New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1912.

Moulton, James Hope. A Grammar of the Greek New Testament. 4 vols. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1908-76. Vol. 3 (1963): Syntax, by Nigel Turner.

Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome. "Being at Home in the Body We Are in Exile from the Lord' (2 Cor. 5:6b)." Revue Biblique 93:2 (April 1986):214-21.

_____. "Paul and Macedonia: The Connection Between 2 Corinthians 2.13 and 2.14." Journal for the Study of the New Testament 25 (October 1985):99- 103.

O'Neill, John. "The Absence of the In Christ' Theology in 2 Corinthians 5." Australian Biblical Review 35 (1987):99-106.

Phillips, J. B. The New Testament in Modern English. New York: Macmillan, 1958.

Plummer, Alfred. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians. Reprint ed. The International Critical Commentary series. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1966.

Pyne, Robert A. "Antinomianism and Dispensationalism." Bibliotheca Sacra 153:610 (April-June 1996):141-54.

Robertson, Archibald Thomas. Word Pictures in the New Testament. 6 vols. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1931.

Ryrie, Charles C. "The End of the Law." Bibliotheca Sacra 124:495 (July-September 1967):243-44.

Sarles, Ken L. "A Theological Evaluation of the Prosperity Gospel." Bibliotheca Sacra 143:572 (October-December 1986):329-52.

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church. 8 vols. 1858; 3rd rev. ed., Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1966.

Tasker, R. V. G. The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians. The Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. London: Tyndale Press, 1964.

Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Edited by Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich. Translated and edited by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. 1964-74. S. v. "apostolos," by Karl Heinrich Rengstorf, 1 (1964):407-47.

Thompson, James W. "Ministry in the New Testament." Restoration Quarterly 27:3 (Third Quarter 1984):143-56.

Thorsell, Paul R. "The Spirit in the Present Age: Preliminary Fulfillment of the Predicted New Covenant According to Paul." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 41:3 (September 1998):397-413.

van Unnik, W. C. "The Christian's Freedom of Speech in the New Testament." Bulletin of the John Rylands Library of the University of Manchester 44 (1961-62):466-88.

_____. "With Unveiled Face,' and Exegesis of 2 Corinthians iii 12-18." Novum Testamentum 6:2-3 (1963):153-69.

Wall, Joe L. Going for the Gold. Chicago: Moody Press, 1991.

Walvoord, John F. "The Church in Heaven." Bibliotheca Sacra 123:490 (April-June 1966):99-103.

_____, ed. Lewis Sperry Chafer's Systematic Theology. 2 vols. Abridged ed. Wheaton: Scripture Press Publications, Victor Books, 1988.

Ware, Bruce A. "The New Covenant and the People(s) of God." In Dispensationalism, Israel and the Church: The Search for Definition, pp. 68-97. Edited by Craig A. Blaising and Darrell L. Bock. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992.

Webb, William J. "What Is the Unequal Yoke (hetepozygountes) in 2 Corinthians 6:14?" Bibliotheca Sacra 149:594 (April-June 1992):162-79.

_____. "Who Are the Unbelievers (apistoi) in 2 Corinthians 6:14?" Bibliotheca Sacra 149:593 (January-March 1992):27-44.

Wenham, John. "The Identification of Luke." Evangelical Quarterly 63:1 (1991):3-44.

Whiteley, D. E. H. The Theology of St. Paul. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1964.

Wiersbe, Warren W. Be Encouraged. BE Books. Wheaton: Scripture Press Publications, Victor Books, 1985.

Wilkin, Bob. "Test Yourselves to See If You Are in the Faith: Assurance Based on Our Works? 2 Corinthians 13:5." Grace Evangelical Society News 4:10 (October 1990):2.

Woodcock, Eldon. "The Seal of the Holy Spirit." Bibliotheca Sacra 155:618 (April-June 1998):139-63.

Wright, N. T. "On Becoming the Righteousness of God." In Pauline Theology. Vol. II: 1 & 2 Corinthians, pp. 200-208. Edited by David M. Hay. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993.

Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

THE SECOND

EPISTLE OF ST. PAUL, THE APOSTLE,

TO THE CORINTHIANS.

INTRODUCTION.

The subject and design of this second Epistle to the Corinthians, is much the same as of the former. He comforts and congratulates with those who were now reformed by his admonitions. He blames the faulty with apostolical liberty; and being forced to justify himself and his proceedings against the upstart false teachers, he gives an ample account of his sufferings, and also of the favours and graces, which God had bestowed upon him. This Epistle was written not long after the first, (an. 57. [in the year 57.]) some months before that to the Romans, from some place in Macedonia, perhaps from Philippi, as marked at the end of divers Greek copies, though it is observed, that those subscriptions are not much to be relied upon. (Witham) --- In this Epistle St. Paul comforts those who are now reformed by his admonitions to them in the former, and absolves the incestuous man on doing penance, whom he had before excommunicated for his crime. Hence he treats of true penance, and of the dignity of the ministers of the New Testament. He cautions the faithful against false teachers, and the society of infidels. He gives an account of his sufferings, and also of the favours and graces which God hath bestowed on him. (Challoner) --- St. Paul, not being able to come to the Corinthians as soon as he had promised, writes this Epistle to inform them, that it was not through inconstancy, but on account of several weighty reasons, which had hitherto hindered him. Several other reasons, likewise, compelled him to write. For during his absence, several false teachers of the Jews had come amongst them, teaching them that it was necessary to observe the law of Moses, in order to be saved. St. Paul, therefore, first excuses himself, by saying, that the afflictions and troubles he had met with, had hindered him from coming to them. He next orders the fornicator to be restored to favour; after which, he extols his apostleship, forming a comparison between the law of Christ, and of Moses, wherein he blames the false teachers. He then subjoins an exhortation to a pious and holy life, with liberality in their alms, after the example of the Macedonians. As the false teachers had been very industrious in establishing their own reputation, by detracting from that of St. Paul, he enumerates his own sufferings, and the favours he had received from God, shewing that he had much more reason to glory than they; and concludes by exhorting them to correct those faults with which they still remained infected. (Estius) --- This letter may be justly appreciated as a perfect masterpiece of that animated and solid eloquence, which all interpreters so much admire in St. Paul. (Bible de Vence)

====================

Gill: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 2 CORINTHIANS

This epistle, according to the subscription at the end of it, was written from Philippi of Macedonia; and though the subscriptions annexed to the epistles are not always to be depended on, yet it seems very likely that this was written from thence; for the apostle not finding Titus at Troas, as he expected, went into Macedonia, where he met with him, and had an account from him of the success of his first epistle; of the state and condition of the church, and of the temper and disposition of mind in which the members of it were, and which gave him great satisfaction; upon which he immediately wrote this second epistle, and sent it by the same person to them; see 2Co 2:12, 2Co 7:5. It is very probable it might be written the year after the former; and so it is placed by Dr. Lightfoot in the year 56, as the former is in the year 55; though some place this in the year 60, and the other in 59. The occasion of this epistle was partly to excuse his not coming to them according to promise, and to vindicate himself from the charge of unfaithfulness, levity, and inconstancy on that account; and partly, since what he had wrote about the incestuous person, had had a good effect both upon him and them, to direct them to take off the censure that had been laid upon him, and restore him to their communion, and comfort him; likewise to stir them up to finish the collection for the poor saints they had begun; as also to defend himself against the calumnies of the false teachers, who were very industrious to sink his character and credit in this church; which he does by observing the doctrines of the Gospel he preached, which were far more glorious than, and abundantly preferable to, the ministration of the law of Moses, which those men desired to be teachers of; as likewise the success of his ministry in every place; the many sufferings he had underwent for the sake of Christ, and his Gospel; the high favours and privileges he had received of the Lord, as well as the signs, wonders, and miracles done by him in proof of his apostleship; and in which are interspersed many things useful and instructive.

Gill: 2 Corinthians 8 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 2 CORINTHIANS 8

In this chapter the apostle stirs up the Corinthians, to make a collection for the poor saints at Jerusalem, by a variety of arguments, and gives a commendation of Titus and some other brethren, who were appointed messengers to them on that account. He first sets before them the example of the Macedonian churches, who had made a liberal collection for the above persons; which the apostle calls the grace of God, and says it was bestowed on them; and it was not the generosity of one church only, but of many, and so worthy of imitation, 2Co 8:1 which generosity of theirs he illustrates by the circumstances and condition they were in, they were not only in great affliction, but in deep poverty; and yet contributed with abundance of joy, and in great liberality, 2Co 8:2 yea, this they did not only to the utmost of their power, and according to the best of their abilities; but their will was beyond their power, they had hearts to do more than they were able; and what they did, they did of themselves without being asked and urged to it, 2Co 8:3 nay, they even entreated the apostle and his fellow ministers to take the money they had collected, and either send or carry it to the poor saints at Jerusalem, and minister it to them themselves, 2Co 8:4 and which was beyond the expectation of the apostle, who knew their case; and yet it was but acting like themselves, who at first gave themselves to the Lord and to the apostles by the will of God, 2Co 8:5 and this forwardness and readiness of the Macedonian churches, or the churches themselves put the apostle upon desiring Titus to go to Corinth, and finish the collection he had begun; and which carries in it more arguments than one to excite them to this service; as that this was not only at the request of the apostle, but of the Macedonian churches, that Titus should be desired to go on this business; and besides the thing had been begun, and it would be scandalous not to finish it, 2Co 8:6 and next the apostle argues from their abounding in the exercise of other graces, which he enumerates, that they would also in this, 2Co 8:7 for to excel in one grace, and not in another, was not to their praise and honour; however, he did not urge them to this in an imperious way, and to show and exercise his authority; but was moved unto it through the generous example of others, and that there might be a proof of their sincere love and affection to the Lord, and to his people, 2Co 8:8 but as what he wisely judged would have the greatest weight with them; he proposes to them the example of Christ, and instances in his great love to them; who though was rich became poor for them, that they might be enriched through his poverty, 2Co 8:9 and therefore should freely contribute to his poor saints. Moreover, inasmuch as the apostle did not take upon him to command, only give advice, he should be regarded; and that the rather because what he advised to was expedient for them, would be for their good, and be profitable to them; as well as prevent reproach and scandal, which would follow should they not finish what they had begun so long ago, 2Co 8:10 wherefore he exhorts them cheerfully to perform what they had shown a readiness to; and points out unto them the rule and measure of it, that it should be out of their own, what they were possessed of, and according to their ability; which be it more or less would be acceptable to God, 2Co 8:11 for his meaning was not that some should be eased and others burdened; but that all should communicate according to what they had, 2Co 8:13 to which he stimulates them from the hope of the recompence of reward, whenever it should be otherwise with them than it was, and things should change both with them who communicated, and with them to whom they communicated; or this was the end proposed by the apostle, that in the issue there might be an equality between them, 2Co 8:14 which he confirms and illustrates by the distribution of the manna to the Israelites, who had an equal measure, 2Co 8:15 as appears from what is said, Exo 16:18 next the apostle enters upon a commendation of the messengers, that were appointed and ordered to be sent to them upon this errand, and begins with Titus; and gives thanks to God, that had put it into his heart to be so solicitous about this matter, 2Co 8:16 and praises him for his forwardness in undertaking it of his own accord, and in performing it without being urged to it, 2Co 8:17 and next he commends another person, whose name is not mentioned, who was sent along with him; a person of note and fame in all the churches, 2Co 8:18 and who had the honour to be chosen by the churches for this service, 2Co 8:19 and the reason why more persons than one were sent, was to prevent any suspicion of converting the collections to wrong purposes; and to preserve and secure a good character, a character of honesty before God and men, 2Co 8:20. To these two a third was added, whose name also is not mentioned, and who had been proved to be a diligent man, and appeared more so in this matter upon the apostle's confidence in the Corinthians, that they would readily attend to the service these were sent to promote, 2Co 8:22 and thus having separately given the characters of these men, they are all of them commended again; Titus, as the apostle's partner and fellow helper; and the other brethren as the messengers of the churches, and the glory of Christ, 2Co 8:23 and the chapter is concluded with an exhortation to the members of the church at Corinth, to give these messengers a proof of their love to the poor saints before all the churches, and make it appear that he had not boasted of them in vain, 2Co 8:24.

College: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION

Studying 2 Corinthians plunges the modern reader back to the real, tumultuous world of early Christianity. The simple ideals of sharing and goodwill described in Acts 2:42-47 seem to have little place among the diverse converts from this boomtown of Corinth where Paul chooses to anchor his Greek mission. Rather, this microcosm of the early church bickers and accuses, revels in disorder and confusion, reeks of unrenounced pagan practices, and uncritically pursues self-promotion and even disloyalty to Paul, its founder.

When we speak of restoring the NT church, the Corinthian church is not what we have in mind. But maybe this is where we should really start: a real community of believers struggling to understand and implement their Christian faith against the helter-skelter backdrop of values and principles they desired to leave behind. As we understand what Paul teaches this troubled church, we will learn badly needed principles to help bring to maturity our own, real churches which inherit the same struggle.

Second Corinthians stands in stark contrast to Paul's other NT writings in a number of ways. Other letters, like 1 Corinthians, Romans, Galatians, and Colossians are carefully ordered, easily outlined, logical, controlled, as Paul confidently responds to carefully gauged concerns. Methodically, he establishes crucial, theological principles as the basis for practical, behavioral appeals.

By contrast, 2 Corinthians is chaotic and disjointed. Digressions lead the reader far afield before returning to the point. So uneven is 2 Corinthians, that many scholars suggest it is a composite of four or five writings, even a number of conservative scholars admitting two. Intensity, emotion, defensiveness, and second-guessing rather than controlled reasoning bind this epistle together. We see Paul at his weakest, basest, most human. Yet seeing him work through the truth of the gospel in the midst of exasperating difficulties is enlightening.

To a certain extent, it is healthy for our lofty ideals of this giant to be punctured and brought down to reality, even as the Corinthian church does so for our view of the early church. Paul's relationship with the Corinthians at this historical juncture is ugly, and readers deserve to be warned about how disconcerting seeing this can be.

These features of 2 Corinthians make studying and understanding the text much more dependent than usual on grasping the historical circumstances behind and leading up to its writing. Without a clear grasp of the historic story, hopeless confusion will engulf efforts to interpret the text at a number of points.

So, study of 2 Corinthians must begin by seeking to understand the Corinth of Paul's day and Paul's relationship to the local church there before preceding to a reliable interpretation of the text.

THE CITY OF CORINTH

Fortunately, Corinth is a NT city we know a great deal about. It has been heavily excavated and was minutely described by classical writers like Strabo and Dio Chrysostom.

The city that Paul entered in A.D. 50 had been resurrected from the ashes of the old city burned to the ground by the Romans in 146 B.C. Having laid in ruins for 100 years, two years before his death in 44 B.C., Julius Caesar decreed that Corinth (and also Carthage) should be rebuilt. Although located just 60 miles from Athens on the narrow isthmus strategically joining the Greek mainland to the Peloponnesus, the new Corinth was built and organized as a Roman city. Its colonists were gleaned from freedmen, former slaves originating from Syria, Egypt, Judea, Greece, and from retiring Roman soldiers.

The city's layout and its buildings were Roman, as was its governmental organization and law. Its official language was Latin, although Greek was the common language for business and conversation. The people prized Roman articles, importing them in great quantities. In addition to the four magistrates elected each year and its city council, it was administrated by a proconsul appointed annually by the Roman senate.

Corinth's dominance over the five-mile wide isthmus insured economic vitality. Ships traveling between Italy and Asia Minor were happy to pay the fee to cross the isthmus rather than sail the extra 200 miles south around treacherous Cape Malae. Besides, Corinth had even constructed a grooved pavement, called the Diolkos, between the ports on either side of the isthmus on which smaller ships could be hauled in wheeled vehicles. For a larger ship, the goods were loaded on transport carts and reloaded onto another ship waiting at the other harbor.

Julius Caesar dreamed of increasing Corinth's stock by constructing a canal across the isthmus. Not until Nero, A.D. 67., was such a project begun. Actual completion, however was not achieved until modern times, in 1893.

With the two ports, Laechaeum, on the Corinthian Gulf, and Cenchraea, on the Saronic Gulf, Corinth thrived as a center for trade. The major land route between the Greek mainland and the Peloponnesus also went through it. Besides shipbuilding and repair, it hosted bronze, tile, and pottery factories, as well as the necessary warehousing for transportable goods. Corinth's market areas boasted hundreds of stalls filled with craftsmen plying their trade, locals selling merchandise and food, as well as visitors from throughout the empire hawking imported items. They even had places which sold drinks cooled by underground water systems. Paul himself, we know, took up a leather-working stall in this area for eighteen months (Acts 18:1-3).

New Corinth was an eclectic, international city from its inception. In Paul's day, it was a bustling, wide open, boomtown, with over 80,000 inhabitants, and growing every day. It had already outstripped Athens politically, replacing it as the capital of Achaia.

Corinth's prestige was further enhanced by its hosting of the Isthmian Games, second only in significance to the Olympics. Held every two years in Corinth since A.D. 3, these games drew thousands of tourists and lots of business. The city's most prestigious political official was the one responsible for administering the games, occupying a prominent year-round governmental office. The games were dedicated to the Greek sea god, Poseidon, and featured oratory, music, and drama, as well as athletic contests. A dramatic theater as well as a 20,000 seat stadium were used for these events.

Corinth's eclecticism revealed itself in an array of religious choices established by its multicultural inhabitants. Egyptians promoted the cults of Isis and Osiris. Isis was worshiped as a god for sailors because the myth tells of her enduring search on the seas for her betrayed and lost husband Osiris. Osiris is a god of afterlife, who after his death was resurrected to become head of the underworld.

Greeks and Romans honored Poseidon, god of the sea; Athena, goddess of war, the sea, cities and the arts; Aphrodite, goddess of love and fertility; Apollo, god of prophecy; Asklepios, god of healing; and emperors beginning with Julius Caesar. Prominent temples and statues are dedicated to all of these. Apollos often features prominently in colonized cities as an ode of good fortune. His famous Delphic oracle is only some 30 miles from Corinth. The much publicized report that Old Corinth's temple to Aphrodite housed over 1,000 sacred prostitutes is regarded as Athenian slander and is not so certain to still be functioning this way in Paul's day, although this does not mean to imply that Corinth was any more sexually pristine than any other seaport.

One of the busiest religious centers in Paul's day was the Asklepium. Comparable to a modern-day health club, people came here to bathe in its fountain, sleep (healing in their dreams), excercise, read, and dine (on sacrificial meat, cf. 1 Cor 8:10; 10:21). Replicas of body parts found in excavations were offered to the Asklepios by thankful beneficiaries of his healing.

Though not a god, Sisyphus, was considered one of the founding kings of ancient Corinth. Noted for his craftiness, in Greek mythology he was banished to Hades with the everlasting task of pushing a rock up a hill only to have it slip back down. For the Corinthian in Paul's day, he stands for successful cunning in business, but behind the temporary luster, perhaps, he signifies the emptiness of life's ambitions that lurked in the background of people's thoughts.

Judaism came with the early Jewish colonists and seems to have thrived. A dynamic synagogue certainly was functioning when Paul arrived, according to Acts 18:4-17. Also, a building inscription reading "Synagogue of the Hebrews" has been found by archaeologists along the Lechaeum road. Although the inscription is somewhat later than Paul's day, its location in the city center suggests the prominence of Judaism from the early days of New Corinth. Significant increases to the Jewish population likely occurred in A.D. 19 and in the late 40s when Tiberius and then Claudius expelled Jews from Rome. According to Acts 18:2, the latter purge is what brought Aquila and Priscilla and their tentmaking business to Corinth for the eighteen months Paul evangelized there. As Acts 18:8,17 indicate, the Jewish community probably had a certain amount of freedom to manage its own affairs and to appoint its own officials.

Due to Roman influence, Corinthians banded together into self-governing clubs and societies of 10 to 15 people which met in homes around the city. These clubs were delineated by individual trades or professions. Something like small unions, they provided vital social interaction and shared meals but even underwrote members' burial expenses from their kitty of dues. Although each had its sponsoring god, they were not religious in nature.

Most likely, the Corinthian church of Paul's day took on the pattern of these clubs as they met in various homes throughout the city. This helps explain the household factions decried in 1 Cor 1:10-12 and even the food-related problems of 1 Corinthians 8 and 11:17-34.

Corinth in the time of Paul was a city of wealth and prosperity. The families who had come a generation or two previously had worked hard. They had carved out successful lives by their own sweat and ingenuity. Like American immigrants, they were proud of their accomplishments, which they demonstrated in their proliferation of self-commending inscriptions around the city. But like the grandchildren of immigrants today, the Corinthians of Paul's day were noted for their superficial materialism and moral perversity. Such traits are epitomized by the fact that before the century was over, Corinth would become the first Greek city in the Roman Empire to hold bloodthirsty gladiatorial shows.

PAUL AND THE CORINTHIANS

Paul's rocky, seven-year relationship with the Corinthians begins in the fall of A.D. 50 as he enters Corinth on what becomes the last stop of his second missionary journey. Already on the road for a year, he had established churches in Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, and Athens, despite opposition from Gentiles, Jews, and intellectuals (Acts 16-17). As Acts 18 describes, he enters the din of Corinth alone but is quickly befriended by Aquila and Priscilla, who were probably already Christians when they came to Corinth from Rome. For eighteen months the three of them lived, worked, and spread the gospel together there, eventually joined by Silas and Timothy.

At first, Paul shared the gospel and fielded questions in the Jewish synagogue. It wasn't too long, however, before stiff opposition to his presence arose, and he was ejected. However, he took with him many new Christians from among the God-fearing Gentiles who attended the synagogue, as well as Jews including the head of the synagogue, Crispus. Boldly, they set up shop for the first church right next door in the home of Titius Justus. Presumably, they continued to meet there and in other homes around the city for the next eighteen months, since God had instructed Paul to remain in Corinth despite the risks of conflict.

Sparks did fly, and at one point the Jews pressed charges against Paul for breaking Jewish law before Gallio, the Roman proconsul. Quite rightly, Gallio rebuffed the Jewish accusations as being outside any Roman concern. Although this may seem like a relatively minor incident in the life of Paul, the mention of Gallio in Acts 18:14 emerges as the single most important event enabling us to date Paul's life with accuracy. The reason for this is that archaeologists have discovered a datable inscription about a boundary dispute from Emperor Claudius to Gallio which places Gallio's one-year term between A.D. 51 and 52. Anchored by Paul's encounter with Gallio being A.D. 51, the rest of Paul's life can be dated backward and forward from time periods provided in the Acts and his letters.

Upon leaving Corinth, Paul sailed to Syria, probably Antioch, before quickly setting out over land to revisit the previously established churches in Asia Minor and then settling in Ephesus for three years. While in Ephesus, he sent the Corinthians three letters and slipped across the Aegean Sea in a vessel for a brief, surprise visit.

The first letter, commonly known as the "previous letter," is mentioned in 1 Cor 5:9-11. Given the wild immorality of Corinth, it is not surprising that Paul emphasized separation from such people in this letter. However, it has never been found, although a few scholars believe 2 Cor 6:14-7:1 may have originally been part of it.

Next, Paul received a letter from the Corinthians asking various specific questions about Christian life and practice. He is also informed verbally from members of Chloe's household (1 Cor 1:11) about the factionalism that is hurting the church's witness. He responded with the letter we know of as 1 Corinthians. During this period, Timothy was dispatched to Corinth for a brief time (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10) as Paul's personal ambassador, perhaps to give further voice to Paul's teaching in 1 Corinthians or to other issues Paul anticipated. We have no indication as to how long Timothy stayed.

Paul's brief trip to Corinth in A.D. 54 and the letter on its heels upon his return are chief events which underlie Paul's writing of 2 Corinthians in A.D. 56. We don't know why Paul went. Maybe Timothy reported that Paul's personal presence was needed. Possibly, conservative agitators had followed Paul to Corinth as they previously had to Galatia and were stirring up trouble, causing the Corinthians to second-guess Paul's credibility (2 Cor 11:13). What we do know is that this trip, usually described as "the painful visit" (2 Cor 2:1), was a complete disaster. Paul left angry and humiliated. Apparently, he confronted the ringleader of the trouble (perhaps someone in the church who had been influenced by the outsiders) face to face but when the man insulted him, no one in the church came to Paul's defense.

Speculation regarding the accusations hurled at Paul include the illegitimacy of his authority over the Corinthians and his misuse of funds collected for the Jerusalem offering (1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 7:2; 8:11). This was not a theological issue so much as one of personal integrity. Paul speaks of his being hurt emotionally most by the fact that the church did not side with him (2 Cor 2:5-11).

Upon his return, Paul wrote a third letter to the Corinthians, "the severe letter" (2 Cor 2:4; 7:8). Although not existing today, as described in 2 Cor 2:4-11 and 7:5-13, it was undoubtedly the most emotional and strident of any of Paul's letters. Apparently, he unleashed his anger and disappointment, scolding the church for not supporting him and demanding that the majority of the church take charge and discipline the offender as well as apologize to him. The letter is so harsh that Paul seems genuinely afraid ("fears within" - 2 Cor 7:5) that it will drive the church farther away from him and from Christ. But he sees no choice; this situation can't be left like it is.

Titus received the formidable task of delivering this explosive letter into the charged atmosphere of the Corinthian church and carrying out its demands. Paul's anxieties over Titus's success seem to overwhelm him as he waits for news. Apparently, the arrangements with Titus were that they would meet in Troas after a set period of time, maybe as long as six months. Second Corinthians 2:12 tells us that Paul went by land up to Troas, probably in A.D. 55 but was crushed to find Titus was not there. Remaining for some time evangelizing, maybe a month or so, he crossed over to Macedonia, probably Philippi, desperate to find Titus there. Finally, Titus arrived with the great news that the Corinthians - or most of them - were back in the fold. Genuinely remorseful over their hurtful behavior toward Paul, they had, indeed, dealt with the offender and expressed their renewed devotion to him (2 Cor 7:7,11,12).

The letter we call 2 Corinthians historically comes as Paul's fourth letter to Corinth. Buoyed by Titus's positive report, Paul writes this highly emotional letter, sending it back with Titus (2 Cor 7:17), probably A.D. 56. The letter interacts over and over with the events of the Painful Visit and the Severe Letter. Paul gushes with joy over the Corinthians' response (2 Cor 7:7,13-16), even recommending that they lift the punishment on the person who offended him (2 Cor 2:7). However, the tone of the letter is extremely defensive as Paul squirms under pressure from the Corinthians (most likely as advised by Titus) to toot his own horn regarding his own apostolic credentials. Out of his love for them, but against his own convictions against boasting, he is willing to explain the superiority of his apostleship in terms the Corinthians seem to require. These terms - such as providing letters of recommendation (2 Cor 3:1) and lists of accomplishments (2 Cor 6:3-13; 11:16-12:10) - Paul regards as superficial and unnecessary (2 Cor 3:2-3; 10:7) and probably reflect the influence of the conservative agitators upon the Corinthians. Paul seems to know he must respond, however uncomfortable it is for him, in order to block any further inroads from these outsiders and thus reinforce his renewed relationship with the Corinthians.

Titus brought 2 Corinthians to Corinth armed with Paul's commendation within the letter to spur the church to complete its collection of the offering for the Jerusalem Christians (1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 8:10-24). Paul followed a few months later (2 Cor 12:14; Acts 20:3) and remained in Corinth three months. During this period, he wrote Romans, but we know nothing of his interaction with the Corinthian church. Presumably, he finalized the Corinthian offering, but he must have worked diligently to solidify this troubled church and contend personally with the outside agitators and their remaining pockets of influence. At any rate, once the various representatives from the Greek and Asian churches arrived in Corinth with their offerings (Acts 20:1-6), he tried to set sail with them to Syria but, discovering treachery from the Jewish community in Corinth, he and the others traveled first to Troas, and, then, set sail from there.

We have no certainty of further communication or visitation between Paul and the Corinthian church after this. Possibly, following release from his first Roman imprisonment, he returned to Corinth and other churches in Greece and Asia Minor, as the Pastoral epistles suggest (1 Tim. 1:3; 2 Tim. 4:20).

THE UNITY OF 2 CORINTHIANS

One may rightly comment that the literary unity of 2 Corinthians "cannot just be presupposed." Analyses which question whether various sections of 2 Corinthians are original to it have come long and hard during the past two centuries of critical scholarship. Second Corinthian's sharp shifts in content and uneven tone make it the most susceptible of all the NT books to patchwork theories despite the fact that none of the Greek manuscripts (dating back to the third century) give the slightest hint that 2 Corinthians was ever anything different than what we read today. Although the ebb and flow of research has sidelined many conjectures, questions still remain regarding some parts of 2 Corinthians. As many as nine sections of 2 Corinthians have been scrutinized. However, just five will be discussed here.

First, 2 Cor 2:14-7:4 has been noted as at one time existing separately from 2 Corinthians. Even a casual reader is jolted at the jump between the travelogue commentary in 2:12-13 and the military parade description of the gospel in 2:13-17 which opens a five-chapter philosophy of apostolic ministry. It is all the more noticeable when, beginning at 7:5, the travelogue picks up again and continues on until 7:16. However, upon closer perusal, scholars are increasingly reluctant to name this as part of a separate letter. Despite the abruptness between 2:13 and 2:14, the theme of human weakness and divine power in 2:12-17 connects to 1:8-10, and the theme of divine ownership connects 1:22 and 2:14. Despite the change of subject between 7:4 and 7:5, the verbal links supplied by "encouragement" (7:4,13), "joy" (7:4,7) and "troubles" (7:4,5) supply sturdy connections. Besides, the efforts to postulate yet another letter between 1 and 2 Corinthians or to connect this to the Severe Letter are unwarranted. More recent efforts to anaylze 2 Corinthians 1-7 through the eyes of Roman rhetoric as well as chiastic structure loudly confirm separation of 2:14-7:4 as ill-conceived. Certainly, it is a digression but not without purpose and point to the context as a whole.

Second, perhaps less obvious to the casual reader because it is such a short section is 2 Cor 6:14-7:1. Here, again, though, the careful reader observes an interruption between 6:13 ("Open wide your hearts also") and 7:2 ("Make room for us in your hearts"). Scholarly analysis of these six verses suggests that not only are they out of place, they don't sound like Paul, using six words he never uses elsewhere in his writings nor used by anyone else in the NT ( hapax legomenae ). Is this a snippet of something someone else said or wrote that Paul has adapted into his material, or is it something Paul wrote or spoke at another time and place that he decides to use here?

Despite some of the unusual language, Pauline themes do appear here: the church as the temple of God, the polarization of righteousness and unrighteousness as well as between light and dark. Also, plenty of characteristic Pauline language occurs: "living God" (2 Cor 3:3; 1 Thess 1:9), "unbeliever" (twelve other occurrences in 1 and 2 Cor), and "holiness" (Rom 1:4; 1 Thess 3:13). Although conclusions vary, many today incline toward this section being from Paul.

Eyeing the language of separation from unrighteousness, some have been tempted to conclude that 6:14-7:1 is part of the "previous" letter mentioned in 1 Cor 5:9. However, the point is explicitly different. Paul emphasizes that in the previous letter he urged separation from the immorality of believers not dissociation from unbelievers as emphasized in 6:14-7:1.

Most likely, then, Paul himself has inserted this pre-formed, self-contained unit of material from previous teaching, either oral or written, perhaps influenced by others. Interesting comparisons to Qumran materials as well as writings of Philo have been made. The placement exactly here in 2 Corinthians is so awkward as to be unlikely to come from anyone other than Paul. However, two points should be kept in mind. One is that Paul dictated this letter as he did all his letters. This fact enhances the potential for distraction, interruption, and loose digressions such as this. A second point is that although the section's relationship to the immediately previous verses is not obvious, as one backs up to 6:1 and reads of Paul's concern about receiving "God's grace in vain" or to 5:19 to see Paul's emphasis on people "no longer living for themselves but for him who died for them," Paul's emphasis on separation and holiness in 6:14-7:1 fits well.

Probably inconceivable to the casual reader is the suggestion that 2 Corinthians 8 and 2 Corinthians 9 both were not originally part of 2 Corinthians. Arguments regarding 2 Corinthians 8 - repetition of information about Titus (7:13-15; 8:16-17), presumption of knowledge about the two brothers coming with him (8:18,22), or even evidence that 2 Corinthians 8 as well as 2 Corinthians 9 are formal business letters - do not convince many. Arguments regarding 2 Corinthians 9, first proposed by Semler 200 years ago, that 2 Corinthians 9 was originally a letter sent to Christians outside Corinth, are more formidable, and give scholars more pause.

What pulls them up short is the language Paul uses to refer to the collection ("service") in 9:1, which, in Greek, reads like a first mention of the collection. In addition to that, the regional reference to Achaia in 9:2 and the repetition of information from chapter 8 in chapter 9 regarding the collection give added support to the idea of chapter 9 being originally independent.

On the other side of the question is the fact that Paul's reference to the collection in 9:1 is modified by ( men gar , "and for") which suggests a resumption of a previous subject perhaps after a brief pause in dictation. The repetition of details regarding the collection is probably emphatic, and the regional reference to Achaia seems unlikely to exclude Corinth. Tipping the scale against an independent chapter 9, as noted by Furnish, are two references in chapter 9 which presume information from chapter 8: the mention of the brothers (9:3; 8:18) and the emphasis on their completing the collection (9:4-5; 8:7-15).

Admittedly, this is a close call. However, the evidence does not demand that chapters 8 and 9 are two separate letters about the collection, one to Corinth, and one to Achaia. Rather, these are interdependent chapters in 2 Corinthians, chapter 8 dealing with the details of the collection project and chapter 9 emphasizing motivation for the project, as noted by Danker.

Fourth, without a doubt the most serious challenge to the unity of 2 Corinthians comes from chapters 10-13. As long ago as 1870, Hausrath broadcast his belief that in these chapters, he had discovered the missing "severe" letter to the Corinthians. No doubt, in chapters 10-13 Paul erupts into harsh tones of anger and disappointment which seem to undercut completely the exuberance and joy which he builds up to by chapters 7, 8, and 9.

But Hausrath looked closer and pointed to evidence that chapters 10-13 were written previous to chapters 1-9. Particularly he saw passages in chapters 1-9 written in the past tense which appear to allude to passages from chapters 10-13 written in future tenses, such as 1:23 which says that Paul "did not return" to them in order to spare them, corresponding to 13:2 in which Paul asserts that he "will not return" in order to spare them or when Paul says in 2:3-4 that he "wrote" them out of great distress and in 13:10 when he says "I write" so that I may not have to be harsh. Hausrath also contends that Paul's reference to Rome (west of Corinth) as "regions beyond you" in 2 Cor 10:16 makes much better sense if he is in Ephesus (east of Corinth), where he wrote the Severe Letter, rather than Macedonia (north of Corinth), where he wrote 2 Corinthians.

Criticism against Hausrath's identification of 2 Cor 10-13 with the "severe" letter has withered its persuasiveness among scholars. Primarily, chapters 10-13 do not contain something we know specifically was in the Severe Letter: Paul's demand that an individual who offended him be punished (2:5-6; 7:12). Also, chapters 10-13 promise a visit (12:14; 13:1), but the Severe Letter was sent in place of a Painful Visit (1:23; 2:1). Regarding "regions beyond you," the language need not be taken so literally and the Macedonian region should be recognized as much more culturally distinct from Achaia than it looks like on a map.

More appealing to scholars of all stripes, including many conservatives, is to view 2 Cor 10-13 as a separate, fifth letter, written after Titus returns with new, bad news after delivering 2 Corinthians 1-9. This position still takes into account Hausrath's future tense passages. It helps make sense of 2 Cor 12:18 which refers to Titus's visit in the past tense when it was in the planning stage in 2 Corinthians 7-9. Also, it explains the increased strident tones of chapters 10-13 as Paul's response to new, outside influences claiming some kind of rival apostolic authority to Paul's (11:13; 12:11) rather than to internal problems which seem to be his concern in chapters 1-9.

This way of viewing chapters 10-13 is attractive but is not demanded by the evidence. As Witherington points out, the past (aorist) tenses describing Titus's visit in 12:17-18 need not be real. Especially as Paul reaches the end of the book, they could well be epistolary (spoken from the standpoint of the audience reading the letter). The mention of the unnamed brother traveling with Titus does correspond with 2 Cor 8:18,22. Reading 12:17-18 this way opens up the very real possibility that Paul could have received new information about problems in Corinth before sending 2 Corinthians but after writing chapters 1-9. This could explain the gulf between chapters 10-13 as well as an entirely separate letter.

Other ways which account for the change of tone in chapter 10-13 have to do with how one reads the letter. Perhaps chapters 1-9 are directed to the majority of the church which has fallen into line with Paul after the Painful Visit, the Severe Letter, and Titus's hard work while chapters 10-13 are to the minority who are still under the sway of outside opposition to Paul. After all, 2 Cor 2:6 does speak of "the majority" which imposed discipline upon the offender named in the Severe Letter.

Perhaps, as a growing group of scholars are showing, Paul's heightened criticism of the Corinthians in chapters 10-13 concludes a calculated rhetorical plan employing counterattack ( synkrisis ) or strong emotional appeal ( peroratio ) to win his defense against the charges being leveled at him by the Corinthians. One must admit that Paul never relaxes from a defensive posture in 2 Corinthians from the beginning to the end. While Paul's harsh tones in chapters 10-13 following the lead up in chapters 7, 8, and 9 may seem abrupt, his concerns from early in the letter haven't really changed, just his emotionalism. The issue of his character raised in chapter 1 and of the legitimacy of his apostleship raised in chapter 3 remain the object of his defense in chapters 10-13.

The correspondence of these issues is enough to suggest that even though outside influence of "false apostles" (11:13) is not named earlier, they influence the minority of the Corinthian church and provide the ammunition against Paul observed in the earlier chapters. Who else would have brandished "letters of recommendation" (3:1)? Their earliest influences could even be in the background of Paul's problems associated with the Painful Visit.

As evident from 2 Cor 7:8-13, the offending individual merely became the pretext for the whole church failing to rally behind Paul until after the Severe Letter. Although Paul can be ecstatic that most of the church has recommitted themselves to him and to the gospel by the time he writes 2 Corinthians, nevertheless, pockets of opposition likely remain under the growing influence of the outside agitators. With chapters 10-13 Paul intends to level a decisive blow against this opposition not only to bring the remainder of the church back to the true gospel but also to shore up any lingering doubts from those who have pledged their loyalty.

Paul's transition to chapter 10 indeed is rocky but, as Danker points out, no more so than Phil 3 or Rom 9. In this commentary, therefore, we will treat 2 Corinthians as a unity and will treat chapters 10-13 as primarily aimed at responding to a vocal minority of the church who remain mesmerized by the outsiders' criticisms of Paul.

PAUL'S OPPONENTS

Second Corinthians resounds with the echo of outside voices filling the Corinthians' heads with notions geared to sever their relationship with Paul. Since Paul originally brought the gospel to Corinth and made it possible for people there to be reconciled with God through Christ and begin a vibrant church meeting in homes throughout the city, others have come to Corinth presenting themselves as superior in authority to the apostle Paul himself. Presuming the opponents in 2 Cor 10-13 and 1-9 are the same, they supposedly have letters of authentication from Jerusalem (3:1-3), Paul blasts them as "false apostles" (11:13) and sarcastically as "super apostles" in 12:11. Nevertheless, they have influenced and confused the Corinthians enough to force Paul to write 2 Corinthians and fill it with self-commendation regarding his integrity and his "superior" apostolic credentials over theirs. He does this because he feels he must in order to win the Corinthians back, but he finds doing so personally disturbing and repugnant.

Whereas Paul finds it difficult to boast about himself, self-commendation seems to be the chief characteristic of these outsiders. Clues from 2 Corinthians indicate that they were proud of their Jewish heritage (11:22), their "Christian" service (11:23), their oratorical skill (11:6), their self-confidence (1:15-17), and their charismatic experiences (12:12). They preached a different gospel than Paul's (11:4). They also accepted money from the Corinthians, unlike Paul who refused it (12:16). They may have viewed Paul's effort to collect money from the Corinthians for the Jerusalem Christians as cutting off their own purse strings and threatening their prosperity in Corinth.

Their heated, personalized efforts to undercut Paul sound like Paul's opposition in Galatians, commonly called Judaizers (Gal 4:17). However, no mention of the law or circumcision in 2 Corinthians clouds this identification and requires that, if these are the same people, they have changed their tune considerably since Galatians. The fact that they tout letters of recommendation - where else but from Jerusalem - makes it difficult to lay aside the picture of a band of renegade, conservative Jewish Christians who first followed Paul to Galatia and now to Corinth with the expressed purpose of replacing Paul's gospel and his authority to represent true Christianity (Gal 1:6-7).

It is going too far to say that their credentials were currently legitimate or that they were actual apostles since Acts 15:24 reports that a faction of Jewish Christians had gone out falsely representing the church to new, Gentile congregations. It is possible, though, that they do have apostolic credentials - perhaps even knew Jesus before his crucifixion - but now are misusing these credentials to subvert Paul's successful mission to Gentiles in Galatia and now also in Corinth and other churches as well.

The picture of these Corinthian opponents as ultraconservative Jewish Christians clashes with a considerable amount of the evidence which points to their Greek or even gnostic origins. Their connection to revelations and wonders, rhetorical skills, "worldly" wisdom, and just their overall egotistical posture must be reckoned with. Undermining at least the gnostic element is the positive use of "knowledge" in 2 Corinthians. Nevertheless, a typical result when these ingredients are combined emerges with a conclusion that they were "Hellenistic Jews who were propagating . . . a 'spiritual gnosticism.'"

However, it seems inconceivable that ultraconservative Jewish Christians coming out of Jerusalem could be pushing a gospel so infiltrated with Greek ideas as to be outside the bounds of Paul's own radicalized message which had stripped unnecessary Jewish elements. Could these Jewish agitators be so clever as to be able to manipulate the Corinthians against Paul by successfully incorporating elements from Greek culture into their opposition to Paul which they themselves don't believe? It doesn't seem likely, but then no identification satisfactorily combines the paradoxical elements of these opponents as currently gleaned from the information we have from 2 Corinthians and the first century. As one commentator astutely points out, any final resolution is also hampered considerably by the fact that 2 Corinthians provides no information about the doctrine or theology of these opponents. Most current discussion recognizes the limitations involved in this discussion and offers no more than conjectures as has been done here.

It's best, then, to keep in mind the characteristics of Paul's opponents available from reading 2 Corinthians without any adamant historical identification until better information becomes available. They were Jewish. They were Greek. They considered themselves Christians. They hated Paul. They hurt Paul, and he feared what more they could do. It was up to him to marshal all the strength and the skills he had to prevent them from doing any further damage. They had backed him into a corner, and he responds with ferocity and emotion in 2 Corinthians, compelled out of his deep love for the Corinthians and his commitment to true, saving Christianity and humble, self-sacrificing leadership.

RELEVANCE

Christians treat 2 Corinthians like the ugly twin sister of 1 Corinthians. First Corinthian's poignant theology about challenging issues attracts everyone's constant attention. Meanwhile, 2 Corinthians sits in the corner waiting for someone to ask it to dance. Yet, once we make some effort to get to know 2 Corinthians, we will be pleasantly surprised.

Today, as in the days of the early church, various outside forces threaten to sever people's loyalty to Christ and cut away at the fabric of the church. It might be a cult like Mormons or Jehovah's Witnesses. It might be cultural forces like the challenges of postmodernism or the mind-set of the so-called Generation X which questions absolutes like God and salvation in Christ alone. It might just be an obstinate person who envies the authority of the minister, elders, or deacons and questions their integrity and decision-making at every turn and who draws around him or her an anti-faction.

If you are someone who cares deeply about your local church and would do almost anything to maintain its success and its integrity as a body of Christian believers, then 2 Corinthians will speak to your heart and nourish your soul. You will relate to Paul's agony over this church , feel his compassion, and be engulfed by his intense emotion in this letter. You will take in the principles of genuine church leadership and apply them to your life responsibly to enable you to enrich the quality of your local church.

The comments which follow are intended to help you both to understand 2 Corinthians in its own historical context and to apply its key principles to your own personal context in the church today.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aalen, S. "Glory." NIDNTT , 2:44-52.

Alexander, L.C.A. "Chronology of Paul." Dictionary of Paul and His Letters , pp. 115-123. Edited by Gerald Hawthorne, Ralph Martin, and Daniel Reid. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1993.

Andrews, Scott. "Too Weak Not to Lead: The Form and Function of 2 Cor __2Cor 11__11:23b-33." NTS 41 (1995): 263-276.

Bahr, Gordon. "The Subscription in the Pauline Letters." JBL 87 (1968): 27-41.

Baird, William. "Letters of Recommendation: A Study of 2 Cor 3:1-3." JBL 80 (1961): 166-172.

Baker, William R. "Did the Glory of Moses' Face Fade? A Re-examination of Katargew in 2 Corinthians 3:7-18." Forthcoming in BBR 10 (2000).

Barnett, Paul. The Second Epistle to the Corinthians . NICNT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997.

Barrett, C.K. A Commentary on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians . Harper's New Testament Commentaries. New York: Harper & Row, 1973.

________________ . "Paul's Opponents in 2 Corinthians." NTS 17 (1971): 233-254.

________________ . The Second Epistle to the Corinthians . New York: Harper, 1973.

________________ . The Signs of an Apostle . London: Epworth, 1970.

Bartchy, S. Scott. First-Century Slavery and 1 Corinthians 7:21 . SBL Dissertation Series, no. 11. Missoula, Montana: Society of Biblical Teaching, 1973.

Bates, W.A. "The Integrity of II Corinthians." NTS 12 (1965): 56-69.

Batey, Richard. "Paul's Interaction with the Corinthians." JBL 84 (1965): 139-146.

Beale, G.K. "The Old Testament Background of Reconciliation in 2 Corinthians 5-7 and its Bearing on the Literary Problem of 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1." NTS 35 (1989): 550-581.

Beasley-Murray, George R. Baptism in the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1962.

Becher, O. "Faith." NIDNTT , 1: 588-592.

Beck, B.E. "Reflections on 2 Corinthians 5:11-6:2." Epworth Review (1994): 85-92.

Belleville, Linda L. 2 Corinthians . The IVP New Testament Commentary Series. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1996.

________________ . "A Letter of Apologetic Self-Commendation: 2 Cor 1:8-7:16." NovT 31 (1989): 142-163.

________________ . "Imitate Me as I Imitate Christ." In Patterns of Discipleship in the New Testament . Edited by Richard Longenecker. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996.

________________ . "Paul's Polemic and Theology of the Spirit in 2 Corinthians." CBQ 58 (1996): 281-304.

________________ . Reflections of Glory: Paul's Polemical Use of the Moses-Doxa Tradition in 2 Corinthians 3:1-18. JSNT Supplemental Series, no. 52, Sheffield: JSOT, 1991.

Best, Ernest. Second Corinthians . Interpretation Commentary. Louisville: John Knox, 1987.

Betz, Hans Dieter. "2 Cor 6:14-7:1: An Anti-Pauline Fragment?" JBL (1973): 88-108.

________________ . 2 Corinthians 8 and 9: A Commentary on Two Administrative Letters of the Apostle Paul. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985.

Beyreuther, E. "Like, Equal." NIDNTT , 2:497-500.

Beyreuther, E., and G. Finkenrith. "Joy." NIDNTT , 2:352-361.

Bieringer, B. "Der 2. Korintherbrief in den neuesten Kommentaren." Ephemerides Theologicale Lovanienses 67 (1991): 107-130.

Bientenhard, H., and J.A. Motyer. "Amen." NIDNTT , 1:97-101.

Bientenhard, H., and C. Brown. "Satan." NIDNTT , 3:468-473.

Blomberg, Craig. Interpreting the Parables . Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1990.

________________ . Neither Poverty nor Riches . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999.

________________ . "The Structure of 2 Corinthians 1-7." Criswell Theological Revue 4 (1989): 3-20.

Breytenbach, Cilliars. "Paul's Proclamation and God's 'Thriambos' (Notes on 2 Cor 2:14-16b)." Neot 24 (1990): 257-271.

Brown, C. "Satan." NIDNTT , 3:468-473.

Bruce, F.F. Commentary on Galatians . NIGTC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. 1982.

________________ . "Paul and Jerusalem in Paul's Apostolic Strategy." TynBul 19 (1968): 3-25.

Buchanan, George Walter. "Paul and the Jews (II Corinthians 3:4-4:6 and Romans 11:7-10)." In When Jews and Christians Meet , pp. 141-161. Edited by Jacob I. Petuchowski. Albany, NY: State University of New York, 1958.

Bultmann, Rudolph. "DIKAIOSYNE THEOU." JBL 83 (1964): 12-16.

Burton, Ernest DeWitt. The Epistle to the Galatians . ICC. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1921.

Campbell, J.Y. "'KOINWNIA' and its Cognates in the New Testament." JTS 49 (1948).

Cartledge, M.J. "A Model of Hermeneutical Method - An Exegetical Missiological Reflection upon Suffering in 2 Corinthians 4:7-15." Evangelical Review of Theology 17 (1993): 472-483.

Cassidy, Ronald. "Paul's Attitude to Death in II Corinthians 5:1-10." EvQ 43 (1971): 210-217.

Chevallier. "L'argumentation de Paul dans II Corinthiens 10 à 13." Revue d'Histoire et de Philosophie Religieuses 70 (1990): 3-15.

Collins, J.N. "The Mediatorial Aspect of Paul's Role as Diakonus ." AusBR 40 (1992): 34-44.

Conzelmann, Hans. "Paul's Doctrine of Justification: Theology of Anthropology?" In Theology of the Liberating Word , pp. 108-123. Edited by F. Herzog. Nashville: Abingdon, 1972.

Cook, Michael J. "The Tie that Binds: An Exposition of II Corinthians 3:12-4:6 and Romans 11:7-10." In When Jews and Christians Meet , pp. 121-135. Edited by Jacob I. Petuchowski. Albany, NY: State University of New York, 1988.

Cooper, John W. Body, Soul, and Life Everlasting: Biblical Anthropology and the Monism-Dualism Debate . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989.

Cottrell, Jack. Romans . The College Press NIV Commentary. 2 vols. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1996, 1998.

Craig, W.L. "Paul's Dilemma in 2 Corinthians 5:1-10: A 'Catch-22'?" NTS 34 (1988): 145-147.

Cranfield, C.E.B. "Minister and Congregation in the Light of II Corinthians 4:5-7." Int 19 (1965): 163-167.

________________ . "The Grace of Our Lord Jesus Christ. 2 Corinthians 8:1-9." Communio Viatorum 32 (1989): 105-109.

Dahl, Nils. "A Fragment and Its Context: 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1." In Studies in Paul , pp. 62-69. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1977.

Danker, Frederick W. "Consolation in 2 Cor 5:1-10." Concordia Theological Monthly 39 (1968): 552-556.

________________ . II Corinthians . Augsburg Commentary on the New Testament. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1989.

De Lorenz, L., ed. The Diakonia of the Spirit (2 Cor 4:7-7:4). Monographic Series of "Benedicta." Biblical Ecumenical Studies, no. 10. Rome: St. Paul's Abbey, 1989.

De Silva, D.A. "Measuring Penultimate against Ultimate Reality: An Investigation of the Integrity and Argumentation of 2 Corinthians." JSNT 52 (1903): 41-70.

________________ . "Meeting the Exigency of a Complex Rhetorical Situation: Paul's Strategy in 2 Corinthians 1 through 7." AUSS 34 (1996): 5-22.

________________ . "Recasting the Moment of Decision: 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1 in its Literary Context." AUSS 31 (1993): 3-16.

Deirsmann. Bible Studies . Translated by A. Grieve. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1903.

Derrett, J.D.M. "Nai (2 Cor 1:19-20)." Filologia Nestestamentaria 4 (1991): 205-209.

Diessmann, Adolf. Bible Studies . Translated by A. Grieve. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1903.

Dinkler, Erich. "Die Taufterminologie in 2 Kor 1:21f." Neotestamentica et Patristica , pp. 173-191. NovTSupp 6 (Leiden, 1962).

Duff, P.B. "Apostolic Suffering and the Language of Processions in 2 Corinthians 4:7-10." BTB 21 (1991): 158-165.

________________ . "2 Corinthians 1-7: Sidestepping the Division Hypothesis Dilemma." BTB 24 (1994): 16-26.

________________ . "Metaphor, Motif, and Meaning: The Rhetorical Strategy Behind the Image 'Led in Triumph' in 2 Corinthians 2:14." CBQ 53 (1991): 79-92.

________________ . "The Mind of the Redactor: 2 Cor 6:14-7:1 in Its Secondary Context." NovT 35 (1993): 160-180.

Dumbrell, William J. "Paul's Use of Exodus 34 in 2 Corinthians 3." In The God Who Is Rich in Mercy , pp. 179-194. Fest. D.B. Knox. Edited by Peter T. O'Brian and David G. Peterson. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1986.

Egan, R.B. "Lexical Evidence in Two Pauline Passages." NovT 19 (1977): 34-62.

Ellingworth, Paul. "Grammar, Meaning, and Verse Divisions in 2 Cor 11:16-29." BT 43 (1992): 245-246.

Ellis, E.E. "Christ Crucified." In Reconciliation and Hope: New Testament Essays on Atonement and Eschatology . Fest. Leon Morris. Edited by R. Banks. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans (1974): 69-75.

________________ . "Paul and His Co-Workers." NTS 17 (1970): 437-452.

________________ . "II Cor V.1-10 in Pauline Eschatology." NTS 6 (1960): 211-224.

Engels, Donald. Roman Corinth: An Alternative Model for the Classical City . Chicago: University of Chicago, 1990.

Erickson, R.J. "Flesh." DPL , pp. 303-305.

Erlemann, K. "Der Geist als ajrrabwn (2 Kor 5,5) in Kontext der Paulinschen Eschatologie." ZNW 83 (1992): 202-223.

Esser, H.H. "Grace." NIDNTT , 2:115-123.

________________ . "Mercy." NIDNTT , 2:593-298.

Everts, J.M. "Hope." DPL , pp. 414-417.

Fee, Gordon. "II Corinthians VI.14-VII.1 and Food Offered to Idols." NTS 23 (1977): 140-161.

________________ . "CARIS in II Corinthians I.15: Apostle's Parousia and Paul-Corinth Chronology." NTS 24 (1978): 533-538.

Filbeck, David. "Problems in Translating First Person Plural Pronouns in 2 Corinthians." BT 45 (1994): 401-410.

Fitzgerald, John T. Cracks in an Earthen Vessel: An Examination of the Catalogues of Hardships in the Corinthian Correspondence. SBL Dissertation Series, no. 99. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.

________________ . "Paul, the Ancient Epistolary Theorists, and 2 Corinthians 10-13." In Greeks, Romans, and Christians , pp. 190-200. Edited by D. Balch. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1990.

Fitzmyer, Joseph A. "Glory Reflected on the Face of Christ (2 Cor 3:7-4:6) and a Palestinian Jewish Motif." TS 42 (1981): 630-644.

________________ . "Qumran and the Interpolated Paragraph in 2 Cor 6:14-7:1." CBQ 23 (1961): 271-278.

Forbes, C. "Comparison, Self-Praise and Irony: Paul's Boasting and the Conventions of Hellenistic Rhetoric." NTS 32 (1986): 1-30.

Fredrickson, D. "Free Speech in Pauline Political Theology." WW 12 (1992): 345-351.

________________ . "Pentecost: Paul the Pastor in 2 Corinthians." WW 11 (1991): 208-214.

Fridrichsen, A. The Apostle and His Message . Uppsala: Lundequistska, 1947.

Furnish, Victor Paul. "Paul and the Corinthians." Int 52 (July, 1998): 229-245.

________________ . II Corinthians . Anchor Bible. New York: Doubleday, 1984.

Gallas, S. "Fünfmal vierzig weniger einen . . ." Die an Paulus Vollzogenen Synagogal Strafen Nach 2 Kor 11,24. ZNW 81 (1991): 178-191.

Georgi, D. The Opponents of Paul in Second Corinthians . Translated by N. Attridge. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1986.

Gill, David W.J. "In Search of the Social Elite in the Corinthian Church." TynBul 44 (1993): 323-337.

Gillman, John. "A Thematic Comparison: 1 Cor 15:50-57 and 2 Cor 5:1-5." JBL 107 (1988): 439-454.

Glasson, T.F. "2 Corinthians V.1-10 Versus Platonism." SJT 43 (1990): 145-155.

Gleason, Randall. "Paul's Covenantal Contrasts in 2 Cor 3:1-11." BSac 154 (1997): 61-79.

Gräbe, P.J. "The All-Surpassing Power of God through the Holy Spirit in the Midst of our Broken Earthly Existence: Perspectives on Paul's Use of DUNAMIS in 2 Corinthians." Neot 28 (1994): 147-156.

Grech, Prosper. "2 Corinthians 3,17 and the Pauline Doctrine of Conversion to the Holy Spirit." CBQ 17 (1955): 420-437.

Greenlee, J. Harold. Introduction to New Testament Textual Criticism . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964.

Guhrt, J. "Time." NIDNTT , 3:831.

Gundry, Robert. A Survey of the New Testament . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994.

Gundry-Volf, J.M. "Conscience." DPL , 153-156.

Haarbeck, H., and H.G. Link. "lupevw." NIDNTT , 2:419-421.

Hafemann, S.J. "The Glory and Veil of Moses in 2 Cor 3:7-14: An Example of Paul's Contextual Exegesis of the OT - A Proposal." HBT 14 (1992): 31-49.

________________ . Paul, Moses, and the History of Israel . Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1996.

________________ . "Paul's Use of the Old Testament in 2 Corinthians." Int 52 (July, 1998): 246-257.

________________ . "Self-Commendation and Apostolic Legitimacy in 2 Corinthians: A Pauline Dialectic?" NTS 36 (1990): 66-88.

________________ . Suffering and Ministry in the Spirit: Paul's Defense of His Ministry in 2 Corinthians 2:14-3:3. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990. 21-95.

Hagge, H. "Die beiden überlieferen sendschreibendes Apostels Paulus an die Gemeinde zu Korinth." Jahrbucher für protestantische Theologie 2 (1876): 481-531.

Hahn, H.C., and Colin Brown. "Conscience." NIDNTT , 1:348-353.

________________ . "Openness, Frankness, Boldness." NIDNTT , 2:734-737.

Harder, G. "upovstasi"." NIDNTT , 1:710-713.

Harris, Murray J. "2 Corinthians 5:1-10: Watershed in Paul's Eschatology!" TynBul 22 (1971): 32-57.

________________ . "2 Corinthians." In Expositor's Bible Commentary, Vol. 10. Edited by Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976.

Harvey, A.E. Renewal through Suffering . Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1996.

Hausrath, Adolf. Der Vier-Capitalbrief des Paulus an die Korinther. Heidelberg: Bassermann, 1870.

Hayes, J.W. "Roman Pottery from the South Stoa at Corinth." Hesperia 42 (1973): 465-476.

Heckel, V. "Der Dorn im Fleisch. Die Krankheit des Paulus in 2 Kor 12,7 und Gal 4,13f 2:238." ZNW (1993): 65-92.

Heiny, Stephen. "2 Corinthians 2:14-4:6: The Motive for Metaphor." In SBL 1987 Sermon Papers , 1-21. Edited by Kent Harold Richards. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987.

Hemer, Colin. "A Note on 2 Corinthians 1:9." TynBul 23 (1972): 103-107.

________________ . "Alexandrian Troas." TynBul 26 (1975): 82-94.

Hengel, Martin. The Son of God . Translated by John Bowden. London: SCM Press, 1976.

Hennecke, Edgar, ed. New Testament Apocrypha . 2 vols. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1963-1964.

Hess, K. "Serve." NIDNTT , 3:544-549.

Hickling, C.J.A. "The Sequence of Thought in II Corinthians, Chapter Three." NTS 21 (1975): 380-395.

Hock, Ronald F. "The Workshop as a Social Setting for Paul's Missionary Preaching." CBQ 41 (1979): 438-450.

________________ . "Paul's Tentmaking and the Problem of his Social Class." JBL 97 (1978): 555-564.

Hodgson, Robert. "Paul the Apostle and First Century Tribulation Lists." ZNW 74 (1983): 59-80.

Hoffman, E. "Hope, Expectation." NIDNTT , 2:238-244.

Howe, E.M. "Interpretations of Paul in the Acts of Paul and Thecla." Pauline Studies . Fest. F.F. Bruce. Edited by D.A. Hagner and M.J. Aawis. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980.

Hubbard, Moyer. "Was Paul Out of His Mind? Re-reading 2 Corinthians 5.13." JSNT 70 (1998): 39-64.

Hughes, Philip E. Paul's Second Epistle to the Corinthians . NICNT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1962.

Hurd, John. The Origin of I Corinthians . New York: Seabury, 1965.

Joubert, S.J. "Behind the Mask of Rhetoric: 2 Corinthians 8 and the Intra-textual Relation Between Paul and the Corinthians." Neot 26 (1992): 101-112.

Judge. E.A. "The Conflict of Educational Aims in NT Thought." Journal of Christian Education 9 (1966): 32-45.

________________ . "Paul's Boasting in Relation to Contemporary Professional Practice." AusBR 16 (1968): 37-50.

________________ . "The Social Identity of the First Christians: A Question of Method in Religious History." JRH 11 (1980): 214.

Käsemann, Ernst. "'The Righteousness of God' in Paul." In New Testament Questions of Today , pp. 168-193. Translated by W.J. Montague. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1969.

Kee, Doyle. "Who Were the 'Super-Apostles' of 2 Corinthians 10-13?" ResQ 23 (1980): 65-76.

Kerr, Alastair. "ajrrabw'n." JTS 39 (1988): 92-97.

Keyes, C.W. "The Greek Letter of Introduction." AJP 56 (1935): 28-44.

Kim, C.H. Forum and Structure of Greek Letters of Recommendation . Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series, no. 4. Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1972.

Kim, Seyoon. The Origin of Paul's Gospel . Tübingen: Muhr, 1981. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982.

Kistemaker, Simon J. II Corinthians . New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1997.

Klassen, William. "The Sacred Kiss in the NT: An Example of Social Boundary Lines." NTS 39 (1993): 122-135.

Koester, Helmut. "upostasi"." TDNT 8: 572-589.

Kramer, Werner. "Christ, Lord, Son of God." In Studies in Biblical Theology , no. 50. Translated by B. Hardy. London: SCM Press, 1966.

Kruse, Colin. "The Offender and the Offence in 2 Corinthians 2:5 and 7:12." EvQ 60 (1998): 129-139.

________________ . "The Relationship Between the Opposition to Paul Reflected in 2 Corinthians 1-7 and 10-13." EvQ 61 (1989): 195-202.

________________ . 2 Corinthians . Tyndale New Testament Commentaries, 2nd ser . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987.

Kurz, William. "2 Corinthians" Implied Readers and Canonical Implications." JSNT 62 (1996): 443-63.

Lambrecht, Jan. "'Reconcile Yourselves . . .': A Reading of 2 Cor 5.11-21." In The Diakonia of the Spirit. Edited by Lorenzo Lonenzi. Monograph Series of Benediction, vol. 10. Rome: St. Paul's Abbey, 1989.

________________ . Second Corinthians . Sacra Pagina. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1999.

________________ . "Strength in Weakness: A Reply to Scott B. Andrews' Exegesis of 2 Cor 11:23b-33." NTS 43 (1997): 285-290.

Lampe, G.W.H. "Church Discipline and the Interpretation of the Epistles to the Corinthians." In Church History and Interpretation , pp. 337-361. Edited by W.R. Farmer. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1967.

Leary, T.J. "A Thorn in the Flesh - 2 Corinthians 12:7." JTS 43 (1992): 520-522.

Leivestad, Ragnar. "The Meekness and Gentleness of Christ: II Cor X.1." NTS 13 (1966): 156-164.

Lewis, J.P., ed. Interpreting 2 Corinthians 5:14-21. An Exercise in Hermeneutic Studies in the Bible and Early Christianity 17 . Lewiston, NY: Mellen, 1989.

Lincoln, Andrew. "Paul the Visionary: The Setting and Significance of the Rapture to Paradise in II Corinthians XII.1-10." NTS 25 (1979): 204-220.

Lofthouse, W. F. "'I' and 'We' in the Pauline Epistles." BT 6 (1955): 72-80.

Lorenzi, Lorenzo, ed. The Diakonia of the Spirit . Monograph Series of Benedictina, vol. 10. Rome: St. Paul's Abbey, 1989.

Loubser, J.A. "A New Look at Paradox and Irony in 2 Corinthans 10-13." Neot 26 (1992): 507-521.

Manson, T.W. "2 Cor 2:14-17: Suggestions Toward an Exegesis." In Studia Pauline . Fest. de Zwann. Haarlem: Bohm, 1953.

Marmorstein, A. The Old Rabbinic Doctrine of God. New York: KTAV, 1968.

Marshal, Peter. "A Metaphor of Shame: QRIABEUEIN in 2 Cor 2:14." NovT 25 (1983): 302-317.

________________ . "Invective: Paul and His Enemies in Corinth." In Perspectives on Languages and Test: Essays and Poems in Honor of Francis Anderson , pp. 358-373. Edited by Edgar W. Conrad and Edward G. Newry. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1987.

Marshall, I.H. "The Meaning of Reconciliation." In Unity and Diversity in New Testament Theology . Fest. George E. Ladd. Edited by R. A. Guelich. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978.

Martin, Ralph P. 2 Corinthians . Word Biblical Commentary. Waco, TX: Word, 1986.

________________ . "The Opponents of Paul in 2 Corinthians: An Old Issue Revisited." In Tradition and Interpretation in the New Testament . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987.

Maxfield, Valerie. The Military Decoration of the Roman Army . Los Angeles: University of California , 1981.

McCant, Jerry. "Paul's Thorn of Rejected Apostleship." NTS 34 (1988): 550-572.

Metzger, Bruce, ed. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament . New York: United Bible Societies, 1971.

Morray-Jones, C.R.A. "Paradise Revisited (2 Cor 12:1-12): The Jewish Mystical Background of Paul's Apostolate. Part 1: The Jewish Sources." HTR 86 (2, 1993): 177-217.

________________ . "Paradise Revisited (2 Cor 12:1-12): The Jewish Mystical Background of Paul's Apostolate. Part 2: Paul's Heavenly Ascent and Its Significance." HTR 86 (3, 1993): 265-292.

Morris, Leon. The Apostolic Preaching of the Cross . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1955.

________________ . The Epistle to the Romans . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988.

Moule, C.F.D. "St. Paul and Dualism: The Pauline Conception of Resurrection." NTS 13 (1965): 106-123.

Mullins, Terence. "Formulas in New Testament Epistles." JBL 91 (1972): 380-390.

Mundel, W. "uJpakouw." NIDNTT , 2:179-180.

Murphy-O'Conner, Jerome "Another Jesus (2 Cor 11:4)." RB 97 (1990): 238-251.

________________ . "'Being at Home in the Body We Are in Exile from the Lord' (2 Cor 5:6b)." RB 93 (1986): 214-221.

________________ . "The Corinth that Paul Saw." BA (Sept, 1984): 147-159.

________________ . "The Date of 2 Corinthians 10-13." RB 39 (1991): 31-43.

________________ . "Faith and Resurrection in 2 Cor 4:13-14." RB 95 (1988): 543-550.

________________ . "Paul and Gallio." JBL 112 (1993): 315-317.

________________ . Paul's Corinth: Texts and Archaeology. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1983.

________________ . "Philo and 2 Cor 6:14-7:1." RB 95 (1988): 55-69.

________________ . "PNEUMATIKOI and Judaizers in 2 Cor 2:14-4:6." AusBR 34 (1986): 42-58.

________________ . "Relating 2 Corinthians 6.14-7.1 to its Context." NTS 33 (1987): 272-275.

________________ . The Theology of the Second Letter to the Corinthians . New Testament Theology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Nickle, Keith. The Collection . Studies in Biblical Theology, no. 48. London: SCM Press, 1966.

Newmann, Matthias. "Ministry, Weakness, and Spirit in II Corinthians." Clergy Review 59 (1974): 647-660.

O'Collins, Gerald. "Power Made Perfect in Weakness: 2 Cor 12:9-10." CBQ 33 (1971): 528-537.

Olley, John. "A Precursor of the NRSV? 'Sons and Daughters' in 2 Cor 6.18." NTS 44 (1998): 204-212.

Olson, Stanley. "Epistolary Uses of Expressions of Self-Confidence." JBL 104 (1984): 585-597.

Osborne, Robert. "St. Paul's Silent Years." JBL 84 (1963): 59-65.

Osei-Bonsu. "Does 2 Cor 5.1-10 Teach the Reception of the Resurrection in Body at the Moment of Death?" JSNT 28 (1986): 81-101.

Oster, R.E. "Use, Misuse, and Neglect of Archaeological Evidence in Some Modern Works on 1 Corinthians." ZNW 83 (1992): 52-73.

Packer, J.I. "Abolish, Nullify, Reject." NIDNTT , 1:73-74.

Pate, C.M. Adam Christology as the Exegetical and Theological Substructure of 2 Corinthians 4:7-5:21. University Press of America, 1991.

Patte, Daniel. "A Structural Exegesis of 2 Corinthians 2:14-7:4 with Special Attention on 2:14-3:6 and 6:11-7:4." In SBL 1987 Seminar Papers , pp. 23-45. Edited by Kent Harold Richards. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987.

Perriman, A.C. "Between Troas and Macedonia: 2 Cor 2:13-14." ExpTim 101 (1989): 39-41.

________________ . "Paul and the Parousia: 1 Corinthians 15.50-57 and 2 Corinthians 5:1-5." NTS 35 (1989): 512-521.

Peterson, Brian. "Conquest, Control, and the Cross: Paul's Self-Portrayal in 2 Corinthians 10-13." Int 52 (1998): 258-270.

Pierre, C.A. Conscience in the New Testament . SBJ 15. London: SCM, 1958.

Plummer, Alfred. A Critical & Exegetical Commentary on the Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians . ICC, 1st ser. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1915.

Quast, Kevin. Reading the Corinthian Correspondence: An Introduction . New York: Paulist, 1994.

Rensberger, David. "2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1 - A Fresh Examination." Studia Biblical Et Theologica 8 (1978): 25-49.

Roetzel, C.J. "'As Dying, and Behold We Live.' Death and Resurrection in Paul's Theology." Int 46 (1992): 5-18.

Schippers, R. "qliyi"." NIDNTT , 2:807-809.

________________ . "Seal." NIDNTT , 3:497-500.

Schlier, Heinrich. "ajmhn." TDNT , 1:335-338.

Schmithals, Walther. Gnosticism in Corinth: An Investigation of the Letters to the Corinthians . Translated by J.E. Steely. Nashville: Abingdon, 1971.

Scott, James M. 2 Corinthians . New International Biblical Commentary. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998.

________________ . "The Triumph of God in 2 Cor 2.14: Additional Evidence of Merkabah Mysticism in Paul." NTS 42 (1996): 260-281.

________________ . "Use of Scripture in 2 Corinthians 6:16c-18 and Paul's Restoration Theology." JSNT 561 (1994): 73-99.

Segal, Alan. "Paul and Ecstasy." In SBL 1986 Seminar Papers , pp. 555-580. Altanta: Scholars Press, 1986.

Semler, Johann. Paraphrasis II epistolae ad Corinthios . Halle, 1776.

Singer, S. Authorised Daily Prayer Book. London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1925.

Spencer, Aida Besançon, and William David Spencer. 2 Corinthians . Bible Study Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989.

Stählin, Gustav. "filew." TDNT , 9:113-171.

Stephenson, A.M.G. "A Defense of the Integrity of 2 Corinthians." In The Authorship and Intergirty of the New Testament , pp. 82-97. SPCK Theological Collections , 4. London: SPCK, 1965.

Stowers, S.K. "' Peri men gar ' and the Integrity of 2 Cor 8 and 9." NovT 32 (1990): 340-348.

Stuhlmacher, Peter. Gerechtigkeit Gottes bei Paulus . FRLANT 87. Goettingen: Vandenhoock and Ruprecht, 1966.

Sumney, Jerry L. Identifying Paul's Opponents: The Question of Method in 2 Corinthians . JSNTSupp , no. 40. Sheffield: JSOT, 1990.

Tasker, R.V.G. The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians . Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1958.

Taylor, Justin. "The Ethnarch of King Aretus at Damascus: A Note on 2 Cor 11, 32-33." RB 99 (1992): 719-728.

Taylor, N.H. "The Composition and Chronology of Second Corinthians." JSNT 48 (1991): 67-87.

Thacker, Anthony. "Paul's Thorn in the Flesh." Epworth Revue 18 (1991): 67-69.

Theissen, G. "The Unity of the Church." Theology Digest 42 (1995): 117-126.

Thiselton, Anthony. "Flesh." NIDNTT , 3:671-682.

Thrall, Margaret. A Critical & Exegetical Commentary on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians . ICC, 2nd ser. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1994.

________________ . "2 Corinthians 1:12: aJgiovqhti or aJplovqhti." In Studies in New Testament Language and Text. NovTSupp 44. Edited by J.K. Elliott. Leiden: Brill (1976): 366-372.

________________ . "The Offender and the Offense: A Problem of Detection in 2 Corinthians." In Scripture: Meaning and Method , pp. 65-78. Edited by B. Thompson. Hull: Hull University Press, 1987.

________________ . "The Pauline Use of SUNEIDHSIS." NTS 14 (1967): 118-125.

________________ . "The Problem of II Cor VI.14-VII.1 in Some Recent Discussions." NTS 24 (1977): 132-148.

________________ . "Salvation Proclaimed in V. 2 Corinthians 5:18-21: Reconciliation with God." ExpTim 93 (1982): 226-230.

________________ . "A Second Thanksgiving Period in 2 Corinthians." JSNT 16 (1982): 101-124.

________________ . "Super-Apostles, Servants of Christ, and Servants of Satan." JSNT 6 (1980): 42-57.

Thurston, Bonnie Bowman. "2 Corinthians 2:14-16a: Christ's Incense." ResQ 29 (1987): 65-70.

Trocmé, E. "Le rempart de Damas: un faux pas de Paul?" Revue d'Histoire et de Philosophie Religieuses. Strasbourg, 69 (1989): 475-479.

Unnik, W.C. Van. "'With Unveiled Face' An Exegesis of 2 Corinthians III.12-15." NovT 2 (1963): 153-169.

________________ . "Tarsus or Jerusalem." Sparsa Collecta . NovTSupp 29 (1953): 259-327.

Vassiliades, P. "The Collection Revisited." Deltion Biblicokon Meleton 21 (1992): 42-48.

Ward, Roy Bower. "The Opponents of Paul." ResQ 10 (1967): 185-195.

Watson, Francis. "2 Cor x-xiii and Paul's Painful Letter to the Corinthians." JTS 35 (1984): 324-346.

Webb, W.J. Returning Home: New Covenant and Second Exodus as the Context for 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1. JSNT Supplement Series 85. Sheffield, UK: JSOT Press, 1993.

________________ . "Unequally Yoked Together with Unbelievers. Part 1 (of 2): Who are the Unbelievers (ajpistoi) in 2 Corinthians 6:14?" BSac 149 (1992): 27-44.

________________ . "What is the Unequal Yoke in 2 Corinthians 6:14?" BSac 149 (1992): 162-179.

Weiss, Johannes. Earliest Christianity . 2 vols. Translated by F.C. Grant. New York: Harper, 1959.

Wenham, David. The Parables of Jesus . Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1989.

Wenham, John. "Being 'Found' on the Last Day: New Light on 2 Peter 3.10 and 2 Cor 5.3." NTS 33 (1987): 477-429.

White, John L. "Introductory Formulae in the Body of Pauline Letters." JBL 96 (1971): 91-97.

Williamson, Lamar. "Led in Triumph." Int 22 (1968): 317-322.

Windisch, Hans. "Kaphleuw." TDNT , 3:603-605.

Wiseman, James, R. "Corinth and Rome I: 228 B.C.-A.D. 267." ANRW II, 7/1, 438-548.

________________ . The Land of the Ancient Corinthians . Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, no. 50. Göteborg: Astrom, 1978.

Witherington, Ben III. Conflict and Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995.

Wong, Kasper. "'Lord' in 2 Corinthians 10:17." Louvain Studies 17 (1992): 243-253.

Wood, John. "Death at Work in Paul." EvQ 54 (1982): 151-155.

Woods, L. "Opposition to a Man and His Message: Paul's 'Thorn in the Flesh' (2 Cor 12:7)." AusBR 39 (1991): 44-53.

Wright, N.T. "On Becoming the Righteousness of God." In Pauline Theology 2:200-208. Edited by M. Hay. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993.

Young, Brad. "The Ascension Motif of 2 Corinthians 12 in Jewish, Christian, and Gnostic Texts." Grace Theological Journal 9 (1988): 73-103.

Young, Francis, and David Ford. Meaning and Truth in 2 Corinthians . Edited by D. Balch. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1990.

Zeilinger, F. "Die Echtheit von 2 Cor 6:14-7:1." JBL 112 (1993): 71-80.

Zorn, Walter D. "The Messianic Use of Habakkuk 2:4a in Romans." Stone-Campbell Journal 1 (Fall, 1998): 213-231.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

ABBREVIATIONS

1 Clem 1 Clement

1QH The Thanksgiving Hymns (Dead Sea Scroll)

1QM The War Scroll (Dead Sea Scroll)

1QS Rule of the Community (Dead Sea Scroll)

2 Clem 2 Clement

AJP American Journal of Philology

ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der römishen Welt, ed. Temporini and Haase

AusBR Australian Biblical Review

AUSS Andrews University Seminary Studies

BA Biblical Archaeologist

BBR Bulletin for Biblical Research

BSac Bibliotheca Sacra

BT Bible Translator

BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CD The Damascus Document (Dead Sea Scroll)

DPL Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, ed. Hawthorne, Martin, and Reid

Ebr. De Ebrietate (Philo)

EvQ Evangelical Quarterly

ExpTim Expository Times

HBT Horizons in Biblical Theology

Heres Qui Rerum Divinarum Heres sit (Philo)

HTR Harvard Theological Review

ICC International Critical Commentary

Int Interpretation

JB Jerusalem Bible

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JRH Journal of Religious History

JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament

JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JTS Journal of Theological Studies

LB Living Bible

NAB New American Bible

NASB New American Standard Bible

NEB New English Bible

Neot Neotestamentica

NICNT New International Commentary on the New Testament

NIDNTT New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, ed. Brown

NIV New International Version

NLT New Living Translation

NovT Novum Testamentum

NovTSupp Novum Testamentum Supplements

NRSV New Revised Standard Version

NTS New Testament Studies

RB Revue Biblique

ResQ Restoration Quarterly

RSV Revised Standard Version

SCJ Stone-Campbell Journal

SJT Scottish Journal of Theology

Spec.Leg. Philo, De Specialibus Legibus

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, ed. Kittel and Friedrich

TEV Today's English Version

T.Jos Testament of Joseph

T.Levi Testament of Levi

T.Naph Testament of Naphtali

TS Theological Studies

TynBul Tyndale Bulletin

WW Word and World

ZNW Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenshaft

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

College: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

OUTLINE

I. OPENING - 1:1-2

II. THANKSGIVING - 1:3-11

A. GOD COMFORTS - 1:3-7

B. GOD DELIVERS - 1:8-11

III. DEFENSE OF INTEGRITY - 1:12-2:13

A. CLARITY SOUGHT - 1:12-14

B. SECOND TRAVEL ITINERARY EXPLAINED - 1:15-17

C. CANDOR DEMANDED - 1:18-22

D. THIRD TRAVEL ITINERARY DEFENDED - 1:23-2:4

E. THE OFFENDER FORGIVEN - 2:5-11

F. ACTUAL TRAVEL DESCRIBED - 2:12-13

IV. DEFENSE OF APOSTOLIC MINISTRY IN PRINCIPLE - 2:14-7:4

A. SUFFICIENT FOR MINISTRY - 2:14-3:6

1. The Aroma of Christ Spread - 2:14-17

2. A Living Letter of Recommendation Sent - 3:1-3

3. A Personal Reference Provided - 3:4-6

B. SUPERIOR TO THE OLD COVENANT - 3:7-18

1. Glory Unsurpassed 3:7-11

2. Glory Unobstructed 3:12-18

C. TENACIOUS DESPITE SHORTCOMINGS - 4:1-5:10

1. Christ Preached Plainly - 4:1-6

2. Hardships Overcome because of Jesus' Death - 4:7-12

3. Increasing Multitudes Brought to Life - 4:13-15

4. Driven by Unseen, Eternal Reward - 4:16-18

5. Confident in Eternal Home - 5:1-10

a) Permanent Home Guaranteed - 5:1-5

b) Pleasing the Lord Prioritizes Life - 5:6-10

D. PREACHING RECONCILIATION THROUGH CHRIST - 5:11-6:2

1. Motivated by Christ's Love - 5:11-15

2. Christ's Message of Reconciliation Delivered - 5:16-6:2

E. HARDSHIPS IN MINISTRY - 6:3-10

F. AN APPEAL FOR OPENNESS AND RECONCILIATION - 6:11-7:4

1. Paul's Heart Opened - 6:11-13

2. Holiness Demanded - 6:14-7:1

3. Paul's Trust Expressed - 7:2-4

V. ENCOURAGING NEWS: RELATIONSHIP FULLY RESTORED - 7:5-16

A. TITUS REPORTS LOVE FOR PAUL - 7:5-7

B. TRUE REPENTANCE DEMONSTRATES INNOCENCE - 7:8-13a

C. TITUS EXPRESSED DEEP AFFECTION - 7:13b-16

VI. PREPARATION FOR THE COLLECTION - 8:1-9:15

A. INCENTIVES TOWARD GENEROSITY - 8:1-15

1. Excel Like the Macedonians - 8:1-7

2. Give Like Christ - 8:8-9

3. Complete Your Offering - 8:10-12

4. Achieve Equity - 8:13-15

B. TITUS PLUS TWO OTHERS SENT TO CORINTH TO HELP - 8:16-9:5

1. Criticism to Be Thwarted - 8:16-21

2. Measure Up to Expectations - 8:22-24

3. Follow Through on What Was Begun - 9:1-5

C. MORE INCENTIVE TO BE GENEROUS - 9:6-15

1. God Will Be Generous - 9:6-11

2. God Will Be Praised - 9:12-15

VII. FINAL DEFENSE OF MINISTRY - 10:1-13:10

A. LAUNCH OF A MASSIVE COUNTERATTACK - 10:1-18

1. Powerful Weapons Employed - 10:1-6

2. Forceful Personal Presence Warned - 10:7-10

3. God's Expansion of the Gospel Boasted - 10:12-18

B. COMPARISON TO FALSE APOSTLES MADE - 11:1-15

1. True Message of Jesus Preached - 11:1-6

2. No Money Accepted - 11:7-12

3. The False Apostles Serve Satan - 11:13-15

C. BOASTING AS A "FOOL" - 11:16-33

1. Rationale Provided - 11:16-21a

2. Ancestry and Hardships Listed - 11:21b-29

3. Weakness Boasted - 11:30-33

D. MORE BOASTING - 12:1-10

1. A Vision Divulged - 12:1-6

2. An Irremovable Thorn Remains - 12:7-10

E. "BOASTING" RETROSPECTIVE - 12:11-13

F. PREPARATION FOR THE THIRD VISIT - 12:14-13:10

1. No Exploitation Tactics Employed - 12:14-18

2. More Trouble Feared - 12:19-21

3. Harsh Treatment for Sinners Warned - 13:1-4

4. Faith-testing Evidences Paul's Strength - 13:5-10

VIII. CLOSING REMARKS - 13:11-14

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV