Text -- 1 Kings 22:3 (NET)

22:3 The king of Israel said to his servants, “Surely you recognize that Ramoth Gilead belongs to us, though we are hesitant to reclaim it from the king of Syria.”

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Wesley: 1Ki 22:3

Belongeth to us by right. both by God's donation, and by our last agreement with Ben - hadad, 1Ki 20:34, which yet he refuseth to deliver up.

JFB: 1Ki 22:3-8

A Levitical and free town on the north border of Gad (Deu 4:43; Jos 21:38), on the site of the present Salt Lake, in the province of Belka. It lay within the territories of the Israelitish monarch, and was unjustly alienated; but whether it was one of the cities usurped by the first Ben-hadad, which his son had promised to restore, or was retained for some other reasons, the sacred historian has not mentioned. In the expedition which Ahab meditated for the recovery of this town, the aid of Jehoshaphat was asked and promised (see 2Ch 18:3). Previous to declaring hostilities, it was customary to consult the prophets (see on 1Sa 28:8); and Jehoshaphat having expressed a strong desire to know the Lord's will concerning this war, Ahab assembled four hundred of his prophets. These could not be either the prophets of Baal or of Ashteroth (1Ki 18:19), but seem (1Ki 22:12) to have been false prophets, who conformed to the symbolic calf-worship of Jehovah. Being the creatures of Ahab, they unanimously predicted a prosperous issue to the war. But dissatisfied with them, Jehoshaphat inquired if there was any true prophet of the Lord. Ahab agreed, with great reluctance, to allow Micaiah to be summoned. He was the only true prophet then to be found residing in Samaria, and he had to be brought out of prison (1Ki 22:26), into which, according to JOSEPHUS, he had been cast on account of his rebuke to Ahab for sparing the king of Syria.

TSK: 1Ki 22:3

Ramoth : 1Ki 4:13; Deu 4:43; Jos 20:8

still : Heb. silent from taking it, Jdg 16:2; 2Sa 19:10 *marg.

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: 1Ki 22:3

By the terms of Ahab’ s covenant with Ben-hadad, Ramoth in Gilead ought, long ere this, to have been restored 1Ki 20:34. Hence, the claim "is ours,"i. e., "it belongs to us of right though the Syrians still hold possession of it."

Poole: 1Ki 22:3

Is ours i.e. belongeth to us by right, both by God’ s donation, and designation of it for a city of refuge, Jos 21:38 , and by our last agreement with Ben-hadad, 1Ki 20:31 , which he refuseth to deliver up to us upon our demand.

Haydock: 1Ki 22:3

Syria. Benadad had not restored it; either because he no longer regarded his treaty, or because the city had not been taken by his father. (Calmet)

Gill: 1Ki 22:3

(And the king of Israel said unto his servants,.... His nobles, those of his privy council, his ministers of state; or "had said" ⁿ, some little time before Jehoshaphat came:

know ye that Ramoth in Gilead is ours a city of refuge beyond Jordan, in the tribe of Gad, and so of course must belong to the kingdom of Israel, of which see Jos 20:8.

and we be still, and take it not out of the hand of the king of Syria?) neither demand it, nor take any measures to oblige him to deliver it up; representing it as a great omission, and as a piece of negligence and slothfulness, or cowardice.

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

NET Notes: 1Ki 22:3

¹ tn Heb “Do you know that Ramoth Gilead belongs to us, and we hesitate to take it from the hand of the king of Aram?” The rhetorical question expects the answer, “Of course, you must know!”

Geneva Bible: 1Ki 22:3

And the king of Israel said unto his servants, Know ye that ^{( c )} Ramoth in Gilead [is] ours, and we [be] still, [and] take it not out of the hand of the king of Syria?

^{( c )} The kings of Syria kept Ramoth before this league was made by Benhadad: therefore he did not think he was bound by it to restore it.

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: 1Ki 22:1-53

1 Ahab, seduced by false prophets, according to the word of Micaiah, is slain at Ramoth-gilead.

37 The dogs lick up his blood, and Ahaziah succeeds him.

41 Jehoshaphat's good reign.

45 His acts.

46 Jehoram succeeds him.

51 Ahaziah's evil reign.

MHCC: 1Ki 22:1-14

The same easiness of temper, which betrays some godly persons into friendship with the declared enemies of religion, renders it very dangerous to them. They will be drawn to wink at and countenance such conduct and conversation as they ought to protest against with abhorrence. Whithersoever a good man goes, he ought to take his religion with him, and not be ashamed to own it when he is with those who have no regard for it. Jehoshaphat had not left behind him, at Jerusalem, his affection and reverence for the word of the Lord, but avowed it, and endeavoured to bring it into Ahab's court. And Ahab's prophets, to please Jehoshaphat, made use of the name of Jehovah: to please Ahab, they said, Go up. But the false prophets cannot so mimic the true, but that he who has spiritual senses exercised, can discern the fallacy. One faithful prophet of the Lord was worth them all. Wordly men have in all ages been alike absurd in their views of religion. They would have the preacher fit his doctrine to the fashion of the times, and the taste of the hearers, and yet to add. Thus saith the Lord, to words that men would put into their mouths. They are ready to cry out against a man as rude and foolish, who scruples thus to try to secure his own interests, and to deceive others.

Matthew Henry: 1Ki 22:1-14

Though Ahab continued under guilt and wrath, and the dominion of the lusts to which he had sold himself, yet, as a reward for his professions of repentance and humiliation, though the time drew near when he should descend into battle and perish, yet we have him blessed with a three years' peace (1Ki 22:1) and an honourable visit made him by Jehoshaphat king of Judah, 1Ki 22:2. The Jews have a fabulous conceit, that when Ahab humbled himself for his sin, and lay in sackcloth, he sent for Jehoshaphat to come to him, to chastise him; and that he staid with him for some time, and gave him so many stripes every day. This is a groundless tradition. He came now, it is probable, to consult him about the affairs of their kingdoms. It is strange that so great a man as Jehoshaphat would pay so much respect to a kingdom revolted from the house of David, and that so good a man should show so much kindness to a king revolted from the worship of God. But, though he was a godly man, his temper was too easy, which betrayed him into snares and inconveniences. The Syrians durst not give Ahab any disturbance. But,

I. Ahab here meditates a war against the Syrians, and advises concerning it with those about him, 1Ki 22:3. The king of Syria gave him the provocation; when he lay at his mercy, he promised to restore him his cities (1Ki 20:34), and Ahab foolishly took his word, when he ought not to have dismissed him till the cities were put into his possession. But now he knows by experience, what he ought before to have considered, that as the kisses, so the promises, of an enemy are deceitful, and there is no confidence to be put in leagues extorted by distress. Benhadad is one of those princes that think themselves bound by their word no further and no longer than it is for their interest. Whether any other cities were restored we do not find, but Ramoth-Gilead was not, a considerable city in the tribe of Gad, on the other side Jordan, a Levites' city, and one of the cities of refuge. Ahab blames himself, and his people, that they did not bestir themselves to recover it out of the hands of the Syrians, and to chastise Ben-hadad's violation of his league; and resolves to let that ungrateful perfidious prince know that as he had given him peace he could give him trouble. Ahab has a good cause, yet succeeds not. Equity is not to be judged of by prosperity.

II. He engages Jehoshaphat, and draws him in, to join with him in this expedition, for the recovery of Ramoth-Gilead, 1Ki 22:4. And here I do not wonder that Ahab should desire the assistance of so pious and prosperous a neighbour. Even bad men have often coveted the friendship of the good. It is desirable to have an interest in those that have an interest in heaven, and to have those with us that have God with them. But it is strange that Jehoshaphat will go so entirely into Ahab's interests as to say, I am as thou art, and my people as thy people. I hope not; Jehoshaphat and his people are not so wicked and corrupt as Ahab and his people. Too great a complaisance to evildoers has brought many good people, through unwariness, into a dangerous fellowship with the unfruitful works of darkness. Jehoshaphat had like to have paid dearly for his compliment when, in battle, he was taken for Ahab. Yet some observe that in joining with Israel against Syria he atoned for his father's fault in joining with Syria against Israel, 1Ki 15:19, 1Ki 15:20.

III. At the special instance and request of Jehoshaphat, he asks counsel of the prophets concerning this expedition. Ahab thought it enough to consult with his statesmen, but Jehoshaphat moves that they should enquire of the word of the Lord, 1Ki 22:5. Note, 1. Whithersoever a good man goes he desires to take God along with him, and will acknowledge him in all his ways, ask leave of him, and look up to him for success. 2. Whithersoever a good man goes he ought to take his religion along with him, and not be ashamed to own it, no, not when he is with those who have no kindness for it. Jehoshaphat has not left behind him, at Jerusalem, his affection, his veneration, for the word of the Lord, but both avows it and endeavours to introduce it into Ahab's court. If Ahab drew him into his wars, he will draw Ahab into his devotions.

IV. Ahab's 400 prophets, the standing regiment he had of them ( prophets of the groves they called them), agreed to encourage him in this expedition and to assure him of success, 1Ki 22:6. He put the question to them with a seeming fairness: Shall I go or shall I forbear? But they knew which way his inclination was and designed only to humour the two kings. To please Jehoshaphat, they made use of the name Jehovah: He shall deliver it into the hand of the king; they stole the word from the true prophets (Jer 23:30) and spoke their language. To please Ahab they said, Go up. They had indeed probabilities on their side: Ahab had, not long since, beaten the Syrians twice; he had now a good cause, and was much strengthened by his alliance with Jehoshaphat. But they pretended to speak by prophecy, not by rational conjecture, by divine, not human, foresight: "Thou shalt certainly recover Ramoth-Gilead."Zedekiah, a leading man among these prophets, in imitation of the true prophets, illustrated his false prophecy with a sign, 1Ki 22:11. He made himself a pair of iron horns, representing the two kings, and their honour and power (both of which were signified by horns, exaltation and force), and with these the Syrians must be pushed. All the prophets agreed, as one man, that Ahab should return from this expedition a conqueror, 1Ki 22:12. Unity is not always the mark of a true church and a true ministry. Here were 400 men that prophesied with one mind and one mouth, and yet all in an error.

V. Jehoshaphat cannot relish this sort of preaching; it is not like what he was used to. The false prophets cannot so mimic the true but that he who had spiritual senses exercised could discern the fallacy, and therefore he enquired for a prophet of the Lord besides, 1Ki 22:7. He is too much of a courtier to say any thing by way of reflection on the king's chaplains, but he waits to see a prophet of the Lord, intimating that he could not look upon these to be so. They seemed to be somewhat (whatever they were, it made no matter to him), but, in conference, they added nothing to him, they gave him no satisfaction, Gal 2:6. One faithful prophet of the Lord was worth them all.

VI. Ahab has another, but one he hates, Micaiah by name, and, to please Jehoshaphat, he is willing to have him sent for, 1Ki 22:8-10. Ahab owned that they might enquire of the Lord by him, that he was a true prophet, and one that knew God's mind. And yet, 1. He hated him, and was not ashamed to own to the king of Judah that he did so, and to give this for a reason. He doth not prophesy good concerning me, but evil. And whose fault was that? If Ahab had done well, he would have heard nothing but good from heaven; if he do ill, he may thank himself for all the uneasiness which the reproofs and threats of God's word gave him. Note, Those are wretchedly hardened in sin, and are ripening apace for ruin, who hate God's ministers because they deal plainly with them and faithfully warn them of their misery and danger by reason of sin, and reckon those their enemies that tell them the truth. 2. He had (it should seem) imprisoned him; for, when he committed him (1Ki 22:26), he bade the officer carry him back, namely, to the place whence he came. We may suppose that this was he that reproved him for his clemency to Ben-hadad (1Ki 20:38, etc.) and for so doing was cast into prison, where he had lain these three years. This was the reason why Ahab knew where to find him so readily, 1Ki 22:9. But his imprisonment had not excluded him for divine visits: the spirit of prophecy continued with him there. He was bound, but the word of the Lord was not. Nor did it in the lease abate his courage, nor make him less