Text -- 1 Peter 2:13 (NET)

Submission to Authorities

2:13 Be subject to every human institution for the Lord’s sake, whether to a king as supreme

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Robertson: 1Pe 2:13

Be subject to ( hupotagēte ).

Second aorist passive imperative second person plural of hupotassō , to subject to, as in 1Pe 3:22.

Robertson: 1Pe 2:13

Every ordinance of man ( pasēi anthrōpinēi ktisei ).

Dative case of old and common word ktisis (from ktizō , to create, to found), act of creation (Rom 1:20), a creature or creation (Rom 1:25), all creation (Col 1:15), an institution as here (in Pindar so). For anthrōpinos (human) see Jam 3:7. Peter here approves no special kind of government, but he supports law and order as Paul does (Rom 13:1-8) unless it steps in between God and man (Act 4:20).

Robertson: 1Pe 2:13

For the Lord’ s sake ( dia ton kurion ).

For Jesus’ sake. That is reason enough for the Christian not to be an anarchist (Mat 22:21). The heathen were keen to charge the Christians with any crime after Nero set the fashion. "It should not be forgotten that, in spite of the fine language of the philosophers, the really popular religions in Greece and Rome were forms of devil-worship, intimately blended with magic in all its grades"(Bigg).

Robertson: 1Pe 2:13

As supreme ( hōs huperechonti ).

Dative singular of present active participle of huperechō , old verb (intransitive), to stand out above (to have it over), as in Rom 13:1. It is not the divine right of kings, but the fact of the king as the outstanding ruler.

Vincent: 1Pe 2:13

Submit yourselves ( ὑποτάγητε )

Rev., be subject. See Rom 13:1 sq.

Vincent: 1Pe 2:13

Ordinance of man ( ἀνθρωπίνῃ κτίσει )

Lit., to every human creation or institution. Rev., creation, in margin.

Vincent: 1Pe 2:13

King

The emperor, styled king by Greek writers.

Wesley: 1Pe 2:13

To every secular power. Instrumentally these are ordained by men; but originally all their power is from God.

JFB: 1Pe 2:13

"every human institution" [ALFORD], literally, "every human creation." For though of divine appointment, yet in the mode of nomination and in the exercise of their authority, earthly governors are but human institutions, being of men, and in relation to men. The apostle speaks as one raised above all human things. But lest they should think themselves so ennobled by faith as to be raised above subordination to human authorities, he tells them to submit themselves for the sake of Christ, who desires you to be subject, and who once was subject to earthly rulers Himself, though having all things subject to Him, and whose honor is at stake in you as His earthly representatives. Compare Rom 13:5, "Be subject for conscience' sake."

JFB: 1Pe 2:13

The Roman emperor was "supreme" in the Roman provinces to which this Epistle was addressed. The Jewish zealots refused obedience. The distinction between "the king as supreme" and "governors sent by him" implies that "if the king command one thing, and the subordinate magistrate another, we ought rather to obey the superior" [AUGUSTINE in GROTIUS]. Scripture prescribes nothing upon the form of government, but simply subjects Christians to that everywhere subsisting, without entering into the question of the right of the rulers (thus the Roman emperors had by force seized supreme authority, and Rome had, by unjustifiable means, made herself mistress of Asia), because the de facto governors have not been made by chance, but by the providence of God.

Clarke: 1Pe 2:13

Submit yourselves to every ordinance of man - In every settled state, and under every form of political government, where the laws are not in opposition to the laws of God, it may be very soundly and rationally said: "Genuine Christians have nothing to do with the laws but to obey them."Society and civil security are in a most dangerous state when the people take it into their heads that they have a right to remodel and change the laws. See the whole of this subject fully handled in the notes on Rom 13:1, etc., to which I beg every reader, who may wish to know the political sentiments of this work, to have recourse

The words παση ανθρωπινη κτισει literally signify, not every ordinance of man, but every human creature; yet κτιζειν signifies sometimes to arrange, order, as well as to create, and therefore our translation may do: but as the apostle is evidently speaking here of magistracy, or legislative authority, and as the appointment of magistrates was termed a creating of them, it is better to understand the words thus, All the constituted authorities. So, Decem tribunos plebis per pontificem creaverunt ; Cor. Nep. "They created ten tribunes of the plebeians, by the high priest." Carthagine quotannis annui bini reges creabantur; Caesar . "They created two kings every year at Carthage."Consules creantur Caesar et Servilius; Sallust. "Caesar and Servilius are created consuls." Creare ducem gerendo bello . "To create a general to conduct the war."The meaning of St. Peter appears to be this: the Jews thought it unlawful to obey any ruler that was not of their own stock; the apostle tells them they should obey the civil magistrate, let him be of what stock he may, whether a Jew or a Gentile, and let him exercise the government in whatsoever form. This is the general proposition: and then he instances emperors and their deputies; and, far from its being unlawful for them to obey a heathen magistrate, they were to do it for the Lord’ s sake, δια τον Κυριον, on account of the Lord, whose will it was, and who commanded it.

Calvin: 1Pe 2:13

13.Submit yourselves He now comes to particular exhortations: and as obedience with regard to magistrates is a part of honest or good conversation, he draws this inference as to their duty, “Submit yourselves,” or, Be ye subject; for by refusing the yoke of government, they would have given to the Gentiles no small occasion for reproaching them. And, indeed, the Jews were especially hated and counted infamous for this reason, because they were regarded on account of their perverseness as ungovernable. And as the commotions which they raised up in the provinces, were causes of great calamities, so that every one of a quiet and peaceable disposition dreaded them as the plague, — this was the reason that induced Peter to speak so strongly on subjection. Besides, many thought the gospel was a proclamation of such liberty, that every one might deem himself as free from servitude. It seemed an unworthy thing that God’s children should be servants, and that the heirs of the world should not have a free possession, no, not even of their own bodies. Then there was another trial, — All the magistrates were Christ’s adversaries; and they used their own authority, so that no representation of God, which secures the chief reverence, appeared in them. We now perceive the design of Peter: he exhorted the Jews, especially for these reasons, to shew respect to the civil power.

To every ordinance of man Some render the words, “to every creature;” and from a rendering so obscure and ambiguous, much labor has been taken to elicit some meaning. But I have no doubt but that Peter meant to point out the distinct manner in which God governs mankind: for the verb κτίζειν in Greek, from which κτίσις comes, means to form and to construct a building. Suitable, then, is the word “ordination;” by which Peter reminds us, that God the maker of the world has not left the human race in a state of confusion, that they might live after the manner of beasts, but as it were in a building regularly formed, and divided into several compartments. And it is called a human ordination, not because it has been invented by man, but because a mode of living, well arranged and duly ordered, is peculiar to men. ²⁷

Whether it be to the king So he calls Caesar, as I think, whose empire extended over all those countries mentioned at the beginning of the Epistle. For though “king” was a name extremely hated by the Romans, yet it was in use among the Greeks. They, indeed, often called him autocrat, (αὐτοκράτορα) but sometimes he was also called by them king, (βασιλεὺς.) But as he subjoins a reason, that he ought to be obeyed because he excelled, or was eminent or supreme, there is no comparison made between Caesar and other magistrates. He held, indeed, the supreme power; but that eminence which Peter extols, is common to all who exercise public authority. And so Paul, in Rom 13:1, extends it to all magistrates. Now the meaning is, that obedience is due to all who rule, because they have been raised to that honor not by chance, but by God’s providence. For many are wont to inquire too scrupulously by what right power has been attained; but we ought to be satisfied with this alone, that power is possessed and exercised. And so Paul cuts off the handle of useless objections when he declares that there is no power but from God. And for this reason it is that Scripture so often says, that it is God who girds kings with a sword, who raises them on high, who transfers kingdoms as he pleases.

As Peter referred especially to the Roman Emperor, it was necessary to add this admonition; for it is certain that the Romans through unjust means rather than in a legitimate way penetrated into Asia and subdued these countries. Besides, the Caesars, who then reigned, had possessed themselves of the monarchy by tyrannical force. Hence Peter as it were forbids these things to be controverted, for he shews that subjects ought to obey their rulers without hesitation, because they are not made eminent, unless elevated by God’s hand.

Defender: 1Pe 2:13

The phrase "ordinance of man" means, literally, "human creation." Since only God really creates, we must regard human ordinances as divine ordinances and submit to them as unto God, unless they contradict God's written Word (Rom 13:1)."

TSK: 1Pe 2:13

Pro 17:11, Pro 24:21; Jer 29:7; Mat 22:21; Mar 12:17; Luk 20:25; Rom 13:1-7; Eph 5:21; 1Ti 2:1, 1Ti 2:2; Tit 3:1; 2Pe 2:10; Jud 1:8-10

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: 1Pe 2:13

Submit yourselves to every ordinance of man - Greek, "to every creation of man,"( ἀνθρωπίνῃ κτίσει anthrōpinē ktisei The meaning is, to every institution or appointment of man; to wit, of those who are in authority, or who are appointed to administer government. The laws, institutes, and appointments of such a government may be spoken of as the creation of man; that is, as what man makes. Of course, what is here said must be understood with the limitation everywhere implied, that what is ordained by those in authority is not contrary to the law of God. See the notes at Act 4:19. On the general duty here enjoined of subjection to civil authority, see the notes at Rom 13:1-7.

For the Lord’ s sake - Because he has required it, and has entrusted this power to civil rulers. See the notes at Rom 13:5. Compare the notes at Eph 6:7.

Whether it be to the king - It has been commonly supposed that there is reference here to the Roman emperor, who might be called king, because in him the supreme power resided. The common title of the Roman sovereign was, as used by the Greek writers, ᾀυτοκράτωρ autokratōr , and among the Romans themselves, "imperator,"(emperor;) but the title king was also given to the sovereign. Joh 19:15, "we have no king but Cesar."Act 17:7, "and these all do contrary to the decrees of Cesar, saying that there is another king, one Jesus."Peter undoubtedly had particular reference to the Roman emperors, but he uses a general term, which would be applicable to all in whom the supreme power resided, and the injunction here would require submission to such authority, by whatever name it might be called. The meaning is, that we are to be subject to that authority whether exercised by the sovereign in person, or by those who are appointed by him.

As supreme - Not supreme in the sense of being superior to God, or not being subject to him, but in the sense of being over all subordinate officers.

Poole: 1Pe 2:13

Every ordinance of all kinds, whether supreme or subordinate.

Ordinance of man Greek, human creatures, which may be understood either, as Mar 16:15 , every human creature for every man, only restraining it to the present subject whereof he treats, viz. magistrates, and the sense is, to every magistrate: or rather, (though to the same effect), to every human ordinance; or, as we translate it,

ordinance of man the word creature being taken for an ordinance, or constitution, and creating for ordaining, or appointing: so CEcumenius will have the word to signify, Eph 2:15 , to make of twain one new man. But this creature, or ordinance, here is to be understood of the magistrate; (as appears by the following words), which is called human, not as if magistracy were not an ordinance of God, for, Rom 13:1 , the powers that are are said to be ordained of Godbut either because it is only among men, and proper to them; or because it is of man secondarily and instrumentally, though of God primarily and originally, God making use of the ministry of men in bringing them into the magistracy; as, though church offices are God’ s ordinance, yet he makes use of men to put them into office.

For the Lord’ s sake for God’ s sake, who commands this obedience; and gave them the authority, and is represented by them, and honoured by that obedience which is yielded to them in all things agreeable to his will. The phrase seems to be of the same import with that of being obedient in the Lord, Eph 6:1 .

To the king to Caesar, the then supreme magistrate, under whose jurisdiction the Jewish Christians were; and this being a general command extending to all Christians, it follows, that obedience is due from them to those chief magistrates whose subjects respectively they are.

As supreme not only above the people, but above other magistrates.

PBC: 1Pe 2:13

We live in a fortunate country in terms of its history and form of government. A republican (consisting of elected representatives of the people) form of government will, for better or worse, reflect the desires of the people. Because we have not experienced outright persecution because of our faith, we find it difficult to identify with cultures in which Christians suffer. Peter’s letter directly confronts this problem and instructs Christians of all cultures to live with respect toward civil authority.

When you consider that Peter likely wrote this letter early in Nero’s fierce persecution of Christians, it is all the more incredible that he requires a consistent attitude of respectful submission to civil authority. The only time Scripture allows Christians to defy civil authority is when it imposes restrictions on the rules of Biblical worship. {Ac 5:29} Occasionally Christians in Western culture seem to think that they can selectively obey the laws they agree with and disregard the laws they dislike. This attitude flies in the face of Peter’s teaching, as well as Paul’s. {Ro 13:1-14} Both inspired writers taught from the underlying premise that civil government is a divine institution to be honored and obeyed.

Notice the intent of the Greek word translated "submit" in this verse; "A Greek military term meaning" to arrange [troop divisions] in a military fashion under the command of a leader"." In non-military use, it was "a voluntary attitude of giving in, cooperating, assuming responsibility, and carrying a burden."[i]  A soldier in the Roman army did not selectively obey the commands issued by his superior officer. Disobedience in the field was grounds for immediate execution.

"Every ordinance of man".

Again this phrase rejects selective obedience to favored laws and rejection of others. Peter has set the dominant tone of the faithful Christian as living in a foreign land. Citizens of one country who live in another must cautiously observe the local customs and laws of the land in order to avoid offending or breaking laws with which they are not familiar or with which they, and their native country, disagree. Consider this contemporary example. Occasionally a professing Christian has killed a physician who ran an abortion clinic. Based on Biblical teaching regarding the sanctity of life, and within the limits of civil law, Christians should oppose abortion because it violates the sanctity of life as set forth in the Bible. However, a Christian who professes to hold to God’s moral law does not have Biblical authority or right to kill another human being because he disagrees with that person’s conduct. One of God’s Ten Commandments requires that all men refrain from murder, killing another human being. This conduct has brought disgrace on the name of moral Christians in our culture. Consider the rhetoric of the political forces who seek aggressively to neutralize the Christian influence in our country. Any Christian who truly holds to the Bible as God’s inspired teaching is liable to be classified as a "radical, religious, right wing extremist."

"For the Lord’s sake".

Individual believers and their daily conduct represent God to the culture in which they live. How a believer reacts under pressure will bear lively testimony to a watching and unbelieving world. How credible is our testimony? If we adopt a selective attitude in our obedience to Scripture (Believe and obey the verses and teachings that you like, and ignore the ones you dislike.), we will likely display the same inconsistent disrespect toward civil government. Our conduct will likely not lead us to kill a physician who supports an abortion clinic, but our lack of consistent ethics will destroy our credibility in the eyes of unbelievers.

447

[i] Strong, James. Enhanced Strong’s Lexicon. Ontario: Woodside Bible Fellowship, 1996.

Haydock: 1Pe 2:13

To every human creature, [5] to every one whom the order of Providence has placed over you, whether it be to emperors or kings, who have the supreme power in kingdoms, or to governors of provinces; obey your temporal princes, though heathens and idolaters, (as the Roman emperors were at that time enemies to the Christian religion) in all that is not sinful and against the law of God: for this is the will of God, and all power is from God. See Romans xiii. In like manner (ver. 18) servants must be subject and obey their masters, though they be infidels. See 1 Corinthians vii. By this you will silence the ignorance and calumnies of foolish men, who pretended that the Christian religion taught them to be disobedient to princes, and to be subjects of Christ only, their supreme spiritual king. (Witham)

===============================

[BIBLIOGRAPHY]

Omni humanæ creaturæ, Greek: ktisei, which the Protestants here translate, to every ordinance; but they translated, creature, Mark xvi. 15.; Colossians i. 15.

Gill: 1Pe 2:13

Submit yourselves to every ordinance of man,.... Or, "to every human creation", or "creature"; not to "all the sons of men", as the Syriac version renders it; or to all the individuals of mankind; for there are some that are in such stations and circumstances, that they are not to be submitted to, but to be ruled over, and governed: so kings are not to submit to their subjects, nor are parents to be subject to their children, nor husbands to their wives, nor masters to their servants, which would be preposterous; but submission is limited and restrained to persons in such a place and situation: "the human creature", or "creation", here designs the Gentiles, who are elsewhere called the creature, the whole creation, every creature, and every creature under heaven, Rom 8:19 and particularly Heathen magistrates, styled creation, or creature: not as men, for all men, as such, are creatures; but as magistrates, being created, constituted, and appointed such, and installed into, and invested with such an office: and "human"; not only because they were men, and were taken out from among men that bore the office of magistrates, and governed over men, and were for the good and advantage of mankind, but because they were created and placed in such a station by men; though government itself is of God, is a divine institution, yet this and that particular form of government is of man; and especially the forms of government among the Gentiles were human; and are here so called, in distinction from the form of government among the Jews, which was a theocracy, and was divine; wherefore the Jews, and so these converted ones, scrupled yielding obedience to Heathen magistrates; on which account they were spoken against, as evildoers; hence the apostle, in the first place, and as a principal part of their honest conversation among the Gentiles, exhorts them to submission to civil magistrates, though they were creatures of men; and to everyone of them, though a Gentile, an unbeliever, and a wicked man: and this he urges,

for the Lord's sake; for the sake of Christ Jesus the Lord, because of his command, who ordered to give to Caesar the things that are Caesar's; and in imitation of him, who paid tribute to whom tribute was due; and for the sake of his honour and glory, who was ill thought and spoken of by the Gentiles, because of the disregard of the converted Jews to their magistrates; and which served to prejudice them against Christ and his Gospel: the Vulgate Latin, Syriac, and Ethiopic versions, read, "for God's sake"; because civil government is of God; magistracy is of divine appointment; the powers that he are ordained of God, though this or the other form is of man's prescription: it is the command of God that magistrates should be obeyed; and it makes for his glory, as well as for the good of men, when they are submitted to in things that do not contradict the revealed will of God; for otherwise, not man, but God, is to be obeyed:

whether it be to the king; to Caesar, the Roman emperor; and the then reigning one seems to be Nero, who, though a wicked man, was to be submitted to in things civil and lawful; and it holds good of any other king that has the supreme government of a nation: the Syriac version reads it in the plural number, "to kings"; and though the name of king was odious to the Romans, from the times of Tarquin, nor did they call their chief governor, or governors, by this name, yet other nations did; see Joh 19:15 and subjection was to be yielded to him, "as supreme"; for the sake, and in consideration of his being in so high and exalted a station, having the supreme power and government of the people in his hands. The Syriac version renders it, "because of their power"; and the Arabic version, "because of his power"; and the Ethiopic version, "because all things are his"; the Roman emperors were absolute monarchs; see Rom 13:1.

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

NET Notes: 1Pe 2:13

¹ tn Or “every human being”; Grk “every human creation,” denoting either everything created for mankind (NRSV mg: “every institution ordained for human beings”) or every creature who is human. The meaning of the verb “be subject” and the following context supports the rendering adopted in the text.

Geneva Bible: 1Pe 2:13

^{( 15 )} Submit yourselves to ^{( c )} every ordinance of man ^{( 16 )} for the Lord's sake: ^{( 17 )} whether it be to the king, as supreme;

^{( 15 )} That which he spoke generally, he now expounds in detail, describing individually every man's duty. First, he speaks of the obedience that is due both to the laws, and also to the magistrates both higher and lower.

^{( c )} By ordinance, is meant the inventing and ordering of civil government, which he calls ordinance of man, not because man invented it, but because it is proper for men.

^{( 16 )} The first argument: because the Lord is the author and avenger of this policy of men, that is, which is set among men: and therefore the true servants of the Lord must above all others be diligent observers of this order.

^{( 17 )} He prevents a frivolous objection which is made by some, who say they will obey kings and the higher magistrates, and yet condemn their ministers, as though their ministers were not armed with the authority of those who sent them.

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: 1Pe 2:1-25

1 He exhorts them from the breach of charity;

4 shewing that Christ is the foundation whereupon they are built.

11 He beseeches them also to abstain from fleshly lusts;

13 to be obedient to magistrates;

18 and teaches servants how to obey their masters;

20 patiently suffering for well doing, after the example of Christ.

MHCC: 1Pe 2:13-17

A Christian conversation must be honest; which it cannot be, if there is not a just and careful discharge of all relative duties: the apostle here treats of these distinctly. Regard to those duties is the will of God, consequently, the Christian's duty, and the way to silence the base slanders of ignorant and foolish men. Christians must endeavour, in all relations, to behave aright, that they do not make their liberty a cloak or covering for any wickedness, or for the neglect of duty; but they must remember that they are servants of God.

Matthew Henry: 1Pe 2:13-25

The general rule of a Christian conversation is this, it must be honest, which it cannot be if there be not a conscientious discharge of all relative duties. The apostle here particularly treats of these distinctly.

I. The case of subjects. Christians were not only reputed innovators in religion, but disturbers of the state; it was highly necessary, therefore, that the apostle should settle the rules and measures of obedience to the civil magistrate, which he does here, where,

1. The duty required is submission, which comprises loyalty and reverence to their persons, obedience to their just laws and commands, and subjection to legal penalties.

2. The persons or objects to whom this submission is due are described, (1.) More generally: Every ordinance of man. Magistracy is certainly of divine right; but the particular form of government, the power of the magistrate, and the persons who are to execute this power, are of human institution, and are governed by the laws and constitutions of each particular country; and this is a general rule, binding in all nations, let the established form of be what it will. (2.) Particularly: To the king, as supreme, first in dignity and most eminent in degree; the king is a legal person, not a tyrant: or unto governors, deputies, proconsuls, rulers of provinces, who are sent by him, that is, commissioned by him to govern.

3. The reasons to enforce this duty are,

(1.) For the Lord's sake, who had ordained magistracy for the good of mankind, who has required obedience and submission (Rom 13:1-14), and whose honour is concerned in the dutiful behavior of subjects to their sovereigns.

(2.) From the end and use of the magistrate's office, which are, to punish evil-doers, and to praise and encourage all those that do well. They were appointed for the good of societies; and, where this end is not pursued, the fault is not in their institution but their practice. [1.] True religion is the best support of civil government; it requires submission for the Lord's sake, and for conscience' sake. [2.] All the punishments, and all the magistrates in the world, cannot hinder but there will be evil-doers in it. [3.] The best way the magistrate can take to discharge his own duty, and to amend the world, is to punish well and reward well.

(3.) Another reason why Christians should submit to the evil magistrate is because it is the will of God, and consequently their duty; and because it is the way to put to silence the malicious slanders of ignorant and foolish men, 1Pe 2:15. Learn, [1.] The will of God is, to a good man, the strongest reason for any duty. [2.] Obedience to magistrates is a considerable branch of a Christian's duty: So is the will of God. [3.] A Christian must endeavour, in all relations, to behave himself so as to put to silence the unreasonable reproaches of the most ignorant and foolish men. [4.] Those who speak against religion and religious people are ignorant and foolish.

(4.) He reminds them of the spiritual nature of Christian liberty. The Jews, from Deu 17:15, concluded that they were bound to obey no sovereign but one taken from their own brethren; and the converted Jews thought they were free from subjection by their relation to Christ. To prevent their mistakes, the apostle tells the Christians that they were free, but from what? Not from duty or obedience to God's law, which requires subjection to the civil magistrate. They were free spiritually from the bondage of sin and Satan, and the ceremonial law; but they must not make their Christian liberty a cloak or covering for any wickedness, or for the neglect of any duty towards God or towards their superiors, but must still remember they were the servants of God. Learn, [1.] All the servants of Christ are free men (Joh 8:36); they are free from Satans' dominion, the law's condemnation, the wrath of God, the uneasiness of duty, and the terrors of death. [2.] The servants of Jesus Christ ought to be very careful not to abuse their Christian liberty; they must not make it a cover or cloak for any wickedness against God or disobedience to superiors.

4. The apostle concludes his discourse concerning the duty of subjects with four admirable precepts: - (1.) Honour all men. A due respect is to be given to all men; the poor are not to be despised (Pro 17:5); the wicked must be honoured, not for their wickedness, but for any other qualities, such as wit, prudence, courage, eminency of employment, or the hoary head. Abraham, Jacob, Samuel, the prophets, and the apostles, never scrupled to give due honour to bad men. (2.) Love the brotherhood. All Christians are a fraternity, united to Christ the head, alike disposed and qualified, nearly related in the same interest, having communion one with another, and going to the same home; they should therefore love one another with an especial affection. (3.) Fear God with the highest reverence, duty, and submission; if this be wanting, none of the other three duties can be performed as they ought. (4.) Honour the king with that highest honour that is peculiarly due to him above other men.

II. The case of servants wanted an apostolical determination as well as that of subjects, for they imagined that their Christian liberty set them free from their unbelieving and cruel masters; to this the apostle answers, Servants, be subject, 1Pe 2:18. By servants he means those who were strictly such, whether hired, or bought with money, or taken in the wars, or born in the house, or those who served by contract for a limited time, as apprentices. Observe,

1. He orders them to be subject, to do their business faithfully and honestly, to conduct themselves, as inferiors ought, with reverence and affection, and to submit patiently to hardships and inconveniences. This subjection they owe to their masters, who have a right to their service; and that not only to the good and gentle, such as use them well and abate somewhat of their right, but even to the crooked and perverse, who are scarcely to be pleased at all. Learn, (1.) Servants ought to behave themselves to their masters with submission, and fear of displeasing them. (2.) The sinful misconduct of one relation does not justify the sinful behaviour of the other; the servant is bound to do his duty, though the master be sinfully froward and perverse. (3.) Good people are meek and gentle to their servants and inferiors. Our holy apostle shows his love and concern for the souls of poor servants, as well as for higher people. Herein he ought to be imitated by all inferior ministers, who should distinctly apply their counsels to the lower, the meaner, the younger, and the poorer sort of their hearers, as well as others.

2. Having charged them to be subject, he condescends to reason with them about it.

(1.) If they were patient under their hardships, while they suffered unjustly, and continued doing their duty to their unbelieving and untoward masters, this would e acceptable to God, and he would reward all that they suffered for conscience towards him; but to be patient when they were justly chastised would deserve no commendation at all; it is only doing well, and suffering patiently for that, which is acceptable with God, 1Pe 2:19, 1Pe 2:20. Learn, [1.] There is no condition so mean but a man may live conscientiously in it, and glorify God in it; the meanest servant may do so. [2.] The most conscientious persons are very often the greatest sufferers. For conscience towards God, they suffer wrongfully; they do well, and suffer for it; but sufferers of this sort are praiseworthy, they do honour to God and to religion, and they are accepted of him; and this is their highest support and satisfaction. [3.] Deserved sufferings must be endured with patience: If you are buffeted for your faults, you must take it patiently. Sufferings in this world are not always pledges of our future happiness; if children or servants be rude and undutiful, and suffer for it, this will neither be acceptable with God nor procure the praise of men.

(2.) More reasons are given to encourage Christian servants to patience under unjust sufferings, 1Pe 2:21. [1.] From their Christian calling and profession: Hereunto were you called. [2.] From the example of Christ, who suffered for us, and so became our example, that we should follow his steps, whence learn, First, Good Christians are a sort of people called to be sufferers, and therefore they must expect it; by the terms of Christianity they are bound to deny themselves, and take up the cross; they are called by the commands of Christ, by the dispensations of Providence, and by the preparations of divine grace; and, by the practice of Jesus Christ, they are bound to suffer when thus called to it. Secondly, Jesus Christ suffered for you, or for us; it was not the Father that suffered, but he whom the Father sanctified, and sent into the world, for that end; it was both the body and soul of Christ that suffered, and he suffered for us, in our stead and for our good, 1Pe 2:24. Thirdly, The sufferings of Christ should quiet us under the most unjust and cruel sufferings we meet with in the world. He suffered voluntarily, not for himself, but for us, with the utmost readiness, with perfect patience, from all quarters, and all this though he was God - man; shall not we sinners, who deserve the worst, submit to the light afflictions of this life, which work for us unspeakable advantages afterwards?

3. The example of Christ's subjection and patience is here explained and amplified: Christ suffered, (1.) Wrongfully, and without cause; for he did no sin, 1Pe 2:22. He had done no violence, no injustice or wrong to any one - he wrought no iniquity of any sort whatever; neither was guile found in his mouth (Isa 53:9), his words, as well as his actions, were all sincere, just, and right. (2.) Patiently: When he was reviled, he reviled not again (1Pe 2:23); when they blasphemed him, mocked him, called him foul names, he was dumb, and opened not his mouth; when they went further, to real injuries, beating, buffeting, and crowning him with thorns, he threatened not; but committed both himself and his cause to God that judgeth righteously, who would in time clear his innocency, and avenge him on his enemies. Learn, [1.] Our Blessed Redeemer was perfectly holy, and so free from sin that no temptation, no provocation whatsoever, could extort from him so much as the least sinful or indecent word. [2.] Provocations to sin can never justify the commission of it. The rudeness, cruelty, and injustice of enemies, will not justify Christians in reviling and revenge; the reasons for sin can never be so great, but we have always stronger reasons to avoid it. [3.] The judgment of God will determine justly upon every man and every cause; and thither we ought, with patience and resignation, to refer ourselves.

4. Lest any should think, from what is said, 1Pe 2:21-23, that Christ's death was designed merely for an example of patience under sufferings, the apostle here adds a more glorious design and effect of it: Who his own self, etc., where note, (1.) The person suffering - Jesus Christ: His own self - in his own body. The expression his own self is emphatic, and necessary to show that he verified all the ancient prophecies, to distinguish him from the Levitical priests (who offered the blood of others, but he by himself purged our sins, Heb 1:3), and to exclude all others from participation with him in the work of man's redemption: it is added, in his body; not but that he suffered in his soul (Mat 26:38), but the sufferings of the soul were inward and concealed, when those of the body were visible and more obvious to the consideration of these suffering servants, for whose sake this example is produced. (2.) The sufferings he underwent were stripes, wounds, and death, the death of the cross - servile and ignominious punishments! (3.) The reason of his sufferings: He bore our sins, which teaches, [1.] That Christ, in his sufferings, stood charged with our sins, as one who had undertaken to put them away by the sacrifice of himself, Isa 53:6. [2.] That he bore the punishment of them, and thereby satisfied divine justice. [3.] That hereby he takes away our sins, and removes them away from us; as the scape-goat did typically bear the sins of the people on his head, and then carried them quite away, (Lev 16:21, Lev 16:22), so the Lamb of God does first bear our sins in his own body, and thereby take away the sins of the world, Joh 1:29. (4.) The fruits of Christ's sufferings are, [1.] Our sanctification, consisting of the death, the mortification of sin, and a new holy life of righteousness, for both which we have an example, and powerful motives and abilities also, from the death and resurrection of Christ. [2.] Our justification. Christ was bruised and crucified as an expiatory sacrifice, and by his stripes we are healed. Learn, First, Jesus Christ bore the sins of all his people, and expiated them by his death upon the cross. Secondly, No man can depend safely upon Christ, as having borne his sin and expiated his guilt, till he dies unto sin and lives unto righteousness.

5. The apostle concludes his advice to Christian servants, by putting them in mind of the difference between their former and present condition, 1Pe 2:25. They were as sheep going astray, which represents, (1.) Man's sin: he goes astray; it is his own act, he is not driven, but does voluntary go astray. (2.) His misery: he goes astray from the pasture, from the shepherd, and from the flock, and so exposes himself to innumerable dangers. (3.) Here is the recovery of these by conversion: But are now returned. The word is passive, and shows that the return of a sinner is the effect of divine grace. This return is from all their errors and wanderings, to Christ, who is the true careful shepherd, that loves his sheep, and laid down his life for them, who is the most vigilant pastor, and bishop, or overseer of souls. Learn, [1.] Sinners, before their conversion, are always going astray; their life is a continued error. [2.] Jesus Christ is the supreme shepherd and bishop of souls, who is always resident with his flock, and watchful over them. [3.] Those that expect the love and care of this universal pastor must return to him, must die unto sin, and live unto righteousness.

Barclay: 1Pe 2:13-15

Peter looks at the duty of the Christian within the different spheres of his life; and he begins with his duty as a citizen of the country in which he happens to live.

Nothing is further from the thought of the New Testament than any kind of anarchy. Jesus had said, "Render therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesar's; and to God the things that are God's" (Mat 22:21). Paul was certain that those who governed the nation were sent by God and held their responsibility from him, and were, therefore, no terror to the man who lived an honourable life (Rom 13:17). In the Pastoral Epistles the Christian is instructed to pray for kings and all in authority (1Ti 2:2). The instruction of the New Testament is that the Christian must be a good and useful citizen of the country in which his life is set.

It has been said that fear built the cities and that men huddled behind a wall in order to be safe. Men join themselves together and agree to live under certain laws, so that the good man may have peace to do his work and go about his business and the evil man may be restrained and kept from his evil-doing. According to the New Testament life is meant by God to be an ordered business and the state is divinely appointed to provide and to maintain that order.

The New Testament view is perfectly logical and just. It holds that a man cannot accept the privileges which the state provides without also accepting the responsibilities and the duties which it demands. He cannot in honour and decency take everything and give nothing.

How are we to translate this into modern terms? C. E. B. Cranfield has well pointed out that there is a fundamental difference between the state in New Testament times and the state as we in Britain know it. In New Testament times the state was authoritarian. The ruler was an absolute ruler; and the sole duty of the citizen was to render absolute obedience and to pay taxes (Rom 13:6-7). Under these conditions the keynote was bound to be subjection to the state. But we live in a democracy; and in a democracy something far more than unquestioning subjection becomes necessary. Government is not only government of the people; it is also for the people and by the people. The demand of the New Testament is that the Christian should fulfil his responsibility to the state. In the authoritarian state that consisted solely in submission. But what is that obligation in the very different circumstances of a democracy?

In any state there must be a certain subjection. As C. E. B. Cranfield puts it, there must be "a voluntary subordination of oneself to others, putting the interest and welfare of others above one's own, preferring to give rather than to get, to serve rather than to be served." But in a democratic state the keynote must be not subjection but cooperation, for the duty of the citizen is not only to submit to be ruled but to take a necessary share in ruling. Hence, if the Christian is to fulfil his duty to the state, he must take his part in its government. He must also take his part in local government and in the life of the trade union or association connected with his trade, craft, or profession. It is tragic that so few Christians really fulfil their obligation to the state and the society in which they live.

It remains to say that the Christian has a higher obligation than even his obligation to the state. While he must render to Caesar the things which are Caesar's, he must also render to God the things which are God's. He must on occasion make it quite clear that he must listen to God rather than to men (Act 4:19; Act 5:29). There may be times, therefore, when the Christian will fulfil his highest duty to the state by refusing to obey it and by insisting on obeying God. By so doing, at least he will witness to the truth, and at best he may lead the state to take the Christian way.

Constable: 1Pe 2:11--4:12

III. The responsibilities of the christian individually 2:11--4:11

Since Christians have a particular vocation in the world certain conduct was essential for Peter's readers.

"The address, Dear friends, I appeal to you,' in 2:11 marks a shift from the identity of God's people to their consequent responsibility in a hostile world. If 1:3-2:10 expanded on their identity as chosen people' (cf. 1:2), the reference to them as aliens and strangers' in 2:11 serves as a reminder that they are at the same time living as strangers' (again cf. 1:2) in contemporary society."⁸²

Constable: 1Pe 2:13--3:13

B. Respect for Others 2:13-3:12

This section of the letter clarifies what it means to function obediently as God's people in a hostile world. It contains one of the tables of household duties in the New Testament (2:13-3:7; cf. Eph. 5:21-6:9; Col. 3:18-4:1). Luther referred to these sections as Haustafeln, and some scholars still use this technical term when referring to these lists. However this one begins with instructions regarding the Christian's relationship to the state, which is similar to Romans 13:1-7. It is particularly our duties in view of suffering for our faith that concerned Peter, as is clear from his choice of material.

Constable: 1Pe 2:13-17

1. Respect for everyone 2:13-17

Peter continued to give directions concerning how the Christian should conduct himself or herself when dealing with the state since his readers faced suffering from this source.

2:13-14 The Christian's relationship to the state and to state officials is quite clear (cf. Rom. 13:1-7; 1 Tim. 2:1-2; Titus 3:1-2). We are to submit to the authority of government rulers by obeying them. We should do this not because these individuals are personally worthy of our submission necessarily, but because by submitting to them we honor God by obeying His Word. Peter reminded his readers that government has a valid and necessary God-appointed purpose. The presence of political corruption should not blind us to the legitimate role of government that God has ordained.⁸⁸

Peter believed that there was a proper place for civil disobedience, however (cf. Acts 4:20). It is when the laws of human government make it illegal to obey God. In such a case we should obey God rather than man. However we should also realize that in disobeying the law we will probably have to bear the consequences of disobeying. The consequences may involve a fine, imprisonment, or even death.⁸⁹

"Ever since Christianity was first preached the Christian citizen has been a puzzle both to himself and to his rulers. By the elementary necessities of his creed he has been a man living in two worlds. In one he has been a member of a national community, in the other of a community taken out of the nations.' In one he has been bound to obey and enforce the laws of his State, in the other to measure his conduct by standards not recognized by those laws and often inconsistent with them. This dualism has been made tolerable only by the prospect of a reconciliation. That prospect is, again, an elementary necessity of the Christian creed. Somehow, somewhere, the conflict of loyalties will end. The kingdom of this world will pass; the Kingdom of God will be established."⁹⁰

Some Christians have taken the position that believers are free to disobey their governments if the government permits conduct that is contrary to God's will.⁹¹ Consequently some Christians feel justified in bombing abortion clinics, for example. However cases of apostolic civil disobedience recorded in Scripture involved situations in which believers had to disobey God's will. Christians should practice civil disobedience only when the government requires its citizens to disobey God, not when it only permits them to disobey Him. Currently the United States government permits abortion, for example, but it does not require it.

". . . the principle of the redeemed Christian life must not be self-assertion or mutual exploitation, but the voluntary subordination of oneself to others (cf. Rom. xii. 10; Eph. v. 21; Phil. ii. 3 f.)."⁹²

2:15 In the context Peter meant that by obeying the law we can obviate unnecessary and illegitimate criticism. Jesus did this by faithfully paying his taxes (Matt. 17:24-27; 22:21). Note that Jesus also told His disciples to pay their taxes even though Rome used their tax money for purposes contrary to God's will. Paul taught that Christians should pay their taxes, too (Rom. 13:6-7). Peter had learned that physical retaliation was not best since he had tried to defend Jesus by attacking the high priest's servant in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:50-54; Mark 14:47; Luke 22:50-51; John 18:10-11).

2:16 Christians are free in the sense of being under no obligations to God to gain His acceptance. He has accepted us because of what Jesus Christ did for us. Also we are free from the tyranny of Satan. We are no longer his slaves. We should not use this freedom to sin but to refrain from sinning.

"Liberty misused is like a mighty river flooding its banks and bringing terrible destruction upon all in its path. Liberty used as service is like a mighty river flowing within its banks bringing life and refreshment to all who drink of its waters."⁹³

2:17 These four injunctions summarize our social obligations. The first two and the last two are pairs. We should respect everyone, but we should love fellow believers. God deserves fear whereas the emperor is worthy of respect. These two pairs connect with Jesus' teachings that we should love our enemies (Matt. 5:44; Luke 6:27, 35) and render to Caesar what is his and to God what is His (Matt. 22:21; Mark 12:17; Luke 20:25).⁹⁴

All people are worthy of honor if for no other reason than because they reflect the image of God. Our primary responsibility to other Christians is to show them love (cf. 1:22; John 13:35). Our primary responsibility to God is to show Him fear (reverence, cf. 1:17). Peter added a final word about the king. He probably did so because his readers found it especially difficult to honor the Roman emperor who was evidently Nero when Peter wrote this epistle (cf. 1 Tim. 2:1-2).

"Peter called believers to a different spirit, a spirit of deference--even while experiencing undeserved persecution. The word deference' conveys the idea of thoughtful consideration of another individual's desires or feelings or the courteous, respectful, or ingratiating regard for another's wishes. . . .

"Deference' refers to a proper attitude that results in behavior characterized by respect."⁹⁵

Respect is not the same as honor. We may not respect someone, but we can and should still honor him or her. For example, I have a friend whose father was an alcoholic. My friend did not respect his father who was frequently drunk, often humiliated his wife and children, and failed to provide for his family adequately. Nevertheless my friend honored his father because he was his father. He demonstrated honor by taking him home when his father could not get home by himself. He sometimes had to defend him from people who would have taken advantage of him when he was drunk. Similarly we may not be able to respect certain government officials because of their personal behavior or beliefs. Still we can and should honor them because they occupy an office that places them in a position of authority over us. We honor them because they occupy the office; we do not just honor the office. Peter commanded us to honor the king and all who are in authority over us, not just the offices that they occupy. We may not respect someone, but we can and should honor them by treating them with respect. Respecting someone and treating them with respect are two different things. Feeling respect for someone is different than showing respect for someone. Honoring others is our responsibility; earning our respect is theirs.

College: 1Pe 2:1-25

1 PETER 2

F. CRAVE PURE SPIRITUAL MILK (2:1-3)

¹ Therefore, rid yourselves of all malice and all deceit, hypocrisy, envy, and slander of every kind. ² Like newborn babies, crave pure spiritual milk, so that by it you may grow up in your salvation, ³ now that you have tasted that the Lord is good.

This paragraph, a single sentence in the Greek text, continues the emphasis on love and the appeal to the new birth that were begun in the previous paragraph. The exhortation to "love one another deeply" is continued by an exhortation to get rid of those attitudes that destroy loving relationships. The new birth analogy is carried further with a metaphorical use of babies' cravings for milk.

2:1 Therefore, rid yourselves of all malice and all deceit, hypocrisy, envy, and slander of every kind.

The conjunction "therefore" appeals to these Christians' experience of having been born again through the living and enduring word of God (1:23). Because they have been born again through the preaching of the gospel, they need to lay aside whatever is contrary to sincere (cf. 1:22) love for one another. The word used for the first vice (kakiva, kakia ), is sometimes used broadly of wickedness or vice in general, but in this context presumably has the narrower connotation "malice, ill-will." The third vice, hypocrisy (uJpovkrisi", hypokrisis ), is the opposite of the word "sincere" (ajnupovkrito", anypokritos ) in 1:22. Sincere love is diametrically opposed to malice, deceit, hypocrisy, envy, and slander. The use of the Greek word for "all" (or "every") divides the list into three groups as seen in the NRSV: "all malice, and all guile, insincerity, envy, and all slander." Although Christians should of course avoid these vices in contact with those of the world as well, the context indicates Peter is addressing this group about their relationships with each other (cf. 1:22).

2:2 Like newborn babies, crave pure spiritual milk,

Peter resumes the new birth metaphor of 1:23 (cf. 1:3) and extends it to urge his audience to center their lives on the gospel. As a newborn baby cries out for the nourishment of its mother's milk, so Christians should yearn for the nourishment of the word of God. The use of this metaphor does not presume that all the addressees are recent converts, but simply that all Christians may be compared to newborn infants in their need for spiritual milk. It is important not to confuse Peter's use of the metaphors of milk and infancy with the use of these metaphors in Hebrews 5:12-14 (cf. 1 Cor 3:1-3), where milk is contrasted with solid food and infancy is contrasted with maturity. Peter makes no reference to such contrasts. In his metaphor all Christians are like infants and all of God's word is spiritual milk. His point is that every Christian should long for the word of God like a newborn longs for milk.

Peter does not explicitly define what he symbolizes as milk. The usual understanding is that he means the word of God. This is supported contextually by the references to the word of God (= the gospel) in 1:23-25. It may also be supported by the metaphorical use of milk for the word of God elsewhere, for example 1 Corinthians 3:1-3 and Hebrews 5:12-14, although I have already noted that the metaphor is used differently in these cases in which milk only stands for certain elementary aspects of God's word. The idea that the word of God is the means by which one grows into salvation (see the next clause in 2:2) would be parallel to James 1:21: "the implanted word that has the power to save your souls" (NRSV). It is probable that milk in 1 Peter 2:2 refers to the word of God, but it is uncertain. Michaels may be correct in suggesting that "the medium by which the milk is received is the proclaimed message of the gospel, but the milk itself is more appropriately interpreted as the sustaining life of God given in mercy to his children." The difference involved in his view is not great.

This milk is described as "pure" and "spiritual." In the Greek text the first adjective (a[dolo", adolos , "pure" or "without deceit") clearly contrasts with the second attitude verse 1 says Christians should get rid of (dovlo", dolos , "deceit"). The word (logikov", logikos ) translated "spiritual" is problematic. Achtemeier supports the KJV rendering "milk of the word," which would of course clarify what Peter means by milk (see the previous paragraph). Most recent translations and interpreters support the translation "spiritual." Peter may intend the connotation "metaphorical milk" as opposed to "literal milk."

so that by it you may grow up in your salvation,

Just as an infant longs for milk as nourishment to grow to adulthood, so the Christian longs for the word of God, the gospel, in order to grow "into salvation" (the more literal translation of the NRSV). Presumably by "salvation" Peter has in mind the same referent as in 1:5, "the salvation that is ready to be revealed in the last time," and 1:9, "the goal of your faith, the salvation of your souls." By drinking the pure spiritual milk of the gospel, Christians grow spiritually and maintain their hope of salvation.

2:3 now that you have tasted that the Lord is good.

The Christians of Asia Minor should long for the gospel like a baby longs for milk because they have already tasted how good the Lord is. How could anyone who has taken even a sip from the kindness of the Lord resist drinking more? The language alludes to Psalm 34:8. The psalmist exhorts others to "taste and see that the LORD is good." Peter assumes these Christians have already tasted that goodness.

In this verse "the Lord" means Christ: "the Lord" is clearly the antecedent of the "living Stone - rejected by men but chosen by God" in verse 4.

G. GOD'S CHOSEN PEOPLE THROUGH JESUS (2:4-10)

⁴ As you come to him, the living Stone - rejected by men but chosen by God and precious to him - ⁵ you also, like living stones, are being built into a spiritual house to be a holy priesthood, offering spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ. ⁶ For in Scripture it says:

"See, I lay a stone in Zion,

a chosen and precious cornerstone,

and the one who trusts in him

will never be put to shame." ^a

⁷ Now to you who believe, this stone is precious. But to those who do not believe,

"The stone the builders rejected

has become the capstone, ^b" ^c

⁸ and

"A stone that causes men to stumble

and a rock that makes them fall." ^d

They stumble because they disobey the message - which is also what they were destined for.

⁹ But you are a chosen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people belonging to God, that you may declare the praises of him who called you out of darkness into his wonderful light. ¹⁰ Once you were not a people, but now you are the people of God; once you had not received mercy, but now you have received mercy.

^a 6 Isaiah 28:16 ^b 7 Or cornerstone ^c 7 Psalm 118:22 ^d 8 Isaiah 8:14

Each of the previous four paragraphs has focused on exhortations built upon imperatives: "be holy in all you do," "live in reverent fear," "love one another," and "crave pure spiritual milk." Immediately after the section at hand (2:4-10), 2:11-12 begins another series of exhortations.

The NRSV translators and a number of interpreters believe that 2:4-5 should also be understood imperativally: "Come to him, . . . let yourselves be built into a spiritual house." However, the NIV translators and other interpreters believe 2:4-5 are a declarative statement: "As you come to him, . . . you . . . are being built into a spiritual house." The decision is not an easy one. The key item in the discussion is that the verb oijkodomei'sqe ( oikodomeisthe ) translated "let yourselves be built" or "you are being built" has a form that may be either imperative (the NRSV translation) or indicative (the NIV). I am hesitantly inclined to agree with the NIV and the majority of recent commentators and treat 2:4-5 as a declarative statement.

If this is correct, then 2:4-10 and 1:1-12 are the only sections of the book that are not built around imperatives or exhortations. They are foundation pieces for the exhortations found throughout the remainder of the book. It should not be overlooked that throughout the paragraphs that center on imperatives there are frequent statements about the grounds for Peter's exhortations. But the greeting (1:1-2), the opening blessing (1:3-12), and the present section (2:4-10) have a special significance in this regard. The earlier section, 1:3-12, focused on the hope of salvation that Christians may look forward to. This present passage, 2:4-10, focuses on the fact that Christians are God's chosen people. Both of these focal points are foundational for Peter's appeals. Modern Christians can also gain great motivation by focusing on our eternal hope and on our identity as God's own people.

2:4 As you come to him, the living Stone - rejected by men but chosen by God and precious to him -

Peter builds 2:4-10 around stone and building imagery. Jesus began the use of this metaphor by his appropriation of Psalm 118:22 ("The stone the builders rejected has become the capstone" - cited by Jesus in Matthew 21:42 and parallels). According to Acts 4:11 Peter used this same reference when he and John were brought to trial before the Sanhedrin. In Romans 9:32-33 Paul referred to stone imagery taken from Isaiah 8:14 and 28:16. In 2:4-10 Peter uses all three Old Testament texts and carries the imagery further.

He enhances the metaphor by describing Jesus as a "living" stone. In verse 5 he will describe his audience as "living" stones. Their participation in the spiritual house of God is through Jesus ("As you come to him").

The first clause describing Jesus, "rejected by men," reflects Psalm 118:22, which Peter will cite in verse 7. The second clause, "but chosen by God and precious to him," reflects Isaiah 28:16, which Peter will cite in verse 6. Like their Lord, the Christians in Asia Minor were also rejected by men, but chosen and precious to God. Peter described them as elect or chosen in the greeting of the letter and he will describe them again with that term in verse 9 ("a chosen people").

2:5 you also, like living stones, are being built into a spiritual house

Here Peter extends the stone metaphor to his audience. Like Jesus they are living stones. God is building them into a spiritual house. Ancient readers, whether Jewish or pagan in background, would recognize this as a reference to a temple, especially in the context of priests and sacrifices (see the rest of the verse). Peter is not the only New Testament author to describe the church as a temple. It is a common idea found also in 1 Corinthians 3:16-17; 2 Corinthians 6:16; 1 Timothy 3:15; Hebrews 3:6; 10:21; and especially Ephesians 2:19-22. The adjective "spiritual" may refer both to the fact that the house Peter has in mind is not a literal one and to the fact that God's Spirit dwells in it.

to be a holy priesthood, offering spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ.

Peter shifts metaphors. He first described Christians as the living stones being built into a spiritual temple. Now he immediately shifts to describe Christians as the priests who offer sacrifices in the temple.

This is the classic text for the Protestant doctrine of the priesthood of all believers: that all Christians, rather than just select Christians, are priests. The doctrine is true, but it is not Peter's point. He is not dealing with Christians' equality with each other, but with the fact that Christians are God's chosen servants, set apart ("holy" - see 1:16) by God to offer spiritual sacrifices to him.

Just as a major purpose of the Old Testament priesthood was to offer sacrifices, so the purpose of Christians as priests is to offer sacrifices. The idea of "spiritual" sacrifices has roots in the Old Testament (e.g., Ps 51:16-17; Micah 6:6-8) and appears elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., Rom 12:1; Heb 13:15-16). Peter does not specify particular acts that he has in mind as spiritual sacrifices. Verse 9 ("you are . . . a royal priesthood . . . that you may declare the praises of him who called you") suggests one possibility. The book of 1 Peter is full of possibilities. Virtually everything he exhorts his readers to do could be considered a spiritual sacrifice.

It is through Christ that Christians can offer up spiritual sacrifices that are acceptable to God. The idea of acceptable vs. unacceptable sacrifices is found in the Old and New Testament texts cited above as parallels to the notion of spiritual sacrifices.

2:6 For in Scripture it says: "See, I lay a stone in Zion, a chosen and precious cornerstone, and the one who trusts in him will never be put to shame."

Verses 6-8 provide the Scriptures behind verse 4 and Peter's use of the stone imagery for Christ. Peter reverses the order of texts alluded to in verse 4. The last clause of verse 4 stated that the living Stone was "chosen by God and precious to him": verse 6 cites the text Peter had in mind. That text is Isaiah 28:16, also cited in Romans 9:33.

The NIV translates the type of stone as a "cornerstone." The Greek word ajkrogwniai'o" (akrogôniaios, "extreme corner") so translated is unknown outside of Isaiah 28:16 and Christian writings. In verse 7 the NIV's "capstone" translates a two word phrase, kefalhÉn gwniva" (kephalçn gônias, "head of the corner"), the meaning of which is also disputed. As the NIV translation of verse 7 indicates, some believe one or both of these references refer to a capstone at the top of a building or a keystone at the top of an arch. However, according to verse 8 unbelievers stumble over it. Apparently it sits on the ground, which suggests a cornerstone.

The last clause in verse 6 and the first clause in verse 7 highlight the value of the living Stone for those who believe in him. Verses 7b-8 focus on the living Stone as a threat to those who do not believe.

2:7 Now to you who believe, this stone is precious.

The living Stone is precious not only to God, but also to those who believe in him. The last part of the previous verse indicates why: "the one who trusts in him will never be put to shame."

But to those who do not believe, "The stone the builders rejected has become the capstone,"

Verses 7b-8 take up the meaning of the living Stone for those who do not believe. Peter cites Psalm 118:22, a text which Jesus himself had cited (Matt 21:42 and parallels) and which Peter had cited before the Sanhedrin (Acts 4:11). In those earlier contexts the builders were the Jewish leadership in Palestine. In 1 Peter they are the non-Christians in Asia Minor. Despite their rejection of Jesus, he has become the cornerstone of God's house.

2:8 and, "A stone that causes men to stumble and a rock that makes them fall." They stumble because they disobey the message, which is also what they were destined for.

To describe the import of Jesus for those who reject him, Peter cites or alludes to Isaiah 8:14. The Stone the builders rejected will cause them to fall. They will stumble and fall because they disobey the word.

The last clause raises the question of predestination. A key issue is the antecedent of the relative pronoun "which." Perhaps Peter's point is that those who disobey the message are predestined to stumble. He does not necessarily mean that they were predestined to disobey. Perhaps he also means that in a corporate - not individual - sense God predestined that some would disobey. In any case it seems clear that Peter holds those who disobey responsible for their actions.

2:9 But you are a chosen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people belonging to God,

In contrast to those who disobey and stumble, Peter's addressees have believed and obeyed and thus become God's chosen people. Verses 9-10 provide the culmination of verses 4-10.

The four descriptions Peter uses are rooted in Exodus 19:6a and Isaiah 43:20-21. The first phrase is preferably translated "chosen race" (as in the NRSV). This phrase comes from Isaiah 43:20 where it describes Israel. Peter uses it to describe God's new people.

The second phrase, "a royal priesthood," is drawn from Exodus 19:6a and contains some ambiguity. The Hebrew text of Exodus 19:6a literally means "a kingdom of priests." The Septuagint translators did not translate it literally. Peter follows the Septuagint. What did he mean by the phrase in his context? A few believe that Peter intended two separate descriptions: "a king's house, a priesthood." However, in view of the structure of the three accompanying phrases, it appears likely that he meant the first word as an adjective, thus "a royal priesthood." By royal priesthood he meant a group of priests in special service of the king, that is, God.

The third phrase, "a holy nation," also comes from Exodus 19:6a. Like the old people of God, the nation of Israel, the new people of God are a nation of people set apart for the service of God.

The fourth phrase, "a people belonging to God," expresses a similar idea. It is rooted in the Septuagint of Isaiah 43:21, which speaks of "my people whom I have acquired."

These four phrases take language first applied to Israel and apply it to the Christians in Asia Minor. Verse 10 will highlight the main point: once they were no people, but now they are God's people.

that you may declare the praises of him who called you out of darkness into his wonderful light.

Peter continues to follow Isaiah 43:20-21, from which he has taken the descriptions, "a chosen race" and "a people belonging to God." God says in Isaiah that he acquired Israel as his people "that they may proclaim my praise." The purpose of God's people is to declare his praises. The word ajretav" ( aretas ) translated "praises" should perhaps be translated, as in the NRSV, "mighty acts."

2:10 Once you were not a people, but now you are the people of God; once you had not received mercy, but now you have received mercy.

This ultimate climax of 2:4-10 is rooted in Hosea 2:23: "I will show my love to the one I called 'Not my loved one.' I will say to those called 'Not my people,' 'You are my people.'" In the Septuagint text the word the NIV translates "love" is the same Greek word that in our verse is translated "received mercy." Peter does not quote Hosea, but he uses Hosea's language and concepts to describe how his readers have been called out of darkness and into light. By God's mercy they are now God's people. The wonder of this transformation should help them face the struggles they are having.

III. INSTRUCTIONS FOR EXEMPLARY LIVING IN SOCIETY'S STRUCTURES (2:11-3:12)

A. LIVE GOOD LIVES AMONG THE PAGANS (2:11-12)

¹¹ Dear friends, I urge you, as aliens and strangers in the world, to abstain from sinful desires, which war against your soul. ¹² Live such good lives among the pagans that, though they accuse you of doing wrong, they may see your good deeds and glorify God on the day he visits us.

The NIV places a subheading after these verses, linking them more strongly to the preceding section. They do contain concepts brought up as early as 1:1 (where Peter first describes his readers as "strangers"), and they express the exhortation for which Peter has laid the foundation by describing his readers as God's people who are to declare his praises (2:4-10).

However, most interpreters correctly argue that these verses function primarily as an introduction to the following paragraphs in which Peter takes up how Christians should relate to the (non-Christian) state, how Christian slaves should relate to their masters (especially non-Christian ones), and how Christian wives and husbands should relate to their spouses (especially Christian wives to non-Christian husbands). In addition to the clear contextual connection of 2:11-12 with what follows, Peter's interjection of "Dear friends" (here and in 4:12) is perhaps an indication of the beginning of a new section.

2:11 Dear friends, I urge you, as aliens and strangers in the world,

"Dear friends" translates ajgaphtoiv (agapçtoi), literally "beloved." This is a common term in the New Testament, used first of Jesus as God's "beloved" Son and then of Christians. It presumably expresses primarily Peter's relationship to his readers (cf. 1 Thess 2:8, "you had become so dear [beloved] to us"), but may also connote the fact that they are loved by God.

As Peter exhorts his readers, he describes them as "aliens and strangers in the world." See 1:1 for Peter's previous use of the word translated "strangers in the world." There he associated that concept with a metaphorical use of the Jewish Diaspora. Here he uses the accompanying term "aliens." The two words have a similar meaning, although "aliens" often referred to "resident aliens," while "strangers" often referred to temporary sojourners. The combination of the two words reflects the language of the Septuagint of Genesis 23:4 (where Abraham describes himself as an alien and a stranger among the Hittites) and Psalm 39:12 (Septuagint Ps 338:13, in which the psalmist describes himself as an alien and stranger). Peter's idea is a powerful one: Christians are exiles on the earth. Their true citizenship is in heaven.

to abstain from sinful desires, which war against your soul.

Christians are to purposefully maintain their status as aliens and refuse to adopt the culture of their neighbors. That culture is characterized by "the desires of the flesh." Galatians 5:16-21 provides a description of the desires of the flesh: for example, sexual immorality, impurity, idolatry, hatred, jealousy, drunkenness, orgies, etc. Peter has already indicated (1:14,18) that his readers participated in these activities in the past. He will be more specific about this in 4:3: "You have spent enough time in the past doing what pagans choose to do - living in debauchery, lust, drunkenness, orgies, carousing and detestable idolatry."

These things "war against your soul." The use of the metaphor of spiritual warfare is found in several places in the New Testament, most notably Ephesians 6:10-17. Here as elsewhere, Peter uses the word "soul" for the whole human person and not to identify a certain spiritual part of the whole (see the comments at 1:9 and 22).

2:12 Live such good lives among the pagans that, though they accuse you of doing wrong, they may see your good deeds and glorify God on the day he visits us.

The word here translated "pagan" (e[qno", ethnos ) is often translated "Gentile." In many occurrences it means "non-Jew" (e.g., Acts 14:2). Because of the immoral behavior of most non-Jews, the Jews also used it to connote immorality. Peter uses it here and in 4:3 in a way that differentiates between his readers, most of whom were non-Jews, and the immoral people they lived among. "Pagan" is a good translation. His readers had once been pagans, but they had ceased that lifestyle.

Examples of how pagans might accuse Christians of wrongdoing are provided in the following paragraphs of 1 Peter. They might be accused of undermining governing authorities (2:13-17). Christian slaves might be accused of failing to submit to their masters (2:18-25). Christian wives might be accused of being rebellious against pagan husbands (3:1-6). Beyond 1 Peter there are numerous examples of ancient pagan criticisms of Christians. In the New Testament see, for example, Acts 16:20-21; 19:23-29. See also the pagan references cited in the "Introduction to 1 Peter." Those who live their lives in opposition to the prevailing culture pay a price.

The statement "they may see your good deeds and glorify God" is similar to Jesus' Sermon on the Mount: "that they may see your good deeds and praise your Father in heaven" (Matt 5:16). The section 2:13-3:7 provides examples of the good works Peter encourages.

"On the day he visits us" is a difficult phrase. In other biblical texts the day or time of God's visitation may be used either in a good sense (e.g., Luke 19:44) or to refer to a time of judgment (e.g., Isa 10:3; Jer 6:15). Michaels and others believe Peter is referring to the day of judgment. As Michaels explains it, the idea is that the slandering pagans will be led to conversion and therefore when the day of judgment comes they will glorify God for the good works that led them to salvation. Selwyn and others believe the day of visitation is a time during human history, a day of conversion in the lives of some pagans. Both of these views coincide in seeing a missionary purpose for Christians' good works. Others, for example Achtemeier, agree with Michaels that the day is the day of judgment, but do not believe Peter is talking about pagans who have been converted glorifying God. Rather, in his view Peter means that the pagans who slandered Christians while on earth will see the truth and glorify God on the day of judgment. For the notion that even the condemned will glorify God at judgment, he refers to Philippians 2:10-11. But 1 Peter 3:1-2 seems to support a missionary view.

B. SUBMIT TO THE GOVERNING AUTHORITIES

(2:13-17)

¹³ Submit yourselves for the Lord's sake to every authority instituted among men: whether to the king, as the supreme authority, ¹⁴ or to governors, who are sent by him to punish those who do wrong and to commend those who do right. ¹⁵ For it is God's will that by doing good you should silence the ignorant talk of foolish men. ¹⁶ Live as free men, but do not use your freedom as a cover-up for evil; live as servants of God. ¹⁷ Show proper respect to everyone: Love the brotherhood of believers, fear God, honor the king.

In 2:13-3:7 Peter provides specifics of what it means to live good lives among the pagans. He addresses three societal structures: the individual and the government, slaves and masters, and husbands and wives.

First Peter 2:13-17 is similar to Romans 13:1-7. Both take a relatively positive view of governmental authorities. Peter was, of course, not ignorant of occasions when governing authorities sought to compel Christians to violate God's will and needed to be resisted (cf. Acts 4:19). But he does write at a time different from that of the book of Revelation, when it appears an emperor (Domitian?) was imposing emperor worship on the Christians in Asia Minor. Peter's views should be understood as general truths: on the whole governing authorities are a good thing, and Christians should submit to them. He does not deal with the exceptions. (The same could be said of Paul in Romans 13.)

2:13 Submit yourselves for the Lord's sake to every authority instituted among men:

Peter's exhortation to Christians in relationship to government, slaves in relationship to masters, and wives in relationship to husbands is the same: submit. This, of course, does not mean that Peter did not have differing conceptions of the nature of the submission involved in each case. Just as Peter would certainly see a difference between the nature of the honor involved in 2:17 when he says "honor everyone" and "honor the king," he would also see a difference between the submission that citizens owe to their rulers and the submission that slaves owe to masters. Nevertheless, all three relationships that he describes involve authority and submission.

The three Greek words translated "every authority instituted among men" (pavsh/ ajnqrwpivnh/ ktivsei, pasç anthrôpinç ktisei) are not clear. The NIV translation reflects the common view that the context calls for a reference to institutions of government, but it is hard to demonstrate that these Greek words can mean that. The primary alternative, one clearly supported for these words, is "every human creature" - but that is more difficult to fit into the context. It is possible, however, that Peter means "submit to every human creature" and then identifies the particular persons he has in mind as rulers. There is a parallel to this flow of thought in 2:17: "Honor everyone. . . . Honor the emperor" (NRSV translation). If Peter means "human creature," he may have chosen this odd-seeming phrase in deliberate contrast to those who would view the emperor as more than human. However this difficult phrase is translated, the focus of the paragraph is on the submission due to rulers.

Christians are to submit to rulers "for the Lord's sake." Verse 15 expands on why the Lord is interested in such behavior: "it is God's will that by doing good you should silence the ignorant talk of foolish men."

whether to the king as the supreme authority,

The earlier phrase "for the Lord's sake" implies who Peter believes the ultimate supreme authority is. It also implicitly qualifies the obedience due to the earthly supreme authority. The king Peter has in mind is the emperor of Rome.

2:14 or to governors, who are sent by him to punish those who do wrong and to commend those who do right.

Between the provinces of Asia Minor and the emperor himself were the governors of the provinces, who were sent by the emperor to oversee the day-to-day matters of government. Even secular sources would agree that one of their chief purposes was to punish those who do wrong and commend those who do right. As noted above in the comments introducing this section, Peter was not naively ignorant of exceptions to this goal. He speaks in generalities.

The letter of 1 Peter has a strong emphasis on doing right vs. doing wrong: see 2:15,20; 3:6,10-12,13-14,17; 4:18-19.

2:15 For it is God's will that by doing good you should silence the ignorant talk of foolish men.

Peter introduced this section by exhorting his readers to live lives that will prove their accusers wrong. His hope, of course, is not only that their opponents will "be put to shame" (3:16), but also that some among them might "be won over" (3:1).

2:16 Live as free men, but do not use your freedom as a cover-up for evil; live as servants of God.

In the Greek text 2:13-16 is all a single sentence and the main verb is "submit." It would be better in breaking the sentence to resume the main verb ("submit") rather than interject one that is not there ("live"). Achtemeier provides a useful translation: "(be subordinate) as free men and women, and not as those who use their freedom as a cover for evil deeds, but as God's slaves." The notion of Christian freedom is restricted both by submission to governing authorities and by slavery to God. Several texts in the New Testament highlight the fact that Christians are "called to be free" (Gal 5:13; cf. John 8:32; Rom 6:17-18; 1 Cor 7:22; 9:19). But like 1 Peter, these same texts often go on to emphasize restrictions on that freedom and the fact that although we are free from sin, law, etc., we are slaves to God (e.g., Gal 5:13; Rom 6:18; 1 Cor 7:22). The Christians of Asia Minor have been set free from human rulers by acceptance of another Ruler. But that Ruler wants them to submit to human rulers insofar as they do not demand disobedience to his will. They must not use their Christian freedom as a "cover-up," literally a "veil" (ejpikavlumma, epikalymma ), for doing evil.

2:17 Show proper respect to everyone: Love the brotherhood of believers, fear God, honor the king.

As the NRSV indicates, the first and last verb are the same: "Honor everyone. . . . Honor the emperor." Their one difference is in tense, with respect to which the first verb in verse 17 differs from the other three. The NIV translation suggests that one way this tense difference might be reflected is to see the first clause as an umbrella clause introducing the other three.

In the New Testament only Peter uses the term "brotherhood," although it is commonplace to find Christians identified as "brothers." Both terms are used generically to include men and women (a usage common to many languages until recently).

See the commentary on 1:17 concerning Peter's instructions to "fear God."

C. SLAVES, SUBMIT TO YOUR MASTERS (2:18-25)

1. Submit Even to Harsh Masters (2:18-20)

¹⁸ Slaves, submit yourselves to your masters with all respect, not only to those who are good and considerate, but also to those who are harsh. ¹⁹ For it is commendable if a man bears up under the pain of unjust suffering because he is conscious of God. ²⁰ But how is it to your credit if you receive a beating for doing wrong and endure it? But if you suffer for doing good and you endure it, this is commendable before God.

In Paul's letters there are two sections, Ephesians 5:22-6:9 and Colossians 3:18-4:1 (cf. Titus 2:1-10), in which he gives instructions to three pairs of relationships: wives and husbands, children and fathers, and slaves and masters. These relationships were the building blocks of ancient households and thus Paul's instructions concerning them are commonly labeled "household codes." There is an extensive literature on this subject and on possible precedents for the structure and content of these "codes." First Peter 2:18-3:7 is similar to Paul's "household codes," although Peter does not use the same order and does not address masters or the father-child relationship. Peter is primarily concerned with his theme of "living good lives among the pagans" (2:12). Therefore he primarily addresses slaves who need encouragement to submit even to harsh masters and wives who need encouragement to submit to unbelieving husbands. (There is but one concluding sentence for husbands.) Paul's household codes are more comprehensive and also address relationships between household members in cases where they are all Christians.

2:18 Slaves, submit yourselves to your masters with all respect,

Peter addresses slaves as exemplifying those who had to make great sacrifices to "live such good lives among the pagans that, though they accuse you of doing wrong, they may see your good deeds and glorify God" (2:12). Peter's word for slave (oijkevth", oiketçs, "household slave") is not the usual New Testament term. It may refer specifically to slaves who worked in the house as opposed to those who worked outside the house, but it was also used for slaves in general and there is little reason to presume Peter wants to identify a certain kind of slave.

On the word "submit" see the comments on verse 13. There is a grammatical problem concerning the use of this verb here in verse 18 and again in 3:1. The NIV translation ("submit yourselves") accepts the common view that in these two cases a participle functions as an imperative.

The NIV translation "with all respect" suggests that this prepositional phrase applies to masters. Most recent commentators argue, I think rightly, that it applies to God and should be translated something like "with all reverent fear." The phrase is identical to the phrase the NIV translates "in reverent fear" in 1:17, with the addition of the word "all." Peter has just commanded his readers to "fear God" (2:17) and in the next verse (2:19) he will commend suffering because one is "conscious of God." On the fear of God as a motivation in 1 Peter see the comments on 1:17. Peter is not encouraging slaves to submit to their masters out of fear of their masters but out of the fear of God.

not only to those who are good and considerate, but also to those who are harsh.

No doubt this was extraordinarily difficult advice. Peter needed strong arguments and support if he expected slaves to willingly suffer even when they had done no wrong. This is perhaps the most difficult advice in 1 Peter and in verses 21-25 he brings up the ultimate support - the example of Christ.

2:19 For it is commendable if a man bears up under the pain of unjust suffering because he is conscious of God. 2:20 But how is it to your credit if you receive a beating for doing wrong and endure it? But if you suffer for doing good and you endure it, this is commendable before God.

A Christian slave's commitment to submitting to his or her master is truly tested when the master treats him or her harshly and unfairly. Notice the extent of the harsh treatment: not just harsh words, but a beating. This is the only specific reference to physical persecution in 1 Peter.

The phrase translated "because he is conscious of God" is difficult. Some argue it means something like "because of his conscience before God." The NIV reflects the more common view that the key word means something like "consciousness" rather than "conscience." In either case this phrase indicates that the person patiently endures the beating because of commitment to God and not simply because he or she has no recourse. It may also suggest that the reason for the beating is something he has done out of duty to God. The NIV translation of the last sentence of verse 20 is probably correct in indicating that Peter has in mind not only suffering while doing good, but suffering "for" doing good. Presumably the slave has chosen to do what is right before God against what the master has commanded or would allow.

Achtemeier rightly points out that although this section is directed to slaves, "they and their fate stand as exemplary both of the Christian's situation in the Roman Empire and of the Christlike reaction they must adopt to it." All Christians should learn from Peter's advice to slaves.

2. Follow the Example of Christ (2:21-25)

²¹ To this you were called, because Christ suffered for you, leaving you an example, that you should follow in his steps.

²²"He committed no sin,

and no deceit was found in his mouth." ^a

²³ When they hurled their insults at him, he did not retaliate; when he suffered, he made no threats. Instead, he entrusted himself to him who judges justly. ²⁴ He himself bore our sins in his body on the tree, so that we might die to sins and live for righteousness; by his wounds you have been healed. ²⁵ For you were like sheep going astray, but now you have returned to the Shepherd and Overseer of your souls.

^a 22 Isaiah 53:9

This is actually not a new paragraph, but the completion of the paragraph encouraging slaves to submit to their masters and to endure patiently unjust suffering. Nevertheless, it has a critical importance not just to the slaves Peter directly addresses, but to all of Peter's readers and to every Christian of all generations. Therefore, it seems appropriate to single out these verses as if they constituted a separate paragraph.

As noted above, Peter needs strong support to encourage slaves to endure patiently even unjust beatings and to remain submissive. He therefore turns to the example of Christ and in the process provides one of the most compelling paragraphs of the New Testament.

2:21 To this you were called

Peter is still speaking to slaves, but every Christian reader recognizes that "you" includes all of us, just as (see the next clause) Christ suffered for us all. Peter opened the letter with a reference to the Christian's calling (the Greek word there translated "elect" is a cognate of the verb here translated "you were called"). In 1:15 he identified the One who did the calling as God and the goal of the calling as holiness. Here in verse 21 the antecedent of the word "this" is patient endurance of unjust suffering. This is an important aspect of fulfilling the call to be holy. It is an important part of the effort to "live such good lives among the pagans that . . . they may see your good deeds and glorify God . . ." (v. 12).

because Christ suffered for you,

The NIV translation omits the word "also" (NRSV: "because Christ also suffered for you"). Probably Peter used "also" because he has just used the same verb "suffer" with respect to what the slaves must endure (v. 20b).

This clause has been interpreted in two ways. Some believe that the prepositional phrase "for you" reflects the common New Testament statement that "Christ died for us" and is therefore a reference to the atoning value of Christ's suffering and death - so that your sins may be forgiven. They see verse 21 as anticipating verse 24: "he himself bore our sins in his body on the tree."

Others, probably correctly, note that in verse 21 Peter does not say "Christ also died for you" but "Christ also suffered for you." They suggest that Peter is not using "for you" in the sense of "for your sins," but rather that "for you" is explained by the next part of the verse. "Christ suffered for you" means Christ suffered in order to provide you with an example to follow.

leaving you an example, that you should follow in his steps.

The word uJpogrammovn ( hypogrammon ) translated "example" was used literally of a pattern of letters of the Greek alphabet for children to copy and thus learn to write. It was also used figuratively, as here, for a pattern for behavior. Christ's suffering is a pattern for Christian slaves to follow. Jesus himself had summoned his disciples to follow him in contexts in which he discussed his coming suffering (e.g., Mark 8:31,34). Peter's wonderful addition of the phrase "in his steps" was the inspiration for the title of Charles Sheldon's famous book In His Steps . Christians are called to imitate Christ's willingness to suffer for doing good. He did it for us. We do it for him.

2:22 "He committed no sin, and no deceit was found in his mouth."

This citation of Isaiah 53:9 highlights the fact that Christ is a pattern for the type of suffering Peter endorses for Christian slaves. He did not "receive a beating for doing wrong," but rather he was one of those who "suffer for doing good" (see v. 20). Peter calls upon slaves to endure unjust suffering as innocent victims by pointing to Christ as the ultimate example of innocence.

Isaiah 53 was an important Old Testament passage in early Christian understanding of the suffering and the death of Christ (cf. the citations in Luke 22:37 and Acts 8:32-33).

2:23 When they hurled their insults at him, he did not retaliate; when he suffered, he made no threats.

The pattern of Christ shows how one should endure unjust suffering for doing good. Having urged Christian slaves to submit willingly even to harsh masters and to endure patiently unjust suffering, Peter uses Jesus' behavior at his arrest, trials, and crucifixion as the example they are called to follow. He did not return insult for insult, nor did he threaten his enemies. It was surely difficult for Christian slaves to follow this example - more difficult than for the rest of us, to whom it also applies.

Peter does not use specific language reflecting Isaiah 53 in this verse. However, the clear citation of Isaiah 53 in verse 22 and the allusions in verse 24 suggest the possibility that he here alludes to Isaiah 53:7 ("He was oppressed and afflicted, yet he did not open his mouth; he was led like a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep before her shearers is silent, so he did not open his mouth.").

Instead, he entrusted himself to him who judges justly.

This last clause of verse 23 expands on the pattern provided by Christ's suffering. His nonretaliation reflected his trust in God. The Greek text does not specify what Jesus entrusted or delivered over to God. Some suggest he delivered over "his enemies"; others, "his cause." The NIV and NRSV suggest "himself." It is a difficult decision, but the last suggestion is perhaps best in the light of 1 Peter 4:19 where Peter encourages his readers to "commit themselves to their faithful creator."

2:24 He himself bore our sins in his body on the tree,

If Peter was not including the death of Jesus and its atoning significance in verse 21 ("Christ suffered for you"), he clearly does now. He refers to Christ's dying for sins in order to continue to encourage his readers to "live for righteousness."

Peter's comment that "He himself bore our sins" reflects Isaiah 53:4 ("this one bears our sins"), 11 ("their sins he himself will bear"), and 12 ("he himself bore the sins of many"). Moving beyond Isaiah he adds that he bore those sins "in his body on the tree," clearly referring to the crucifixion. The word xuvlon ( xylon ), translated "tree," refers to wood or anything made of it. In the New Testament it is used several times for the cross (Acts 5:30; 10:39; 13:29; Gal 3:13).

so that we might die to sins and live for righteousness;

In saying we have "parted with" sins, Peter does not use the usual verb for "die to," although "die to sins" is a legitimate translation and captures the basic idea of ajpogivnomai ( apoginomai ). The thought of the clause is similar to Romans 6:11: "count yourselves dead to sin but alive to God." Peter uses the atoning significance of Jesus' death to urge us on to do what is right.

by his wounds you have been healed.

This clause is similar in meaning to the first part of verse 24, and is likewise rooted in Isaiah 53. The last clause of Isaiah 53:5 is "and by his wounds we are healed." Peter again points to the vicarious nature of what Jesus accomplished when he suffered and died for us. He was wounded so that we could be healed. We should therefore live righteously, which includes enduring unjust suffering for doing right.

2:25 For you were like sheep going astray, but now you have returned to the Shepherd and Overseer of your souls.

Peter reminds his readers of their past (cf. 1 Pet 1:14,18; 2:10; 4:3) in order to encourage them to stay on their new path. Sheep herding was common in the Mediterranean world and sheep/shepherd imagery is common in Scripture. In this case Peter is still following Isaiah 53. Having referred to Isaiah 53:5, he now moves on to verse 6: "We all, like sheep, have gone astray."

Peter's readers were once like lost sheep, but now they are under the care and guidance of the great Shepherd. It is doubtful that the verb "returned" implies that Peter's readers had at an earlier time been part of the great Shepherd's flock. Other statements in the book (see the verses cited in the previous paragraph) indicate that their past was in paganism.

Although in the Old Testament God is often described as the shepherd of Israel, in 1 Peter 5:4 Peter uses "chief Shepherd" with reference to Christ. He probably means Christ in this instance as well. Christ is further described as our Overseer, using the word ejpivskopo" ( episkopos ) often rendered in other translations as "bishop" when it refers to human overseers of the church. Peter wants his readers to follow the example of their Shepherd and Overseer.

On the word "souls" see the comments on 1:9. Peter probably does not intend a part of the person separable from the body, but rather a more holistic reference to the person. Achtemeier legitimately translates "shepherd and guardian of your lives."

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

Introduction / Outline

Robertson: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

THE FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER

ABOUT a.d. 65

By Way of Introduction

The Author

The Epistle is not anonymous, but claims to be written by " Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ" (1Pe_1:1), that is Cephas (Simon Peter). If this is not true, then the book is pseudonymous by a late writer who assumed Peter’s name, as in the so-called Gospel of Peter, Apocalypse of Peter, etc. " There is no book in the New Testament which has earlier, better, or stronger attestation, though Irenaeus is the first to quote it by name" (Bigg). Eusebius ( H.E . iii. 25.2) places it among the acknowledged books, those accepted with no doubt at all. We here assume that Simon Peter wrote this Epistle or at any rate dictated it by an amanuensis, as Paul did in Romans (Rom_16:22). Bigg suggests Silvanus (Silas) as the amanuensis or interpreter (1Pe_5:12), the obvious meaning of the language ( dia , through). He may also have been the bearer of the Epistle. It happens that we know more of Peter’s life than of any of the twelve apostles because of his prominence in the Gospels and in the first fifteen chapters of the Acts. In the Student’s Chronological New Testament I have given a full list of the passages in the Gospels where Peter appears with any clearness and the material is rich and abundant. The account in Acts is briefer, though Peter is the outstanding man in the first five chapters during his career in Jerusalem. After the conversion of Saul he begins to work outside of Jerusalem and after escaping death at the hands of Herod Agrippa I (Act_12:3.) he left for a while, but is back in Jerusalem at the Conference called by Paul and Barnabas (Act_15:6-14; Gal_2:1-10). After that we have no more about him in Acts, though he reappears in Antioch and is rebuked by Paul for cowardice because of the Judaizers (Gal_2:11-21). He travelled for the Gospel among the Jews of the Dispersion (Gal_2:9) with his wife (1Co_9:5), and went to Asia Minor (1Pe_1:1) and as far as Babylon or Rome (1Pe_5:13). Besides Silvanus he had John Mark with him also (1Pe_5:13), who was said by the early Christian writers to have been Peter’s " interpreter" in his preaching, since Peter was not expert in the Greek (Act_4:13), and who also wrote his Gospel under the inspiration of Peter’s preaching. We are not able to follow clearly the close of his life or to tell precisely the time of his death. He was apparently put to death in a.d. 67 or 68, but some think that he was executed in Rome in a.d. 64.

The Date

This question is tied up with that of the genuineness of the Epistle, the time of Peter’s death, the use of Paul’s Epistles, the persecution referred to in the Epistle. Assuming the genuineness of the Epistle and the death of Peter about a.d. 67 or 68 and the persecution to be not that under Domitian or Trajan, but under Nero, the date can be assumed to be about a.d. 65.

The Use of Paul’s Epistles

There are two extremes about the relation of Peter to Paul. One is that of violent antithesis, with Peter and Paul opposing one another by exaggerating and prolonging Paul’s denunciation of Peter’s cowardice in Antioch (Gal_2:11-21) and making Peter also the exponent of a Jewish type of Christianity (practically a Judaizing type). This view of Baur once had quite a following, but it has nearly disappeared. Under its influence Acts and Peter’s Epistles were considered not genuine, but documents designed to patch up the disagreement between Peter and Paul. The other extreme is to deny any Pauline influence on Peter or of Peter on Paul. Paul was friendly to Peter (Gal_1:18), but was independent of his ecclesiastical authority (Gal_2:1-10) and Peter championed Paul’s cause in the Jerusalem Conference (Act_15:7-13). Peter was certainly not a Judaizer (Acts 11:1-18), in spite of his temporary defection in Antioch. Undoubtedly Peter was won back to cordial relations with Paul if any confidence can be placed in 2Pe_3:15. There is no reason for doubting that Peter was familiar with some of Paul’s Epistles as there indicated. There is some indication of Peter’s use of Romans and Ephesians in this Epistle. It is not always conclusive to find the same words and even ideas which are not formally quoted, because there was a Christian vocabulary and a body of doctrinal ideas in common though with personal variations in expression. Peter may have read James, but not the Pastoral Epistles. There are points of contact with Hebrews which Von Soden considers sufficiently accounted for by the fact that Peter and the author of Hebrews were contemporaries.

The Persecution Pictured in the Epistle

Peter himself knew what persecution was at the hands of the Sanhedrin and of Herod Agrippa I (both church and state). If First Peter was written a.d. 65, there was time enough for the persecution of Nero in Rome in a.d. 64 to spread to Asia Minor. The province easily imitated the capital city. Paul’s life in the Acts and his Epistles abundantly show how early persecution arose in Asia Minor. The Apocalypse, written during the reign of Domitian, shows that persecution from the state had been on hand long before and was an old burden. We know too little of the history of Christianity in Asia Minor from a.d. 60 to 70 to deny that the fiery trials and suffering as a Christian (1Pe_4:16) can be true of this period. So we locate the persecution at this time as an echo from Rome.

The Place of Writing

Peter states that he is in Babylon (1Pe_5:13), apparently with his wife (1Co_9:5). It is not certain whether he means actual Babylon, where Jews had been numerous, or mystical Babylon (Rome) as in the Apocalypse. We do not know when Rome began to be called Babylon. It may have started as a result of Nero’s persecution of the Christians after the burning of Rome. The Christians were called " evil-doers" (1Pe_2:12) in the time of Nero (Tacitus, Ann . XV. 44). So we can think of Rome as the place of writing and that Peter uses " Babylon" to hide his actual location from Nero. Whether Peter came to Rome while Paul was still there we do not know, though John Mark was there with Paul (Col_4:10). " At the time when it was written Babylon had not yet unmasked all its terrors, and the ordinary Christian was not in immediate danger of the tunica ardens , or the red-hot iron chair, or the wild beasts, or the stake" (Bigg).

The Readers

Peter writes " to the elect who are sojourners of the Dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia" (1Pe_1:1). These five Roman provinces are naturally given from the standpoint of Babylon. In Galatia and Asia Paul had labored, though not all over these provinces. At any rate, there is no reason to wonder that Peter should himself work in the same regions where Paul had been. In a general way Paul and Peter had agreed on separate spheres of activity, Paul to the Gentiles and Peter to the Jews (Gal_2:7.), though the distinction was not absolute, for Paul usually began his work in the Jewish synagogue. Probably the readers are mainly Jewish Christians. but not to the exclusion of Gentiles. Peter has clearly Paul’s idea that Christianity is the true Judaism of God’s promise (1Pe_2:4-10).

The Purpose

Evidently Peter’s object is to cheer and strengthen the Christians in these five provinces who are undergoing fiery trials (1Pe_1:7.). There is every reason why Peter, as the leading apostle to the circumcision, should write to these believers in the provinces, especially since Paul’s long imprisonment in Caesarea and Rome had removed him from his accustomed activities and travel.

The Style and Vocabulary

Like Peter’s discourses in the Acts, the Epistle is mainly hortatory, with a minimum of argument and little of the closely knit reasoning seen in Romans. There is frequent use of the lxx and the Greek is decent Koiné with little of the uncouth Aramaic of the Galilean (Mat_26:73), or of the vernacular Koiné as seen in the papyri or in 2 Peter (Act_4:13). This fact may be accounted for by the help of Silvanus as amanuensis. There are sixty-two words in the Greek of the Epistle not occurring elsewhere in the N.T. There is verbal iteration as in 2 Peter. " One idea haunts the whole Epistle; to the author, as to the patriarch Jacob, life is a pilgrimage; it is essentially an old man’s view" (Bigg). But it is an old man who has lived long with Christ. Peter has learned the lesson of humility and patience from Jesus his Lord.

JFB: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

ITS GENUINENESS is attested by 2Pe 3:1. On the authority of Second Peter, see the Introduction. Also by POLYCARP (in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 4.14]), who, in writing to the Philippians, quotes many passages: in the second chapter he quotes 1Pe 1:13, 1Pe 1:21; 1Pe 3:9; in the fifth chapter, 1Pe 2:11. EUSEBIUS says of PAPIAS [Ecclesiastical History, 3.39] that he, too, quotes Peter's First Epistle. IRENÆUS [Against Heresies, 4.9.2] expressly mentions it; and in [4.16.5], 1Pe 2:16. CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA [Miscellanies, 1.3, p. 544], quotes 1Pe 2:11-12, 1Pe 2:15-16; and [p. 562], 1Pe 1:21-22; and [4, p. 584], 1Pe 3:14-17; and [p. 585], 1Pe 4:12-14. ORIGEN (in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 6.25]) mentions this Epistle; in [Homily 7, on Joshua, vol. 2, p. 63], he mentions both Epistles; and [Commentary on Psalm 3 and on John], he mentions 1Pe 3:18-21. TERTULLIAN [Antidote to the Scorpion's Sting, 12], quotes expressly 1Pe 2:20-21; and [Antidote to the Scorpion's Sting, 14], 1Pe 2:13, 1Pe 2:17. EUSEBIUS states it as the opinion of those before him that this was among the universally acknowledged Epistles. The Peschito Syriac Version contains it. The fragment of the canon called MURATORI'S omits it. Excepting this, and the Paulician heretics, who rejected it, all ancient testimony is on its side. The internal evidence is equally strong. The author calls himself the apostle Peter, 1Pe 1:1, and "a witness of Christ's sufferings," and an "elder," 1Pe 5:1. The energy of the style harmonizes with the warmth of Peter's character; and, as ERASMUS says, this Epistle is full of apostolic dignity and authority and is worthy of the leader among the apostles.

PETER'S PERSONAL HISTORY.--Simon, Or Simeon, was a native of Bethsaida on the Sea of Galilee, son of Jonas or John. With his father and his brother Andrew he carried on trade as a fisherman at Capernaum, his subsequent place of abode. He was a married man, and tradition represents his wife's name as Concordia or Perpetua. CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA says that she suffered martyrdom, her husband encouraging her to be faithful unto death, "Remember, dear, our Lord." His wife's mother was restored from a fever by Christ. He was brought to Jesus by his brother Andrew, who had been a disciple of John the Baptist, but was pointed to the Saviour as "the Lamb of God" by his master (Joh 1:29). Jesus, on first beholding him, gave him the name by which chiefly he is known, indicative of his subsequent character and work in the Church, "Peter" (Greek) or "Cephas" (Aramaic), a stone (Mat 4:18). He did not join our Lord finally until a subsequent period. The leading incidents in his apostolic life are well known: his walking on the troubled waters to meet Jesus, but sinking through doubting (Mat 14:30); his bold and clear acknowledgment of the divine person and office of Jesus (Mat 16:16; Mar 8:29; Joh 11:27), notwithstanding the difficulties in the way of such belief, whence he was then also designated as the stone, or rock (Mat 16:18); but his rebuke of his Lord when announcing what was so unpalatable to carnal prejudices, Christ's coming passion and death (Mat 16:22); his passing from one extreme to the opposite, in reference to Christ's offer to wash his feet (Joh 13:8-9); his self-confident assertion that he would never forsake his Lord, whatever others might do (Mat 26:33), followed by his base denial of Christ thrice with curses (Mat 26:75); his deep penitence; Christ's full forgiveness and prophecy of his faithfulness unto death, after he had received from him a profession of "love" as often repeated as his previous denial (Joh 21:15-17). These incidents illustrate his character as zealous, pious, and ardently attached to the Lord, but at the same time impulsive in feeling, rather than calmly and continuously steadfast. Prompt in action and ready to avow his convictions boldly, he was hasty in judgment, precipitate, and too self-confident in the assertion of his own steadfastness; the result was that, though he abounded in animal courage, his moral courage was too easily overcome by fear of man's opinion. A wonderful change was wrought in him by his restoration after his fall, through the grace of his risen Lord. His zeal and ardor became sanctified, being chastened by a spirit of unaffected humility. His love to the Lord was, if possible, increased, while his mode of manifesting it now was in doing and suffering for His name, rather than in loud protestations. Thus, when imprisoned and tried before the Sanhedrim for preaching Christ, he boldly avowed his determination to continue to do so. He is well called "the mouth of the apostles." His faithfulness led to his apprehension by Herod Agrippa, with a view to his execution, from which, however, he was delivered by the angel of the Lord.

After the ascension he took the lead in the Church; and on the descent of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, he exercised the designed power of "the keys" of Christ's kingdom, by opening the door of the Church, in preaching, for the admission of thousands of Israelites; and still more so in opening (in obedience to a special revelation) an entrance to the "devout" (that is, Jewish proselyte from heathendom) Gentile, Cornelius: the forerunner of the harvest gathered in from idolatrous Gentiles at Antioch. This explains in what sense Christ used as to him the words, "Upon this rock I will build my Church" (Mat 16:18), namely, on the preaching of Christ, the true "Rock," by connection with whom only he was given the designation: a title shared in common on the same grounds by the rest of the apostles, as the first founders of the Church on Christ, "the chief corner-stone" (Eph 2:20). A name is often given in Hebrew, not that the person is actually the thing itself, but has some special relation to it; as Elijah means Mighty Jehovah, so Simon is called Peter "the rock," not that he is so, save by connection with Jesus, the only true Rock (Isa 28:16; 1Co 3:11). As subsequently he identified himself with "Satan," and is therefore called so (Mat 16:23), in the same way, by his clear confession of Christ, the Rock, he became identified with Him, and is accordingly so called (Mat 16:18). It is certain that there is no instance on record of Peter's having ever claimed or exercised supremacy; on the contrary, he is represented as sent by the apostles at Jerusalem to confirm the Samaritans baptized by Philip the deacon; again at the council of Jerusalem, not he, but James the president, or leading bishop in the Church of that city, pronounced the authoritative decision: Act 15:19, "My sentence is," &c. A kind of primacy, doubtless (though certainly not supremacy), was given him on the ground of his age, and prominent earnestness, and boldness in taking the lead on many important occasions. Hence he is called "first" in enumerating the apostles. Hence, too, arise the phrases, "Peter and the Eleven," "Peter and the rest of the apostles"; and Paul, in going up to Jerusalem after his conversion, went to see Peter in particular.

Once only he again betrayed the same spirit of vacillation through fear of man's reproach which had caused his denial of his Lord. Though at the Jerusalem council he advocated the exemption of Gentile converts from the ceremonial observances of the law, yet he, after having associated in closest intercourse with the Gentiles at Antioch, withdrew from them, through dread of the prejudices of his Jewish brethren who came from James, and timidly dissembled his conviction of the religious equality of Jew and Gentile; for this Paul openly withstood and rebuked him: a plain refutation of his alleged supremacy and infallibility (except where specially inspired, as in writing his Epistles). In all other cases he showed himself to be, indeed, as Paul calls him, "a pillar" (Gal 2:9). Subsequently we find him in "Babylon," whence he wrote this First Epistle to the Israelite believers of the dispersion, and the Gentile Christians united in Christ, in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia.

JEROME [On Illustrious Men, 1] states that "Peter, after having been bishop of Antioch, and after having preached to the believers of the circumcision in Pontus, &c. [plainly inferred from 1Pe 1:1], in the second year of Claudius went to Rome to refute Simon Magus, and for twenty-five years there held the episcopal chair, down to the last year of Nero, that is, the fourteenth, by whom he was crucified with his head downwards, declaring himself unworthy to be crucified as his Lord, and was buried in the Vatican, near the triumphal way." EUSEBIUS [Chronicles, Anno 3], also asserts his episcopate at Antioch; his assertion that Peter founded that Church contradicts Act 11:19-22. His journey to Rome to oppose Simon Magus arose from JUSTIN'S story of the statue found at Rome (really the statue of the Sabine god, Semo Sanctus, or Hercules, mistaken as if Simon Magus were worshipped by that name, "Simoni Deo Sancto"; found in the Tiber in 1574, or on an island in the Tiber in 1662), combined with the account in Acts 8:9-24. The twenty-five years' bishopric is chronologically impossible, as it would make Peter, at the interview with Paul at Antioch, to have been then for some years bishop of Rome! His crucifixion is certain from Christ's prophecy, Joh 21:18-19. DIONYSIUS OF CORINTH (in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 2.25]) asserted in an epistle to the Romans, that Paul and Peter planted both the Roman and Corinthian churches, and endured martyrdom in Italy at the same time. So TERTULLIAN [Against Marcion, 4.5, and The Prescription Against Heretics, 36, 38]. Also Caius, the presbyter of Rome, in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 2.25] asserts that some memorials of their martyrdom were to be seen at Rome on the road to Ostia. So EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 2.25, and Demonstration of the Gospel, 3.116]. So LACTANTIUS [Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died, 2]. Many of the details are palpably false; whether the whole be so or not is dubious, considering the tendency to concentrate at Rome events of interest [ALFORD]. What is certain is, that Peter was not there before the writing of the Epistle to the Romans (A.D. 58), otherwise he would have been mentioned in it; nor during Paul's first imprisonment at Rome, otherwise he would have been mentioned in some one of Paul's many other Epistles written from Rome; nor during Paul's second imprisonment, at least when he was writing the Second Epistle to Timothy, just before his martyrdom. He may have gone to Rome after Paul's death, and, as common tradition represents, been imprisoned in the Mamertine dungeon, and crucified on the Janiculum, on the eminence of St. Pietro in Montorio, and his remains deposited under the great altar in the center of the famous basilica of St. Peter. AMBROSE [Epistles, 33 (Edition Paris, 1586), p. 1022] relates that St. Peter, not long before his death, being overcome by the solicitations of his fellow Christians to save himself, was fleeing from Rome when he was met by our Lord, and on asking, "Lord, whither goest Thou?" received the answer, "I go to be crucified afresh." On this he returned and joyfully went to martyrdom. The church called "Domine quo vadis" on the Appian Way, commemorates the legend. It is not unlikely that the whole tradition is built on the connection which existed between Paul and Peter. As Paul, "the apostle of the uncircumcision," wrote Epistles to Galatia, Ephesus, and Colosse, and to Philemon at Colosse, making the Gentile Christians the persons prominently addressed, and the Jewish Christians subordinately so; so, vice versa, Peter, "the apostle of the circumcision," addressed the same churches, the Jewish Christians in them primarily, and the Gentile Christians also, secondarily.

TO WHOM HE ADDRESSES THIS EPISTLE.--The heading, 1Pe 1:1, "to the elect strangers (spiritually pilgrims) of the dispersion" (Greek), clearly marks the Christians of the Jewish dispersion as prominently addressed, but still including also Gentile Christians as grafted into the Christian Jewish stock by adoption and faith, and so being part of the true Israel. 1Pe 1:14; 1Pe 2:9-10; 1Pe 3:6; 1Pe 4:3 clearly prove this. Thus he, the apostle of the circumcision, sought to unite in one Christ Jew and Gentile, promoting thereby the same work and doctrine as Paul the apostle of the uncircumcision. The provinces are named by Peter in the heading in the order proceeding from northeast to south and west. Pontus was the country of the Christian Jew Aquila. To Galatia Paul paid two visits, founding and confirming churches. Crescens, his companion, went there about the time of Paul's last imprisonment, just before his martyrdom. Ancyra was subsequently its ecclesiastical metropolis. Men of Cappadocia, as well as of "Pontus" and "Asia," were among the hearers of Peter's effective sermon on the Pentecost whereon the Spirit decended on the Church; these probably brought home to their native land the first tidings of the Gospel. Proconsular "Asia" included Mysia, Lydia, Caria, Phrygia, Pisidia, and Lyaconia. In Lycaonia were the churches of Iconium, founded by Paul and Barnabas; of Lystra, Timothy's birthplace, where Paul was stoned at the instigation of the Jews; and of Derbe, the birthplace of Gaius, or Caius. In Pisidia was Antioch, where Paul was the instrument of converting many, but was driven out by the Jews. In Caria was Miletus, containing doubtless a Christian Church. In Phrygia, Paul preached both times when visiting Galatia in its neighborhood, and in it were the churches of Laodicea, Hierapolis, and Colosse, of which last Church Philemon and Onesimus were members, and Archippus and Epaphras leaders. In Lydia was the Philadelphian Church, favorably noticed in Rev 3:7, &c.; that of Sardis, the capital, and of Thyatira, and of Ephesus, founded by Paul, and a scene of the labors of Aquila and Priscilla and Apollos, and subsequently of more than two whole years' labor of Paul again, and subsequently censured for falling from its first love in Rev 2:4. Smyrna of Ionia was in the same quarter, and as one of the seven churches receives unqualified praise. In Mysia was Pergamos. Troas, too, is known as the scene of Paul's preaching and raising Eutychus to life (Act 20:6-10), and of his subsequently staying for a time with Carpus (2Ti 4:13). Of "Bithynia," no Church is expressly named in Scripture elsewhere. When Paul at an earlier period "assayed to go into Bithynia" (Act 16:7), the Spirit suffered him not. But afterwards, we infer from 1Pe 1:1, the Spirit did impart the Gospel to that country, possibly by Peter's ministry, In government, these several churches, it appears from this Epistle (1Pe 5:1-2, "Feed," &c.), were much in the same states as when Paul addressed the Ephesian "elders" at Miletus (Act 20:17, Act 20:28, "feed") in very similar language; elders or presbyter-bishops ruled, while the apostles exercised the general superintendence. They were exposed to persecutions, though apparently not systematic, but rather annoyances and reproach arising from their not joining their heathen neighbors in riotous living, into which, however, some of them were in danger of falling. The evils which existed among themselves, and which are therefore reproved, were ambition and lucre-seeking on the part of the presbyters (1Pe 5:2-3), evil thoughts and words among the members in general, and a want of sympathy and generosity towards one another.

HIS OBJECT seems to be, by the prospect of their heavenly portion and by Christ's example, to afford consolation to the persecuted, and prepare them for a greater approaching ordeal, and to exhort all, husbands, wives, servants, presbyters, and people, to a due discharge of relative duties, so as to give no handle to the enemy to reproach Christianity, but rather to win them to it, and so to establish them in "the true grace of God wherein they stand" (1Pe 5:12). However, see on 1Pe 5:12, on the oldest reading. ALFORD rightly argues that "exhorting and testifying" there, refer to Peter's exhortations throughout the Epistle grounded on testimony which he bears to the Gospel truth, already well known to his readers by the teaching of Paul in those churches. They were already introduced "into" (so the Greek, 1Pe 5:12) this grace of God as their safe standing-ground. Compare 1Co 15:1, "I declare unto you the Gospel wherein ye stand." Therefore he does not, in this Epistle, set forth a complete statement of this Gospel doctrine of grace, but falls back on it as already known. Compare 1Pe 1:8, 1Pe 1:18, "ye know"; 1Pe 3:15; 2Pe 3:1. Not that Peter servilely copies the style and mode of teaching of Paul, but as an independent witness in his own style attests the same truths. We may divide the Epistle into: (I) The inscription (1Pe 1:1-2). (II) The stirring-up of a pure feeling in believers as born again of God. By the motive of hope to which God has regenerated us (1Pe 1:3-12); bringing forth the fruit of faith, considering the costly price paid for our redemption from sin (1Pe 1:14-21). Being purified by the Spirit unto love of the brethren as begotten of God's eternal word, as spiritual priest-kings, to whom alone Christ is precious (1Pe 1:22; 1Pe 2:10); after Christ's example in suffering, maintaining a good conversation in every relation (1Pe 2:10; 1Pe 3:14), and a good profession of faith as having in view Christ's once-offered sacrifice, and His future coming to judgment (1Pe 3:15; 1Pe 4:11); and exhibiting patience in adversity, as looking for future glorification with Christ, (1) in general as Christians, 1Pe 4:12-19; (2) each in his own sphere, 1Pe 5:1-11. "The title "Beloved" marks the separation of the second part from the first, 1Pe 2:11; and of the third part from the second, 1Pe 4:12" [BENGEL]. (III). The conclusion.

TIME AND PLACE OF WRITING.--It was plainly before the open and systematic persecution of the later years of Nero had begun. That this Epistle was written after Paul's Epistles, even those written during his imprisonment at Rome, ending in A.D. 63, appears from the acquaintance which Peter in this Epistle shows he has with them. Compare 1Pe 2:13 with 1Ti 2:2-4; 1Pe 2:18 with Eph 6:5; 1Pe 1:2 with Eph 1:4-7; 1Pe 1:3 with Eph 1:3; 1Pe 1:14 with Rom 12:2; 1Pe 2:6-10 with Rom 9:32-33; 1Pe 2:13 with Rom 13:1-4; 1Pe 2:16 with Gal 5:13; 1Pe 2:18 with Eph 6:5; 1Pe 3:1 with Eph 5:22; 1Pe 3:9 with Rom 12:17; 1Pe 4:9 with Phi 2:14; Rom 12:13 and Heb 13:2; 1Pe 4:10 with Rom 12:6-8; 1Pe 5:1 with Rom 8:18; 1Pe 5:5 with Eph 5:21; Phi 2:3, Phi 2:5-8; 1Pe 5:8 with 1Th 5:6; 1Pe 5:14 with 1Co 16:20. Moreover, in 1Pe 5:13, Mark is mentioned as with Peter in Babylon. This must have been after Col 4:10 (A.D. 61-63), when Mark was with Paul at Rome, but intending to go to Asia Minor. Again, in 2Ti 4:11 (A.D. 67 or 68), Mark was in or near Ephesus, in Asia Minor, and Timothy is told to bring him to Rome. So that it is likely it was after this, namely, after Paul's martyrdom, that Mark joined Peter, and consequently that this Epistle was written. It is not likely that Peter would have entrenched on Paul's field of labor, the churches of Asia Minor, during Paul's lifetime. The death of the apostle of the uncircumcision, and the consequent need of someone to follow up his teachings, probably gave occasion to the testimony given by Peter to the same churches, collectively addressed, in behalf of the same truth. The relation in which the Pauline Gentile churches stood towards the apostles at Jerusalem favors this view. Even the Gentile Christians would naturally look to the spiritual fathers of the Church at Jerusalem, the center whence the Gospel had emanated to them, for counsel wherewith to meet the pretensions of Judaizing Christians and heretics; and Peter, always prominent among the apostles in Jerusalem, would even when elsewhere feel a deep interest in them, especially when they were by death bereft of Paul's guidance. BIRKS [Horæ Evangelicæ] suggests that false teachers may have appealed from Paul's doctrine to that of James and Peter. Peter then would naturally write to confirm the doctrines of grace and tacitly show there was no difference between his teaching and Paul's. BIRKS prefers dating the Epistle A.D. 58, after Paul's second visit to Galatia, when Silvanus was with him, and so could not have been with Peter (A.D. 54), and before his imprisonment at Rome, when Mark was with him, and so could not have been with Peter (A.D. 62); perhaps when Paul was detained at Cæsarea, and so debarred from personal intercourse with those churches. I prefer the view previously stated. This sets aside the tradition that Paul and Peter suffered martyrdom together at Rome. ORIGEN'S and EUSEBIUS' statement that Peter visited the churches of Asia in person seems very probable.

The PLACE OF WRITING was doubtless Babylon on the Euphrates (1Pe 5:13). It is most improbable that in the midst of writing matter-of-fact communications and salutations in a remarkably plain Epistle, the symbolical language of prophecy (namely, "Babylon" for Rome) should be used. JOSEPHUS [Antiquities, 15.2.2; 3.1] states that there was a great multitude of Jews in the Chaldean Babylon; it is therefore likely that "the apostle of the circumcision" (Gal 2:7-8) would at some time or other visit them. Some have maintained that the Babylon meant was in Egypt because Mark preached in and around Alexandria after Peter's death, and therefore it is likely he did so along with that apostle in the same region previously. But no mention elsewhere in Scripture is made of this Egyptian Babylon, but only of the Chaldean one. And though towards the close of Caligula's reign a persecution drove the Jews thence to Seleucia, and a plague five years after still further thinned their numbers, yet this does not preclude their return and multiplication during the twenty years that elapsed between the plague and the writing of the Epistle. Moreover, the order in which the countries are enumerated, from northeast to south and west, is such as would be adopted by one writing from the Oriental Babylon on the Euphrates, not from Egypt or Rome. Indeed, COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES, in the sixth century, understood the Babylon meant to be outside the Roman empire. Silvanus, Paul's companion, became subsequently Peter's, and was the carrier of this Epistle.

STYLE.--Fervor and practical truth, rather than logical reasoning, are the characteristics, of this Epistle, as they were of its energetic, warm-hearted writer. His familiarity with Paul's Epistles shown in the language accords with what we should expect from the fact of Paul's having "communicated the Gospel which he preached among the Gentiles" (as revealed specially to him) to Peter among others "of reputation" (Gal 2:2). Individualities occur, such as baptism, "the answer of a good conscience toward God" (1Pe 3:21); "consciousness of God" (Greek), 1Pe 2:19, as a motive for enduring sufferings; "living hope" (1Pe 1:3); "an inheritance incorruptible, undefiled, and that fadeth not away" (1Pe 1:4); "kiss of charity" (1Pe 5:14). Christ is viewed less in relation to His past sufferings than as at present exalted and hereafter to be manifested in all His majesty. Glory and hope are prominent features in this Epistle (1Pe 1:8), so much so that WEISS entitles him "the apostle of hope." The realization of future bliss as near causes him to regard believers as but "strangers" and "sojourners" here. Chastened fervor, deep humility, and ardent love appear, just as we should expect from one who had been so graciously restored after his grievous fall. "Being converted," he truly does "strengthen his brethren." His fervor shows itself in often repeating the same thought in similar words.

In some passages he shows familiarity with the Epistle of James, the apostle of special weight with the Jewish legalizing party, whose inspiration he thus confirms (compare 1Pe 1:6-7 with Jam 1:2-3; 1Pe 1:24 with Jam 1:10; 1Pe 2:1 with Jam 1:21; 1Pe 4:8 with Jam 5:20, both quoting Pro 10:12; Pro 5:5 with Jam 4:6, both quoting Pro 3:34). In most of these cases Old Testament quotations are the common ground of both. "Strong susceptibility to outward impressions, liveliness of feeling, dexterity in handling subjects, dispose natures like that of Peter to repeat afresh the thoughts of others" [STEIGER].

The diction of this Epistle and of his speeches in Acts is very similar: an undesigned coincidence, and so a mark of genuineness (compare 1Pe 2:7 with Act 4:11; 1Pe 1:12 with Act 5:32; 1Pe 2:24 with Act 5:30; Act 10:39; 1Pe 5:1 with Act 2:32; Act 3:15; 1Pe 1:10 with Act 3:18; Act 10:43; 1Pe 1:21 with Act 3:15; Act 10:40; 1Pe 4:5 with Act 10:42; 1Pe 2:24 with Act 3:19, Act 3:26).

There is, too, a recurrence to the language of the Lord at the last interview after His resurrection, recorded in Joh 21:15-23. Compare "the Shepherd . . . of . . . souls," 1Pe 2:25; "Feed the flock of God," "the chief Shepherd," 1Pe 5:2, 1Pe 5:4, with Joh 21:15-17; "Feed My lambs . . . sheep"; also "Whom . . . ye love," 1Pe 1:8; 1Pe 2:7, with Joh 21:15-17; "lovest thou Me?" and 2Pe 1:14, with Joh 21:18-19. WIESINGER well says, "He who in loving impatience cast himself into the sea to meet the Lord, is also the man who most earnestly testifies to the hope of His return; he who dated his own faith from the sufferings of his Master, is never weary in holding up the suffering form of the Lord before his readers to comfort and stimulate them; he before whom the death of a martyr is in assured expectation, is the man who, in the greatest variety of aspects, sets forth the duty, as well as the consolation, of suffering for Christ; as a rock of the Church he grounds his readers against the storm of present tribulation on the true Rock of ages."

JFB: 1 Peter (Outline)

• ADDRESS TO THE ELECTED OF THE GODHEAD: THANKSGIVING FOR THE LIVING HOPE TO WHICH WE ARE BEGOTTEN, PRODUCING JOY AMIDST SUFFERINGS: THIS SALVATION AN OBJECT OF DEEPEST INTEREST TO PROPHETS AND TO ANGELS: ITS COSTLY PRICE A MOTIVE TO HOLINESS AND LOVE, AS WE ARE BORN AGAIN OF THE EVER-ABIDING WORD OF GOD. (1Pe. 1:1-25)
• EXHORTATIONS. (1Pe. 2:1-25)
• RELATIVE DUTIES OF HUSBANDS AND WIVES: EXHORTATIONS TO LOVE AND FORBEARANCE: RIGHT CONDUCT UNDER PERSECUTIONS FOR RIGHTEOUSNESS' SAKE, AFTER CHRIST'S EXAMPLE, WHOSE DEATH RESULTED IN QUICKENING TO US THROUGH HIS BEING QUICKENED AGAIN, OF WHICH BAPTISM IS THE SACRAMENTAL SEAL. (1Pe. 3:1-22)
• LIKE THE RISEN CHRIST, BELIEVERS HENCEFORTH OUGHT TO HAVE NO MORE TO DO WITH SIN. (1Pe. 4:1-19)
• EXHORTATIONS TO ELDERS, JUNIORS, AND ALL IN GENERAL. PARTING PRAYER. CONCLUSION. (1Pe 5:1-14)

TSK: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

As the design of this Epistle is excellent, remarks Dr. Macknight, so is its execution, in the judgment of the best critics, does not fall short of its design. Ostervald says of the first Epistle of Peter, " it is one of the finest books in the New Testament." Erasmus pronounces it to be " worthy of the prince of the Apostles, and full of apostolical dignity and authority;" and adds, " it is sparing in words, but full of sense - verbis pauca, sententiis differta ." " As the true church of Christ," says Dr. Clarke, " has generally been in a state of suffering, the Epistles of St. Peter have ever been most highly prized by all believers. That which we have just finished is an admirable letter, containing some of the most important maxims and consolations for the Church in the wilderness. No Christian can read it without deriving from it both light and life. Ministers especially should study it well, that they may know how to comfort their flocks when in persecution and adversity. He never speaks to good in any spiritual case who is not furnished out of the Divine treasury. God’s words invite, solicit, and command assent. on them a man may confidently rely. The words of man may be true, but they are not infallible; this is the character of God’s word alone." To these valuable remarks on the varied excellences and uses of this inimitable Epistle, it may be only necessary to add, that it is not only important in these respects, but is a rich treasury of Christian doctrines and duties from which the mind may be enriched and the heart improved, with the most ennobling sentiments.

TSK: 1 Peter 2 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

1Pe 2:1, He exhorts them from the breach of charity; 1Pe 2:4, shewing that Christ is the foundation whereupon they are built; 1Pe 2:11, He beseeches them also to abstain from fleshly lusts; 1Pe 2:13, to be obedient to magistrates; 1Pe 2:18, and teaches servants how to obey their masters; 1Pe 2:20, patiently suffering for well doing, after the example of Christ.

Poole: 1 Peter 2 (Chapter Introduction)

PETER CHAPTER 2

MHCC: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

The same great doctrines, as in St. Paul's epistles, are here applied to same practical purposes. And this epistle is remarkable for the sweetness, gentleness, and humble love, with which it is written. It gives a short, and yet a very clear summary, both of the consolations and the instructions needful for the encouragement and direction of a Christian in his journey to heaven, raising his thoughts and desires to that happiness, and strengthening him against all opposition in the way, both from corruption within, and temptations and afflictions without.

MHCC: 1 Peter 2 (Chapter Introduction)

(1Pe 2:1-10) A temper suitable to the Christian character as born again, is recommended.

(1Pe 2:11, 1Pe 2:12) Holy conversation among the Gentiles directed.

(1Pe 2:13-17) Subjects exhorted to pay all proper obedience to their civil governors.

(1Pe 2:18-25) Also servants to their masters, and all to be patient, according to the example of the suffering Saviour.

Matthew Henry: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The First Epistle General of Peter

Two epistles we have enrolled in the sacred canon of the scripture written by Peter, who was a most eminent apostle of Jesus Christ, and whose character shines brightly as it is described in the four Gospels and in the Acts of the Apostles, but, as it is painted by the papists and legendary writers, it represents a person of extravagant pride and ambition. It is certain from scripture that Simon Peter was one of the first of those whom our Lord called to be his disciples and followers, that he was a person of excellent endowments, both natural and gracious, of great parts and ready elocution, quick to apprehend and bold to execute whatever he knew to be his duty. When our Saviour called his apostles, and gave them their commission, he nominated him first in the list; and by his behaviour towards him he seems to have distinguished him as a special favourite among the twelve. Many instances of our Lord's affection to him, both during his life and after his resurrection, are upon record. But there are many things confidently affirmed of this holy man that are directly false: as, That he had a primacy and superior power over the rest of the apostles - that he was more than their equal - that he was their prince, monarch, and sovereign - and that he exercised a jurisdiction over the whole college of the apostles: moreover, That he as the sole and universal pastor over all the Christian world, the only vicar of Christ upon earth - that he was for above twenty years bishop of Rome - that the popes of Rome succeed to St. Peter, and derive from him a universal supremacy and jurisdiction over all churches and Christians upon earth - and that all this was by our Lord's ordering and appointment; whereas Christ never gave him any pre-eminence of this kind, but positively forbade it, and gave precepts to the contrary. The other apostles never consented to any such claim. Paul declares himself not a whit behind the very chief apostles, 2Co 11:5 and 2Co 12:11. Here is no exception of Peter's superior dignity, whom Paul took the freedom to blame, and withstood him to the face, Gal 2:11. And Peter himself never assumed any thing like it, but modestly styles himself an apostle of Jesus Christ; and, when he writes to the presbyters of the church, he humbly places himself in the same rank with them: The elders who are among you I exhort, who am also an elder, 1Pe 5:1. See Dr. Barrow on the pope's supremacy.

The design of this first epistle is, I. To explain more fully the doctrines of Christianity to these newly-converted Jews. II. To direct and persuade them to a holy conversation, in the faithful discharge of all personal and relative duties, whereby they would secure their own peace and effectually confute the slanders and reproaches of their enemies. III. To prepare them for sufferings. This seems to be his principal intention; for he has something to this purport in every chapter, and does, by a great variety of arguments, encourage them to patience and perseverance in the faith, lest the persecutions and sad calamities that were coming upon them should prevail with them to apostatize from Christ and the gospel. It is remarkable that you find not so much as one word savouring of the spirit and pride of a pope in either of these epistles.

Matthew Henry: 1 Peter 2 (Chapter Introduction)

The general exhortation to holiness is continued, and enforced by several reasons taken from the foundation on which Christians are built, Jesus Christ, and from their spiritual blessings and privileges in him. The means of obtaining it, the word of God, is recommended, and all contrary qualities are condemned (1Pe 2:1-12). Particular directions are given how subjects ought to obey the magistrates, and servants their masters, patiently suffering in well doing, in imitation of Christ (1Pe 2:13 to the end).

Barclay: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO THE FIRST LETTER OF PETER

The Catholic Or General Epistles

First Peter belongs to that group of New Testament letters which are known as the Catholic or General Epistles. Two explanations of that title have been offered.

(i) It is suggested that these letters were so called because they were addressed to the Church at large, in contradistinction to the Pauline letters which were addressed to individual churches. But that is not so. James is addressed to a definite, though widely scattered, community. It is written to the twelve tribes who are scattered abroad (Jam_1:1 ). It needs no argument that Second and Third John are addressed to definite communities; and, although First John has no specific address, it is clearly written with the needs and perils of a particular community in mind. First Peter itself is written to the strangers scattered abroad through Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia (1Pe_1:1 ). It is true that these General Epistles have a wider range than the letters of Paul; at the same time, they all have a definite community in mind.

(ii) So we must turn to the second explanation--that these letters were called Catholic or General because they were accepted as Scripture by the whole Church in contradistinction to that large number of letters which enjoyed a local and temporary authority but never universally ranked as Scripture. At the time when these letters were being written there was an outbreak of letter-writing in the Church. We still possess many of the letters which were then written--the letter of Clement of Rome to Corinth, the letter of Barnabas, the letters of Ignatius and the letters of Polycarp. All were regarded as very precious in the Churches to which they were written but were never regarded as having authority throughout the Church; on the other hand the Catholic or General Epistles gradually won a place in Scripture and were accepted by the whole Church. Here is the true explanation of their title.

The Lovely Letter

Of all the General Epistles it is probably true that First Peter is the best known and loved, and the most read. No one has ever been in any doubt about its charm. Moffatt writes of it: "The beautiful spirit of the pastoral shines through any translation of the Greek text. ¯fectionate, loving, lowly, humble, re lzaak Waltonquaternion of adjectives for the Epistles of James, John and Peter, but it is First Peter which deserves them preeminently." It is written out of the love of a pastorheart to help people who were going through it and on whom worse things were still to come. "The key-note," says Moffatt, "is steady encouragement to endurance in conduct and innocence in character." It has been said that its distinctive characteristic is warmth. E. J. Goodspeed wrote: "First Peter is one of the most moving pieces of persecution literature." To this day it is one of the easiest letters in the New Testament to read, for it has never lost its winsome appeal to the human heart.

The Modern Doubt

Until a comparatively short time ago few would have raised any doubts about the authenticity of First Peter. Renan, who was by no means a conservative critic, wrote of it: "The First Epistle is one of the writings of the New Testament which are most anciently and most unanimously cited as genuine." But in recent times the Petrine authorship of the letter has been widely questioned. The commentary by F. W. Beare, published in 1947, goes the length of saying, "There can be no possible doubt that ters a pseudonym." That is to say, Beare has no doubt that someone else wrote this letter under the name of Peter. We shall go on in fairness to investigate that view; but first we shall set out the traditional view--which we ourselves unhesitatingly accept--of the date and authorship of this letter. This is that First Peter was written from Rome by Peter himself, about the year A.D. 67, in the days immediately following the first persecution of the Christians by Nero, to the Christians in those parts of Asia Minor named in the address. What is the evidence for this early date and, therefore, for the Petrine authorship?

The Second Coming

When we go to the letter we find that expectation of the second coming of Christ is in the very forefront of its thought. Christians are being kept for the salvation which is to be revealed at the last time (1Pe_1:5 ). Those who keep the faith will be saved from the coming judgment (1Pe_1:7 ). Christians are to hope for the grace which will come at the revelation of Jesus Christ (1Pe_1:13 ). The day of visitation is expected (1Pe_2:12 ). The end of all things is at hand (1Pe_4:7 ). Those who suffer with Christ will also rejoice with Christ when his glory is revealed (1Pe_4:13 ). Judgment is to begin at the house of God (1Pe_4:17 ). The writer himself is sure that he will be a sharer in the glory to come (1Pe_5:1 ). When the Chief Shepherd shall appear the faithful Christian will receive a crown of glory (1Pe_5:4 ).

From beginning to end of the letter the second coming is in the forefront of the writermind. It is the motive for steadfastness in the faith, for the loyal living of the Christian life and for gallant endurance amidst the sufferings which have come and will come upon them.

It would be untrue to say that the second coming ever dropped out of Christian belief, but it did recede from the forefront of Christian belief as the years passed on and Christ did not return. It is, for instance, significant that in Ephesians, one of Paullatest letters, there is no mention of it. On this ground it is reasonable to suppose that First Peter is early and comes from the days when the Christians vividly expected the return of their Lord at any moment.

Simplicity Of Organization

It is clear that First Peter comes from a time when the organization of the Church is very simple. There is no mention of deacons; nor of the episkopos (G1985), the bishop, who begins to emerge in the Pastoral Epistles and becomes prominent in Ignatiusetters in the first half of the second century. The only Church officials mentioned are the elders. "I exhort the elders among you as a fellow-elder" (1Pe_5:1 ). On this ground, also, it is reasonable to suppose that First Peter comes from an early date.

The Theology Of The Early Church

What is most significant of all is that the theology of First Peter is the theology of the very early church. E. G. Selwyn has made a detailed study of this; and he has proved beyond all question that the theological ideas of First Peter are exactly the same as those we meet in the recorded sermons of Peter in the early chapters of Acts.

The preaching of the early church was based on five main ideas. One of the greatest contributions of C. H. Dodd to New Testament scholarship was his formulation of these. They form the framework of all the sermons of the early church, as recorded in Acts; and they are the foundation of the thought of all the New Testament writers. The summary of these basic ideas has been given the name Kerugma (G2782), which means the announcement or the proclamation of a herald.

These are the fundamental ideas which the Church in its first days heralded forth. We shall take them one by one and shall set down after each, first, the references in the early chapters of Acts and, second, the references in First Peter; and we will make the significant discovery that the basic ideas of the sermons of the early church and the theology of First Peter are precisely the same. We are not claiming, of course, that the sermons in Acts are verbatim reports of what was actually preached, but we believe that they give correctly the substance of the message of the first preachers.

(i) The age of fulfilment has dawned; the Messianic age has begun. This is Godlast word. A new order is being inaugurated and the elect are summoned to join the new community. Act_2:14-16 ; Act_3:12-26 ; Act_4:8-12 ; Act_10:34-43 ; 1Pe_1:3 ; 1Pe_1:10-12 ; 1Pe_4:7 .

(ii) This new age has come through the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, all of which are in direct fulfilment of the prophecies of the Old Testament and are, therefore, the result of the definite plan and foreknowledge of God. Act_2:20-31 ; Act_3:13-14 ; Act_10:43 ; 1Pe_1:20-21 .

(iii) By virtue of the resurrection Jesus has been exalted to the right hand of God and is the Messianic head of the new Israel. Act_2:22-26 ; Act_3:13 ; Act_4:11 ; Act_5:30-31 ; Act_10:39-42 ; 1Pe_1:21 ; 1Pe_2:7 ; 1Pe_2:24 ; 1Pe_3:22 .

(iv) These Messianic events will shortly reach their consummation in the return of Christ in glory and the judgment of the living and the dead. Act_3:19-23 ; Act_10:42 ; 1Pe_1:5 , 1Pe_1:7 , 1Pe_1:13 ; 1Pe_4:5 , 1Pe_4:13 ; 1Pet 17-18; 1Pe_5:1 , 1Pe_5:4 .

(v) These facts are made the grounds for an appeal for repentance, and the offer of forgiveness and of the Holy Spirit, and the promise of eternal life. Act_2:38-39 ; Act_3:19 ; Act_5:31 ; Act_10:43 ; 1Pe_1:13-25 ; 1Pe_2:1-3 ; 1Pe_4:1-5 .

These declarations are the five main planks in the edifice of early Christian preaching, as recorded for us in the sermons of Peter in the early chapters of Acts. They are also the dominant ideas in First Peter. The correspondence is so close and so consistent that we almost certainly with entire probability see the same hand and mind in both.

Quotations From The Fathers

We may add another point to our evidence that First Peter is early; very early the fathers and preachers of the Church begin to quote it. The first person to quote First Peter by name is Irenaeus, who lived from A.D. 130 until well into the next century. He twice quotes 1Pe_1:8 : "Without having seen him you love him; though you do not now see him you believe in him and rejoice with unutterable and exalted joy." And he once quotes 1Pe_2:16 , with its command not to use liberty as a cloak for maliciousness. But even before this the fathers of the Church are quoting Peter without mentioning his name. Clement of Rome, writing about A.D. 95, speaks of "the precious blood of Christ," an unusual phrase which may well come from Peterstatement that we are redeemed by the precious blood of Christ (1Pe_1:19 ). Polycarp, who was martyred in A.D. 155, continuously quotes Peter without using his name. We may select three passages to show how closely he gives Peterwords.

Wherefore, girding up your loins, serve God in fear ... believing on him who raised up our Lord Jesus Christ from the dead, and gave him glory (Polycarp, To the Philippians chapter 2: 1).

Therefore, gird up your minds...through him you have confidence in God, who raised him from the dead and gave him glory (1Pe_1:13 , 1Pe_1:21 ).

Christ Jesus who bare our sins in his own body on the tree, who did no sin, neither was guile found in his mouth (Polycarp 8: 1).

He committed no sin; no guile was found on his life... He himself bore our sins in his body on the tree (1Pe_2:22 , 1Pe_2:24 ).

Having your conversation blameless among the Gentiles (Polycarp 10: 2).

Maintain good conduct among the Gentiles (1Pe_2:12 ).

There can be no doubt that Polycarp is quoting Peter, although he does not name him. It takes some time for a book to acquire such an authority and familiarity that it can be quoted almost unconsciously, its language woven into the language of the Church. Once again we see that First Peter must be a very early book.

The Excellence Of The Greek

If, however, we are defending the Petrine authorship of this letter, there is one problem we must face--and that is the excellence of the Greek. It seems impossible that it should be the work of a Galilaean fisherman. New Testament scholars are at one in praising the Greek of this letter. F. W. Beare writes: "The epistle is quite obviously the work of a man of letters, skilled in all the devices of rhetoric, and able to draw on an extensive, and even learned, vocabulary. He is a stylist of no ordinary capacity, and he writes some of the best Greek in the whole New Testament, far smoother and more literary than that of the highly-trained Paul." Moffatt speaks of this letter"plastic language and love of metaphor." Mayor says that First Peter has no equal in the New Testament for "sustained stateliness of rhythm." Bigg has likened certain of First Peter.s phrases to the writing of Thucydides. Selwyn has spoken of First Peter"Euripidean tenderness" and of its ability to coin compound words as Aeschylus might have done. The Greek of First Peter is not entirely unworthy to be set beside that of the masters of the language. It is difficult, if not impossible, to imagine Peter using the Greek language like that.

The letter itself supplies the solution to this problem. In the concluding short section Peter himself says, "By Silvanus...I have written briefly" (1Pe_5:12 ). By Silvanus--dia (G1223) Silouanou (G4610)--is an unusual phrase. The Greek means that Silvanus was Peteragent in the writing of the letter; it means that he was more than merely Peterstenographer.

Let us approach this from two angles. First, let us enquire what we know about Silvanus. (The evidence is set out more fully in our study section on 1Pe_5:12 ). In all probability he is the same person as the Silvanus of Paulletters and the Silas of Acts, Silas being a shortened and more familiar form of Silvanus. When we examine these passages, we find that Silas or Silvanus was no ordinary person but a leading figure in the life and counsels of the early church.

He was a prophet (Act_15:32 ); he was one of the "chief among the brethren" at the council of Jerusalem and one of the two chosen to deliver the decisions of the council to the Church at Antioch (Act_15:22 , Act_15:27 ). He was Paulchosen companion in the second missionary journey, and was with Paul both in Philippi and in Corinth (Act_15:37-40 ; Act_16:19 , Act_16:25 , Act_16:29 ; Act_18:5 ; 2Co_1:19 ). He was associated with Paul in the initial greetings of 1 and 2 Thessalonians (1Th_1:1 ; 2Th_1:1 ). He was a Roman citizen (Act_16:37 ).

Silvanus, then, was a notable man in the early church; he was not so much the assistant as the colleague of Paul; and, since he was a Roman citizen, there is at least a possibility that he was a man of an education and culture such as Peter could never have enjoyed.

Now let us add our second line of thought. In a missionary situation, when a missionary can speak a language well enough but cannot write it very well, it is quite common for him to do one of two things in order to send a message to his people. He either writes it out in as good a style as he can, and then gets a native speaker of the language to correct his mistakes and to polish his style; or, if he has a native colleague whom he can fully trust, he tells him what he wishes said, leaves him to put the message into written form and then vets the result.

We can well imagine that this was the part Silvanus played in the writing of First Peter. Either he corrected and polished Peternecessarily inadequate Greek; or he wrote in his own words what Peter wanted said, with Peter setting the final product and adding the last personal paragraph to it.

The thought is that of Peter; but the style is that of Silvanus. And so, although the Greek is so excellent, there is no necessity to deny that the letter comes from Peter himself.

The Recipients Of The Letter

The recipients of the letter are the exiles (a Christian is always a sojourner on the earth) scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia.

Almost all of these words had a double significance. They stood for ancient kingdoms and they stood for Roman provinces to which the ancient names had been given; and the ancient kingdoms and the new provinces did not always cover the same territory. Pontus was never a province. It had originally been the kingdom of Mithradates and part of it was incorporated in Bithynia and part of it in Galatia. Galatia had originally been the kingdom of the Gauls in the area of the three cities Ancyra, Pessinus, and Tavium, but the Romans had expanded it into a much larger unit of administration, including sections of Phrygia, Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Isauria. The kingdom of Cappadocia had become a Roman province in A.D. 17 in practically its original form. Asia was not the continent of Asia as we use the term. It had been an independent kingdom, whose last king, Attalus the Third, had bequeathed it as a gift to Rome in 133 B.C. It embraced the centre of Asia minor and was bounded on the north by Bithynia, on the south by Lycia, and on the east by Phrygia and Galatia. In popular language it was that part of Asia Minor which lay along the shores of the Aegean Sea.

We do not know why these particular districts were picked out; but this much is certain--they embraced a large area with a very large population; and the fact that they are all mentioned is one of the greatest proofs of the immense missionary activity of the early church, apart altogether from the missionary activities of Paul.

All these districts lie in the north-east corner of Asia Minor. Why they are named as a group and why they are named in this particular order, we do not know. But a glance at the map will show that, if the bearer of this letter--who may well have been Silvanus--sailed from Italy and landed at Sinope in north-east Asia Minor, a journey through these provinces would be a circular tour which would take him back to Sinope. From Sinope in Bithynia he would go south to Galatia, further south to Cappadocia, west to Asia, north again to Bithynia, and then east to arrive back in Sinope.

It is clear from the letter itself that its recipients were mainly Gentiles. There is no mention of any question of the law, a question which always arose when there was a Jewish background. Their previous condition had been one of fleshly passion (1Pe_1:14 ; 1Pe_4:3-4 ) which fits gentiles far better than Jews. Previously they had been no people--Gentiles outside the covenant--but now they are the people of God (1Pe_2:9-10 ).

The form of his name which Peter uses also shows that this letter was intended for Gentiles for Peter is a Greek name. Paul calls him Cephas (1Co_1:12 ; 1Co_3:22 ; 1Co_9:5 ; 1Co_15:5 ; Gal_1:18 ; Gal_2:9 , Gal_2:11 , Gal_2:14 ); among his fellow Jews, he was known as Simeon (Act_15:14 ), which is the name by which he is called in Second Peter (2Pe_1:1 ). Since he uses his Greek name here, it is likely that he was writing to Greek people.

The Circumstances Behind The Letter

That this letter was written in a time when persecution threatened, is abundantly clear. They are in the midst of various trials (1Pe_1:6 ). They are likely to be falsely accused as evil-doers (1Pe_3:16 ). A fiery ordeal is going to try them (1Pe_4:12 ). When they suffer, they are to commit themselves to God (1Pe_4:19 ). They may well have to suffer for righteousnessake (1Pe_3:14 ). They are sharing in the afflictions which the Christian brotherhood throughout the world is called upon to endure (1Pe_5:9 ). At the back of this letter there are fiery trial, a campaign of slander and suffering for the sake of Christ. Can we identify this situation?

There was a time when the Christians had little to fear from the Roman government. In Acts it is repeatedly the Roman magistrates and the Roman soldiers and officials who save Paul from the fury of Jews and pagans alike. As Gibbon had it, the tribunal of the pagan magistrate proved the most assured refuge against the fury of the synagogue. The reason was that in the early days the Roman government was not able to distinguish between Jews and Christians. Within the empire Judaism was what was called a religio licita, a permitted religion, and Jews had full liberty to worship in their own way. It was not that the Jews did not try to enlighten the Romans to the true facts of the situation; they did so in Corinth, for example (Act_18:12-17 ). But for some time the Romans simply regarded the Christians as a Jewish sect and, therefore, did not molest them.

The change came in the days of Nero and we can trace almost every detail of the story. On 19th July, A.D. 64, the great fire of Rome broke out. Rome, a city of narrow streets and high wooden tenements, was in real danger of being wiped out. The fire burned for three days and three nights, was checked, and then broke out again with redoubled violence. The Roman populace had no doubt who was responsible and put the blame on the Emperor. Nero had a passion for building; and they believed so that he had deliberately taken steps to obliterate Rome that he might build it again. Neroresponsibility must remain for ever in doubt; but it is certain that he watched the raging inferno from the tower of Maecenas and expressed himself as charmed with the flower and loveliness of the flames. It was freely said that those who tried to extinguish the fire were deliberately hindered and that men were seen to rekindle it again, when it was likely to subside. The people were overwhelmed. The ancient landmarks and the ancestral shrines had vanished; the Temple of Luna, the Ara Maxima, the great altar, the Temple of Jupiter Stator, the shrine of Vesta, their very household gods were gone. They were homeless and, in Farrarphrase, there was "a hopeless brotherhood of wretchedness."

The resentment of the people was bitter. Nero had to divert suspicion from himself; a scapegoat had to be found. The Christians were made the scapegoat. Tacitus, the Roman historian, tells the story (Annals 15.44):

Neither human assistance in the shape of imperial gifts, nor

attempts to appease the gods, could remove the sinister report

that the fire was due to Neroown orders. And, so, in the hope

of dissipating the rumour, he falsely diverted the charge on to a

set of people to whom the vulgar gave the name of Chrestians, and

who were detested for the abominations they perpetrated. The

founder of the sect, one Christus by name, had been executed

by Pontius Pilate in the reign of Tiberius; and the dangerous

superstition, though put down for the moment, broke out again, not

only in Judaea, the original home of the pest, but even in Rome,

where everything shameful and horrible collects and is practised.

Clearly Tacitus had no doubt that the Christians were not to blame for the fire and that Nero was simply choosing them to be the scapegoats for his own crime.

Why did Nero pick on the Christians and how was it possible even to suggest that they were responsible for the fire of Rome? There are two possible answers.

(i) The Christians were already the victims of certain slanders.

(a) They were in the popular mind connected with the Jews. Antisemitism is no new thing and it was easy for the Roman mob to attach any crime to the Jews and, therefore, to the Christians.

(b) The LordSupper was secret, at least in a sense. It was open only to the members of the Church. And certain phrases connected with it were fruitful sources of pagan slanders, phrases about eating someonebody and drinking someoneblood. That was enough to produce a rumour that the Christians were cannibals. In time the rumour grew until it became a story that the Christians killed and ate a Gentile, or a newly born child. At the LordTable the Christians gave each other the kiss of peace (1Pe_5:14 ). Their meeting was called the Agape (G26), the Love Feast. That was enough for stories to spread that the Christian meetings were orgies of vice.

(c) It was always a charge against the Christians that they "tampered with family relationships." There was this much truth in such a charge that Christianity did indeed become a sword to split families, when some members of a family became Christian and some did not. A religion which split homes was bound to be unpopular.

(d) It was the case that the Christians spoke of a coming day when the world would dissolve in flames. Many a Christian preacher must have been heard preaching of the second coming and the fiery dissolution of all things (Act_2:19-20 ). It would not be difficult to put the blame for the fire on to people who spoke like that.

There was abundant material which could be perverted into false charges against the Christians by anyone maliciously disposed to victimise them.

(ii) The Jewish faith had always appealed especially to women because of its moral standards in a world where chastity did not exist. There were, therefore, many well-born women who had embraced the Jewish faith. The Jews did not hesitate to work upon these women to influence their husbands against the Christians. We get a definite example of that in what happened to Paul and his company in Antioch of Pisidia. There it was through such women that the Jews stirred up action against Paul (Act_13:50 ). Two of Nerocourt favourites were Jewish proselytes. There was Aliturus, his favourite actor; and there was Poppaea, his mistress. It is very likely that the Jews through them influenced Nero to take action against the Christians.

In any event, the blame for the fire was attached to the Christians and a savage outbreak of persecution occurred. Nor was it simply persecution by legal means. What Tacitus called an ingens multitudo, a huge multitude, of Christians perished in the most sadistic ways. Nero rolled the Christians in pitch, set light to them and used them as living torches to light his gardens. He sewed them up in the skins of wild animals and set his hunting-dogs upon them, to tear them limb from limb while they still lived.

Tacitus writes:

Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the

skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were

nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burned, to

serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. Nero

offered his gardens for the spectacle and was exhibiting a show

in the circus, while he mingled with the people in the dress of a

charioteer or stood aloft on a car. Hence, even for criminals who

deserve extreme and exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of

compassion; for, it was not, as it seemed, for the public good,

but to glut one mancruelty that they were being destroyed

(Tacitus, Annals 15: 44).

The same terrible story is told by the later Christian historian, Sulipicius Severus, in his Chronicle:

In the meantime, the number of Christians being now very large,

it happened that Rome was destroyed by fire, while Nero was

stationed at Antium. But the opinion of all cast the odium of

causing the fire upon the emperor, and he was believed in this way

to have sought for the glory of building a new city. And, in fact,

Nero could not, by any means he tried, escape from the charge that

the fire had been caused by his orders. He, therefore, turned the

accusation against the Christians and the most cruel tortures were

accordingly inflicted upon the innocent. Nay, even new kinds of

death were invented so that, being covered in the skins of wild

beasts, they perished by being devoured by dogs, while many were

crucified, or slain by fire, and not a few were set apart for this

purpose, that, when the day came to a close, they should be

consumed to serve for light during the night. In this way, cruelty

first began to be manifested against the Christians. Afterwards,

too, their religion was prohibited by laws which were enacted; and

by edicts openly set forth it was proclaimed unlawful to be a

Christian.

It is true that this persecution was confined originally to Rome; but the gateway to persecution had been opened and in every place they were ready victims for the mob.

Moffatt writes:

After the Neronic wave had passed over the capital, the wash of it

was felt on the far shores of the provinces; the dramatic publicity

of the punishment must have spread the name of Christian urbi et

orbi, far and wide, over the entire empire; the provincials would

soon hear of it, and when they desired a similar outburst at the

expense of the loyal Christians, all that they needed was a

proconsul to gratify their wishes and some outstanding disciple to

serve as a victim.

For ever after the Christians were to live under threat. The mobs of the Roman cities knew what had happened in Rome and there were always these slanderous stories against the Christians. There were times when the mob loved blood and there were many governors ready to pander to their blood-lust. It was not Roman law but lynch law which threatened the Christians.

From now on the Christian was in peril of his life. For years nothing might happen; then some spark might set off the explosion; and the terror would break out. That is the situation at the back of First Peter; and it is in face of it that Peter calls his people to hope and to courage and to that lovely Christian living which alone can give the lie to the slanders with which they are attacked and which are the grounds for taking measures against them. First Peter was written to meet no theological heresy; it was written to strengthen men and women in jeopardy of their lives.

The Doubts

We have set out in full the arguments which go to prove that Peter is really the author of the first letter which bears his name. But, as we have said, not a few first-class scholars have felt that it cannot have been his work. We ourselves accept the view that Peter is the author of the letter; but in fairness we set out the other side, largely as it is presented in the chapter on First Peter in The Primitive Church by B. H. Streeter

Strange Silences

Bigg writes in his introduction: "There is no book in the New Testament which has earlier, better, or stronger attestation (than First Peter). It is true that Eusebius, the great fourth century scholar and historian of the Church, classes First Peter among the books universally accepted in the early church as part of scripture" (Eusebius: Ecclesiastical History 3.25.2). But certain things are to be noted.

(a) Eusebius adduces certain quotations from earlier writers to prove his contention that First Peter was universally accepted. This he never does in connection with the gospels or the letters of Paul; and the very fact that he feels called upon to produce his evidence in the case of First Peter might be held to indicate that in it he felt some necessity to prove his point, a necessity which did not exist in connection with the other books. Was there a doubt in Eusebiuswn mind? Or, were there people who had to be convinced? Was the universal acceptance of First Peter not so unanimous after all?

(b) In his book, The Canon of the New Testament, Westcott noted that, although no one in the early church questions the right of First Peter to be part of the New Testament, surprisingly few of the early fathers quote it and, still more surprising, very few of the early fathers in the west and in Rome quote it. Tertullian is an immense quoter of scripture. In his writings there are 7,258 quotations from the New Testament, but only 2 of them are from First Peter. If Peter wrote this letter and wrote it in Rome, we would expect it to be well known and largely used in the Church of the west.

(c) The earliest known official list of New Testament books is the Muratorian Canon, so called after Cardinal Muratori who discovered it. It is the official list of New Testament books as accepted in the Church at Rome about the year A.D. 170. It is an extraordinary fact that First Peter does not appear at all. It can be fairly argued that the Muratorian Canon, as we possess it, is defective and that it may originally have contained a reference to First Peter. But that argument is seriously weakened by the next consideration.

(d) It is a fact that First Peter was still not in the New Testament of the Syrian Church as late as A.D. 373. It did not get in until the Syriac version of the New Testament known as the Peshitto was made about A.D. 400. We know that it was Tatian who brought the New Testament books to the Syriac-speaking Church; and he brought them to Syria from Rome when he went to Edessa and founded the Church there in A.D. 172. It could, therefore, be argued that the Muratorian Canon is correct as we possess it and that First Peter was not part of the Roman ChurchNew Testament as late as A.D. 170. This would be a very surprising fact if Peter wrote it--and actually wrote it at Rome.

When all these facts are put together, it does seem that there are some strange silences in regard to First Peter and that its attestation may not be as strong as is usually assumed.

First Peter And Ephesians

Further, there is definitely some connection between First Peter and Ephesians. There are many close parallels of thought and expression between the two and we select the following specimens of this similarity.

Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. By his

great mercy we have been born anew to a living hope through the

resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead (1Pe_1:3 ).

Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who

has blessed us in Christ with every spiritual blessing in the

heavenly places (Eph_1:3 ).

Therefore, gird up your minds, be sober, set your hope fully upon

the grace that is coming to you at the revelation of Jesus Christ

(1Pe_1:13 ).

Stand, therefore, having girded your loins with truth (Eph_6:14 ).

Jesus Christ, was destined before the foundation of the world, but

was made manifest at the end of the times for your sake

(1Pe_1:20 ).

Even as he chose us in him, before the foundation of the world

(Eph_1:4 ).

Jesus Christ, who has gone into heaven, and is at the right hand

of God, with angels and authorities and powers subject to him

(1Pe_3:22 ).

God made him sit at his right hand in the heavenly places, far

above all rule and authority, and power and dominion (Eph_1:20-21 ).

In addition, the injunctions to slaves, husbands and wives in First Peter and Ephesians are very similar.

The argument is put forward that First Peter is quoting Ephesians. Although Ephesians must have been written somewhere about A.D. 64, Paulletters were not collected and edited until about A.D. 90. If, then, Peter was also writing in A.D. 64, how could he know Ephesians?

This is an argument to which there is more than one reply. (a) The injunctions to slaves, husbands and wives are part of the standardized ethical teaching given to all converts in all churches. Peter was not borrowing from Paul; both were using common stock. (b) All the similarities quoted can well be explained from the fact that certain phrases and lines of thought were universal in the early church. For instance, "Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ," was part of the universal devotional language of the early church, which both Peter and Paul would know and use without any borrowing from each other. (c) Even if there was mutual borrowing, it is by no means certain that First Peter borrowed from Ephesians; the borrowing might well have been the other way round and probably was, for First Peter is much simpler than Ephesians. (d) Lastly, even if First Peter borrowed from Ephesians, if Peter and Paul were in Rome at the same time, it is perfectly possible that Peter could have seen a copy of Ephesians before it was sent to Asia Minor, and he might well have discussed its ideas with Paul.

The argument that First Peter must be late because it quotes from Ephesians seems to us very uncertain and insecure, and probably mistaken.

Your Fellow-elder

It is objected that Peter could not well have written the sentence: "The elders among you I exhort, as a fellow-elder" (1Pe_5:1 ). It is maintained that Peter could not have called himself an elder. He was an apostle whose function was quite different from that of an elder. The apostle was characteristically a man whose work and authority were not confined to any one congregation, but whose writ ran throughout the Church at large; whereas the elder was the governing official of the local congregation.

That is perfectly true. But it must be remembered that amongst the Jews there was no office more universally honoured than that of elder. The elder had the respect of the whole community and to him the community looked for guidance in its problems and justice in its disputes. Peter, as a Jew, would feel nothing out of place in calling himself an elder; and in so doing he would avoid the conscious claim of authority that the title of apostle might have implied, and graciously and courteously identify himself with the people to whom he spoke.

A Witness Of The Sufferings Of Christ

It is objected that Peter could not honestly have called himself a witness of Christsufferings, for after the arrest in the garden all the disciples forsook Jesus and fled (Mat_26:56 ) and, apart from the beloved disciple, none was a witness of the Cross (Joh_19:26-27 ). A witness of the resurrection Peter could call himself, and indeed to be such was the function of an apostle (Act_1:22 ), but a witness of the Cross he was not. In a sense that is undeniable. And yet Peter is not here claiming to be a witness of the crucifixion, but to be a witness of the sufferings of Christ. He did see Christ suffer, in his continual rejection by men, in the poignant moments of the Last Supper, in the agony in the garden and in that moment when, after he had denied him, Jesus turned and looked on him (Luk_22:61 ). It is an insensitive and pedestrian criticism which denies to Peter the right to say that he had been a witness of the sufferings of Christ.

Persecution For The Name

The main argument for a late date for First Peter is drawn from its references to persecution. It is argued that First Peter implies that it was already a crime to be a Christian and that Christians were brought before the courts, not for any crime but for the bare fact of their faith. First Peter speaks about being reproached for the name of Christ (1Pe_4:14 ); it speaks of suffering as a Christian (1Pe_4:16 ). It is argued that this stage of persecution was not reached until after A.D. 100, and that prior to that date their persecution was on the score of alleged evil-doing, as in the time of Nero.

There is no doubt that this was the law by A.D. 112. At that time Pliny was governor of Bithynia. He was a personal friend of the Emperor Trajan and he had a way of referring all his difficulties to Trajan for solution. He wrote to the Emperor to tell how he dealt with the Christians. Pliny was well aware that they were law-abiding citizens to whose practices no crimes were attached. They told him that "they had been accustomed to assemble on a fixed day before daylight, and sing by turns a hymn to Christ as God; that they had bound themselves with an oath, not for any crime, but to commit neither theft, nor robbery, nor adultery, nor to break their word, and not to deny a deposit when demanded." Pliny accepted all this; but, when they were brought before him, he asked only one question. "I have asked them whether they were Christians. Those who confessed I asked a second and a third time, threatening punishment. Those who persisted I ordered to be led away to execution." Their sole crime was that of being a Christian.

Trajan replied that this was the correct proceeding and that anyone who denied being a Christian and proved it by sacrificing to the gods was immediately to be set free. From the letters it is clear that there was a good deal of information being laid against the Christians; and Trajan laid it down that no anonymous letters of information were to be accepted or acted upon (Pliny: Letters 96 and 97).

It is argued that this stage of persecution did not emerge until the time of Trajan; and that First Peter, therefore, implies a situation which must be as late as Trojantime.

The only way in which we can settle this is to sketch the progress of persecution and the reason for it in the Roman Empire. We may do so by setting out one basic fact and three developments from it.

(i) Under the Roman system, religions were divided into two kinds. There were those which were religiones licitae, permitted religions; these were recognized by the state and it was open to any man to practise them. There were religiones illicitae; these were forbidden by the state and it was illegal for any man to practise them on pain of automatic prosecution as a criminal. It is to be noted that Roman toleration was very wide; and that any religion which did not affect public morality and civil order was certain to be permitted.

(ii) Judaism was a religio licita; and in the very early days the Romans, not unnaturally, did not know the difference between Judaism and Christianity. Christianity, as far as they were concerned, was merely a sect of Judaism and any tension and hostility between the two was a private quarrel which was no concern of the Roman government. Because of that in the very early days Christianity was under no danger of persecution. It enjoyed the same freedom of worship as Judaism enjoyed because it was assumed to be a religio licita.

(iii) The action of Nero changed the situation. However it came about, and most likely it was by the deliberate action of the Jews, the Roman government discovered that Judaism and Christianity were different. It is true that Nero first persecuted the Christians, not for being Christians, but for burning Rome. But the fact remains that Christianity had been discovered by the government to be a separate religion.

(iv) The consequence was immediate and inevitable. Christianity was at once a prohibited religion and immediately, ipso facto, every Christian became an outlaw. In the Roman historian, Suetonius, we have direct evidence that this was precisely what happened. He gives a kind of list of the legislative reforms initiated by Nero:

During his reign many abuses were severely punished and put

down, and not a few new laws were made; a limit was set to

expenditures; the public banquets were confined to a distribution

of food; the sale of any kind of cooked viands in the taverns was

forbidden, with the exception of pulse and vegetables, whereas,

before, every kind of dainty was exposed for sale. Punishment was

inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and

mischievous superstition. He put an end to the diversions of the

chariot-drivers, who from immunity of long standing claimed the

right of ranging at large and amusing themselves by cheating

and robbing the people. The pantomimic actors and their

partisans were banished from the city.

We have quoted that passage in full because it is proof that by the time of Nero the punishment of Christians had become an ordinary police affair. It is abundantly clear that we do not need to wait until the time of Trajan for the mere fact of being a Christian to be a crime. Any time after Nero a Christian was liable to punishment and death simply for the name he bore,

This does not mean that persecution was constant and consistent; but it does mean that any Christian was liable to execution at any time, purely as a police matter. In one area a Christian might live a whole lifetime at peace; in another there might be outbreaks of persecution every few months. It depended very largely on two things. It depended on the governor himself who might either leave the Christians unmolested or equally set the processes of the law in action against them. It depended on informers. The governor might not wish to act against the Christians, but if information was laid against a Christian he had to; and there were times when the mob were out for blood, information was laid and Christians were butchered to make a Roman holiday.

To compare small things with great, the legal position of the Christians and the attitude of the Roman law can be parallelled in Britain today. There are certain actions which are illegal--to take a very small example, parking a car partly on the pavement--but which for long enough may be permitted. But if the police authorities decide to institute a drive against such an action, or if it develops into too blatant a breaking of the law, or if someone lays a complaint and information, the law will go into action and due penalty and punishment will be exacted. That was the position of the Christians in the empire all of whom were technically outlaws. In actual fact no action might be taken against them; but a kind of sword of Damocles was for ever suspended over them. None knew when information would be laid against him; none knew when a governor would take action; none knew when he might have to die. And that situation obtained consistently after the action of Nero. Up to that time the Roman authorities had not realized that Christianity was a new religion; but from then on the Christian was automatically an outlaw.

Let us, then, look at the situation as depicted in First Peter. Peterpeople are undergoing various trials (1Pe_1:6 ). Their faith is liable to be tried as metal is tested with fire (1Pe_1:7 ). Clearly they are undergoing a campaign of slander in which ignorant and baseless charges are being maliciously directed against them (1Pe_2:12 ; 1Pe_2:15 ; 1Pe_3:16 ; 1Pe_4:4 ). At this very moment they are in the midst of an outbreak of persecution because they are Christians (1Pe_4:12 , 1Pe_4:14 , 1Pe_4:16 ; 1Pe_5:9 ). Such suffering is only to be expected and they must not be surprised at it (1Pe_4:12 ). In any event it gives them the happiness of suffering for righteousnessake (1Pe_3:14 , 1Pe_3:17 ), and of being sharers in the sufferings of Christ (1Pe_4:13 ). There is no need to come down to the time of Trajan for this situation. It is one in which Christians daily found themselves in every part of the empire at any time after their true status had been disclosed by the action of Nero. The persecution situation in First Peter does not in any way compel us to date it after the lifetime of Peter.

Honour The King

But we must proceed with the arguments of those who cannot hold the Petrine authorship. It is argued that in the situation which obtained in the time of Nero, Peter could never have written: "Be subject for the Lordsake to every human institution, whether it be to the emperor as supreme, or to governors as sent by him to punish those who do wrong and to praise those who do right.... Fear God. Honour the emperor." (1Pe_2:13-17 ). The fact is, however, that this is precisely the point of view expressed in Rom_13:1-7 . The whole teaching of the New Testament, except only in the Revelation in which Rome is damned, is that the Christian must be a loyal citizen and must demonstrate the falsity of the charges made against him by the excellence of his behaviour as such. (1Pe_2:15 ). Even in times of persecution the Christian fully acknowledged his obligation to be a good citizen; and his only defence against persecution was to show by the excellence of his citizenship that he did not deserve such treatment. It is by no means impossible that Peter should have written like that.

A Sermon And A Pastoral

What is the view of those who cannot believe that First Peter is the work of Peter himself?

First of all, it is suggested that the initial address (1Pe_1:1-2 ), and the closing greetings and salutations (1Pe_5:12-14 ) are later additions and no part of the original letter.

It is then suggested that First Peter as it stands is composed of two separate and quite different works. In 1Pe_4:11 we find a doxology. The natural place for a doxology is at the end; and it is suggested that 1Pe_1:3-25 ; 1Pet 2-3; 1Pe_4:1-11 is the first of the two works of which the letter is composed. It is further suggested that this part of First Peter was originally a baptismal sermon. There is indeed in it a reference to the baptism which saves us (1Pe_3:21 ); and the advice to slaves, wives and husbands (1Pe_2:18-25 ; 1Pe_3:1-7 ) would be entirely relevant to those who were entering the Christian Church from paganism and setting out on the newness of the Christian life.

It is suggested that the second part of the letter, 1Pe_4:12-19 ; 1Pe_5:1-11 , contains the substance of a pastoral letter, written to strengthen and comfort during a time of persecution (1Pe_4:12-19 ). At such a time the elders were very important; on them the resistance power of the Church depended. The writer of this pastoral fears that greed and arrogance are creeping in (1Pe_5:1-3 ), and he urges them faithfully to perform their high task (1Pe_5:4 ).

On this view First Peter is composed of two separate works--a baptismal sermon, and a pastoral letter written in time of persecution and neither has anything to do with Peter.

Asia Minor, Not Rome

If First Peter is a baptismal sermon and a pastoral letter in time of persecution, where is its place of origin? If the letter is not Peter there is no necessity to connect it with Rome; and, in any event, it appears that the Roman Church did not know or use First Peter. Let us put together certain facts.

(a) Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia (1Pe_1:1 ) are all in Asia Minor and all centred in Sinope.

(b) The first extensive quoter of First Peter is Polycarp bishop of Smyrna, and Smyrna is in Asia Minor.

(c) Certain phrases in First Peter immediately turn our thoughts to parallel phrases in other parts of the New Testament. In 1Pe_5:13 the Church is called "she that is elect," and in 2Jo_1:13 the Church is also described as an "elect sister." 1Pe_1:8 speaks of Jesus Christ, "without having seen him you love him; though you do not now see him you believe in him and rejoice with unutterable and exalted joy." This turns our thoughts very naturally to Jesusaying to Thomas in the Fourth Gospel: "Blessed are those who have not seen, and believe" (Joh_20:29 ). First Peter urges the elders to tend, that is, to shepherd, the flock of God (1Pe_5:2 ). That turns our thoughts to Jesusnjunction to Peter to feed his lambs and his sheep (Joh_21:15-17 ), and to Paulfarewell injunction to the elders of Ephesus to take heed to the flock over which the Holy Spirit has made them guardians (Act_20:28 ). All this is to say that the memories First Peter awakens are of the Fourth Gospel, the Letters of John and of Paul at Ephesus. The Fourth Gospel and the Letters of John were most probably written at Ephesus, and Ephesus is in Asia Minor.

It seems that in the case of First Peter all roads lead to Asia Minor.

The Occasion Of The Publication Of First Peter

Assuming that First Peter has its origin in Asia Minor, can we suggest an occasion for its writing? It was written at a time of persecution. We know from Plinyletters that in Bithynia about A.D. 112 there was a serious persecution of the Christians and Bithynia is one of the provinces named in the address. We may well conjecture that it was to give courage to the Christians then that First Peter was issued. It may be that at that time someone in a church in Asia Minor came upon these two documents and sent them out under the name of Peter. This would not be looked upon as forgery. Both in Jewish and in Greek practice it was the regular custom to attach books to the name of the great writers of the past.

The Author Of First Peter

If Peter did not write First Peter, is it possible to guess at the author? Let us reconstruct some of his essential qualifications. On our previous assumption, he must come from Asia Minor. On the basis of First Peter itself, he must be an elder and an eye-witness of the sufferings of Christ (1Pe_5:1 ). Is there anyone who fits these requirements? Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis about A.D. 170, who spent his life collecting all the information he could about the early days of the Church, tells of his methods and his sources: "Nor shall I hesitate, along with my own interpretations, to set down for thee whatsoever I learned with care and remembered with care from the elders, guaranteeing its truth.... Furthermore, if anyone chanced to arrive who had been really a follower of the elders, I would enquire as to the sayings of the elders--as to what Andrew or Peter said, or Philip, or Thomas or James, or John or Matthew, or any other of the Lorddisciples, also as to what Aristion or the Presbyter John, the Lorddisciples say. For I supposed that things out of books would not be of such use to me as the utterances of a living voice which was still with us." Here we have an elder called Aristion who was a disciple of the Lord and, therefore, a witness of his sufferings. Is there anything to connect him with First Peter?

Aristion Of Smyrna

When we turn to the Apostolic Constitutions we find that one of the first bishops of Smyrna was called Ariston--which is the same name as Aristion. Now who is the great quoter of First Peter? None other than Polycarp, a later Bishop of Smyrna. What more natural than that Polycarp should quote what might well have been the devotional classic of his own Church?

Let us turn to the letters to the Seven Churches in the Revelation and read the letter to Smyrna: "Do not fear what you are about to suffer. Behold, the devil is about to throw some of you into prison, that you may be tested, and for ten days you will have tribulation. Be faithful unto death, and I will give you the crown of life" (Rev_2:10 ). Can this be the very same persecution as that which originally lay behind First Peter? And was it for this persecution that Aristion, the Bishop of Smyrna, first wrote the pastoral letter which was afterwards to become a part of First Peter?

Such is the suggestion of B. H. Streeter. He thinks that First Peter is composed of a baptismal sermon and a pastoral letter written by Aristion, Bishop of Smyrna. Originally the pastoral letter was written to comfort and strengthen the people of Smyrna in A.D. 90 when the persecution mentioned in the Revelation threatened the Church. These writings of Aristion became the devotional classics and the cherished possessions of the Church at Smyrna. Rather more than twenty years later a much wider and more far-reaching persecution broke out in Bithynia and spread throughout northern Asia Minor. Someone remembered the letter and the sermon of Aristion, felt that they were the very thing the Church needed in her time of trial, and sent them out under the name of Peter, the great apostle.

An ApostleLetter

We have stated in full both views of the origin, date and authorship of First Peter. There is no doubt of the ingenuity of the theory which B. H. Streeter has produced nor that those who favour a later date have produced arguments which have to be considered. For our own part, however, we see no reason to doubt that the letter is the work of Peter himself, and that it was written not long after the great fire of Rome and the first persecution of the Christians with the object of encouraging the Christians of Asia Minor to stand fast when the onrushing tide of persecution sought to engulf them and take their faith away.

FURTHER READING

1 Peter

F. W. Beare, The First Epistle of Peter (G)

E. Best, 1 Peter (NCB; E)

C. Bigg, St. Peter and St. Jude (ICC; G)

C. E. B. Cranfield, 1 and 2 Peter and Jude (Tch; E)

E. G. Selwyn, The First Epistle of St. Peter (MmC; G)

Abbreviations

ICC: International Critical Commentary

MC: Moffatt Commentary

MmC: Macmillan Commentary

NCB: New Century Bible

Tch: Torch Commentary

E: English Text

G: Greek Text

Barclay: 1 Peter 2 (Chapter Introduction)

What To Lose And What To Yearn For (1Pe_2:1-3)

That On Which To Set The Heart (1Pe_2:1-3 Continued)

The Nature And Function Of The Church (1Pe_2:4-10)

Reasons For Right Living (1Pe_2:11-12)

The Greatest Answer And Defence (1Pe_2:11-12 Continued)

The Duty Of The Christian-As A Citizen (1Pe_2:13-15)

The Duty Of The Christian-In Society (1Pe_2:16)

A Summary Of Christian Duty (1Pe_2:17)

The Duty Of The Christian As A Servant (1Pe_2:18-25)

The Peril Of The New Situation (1Pe_2:18-25 Continued)

The New Attitude To Work (1Pe_2:18-25 Continued)

Two Precious Names For God (1Pe_2:18-25 Continued)

Constable: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Historical background

This epistle claims that the Apostle Peter wrote it (1:1). Since there is only one Peter who was an apostle we may be confident of the identity of the writer. There is only one Peter that the entire New Testament mentioned. Scholars did not question Peter's authorship until the nineteenth century when destructive biblical criticism became popular.

"The epistle has been well known and consistently acknowledged as Petrine from the second century well into modern times. . . .

"Aside from the four Gospels and the letters of Paul, the external attestation for 1 Peter is as strong, or stronger, than that for any NT book. There is no evidence anywhere of controversy over its authorship or authority"¹

Peter first sent this letter to believers living in the northern regions of Asia Minor (1:1). The locations of these Christians as well as allusions in the epistle indicate that they were mainly Gentiles but also Jews (e.g., 1:14; 2:10).

Peter stated his reason for writing, namely, to encourage his readers who were facing persecution for their faith to stand firm (5:12). Evidently this persecution was widespread among his readers. Local enemies of the gospel were not the only people responsible for it. When Paul travelled around the Roman Empire preaching the gospel, some churches he planted experienced persecution from the unsaved in their communities, but others did not. However 1 Peter reflects persecution of the Christians throughout northern Asia Minor. This condition prevailed after Nero blamed the Christians for burning Rome in A.D. 64. While persecution seems to have been widespread, it may not have been official yet.

Peter died in the mid 60s and spent the last decade of his life in Rome according to reliable tradition.² Many interpreters have regarded his reference to Babylon (5:13) as a reference to Rome that Peter described as Babylon to highlight its paganism. In view of all this information it seems likely that Peter wrote this epistle from Rome about A.D. 64.³

Theologically this epistle is apocalyptic (dealing with the end times). Along with its eschatological focus there is much emphasis on holiness (personal, social, and communal), hope, salvation, community, relationship to the world, the Trinity, and especially suffering.⁴

". . . much of the material in 1 Peter is the stuff of basic Christian teaching rather than advanced instruction that assumes the mastery (and perhaps the perversion) of the basics, as in the Pauline letters."⁵

"In many . . . respects, 1 Peter and James form a matched pair within the NT canon. They are Christian diaspora letters roughly similar in length, one directed (probably from Jerusalem) to scattered messianic Jews (i.e., Christians) who are real Jews, and the other directed from Babylon' to scattered Jews' who are in fact Gentile Christians."⁶

Message⁷

One writer has identified five major motifs in 1 Peter. These are the believer's behavior, the believer's unfair circumstances, the believer's deference, the believer's motivation by Christ's example, and the believer's anticipation of future glory. These are certainly important emphases in this epistle.

Putting these together he has stated the message of 1 Peter as follows. "The behavior of believers when they encounter unfair circumstances reflects a spirit of deference in all relationships as they follow Christ's example and anticipate future glory."⁸

This is a very fine statement of what the Holy Spirit has said to us through Peter in this epistle. However, I would add one more important motif. It is the believer's resource of God's grace. This is not an incidental motif but one that underlies all of what Peter called on his readers to do. We must understand and apply what he wrote about God's grace as our resource to follow his exhortations.

It seems to me that Peter stated the message of this epistle clearly: stand firm in the true grace of God (5:12).

The subject of the letter therefore is the true grace of God. Grace is the key word in the argument of this epistle. In each case the word "grace" occurs in the practical rather than in the doctrinal part of each section of the letter. Throughout 1 Peter the fact of God's grace was in Peter's mind as crucial to the believer's practice. How does one explain God's grace? Grace means both undeserved favor and divine enablement.

The main purpose of this epistle was to strengthen the readers so they would persevere through their persecution with the right attitude. Peter did this by showing that God's grace provided all they needed for strength. In a larger sense, the purpose is to help Christians know how to live as aliens in the world.

This epistle reveals above all else that God's grace is sufficient for all our needs. We could write over this whole book: 2 Corinthians 12:9. Notice five things Peter reminds us about God's grace. Let's trace the references to grace though 1 Peter.

1. Grace proceeds from God. God in His grace has chosen us (1:1). Now we need to realize God's grace in its fullest measure in our experience (1:2).

2. Grace produces confidence. The prophets foretold God's grace (1:10). The advents of Jesus Christ supplied God's grace (1:13). It came into the world at His first advent through His sufferings and death. It will come into the world again at His second advent through His glorification. This pattern gives us confidence. God has united us with Christ. As He suffered once, we suffer now. As certainly as He will receive glory in the future, we too will experience glorification in the future. We need to remember our hope.

3. What proclaims God's grace is our conduct (2:19-20). The Christian's conduct in trying and difficult circumstances manifests God's grace in a human life. The submissive conduct of servants whose masters are persecuting them manifests God's grace. The submissive conduct of wives whose antagonistic husbands are persecuting them manifests grace. The submissive conduct of husbands whom unbelievers are persecuting manifests grace. The husband demonstrates his submission to God by treating his wife as a fellow heir of God's grace (3:7). Our patient endurance of trials displays our submission to God's will. Thus our conduct manifests God's grace. Sometimes we marvel at the ability God gives his persecuted saints to endure. We say, "How can he (or she) do it?"

4. Grace perfects character. Grace is the source of service (4:10). Grace is also the source of humility (5:5). An attitude of humility manifests itself in service of others. God's grace is the secret of both the attitude and the activity. Jesus established "the order of the towel" by washing the disciples' feet (John 13).

5. Grace promotes courage (5:10). We need courage to resist the devil (5:8-9). God's grace gives us strength to defend ourselves against his attacks.

The epistle exhorts us to stand firm in this grace. This is Peter's appeal to us.

When God tries our faith, we need to remember that we have an adequate source of strength in God's grace.

When our faith is trembling, we need to remember that we have an adequate source of confidence in God's grace.

When our circumstances are difficult we need to remember that we have an adequate source of conduct in God's grace.

When we suffer for conscience's sake we need to remember that we have an adequate source of character in God's grace.

When assaulted by the adversary we need to remember that we have an adequate source of courage in God's grace.

We stand firm in the true grace of God when we respond to suffering for Christ's sake as Peter directed us. God's grace is what we need to rely on as we commit ourselves to continue to walk in the will of God. Trust and obey!

Constable: 1 Peter (Outline)

Outline

I. Introduction 1:1-2

II. The identity of Christians 1:3-2:10

A. Our great salvation 1:3-12

1. The hope of our salvation 1:3-5

2. The joy of our salvation 1:6-9

3. The witnesses of our salvation 1:10-12

B. Our new way of life 1:13-25

1. A life of holiness 1:13-16

2. A life of reverence 1:17-21

3. A life of love 1:22-25

C. Our priestly calling 2:1-10

1. Listening to God 2:1-3

2. Growing in God 2:4-5

3. Building on Christ 2:6-8

4. Summary affirmation of our identity 2:9-10

III. The responsibilities of Christians individually 2:11-4:11

A. Our mission in the world 2:11-12

B. Respect for others 2:13-3:12

1. Respect for everyone 2:13-17

2. Slaves' respect for their masters 2:18-25

3. Wives' respect for their husbands 3:1-6

4. Husbands' respect for their wives 3:7

5. The importance of loving enemies 3:8-12

C. Eventual vindication 3:13-4:6

1. Suffering for doing good 3:13-17

2. The vindication of Christ 3:18-22

3. Living with the promise in view 4:1-6

D. The importance of mutual love in end-times living 4:7-11

IV. The responsibilities of Christians corporately 4:12-5:11

A. The fiery trial 4:12-19

1. Suffering and glory 4:12-14

2. Suffering as Christians 4:15-19

B. The church under trial 5:1-11

1. The responsibilities of the elders 5:1-4

2. The responsibilities of the others 5:5

3. The importance of humility and trust in God 5:6-7

4. The importance of resisting the devil 5:8-11

VII. Conclusion 5:12-14

Note the essentially chiastic structure of thought in the letter, excluding the introduction and conclusion.

Constable: 1 Peter

1 Peter

Bibliography

Bailey, Mark L., and Thomas L. Constable. The New Testament Explorer. Nashville: Word Publishing Co., 1999.

Balch, D. L. Let Wives Be Submissive: The Domestic Code in I Peter. Chico: Calif.: Scholars Press, 1981.

_____. "Let Wives Be Submissive . . .": The Origin, Form, and Apolegetic Function of the Household Duty Code (Haustafel) in I Peter. Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1974.

Barbieri, Louis A. First and Second Peter. Everyman's Bible Commentary series. Chicago: Moody Press, 1978.

Barclay, William. The Letters of James and Peter. Daily Study Bible series. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: Saint Andrew Press, 1960.

Baxter, J. Sidlow. Explore the Book. 6 vols. London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1965.

Beare, F. W. The First Epistle of Peter: The Greek Text with Introduction and Notes. Third edition. Oxford: Blackwell, 1970.

Bengel, John Albert. New Testament Word Studies. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 1971.

Berding, Kenneth. "Confusing Word and Concept in Spiritual Gifts': Have We Forgotten James Barr's Exhortations?" Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 43:1 (March 200):37-51.

Best, Ernest. 1 Peter. New Century Bible Commentary series. London: Oliphants, 1971; reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., and London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1982.

Bigg, Charles. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles of St. Peter and St. Jude. International Critical Commentary series. 2nd ed. and reprint ed. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1961.

Birkey, Del. The House Church: A Model for Renewing the Church. Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, 1988.

Blass, F., and A. Debrunner. A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Translated and revised by Robert W. Funk. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961.

Blum, Edwin A. "1 Peter." In Hebrews-Revelation. Vol. 12 of The Expositor's Bible Commentary. 12 vols. Edited by Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1981.

Chafer, Lewis Sperry. Systematic Theology. 8 vols. Dallas: Dallas Seminary Press, 1948.

Caffin, B. C. "I Peter." In The Pulpit Commentary. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1950.

Calvin, John. Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles. Translated by John Owen. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1948.

_____. "The Epistles of Paul the Apostle to the Hebrews and the First and Second Epistles of St Peter." In Calvin's Commentaries. Translated by William B. Johnston. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1963.

Cedar, Paul A. James, 1, 2 Peter, Jude. The Communicator's Commentary series. Waco: Word Books, 1984.

The Confessions of St. Augustine. Translated by Edward B. Pusey. New York: Washington Square Press, 1960.

Constable, Thomas L. "Analysis of Bible Books--New Testament." Paper submitted for course 686 Analysis of Bible Books--New Testament. Dallas Theological Seminary, January 1968.

Cook, W. Robert. "Biblical Light on the Christian's Civil Responsibility." Bibliotheca Sacra 127:505 (January-March 1970):44-57.

Cullmann, Oscar. The Christology of the New Testament. Revised ed. Translated by Shirley C. Guthrie and Charles A. M. Hall. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1963.

Dalton, William J. Christ's Proclamation to the Spirits. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1965.

Darby, John Nelson. Synopsis of the Books of the Bible. 5 vols. Revised ed. New York: Loizeaux Brothers Publishers, 1942.

Davids, Peter H. The First Epistle of Peter. New International Commentary on the New Testament series. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1990.

Dictionary of the Apostolic Church. Edited by James Hastings. 1915 ed. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark. S.v. "Peter, Epistles of," by S. J. Case.

Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by James Hastings. 1910 ed. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark. S.v. "Peter, First Epistle of," by F. H. Chase.

Dillow, Joseph C. The Reign of the Servant Kings. Miami Springs, Fla.: Schoettle Publishing Co., 1992.

Dutile, Gordon. "A Concept of Submission in the Husband-Wife Relationship in Selected New Testament Passages." Ph.D. dissertation, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1980.

English, E. Schuyler. "Was St. Peter Ever in Rome?" Bibleotheca Sacra 124:496 (October-December 1967):314-20.

Erickson, Millard J. "Is There Opportunity for Salvation after Death?" Bibliotheca Sacra 152:606 (April-June 1995):131-44.

Eustace, Lord Perry. John Knox. London: Hodder and Stoughton, n.d.

Family Life Conference. Little Rock, Ark.: Family Ministry, 1990.

Fanning, Buist M. "A Theology of Peter and Jude." In A Biblical Theology of the New Testament, pp. 437-71. Edited by Roy B. Zuck. Chicago: Moody Press, 1994.

Feinberg, John S. "1 Peter 3:18-20, Ancient Mythology, and the Intermediate State." Westminster Theological Journal 48:2 (Fall 1986):303-36

Gaebelein, Arno C. The Annotated Bible. 4 vols. Reprint ed. Chicago: Moody Press, and New York: Loizeaux Brothers, Inc., 1970.

Geisler, Norman L. "A Premillennial View of Law and Government." Bibliotheca Sacra 142:567 (July-September 1985):250-66.

Glenny, W. Edward. "The Israelite Imagery of 1 Peter 2." In Dispensationalism, Israel and the Church: The Search for Definition, pp. 156-87. Edited by Craig A. Blaising and Darrell L. Bock. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992.

Goppelt, Leonhard. A Commentary on I Peter. Edited by Ferdinand Hahn. Translated and augmented by John E. Alsup. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1993.

A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament. By C. G. Wilke. Revised by C. L. Wilibald Grimm. Translated, revised and enlarged by Joseph Henry Thayer, 1889.

Grudem, Wayne. 1 Peter. Tyndale New Testament Commentaries series. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1988.

_____. "Christ Preaching through Noah: 1 Peter 3:19-20 in the Light of Dominant Themes in Jewish Literature." Trinity Journal 7NS:2 (Fall 1986):3-31.

Guthrie, Donald. New Testament Introduction. 3 vols. 2nd ed. London: Tyndale Press, 1966.

Hiebert, D. Edmond. "Counsel for Christ's Undershepherds: An Exposition of 1 Peter 5:1-4." Bibliotheca Sacra 139:556 [October-December 1982]:330-41.

_____. "Designation of the Readers in 1 Peter 1:1-2." Bibliotheca Sacra 137:545 (January-March 1980):64-75.

_____. "Following Christ's Example: An Exposition of 1 Peter 2:21-25." Bibliotheca Sacra 139:553 (January-March 1982):32-45.

_____. "Living in the Light of Christ's Return: An Exposition of 1 Peter 4:7-11." Bibliotheca Sacra 139:555 (July-September 1982):243-54.

_____. "The Suffering and Triumphant Christ: An Exposition of 1 Peter 3:18-22." Bibliotheca Sacra 139:554 (April-June 1982):146-58.

_____. Working with God: Scriptural Studies in Intercession. New York: Carlton Press, 1987.

Hillyer, C. Norman. "Rock-Stone' Imagery in I Peter." Tyndale Bulletin 22 (1971):58-81.

Hort, F. J. A. The First Epistle of St. Peter 1:1-2:17. London: Macmillan, 1898.

Howe, Frederic R. "Christ, the Building Stone, in Peter's Theology." Bibliotheca Sacra 157:625 (January-March 2000):35-43.

_____. "The Cross of Christ in Peter's Theology." Bibliotheca Sacra 157:626 (April-June 2000):190-99.

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Edited by James Orr. 1957 ed. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. S.v. "Peter, The First Epistle of," by William G. Moorehead.

Johnson, D. E. "Fire in God's House: Imagery from Malachi 3 in Peter's Theology of Suffering (1 Pet 4:12-19)." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 29 (1989):285-94.

Johnson, John E. "The Old Testament Offices as Paradigm for Pastoral Identity." Bibliotheca Sacra 152:606 (April-June 1995):182-200.

Kelly, J. N. D. A Commentary on the Epistles of Peter and Jude. Thornapple Commentaries series. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1981.

Kennard, Douglas W. "Petrine Redemption: Its Meaning and Extent." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 30:4 (December 1987):399-405.

Kirk, Gordon E. "Endurance in Suffering in 1 Peter." Bibliotheca Sacra 138:549 (January-March 1981):46-56.

Lange, John Peter, ed. Commentary on the Holy Scripture. 12 vols. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1960. Vol. 12: James--Revelation, by J. P. Lange, J. J. Van Oosterzee, G. T. C. Fronmuller, and Karl Braune. Enlarged and edited by E. R. Craven. Translated by J. Isider Mombert and Evelina Moore.

Lenski, Richard C. H. The Interpretation of the Epistles of St. Peter, St. John and St. Jude. Reprint ed. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1961.

MacArthur, John F., Jr. Faith Works: The Gospel According to the Apostles. Dallas: Word Publishing, 1993.

Mason, A. J. "The First Epistle General of Peter." In Ellicott's Commentary on the Whole Bible. 8 vols. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, n.d.

McGee, J. Vernon. Thru the Bible with J. Vernon McGee. 5 vols. Pasadena, Calif.: Thru the Bible Radio, 1983.

McNeile, A. H. An Introduction to the Study of the New Testament. 2nd ed. Revised by C. S. C. Williams. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965.

Meyer, F. B. "Tried by Fire." London: Morgan and Scott, n.d.

Michaels, J. Ramsey. 1 Peter. Word Biblical Commentary series. Waco: Word Books, 1988.

Moffatt, James. "The General Epistles, James, Peter, and Judas." In The Moffatt New Testament Commentary. Reprint ed. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1947.

Morgan, G. Campbell. Living Messages of the Books of the Bible. 2 vols. New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1912.

Morris, Leon. New Testament Theology. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1986.

Paine, Stephen W. "The First Epistle of Peter." In The Wycliffe Bible Commentary, pp. 1441-52. Edited by Charles F. Pfeiffer and Everett F. Harrison. Chicago: Moody Press, 1962.

Pentecost, J. Dwight. "The Apostles' Use of Jesus' Predictions of Judgment on Jerusalem in A.D. 70." In Integrity of Heart, Skillfulness of Hands, pp. 134-43. Edited by Charles H. Dyer and Roy B. Zuck. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1994.

Pryor, John W. "First Peter and the New Covenant." Reformed Theological Review 45:1&2 (January-April & May-August 1986):1-3, 44-50.

Pyne, Robert A. "Antinomianism and Dispensationalism." Bibliotheca Sacra 153:610 (April-June 1996):141-54.

Raymer, Roger M. "1 Peter." In The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament, pp. 837-58. Edited by John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck. Wheaton: Scripture Press Publications, Victor Books, 1983.

Richards, E. Randolph. "Silvanus Was Not Peter's Secretary: Theological Bias in Interpreting dia Silouanou . . . egrapha in 1 Peter 5:12." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 43:3 (September 2000):417-32.

Robertson, Archibald Thomas. Word Pictures in the New Testament. 6 vols. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1931.

Rogers, Cleon L., Jr. "The Davidic Covenant in Acts-Revelation." Bibliotheca Sacra 151:601 (January-March 1994):71-84.

Ross, Allen P. Creation and Blessing. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1988.

Ryrie, Charles C. "The Christian and Civil Disobedience." Bibliotheca Sacra 127:506 (April-June 1970):153-62.

_____. Dispensationalism. Chicago: Moody Press, 1995.

_____. Dispensationalism Today. Chicago: Moody Press, 1965.

Saucy, Robert L. The Case for Progressive Dispensationalism. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1993.

Schaeffer, Francis A. A Christian Manifesto. Westchester, Ill.: Good News Publishers, Crossway Books, 1981.

Selwyn, Edward Gordon. The First Epistle of St. Peter. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan and Co. Ltd., 1964.

Siefker, Mrs. Glenn R. "God's Plans for Wives." Good News Broadcaster, February 1975, pp. 22-25.

Slaughter, James R. "The Importance of Literary Argument for Understanding 1 Peter." Bibliotheca Sacra 152:605 (January-March 1995):72-91.

_____. "Peter's Instructions to Husbands in 1 Peter 3:7." In Integrity of Heart, Skillfulness of Hands, pp. 175-85. Edited by Charles H. Dyer and Roy B. Zuck. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1994.

_____. "Sarah as a Model for Christian Wives (1 Pet. 3:5-6)." Bibliotheca Sacra 153:611 (July-September 1996):357-65.

_____. "Submission of Wives (1 Pet. 3:1a) in the Context of 1 Peter." Bibliotheca Sacra 153:609 (January-March 1996):63-74.

_____. "Winning Unbelieving Husbands to Christ (1 Pet. 3:1b-4)." Bibliotheca Sacra 153:610 (April-June 1996):199-211.

Steele, Paul E., and Charles C. Ryrie. Meant to Last. Wheaton: Victor Books, 1983.

Stibbs, Alan M. The First Epistle General of St. Peter. Tyndale New Testament Commentary series. Reprint ed. London: Tyndale Press, 1966.

Strauch, Arthur. Biblical Eldership. Littleton, Colo.: Lewis and Roth Publishers, 1986.

Strauss, Lehman. "Our Only Hope." Bibliotheca Sacra 120:478 (April-June 1963):154-64.

Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. S. v. "hypotasso," by Gerhard Delling, 8 (1972):39-46.

Thiessen, Henry Clarence. Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1962.

Thomas, W. H. Griffith. "Is the New Testament Minister a Priest?" Bibliotheca Sacra 136:541 (January-March 1979):65-73.

Tite, Philip L. "The Compositional Function of the Petrine Prescript: A Look at 1 Pet 1:1-3." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 39:1 (March 1996):47-56.

Tuni, Jose Oriol. "Jesus of Nazareth in the Christology of 1 Peter." Haythrop Journal 28:3 (July 1987):292-304.

Vaughn, Marilyn. "When Should a Wife Not Submit?" Moody Monthly, October 1977, pp. 104-107.

Vos, Geerhardus. "A Sermon on I Peter 1:3-5." Kerux 1:2 (September 1986):4-17.

Wall, Joe L. Going for the Gold. Chicago: Moody Press, 1991.

Wand, J. W. C. The General Epistles of St. Peter and St. Jude. Westminster Commentaries. London: Methuen & Co., 1934.

Wiersbe, Warren W. The Bible Exposition Commentary. 2 vols. Wheaton: Scripture Press Publications, Victor Books, 1989.

Wilkin, Robert N. "Election and the Gospel." Grace Evangelical Society News 4:7 (July 1989):1, 3.

Witmer, John A. "The Man with Two Countries." Bibliotheca Sacra 133:532 (October-December 1976):338-49.

Wolston, W. T. P. Simon Peter: His Life and Letters. 2nd ed. London: James Nisbet and Co., 1896.

Zuck, Roy B. "The Doctrine of Conscience." Bibliotheca Sacra 126:504 (October-December 1969):329-40.

Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

THE

FIRST EPISTLE OF ST. PETER,

THE APOSTLE.

INTRODUCTION.

This first Epistle of St. Peter, though brief, contains much doctrine concerning faith, hope, and charity, with divers instructions to all persons of every state and condition. The apostle commands submission to rulers and superiors, and exhorts all to the practice of a virtuous life, in imitation of Christ. This epistle was written with such apostolical dignity, as to manifest the supreme authority with which its writer, the prince of the apostles, had been invested by his Lord and Master, Jesus Christ. He wrote it at Rome, which figuratively he calls Babylon, about fifteen years after our Lord's ascension. (Challoner) --- St. Peter, otherwise called Simon, son of John or Jonas, was from Bethsaida, a city of Galilee. He was married, and lived at Capharnaum, and was employed with his brother Andrew, as fishermen, when our Lord called them. St. Peter on every occasion testified a more than usual zeal for his Master, and hence our Lord shewed him a very particular and very marked attention. He would have Peter present at his transfiguration; (Luke ix. 28.) and at another time declared that he [Peter] was a rock, upon which he [Jesus Christ] would build his Church, against which the gates of hell should never prevail. (Matthew xvi. 18.) Although St. Peter had the misfortune or weakness to deny Jesus Christ in his passion, our Lord, after his resurrection, gave him fresh proofs of his regard. (Matthew xvi. 7.) He continued him in his primacy over all, and appointed him in the most explicit manner visible head of his Church, when thrice asking Peter: "lovest thou me more than these?" and St. Peter as often answering, Christ said to him: "feed my lambs, feed my sheep." (John xxi. 15.) --- This epistle was always received in the Church as canonical, and as written by St. Peter, prince of the apostles. It is commonly agreed that it was written from Rome, which St. Peter calls Babylon, (Chap. v. 13.) and directed to those in the provinces of Pontus, Galatia, &c. (ver. 1.) who were before Jews or Gentiles, and had been converted to the Christian faith. It is certain this letter was not written till after the true believers had the name of Christians. (Chap. iv. 16.) Many think it was written before the year 49; but this is not certain. Others judge not till after the year 60, and some not till a short time before he wrote his second epistle. See Tillemont, t. i. Art. 31. on S. Pet. and tom. ii. on S. Mark, p. 89.) The main design is to confirm the new converts in the faith of Christ, with divers instructions to a virtuous life. (Witham) --- Grotius, Erasmus, and Estius, discover in this epistle, a strength and majesty worthy the prince of the apostles. Est autem epistola profecto digna Apostolorum Principe, plena authoritatis et majestatis Apostolicæ: verbis parca, sententiis referta.

====================

Gill: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 1 PETER

That Simon, called Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, was the writer of this epistle, is not questioned by any; nor was the genuineness and authenticity of it ever made a doubt of. Eusebius says ^a, that it had been confessed by all, and received without controversy; and that the ancients, without any scruple, had made use of it in their writings. It is called his "general", or catholic epistle, because it was not written to any particular person, or to any particular church, but in general, to a number of Christians dispersed in several places. The time when this epistle was written is not certain; some place it in the year of Christ 44 or 45, and so make it to be the most ancient of all the epistles, and which is the more commonly received opinion; but Dr. Lightfoot ^b places it in the year 65, because in it the apostle speaks of the end of all things being at hand, and of the fiery trial just coming on them, and of judgment beginning at the house of God, 1Pe 4:7 all which he applies to the destruction of Jerusalem; though others fix it to 61, in the seventh year of Nero ^c. The place from whence it seems to be written was Babylon, 1Pe 5:13 which is to be understood not figuratively, either of Rome or Jerusalem, but properly of Babylon, the metropolis of Chaldea, or Assyria. The persons to whom it is written were Jews, at least chiefly; for there might be some Gentiles among them, who may be taken notice of in some parts of the epistle; but the principal part were Jews, as appears from their being called the strangers of the dispersion, or, as James calls them, "the twelve tribes scattered abroad"; from the mention of the tradition of their fathers; from their having their conversation honest among the Gentiles, and their past life among them; from urging subjection to the civil magistrates among the Heathens, and the right use of their Christian liberty as to the ceremonies of the law; and from the near destruction of Jerusalem, which could only affect them; and from the use made of the writings of the Old Testament, and the authority of the prophets; see 1Pe 1:1 as well as from the second epistle, which was written to the same; see 2Pe 1:19 in which he seems to refer to the epistle to the Hebrews, written by Paul, as to these. And besides, Peter was the minister of the circumcision, or of the circumcised Jews, as Paul was of the Gentiles; and even those passages in this epistle, which seem most likely to concern the Gentiles, may be understood of the Jews, as which speak of their ignorance, idolatry, and having not been a people, 1Pe 1:14 which were true of them before conversion, and as living among Gentiles. The occasion of writing it was this; Peter meeting with Sylvanus, a faithful brother, and who had been a companion of the Apostle Paul, he takes this opportunity of sending a letter by him to the converted Jews, dispersed among the Gentile countries, where he, with Paul, and others, travelled: the design of which is to testify of the true doctrine of grace, in which they were agreed; see 1Pe 5:12. And accordingly in it he does treat of the doctrine of electing grace, of redeeming grace, of regenerating and sanctifying grace, and of persevering grace; and exhorts believers to the exercise of grace, of faith, hope, and love, and to the discharge of such duties becoming their several stations, whereby they might evidence to others the truth of grace in themselves, and adorn the doctrine of the grace of God, and recommend it to others: and particularly he exhorts them patiently to bear all afflictions and persecutions they should meet with, for their profession of the true grace of God, in which he encourages them to stand steadfast: and this is the general scope and design of the epistle.

Gill: 1 Peter 2 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 1 PETER 2

This chapter consists of exhortations, in general, to a holy life; and, in particular, to obedience to superiors. It begins with an exhortation to lay aside various vices, which were unbecoming regenerate persons, 1Pe 2:1 and, agreeably to their character, as new born babes, to express a desire after the Gospel, which is commended from its nature, being comparable to milk; and from its quality, being reasonable, sincere, and unmixed; and from the end and usefulness of it, a spiritual growth; and the argument engaging to such a desire is the experience they had of the grace of Christ in it, 1Pe 2:2 whose excellency is declared, under the metaphor of a stone, said to be living, to be chosen of God, and precious to him, though rejected by men; to whom the saints are encouraged to come, as lively stones built up, a spiritual house, for the exercise of the holy office of the priesthood, by offering up spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Christ, 1Pe 2:4 and that Christ is such a precious stone, is proved from Isa 28:16 and not only to God, but to all them that believe; though to them that believe not, he is the stone of rejection, stumbling, and offence; to stumble at which, and the doctrine of it, through disobedience, they were of old appointed by God, 1Pe 2:6 but the character of the persons the apostle writes to was very different, quite the reverse, being chosen and called, and manifestly the people of God, and sharing in his grace and mercy, 1Pe 2:9 and these he exhorts, suitable to their state and condition, to abstain from sin, as an enemy to their souls, and to live an honest life and conversation among the Gentiles, that they, instead of speaking evil of them, might, by beholding their good works, glorify God, 1Pe 2:11. And particularly he exhorts them to obedience to civil magistrates, both superior and inferior; partly from the author of them, they being of the Lord; and partly from the usefulness of them to punish wicked men, and to encourage good men; and also from its being the will of God, by such obedience, to silence the cavils of foolish men, 1Pe 2:13. And whereas it might be objected, that they were made free by Christ, and therefore should not be the servants of men; it is granted, that they were free; but then it is denied, that they should use their liberty for a cloak of maliciousness: and besides, it should be observed, that they were the servants of God, and therefore ought to do what he enjoined them; and, among other things, yield obedience to civil magistrates, 1Pe 2:16. And to this purpose are various exhortations in 1Pe 2:17, and another particular one is added, which is to servants, to be subject to their masters, and fear them, whether they be good or bad, 1Pe 2:18 and then he comforts such that had bad masters, and encourages them to bear the injuries they received from them patiently; because so to do was grateful to God, and acceptable in his sight; and because they were called unto it by him; and because of the example Christ had left them in suffering for them, 1Pe 2:19. And this is further urged from the character of Christ, who was without sin, and yet suffered, and from his conduct, who, when reviled, made no return, but left his cause with God, 1Pe 2:22 which leads on the apostle take notice of the nature of Christ's sufferings in his body on the cross, and the ends of them, which were expiation of sin, healing diseases, and holiness of life, as a consequent thereof, 1Pe 2:24 previous to which conversion, which is illustrated by the former state and condition men are in, being as sheep going astray; and by their present one, being returned to Christ, the Shepherd and Bishop of souls, 1Pe 2:25.

College: 1 Peter (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION

This commentary is written for the general reader with a serious interest in Scripture. Its purpose is to provide a historical interpretation of 1 Peter; that is, an interpretation of what Peter meant to say to his ancient audience. I write with the conviction that modern readers can only determine God's message to us after and on the basis of a determination of Peter's message to his ancient contemporaries. Because I believe God worked through Peter and inspired his work, I believe it has great relevance to every reader in every age. But we can only determine what it means to us if we have first determined what it meant when Peter wrote it. It is this latter task that is the focus of most commentaries, including this one. I will occasionally make comments about what a given passage means today, but not consistently. I will consistently comment on what Peter meant to say to his original readers. I hope and pray that my readers will recognize the contemporary relevance of Peter's letter, even though it will not be my purpose to point it out or illustrate it. My purpose is to provide a base to build on for contemporary application.

I have been especially influenced by the commentaries by Paul Achtemeier and Ramsey Michaels. I have also frequently consulted the commentaries by Leonard Goppelt and Peter Davids. I often refer the reader to these works for further information, and even where I do not, the reader would be well advised to consult them for a scholar's depth of treatment.

I have commented on the NIV text. In some places where it seems deficient, I have provided an alternative translation, usually from the NRSV. The commentary makes note of the most significant textual variants and my opinions concerning them, but does not provide a list of manuscripts, versions, or church fathers. Interested readers should use the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament .

AUTHOR

Peter identifies himself in the opening words of the letter: "Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ." The book clearly claims to have been written by the well-known apostle, a leading figure in the Gospels and in the first half of the book of Acts.

This claim is well supported by second century evidence. Some even argue that 1 Clement, written near the end of the first century, reflects use of 1 Peter. It is certainly true that Polycarp of Smyrna knew and used 1 Peter. This is repeatedly reflected in his letter to the Philippians, written in the first half of the second century. It is all the more significant since Smyrna was in one of the regions Peter addressed.

This is also true of Hierapolis, the home of Papias, who also wrote in the first half of the second century. According to Eusebius, Papias used quotations from the first epistle of Peter.

In the latter part of the second century Irenaeus cited 1 Peter and explicitly mentioned Peter as the author. All subsequent ancient Christian authors agree.

The only evidence that some believe might indicate another opinion is that the Muratorian Canon (late second century) does not list 1 Peter. Others believe that 1 Peter was originally listed and is omitted because of the corrupt state of our copy of this list. In any case it would be a questionable argument from silence to use the omission as evidence that the author of the Canon knew 1 Peter and considered it to be falsely ascribed. He was quite capable of identifying works which he considered to be falsely ascribed.

Until modern times Peter's authorship of 1 Peter was universally accepted among Christians. However, many modern scholars, including Goppelt and Achtemeier, consider the book pseudepigraphical. Their arguments are not compelling.

One argument against Petrine authorship is the good quality of the Greek in 1 Peter. However, in recent decades there has been a growing awareness that Greek was widely used as a second language in Palestine. It is not improbable that, even without a special gift from the Spirit, Peter would have known Greek. Furthermore, 1 Peter 5:12 may indicate that Silvanus assisted Peter as his secretary. This is a debated point which is discussed in the comments on that verse. But if Silvanus did secretarial work for Peter, then he may have influenced the Greek style.

A second argument used against Peter having written 1 Peter is the similarity of the content of parts of 1 Peter to the letters of Paul. However, such similarities are not surprising. The incident Paul recounts in Galatians 2 does not indicate that he and Peter remained at odds with each other or that they did not share many common emphases.

A third argument is that the references to persecution indicate a late date, perhaps during the reign of Domitian (A.D. 81-96) or Trajan (A.D. 98-117) - after the death of Peter during the reign of Nero (A.D. 54-68). However, there are no clear indications of state-ordered persecution in 1 Peter. Fortunately, this argument has lost much of its force because most contemporary scholars agree that the persecution reflected in 1 Peter does not presuppose a government-sponsored persecution.

In the light of the weakness of arguments to the contrary and the strength of the second century support for Peter as the author, the claim made in 1 Peter 1:1 should be accepted. The author is Peter the apostle.

PLACE OF COMPOSITION

First Peter 5:13 says "She who is in Babylon, chosen together with you, sends you her greetings, and so does my son Mark." Peter was in "Babylon." There are three possible referents: Mesopotamian Babylon, a Roman military settlement named Babylon (located near modern Cairo, Egypt), and the city of Rome. The most likely choice is Rome. Rome is symbolically designated "Babylon" in the book of Revelation and several Jewish works (including 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch). One weakness of this approach is that 1 Peter appears to be the earliest such reference.

But there is reasonably good evidence that Peter went to Rome. Clement of Rome, writing in the mid-90s, implies that Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome during the Neronian persecution brought on by the fire in Rome in July of A.D. 64. In the early second century Ignatius's letter to the Romans seems to assume that Peter had been in Rome. Beginning in the second half of the second century there is a steady stream of references to Peter in Rome (although many of them are mixed in with dubious assertions about Peter founding the Roman church).

In addition to Peter, 1 Peter 5:13 places Mark in "Babylon" as well. If Colossians and Philemon were written from Rome, they place Mark there with Paul (Col 4:10; Phlm 24).

DATE

The previous paragraph points out that 1 Clement 5-6 suggests that Peter died in the Neronian persecution. As in the case of Peter's presence in Rome, sources from the late second century and beyond provide a steady stream of references to Peter's martyrdom under Nero (mixed with various dubious claims). The vast majority of scholars accept the idea that Peter was martyred by order of Nero between A.D. 64 and 68. Since Peter is the author, 1 Peter must have been written no later than A.D. 68.

Few, if any, would suggest a date earlier than the 60s. Earlier dates might not allow adequate time for Peter to come to Rome or for Christianity to spread through most of Asia Minor.

RECIPIENTS

Concerning the five provinces listed in 1 Peter 1:1 see the commentary for details. They encompass most of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Peter addressed Christians who were scattered throughout these areas.

The fact that Peter addressed his readers with the term "Diaspora" or "Dispersion" (1:1) misled many in the past to maintain that his readers were primarily Jewish Christians. The term "Diaspora," meaning "scattered," was used frequently by the Jews to refer to those who had been scattered throughout the world, away from their Palestinian homeland. However, there is a consensus among modern interpreters that Peter used it metaphorically to include Gentile Christians. All Christians live away from their homeland with God.

Besides the likelihood that many Gentiles had become Christians in these predominantly Gentile regions, several verses in 1 Peter indicate that many of the readers came out of a pagan past. See, for example, 1:14, "do not conform to the evil desires you had when you lived in ignorance"; 1:18, "you were redeemed from the evil way of life handed down to you from your forefathers"; and 4:3, "you have spent enough time in the past doing what pagans choose to do."

ENCOURAGING THE PERSECUTED

First Peter 5:12 sums up Peter's purpose: "I have written to you briefly, encouraging you and testifying that this is the true grace of God. Stand fast in it." Peter's letter was a word of encouragement to Christians who were facing persecution and needed encouragement to stand firm in their faith.

Earlier interpreters often thought of these persecutions as state-sponsored persecutions leading to imprisonment and death. More recent interpreters have noticed that the nature and extent of the persecutions is not very specific. The only specific reference to physical persecution is the reference in 2:20 to Christian slaves being beaten. There is no reference to state-sponsored persecution.

But that the persecutions were severe is clear from such references as 1:6, "You may have had to suffer grief in all kinds of trials" and 4:12, "do not be surprised at the painful trial you are suffering."

We are familiar with the antagonistic environment the early Christians lived in from reading Acts and Paul's letters. In the early second century several pagan writers provide further evidence of how Christians were perceived by others. In writing about Nero's persecution of Christians Tacitus describes them as "a class hated for their abominations" and calls Christianity "a deadly superstition . . . hideous and shameful." In describing the same event Suetonius describes Christians as "a class of men given to a new and wicked superstition." During roughly the same period of time Pliny, the Roman governor of Bithynia (one of the five regions Peter addressed), wrote to the emperor Trajan and described Christianity as "a perverse and extravagant superstition." These are the kinds of criticisms Peter presumably had in mind when he made comments like "they accuse you of doing wrong" (2:12) and they "speak maliciously against your good behavior in Christ" (3:16).

Peter wrote to remind these readers of what God had done for them in Christ (e.g., 1:1-12; 2:4-10) and to encourage them to stand firm (e.g., 1:13-25; 2:11-25). We can benefit from overhearing what he said.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Achtemeier, Paul J. 1 Peter . Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996.

Aland, Barbara, Kurt Aland, et al., eds. The Greek New Testament . 4th Rev. Ed. United Bible Societies, 1993.

Bauer, Walter. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 2d Ed. Rev. William F. Arndt, F. Wilbur Gingrich, and Frederick W. Danker. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979.

Bigg, Charles. Epistles of St. Peter and St. Jude . International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1901.

Bruce, F.F. The Canon of Scripture. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1988.

Carson, D.A., D.J. Moo, and L. Morris. An Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992.

Dalton, W.J. Christ's Proclamation to the Spirits: A Study of 1 Peter 3:18-4:6. 2nd Ed. Analecta Biblica 23. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1989.

Davids, Peter H. The First Epistle of Peter. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990.

Elliott, J.H. The Elect and the Holy: An Exegetical Examination of 1 Peter 2:4-10 and the Phrase basivleion iJeravteuma. Novum Testamentum. Supplement 12. Leiden: Brill, 1966.

Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. 2nd Ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993.

Finegan, Jack. Handbook of Biblical Chronology . Rev. ed. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998.

France, R.T. "Exegesis in Practice: Two Samples." In New Testament Exegesis. Ed. I. Howard Marshall. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977.

Goppelt, Leonard. A Commentary on 1 Peter . Ed. Ferdinand Hahn. Trans. and Aug. John E. Alsup. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993.

Grudem, Wayne. The First Epistle of Peter. Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988.

Hemer, Colin. "The Address of 1 Peter." Expository Times 89 (1977-78): 239-243.

Hort, F.J.A. The First Epistle of St. Peter 1:1-2:17. London: Macmillan, 1898.

Jones, R.B. "Christian Behavior under Fire (First Epistle of Peter)." Review and Expositor 46 (1949): 56-66.

Kelly, J.N.D. A Commentary on the Epistles of Peter and of Jude. Harper New Testament Commentary. New York: Harper and Row, 1969.

Marshall, I. Howard. 1 Peter . IVP New Testament Commentary Series. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1991.

Metzger, Bruce M. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament . 2nd Ed. United Bible Societies, 1994.

Michaels, J. Ramsey. 1 Peter. Word Biblical Commentary. Vol. 49. Waco, TX: Word, 1988.

Moffatt, James. The General Epistles. The Moffatt New Testament Commentary. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1940.

O'Brien, P.T. "Letters, Letter Forms." In Dictionary of Paul and His Letters . Eds. G.F. Hawthorne, R.P. Martin, and D.G. Reid. 550-553. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1993.

Osburn, Carroll D., ed. Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity . 2 Vols. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1993, 1995.

Piper, John and Wayne Grudem, eds. Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood: A Response to Evangelical Feminism. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 1991.

Selwyn, E.G. The First Epistle of St. Peter. London: Macmillan, 1946.

Wallace, Daniel B. Greek Grammar beyond the Basics. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

ABBREVIATIONS

BAGD A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament by Bauer, Arndt, Gingrich, and Danker

KJV King James Version

NASB New American Standard Bible

NIV New International Version

NRSV New Revised Standard Version

UBS ⁴ United Bible Society Greek New Testament, 4th Edition

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

College: 1 Peter (Outline)

OUTLINE

I. THE GREETING - 1:1-2

II. A CALL TO BE HOLY - 1:3-2:10

A. The Hope of Salvation - 1:3-9

B. The Glory of This Salvation - 1:10-12

C. Be Holy in All You Do - 1:13-16

D. Live in Reverent Fear as Those Redeemed by Christ's Blood - 1:17-21

E. Love One Another as Those Born Again through the Word of God - 1:22-25

F. Crave Pure Spiritual Milk - 2:1-3

G. God's Chosen People through Jesus - 2:4-10

III. INSTRUCTIONS FOR EXEMPLARY LIVING IN SOCIETY'S STRUCTURES - 2:11-3:12

A. Live Good Lives among the Pagans - 2:11-12

B. Submit to the Governing Authorities - 2:13-17

C. Slaves, Submit to Your Masters - 2:18-25

1. Submit Even to Harsh Masters - 2:18-20

2. Follow the Example of Christ - 2:21-25

D. Wives, Submit to Your Husbands - 3:1-6

E. Husbands, Be Considerate - 3:7

F. General Instructions for All - 3:8-12

IV. ENCOURAGEMENT TO THOSE WHO SUFFER FOR DOING GOOD - 3:13-4:11

A. Do Not Be Frightened - 3:13-17

B. Christ Also Suffered - And Was Exalted - 3:18-22

C. Live for the Will of God - 4:1-6

D. Love and Serve Each Other - 4:7-11

V. MORE EXHORTATIONS TO BE STEADFAST IN THE FACE OF SUFFERING - 4:12-5:11

A. Rejoice When You Suffer for Christ - 4:12-19

B. Show Humility in Your Relationships, Especially You Who Shepherd - 5:1-5

C. A Summarizing Call to Suffer for Christ - 5:6-11

VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS - 5:12-14

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV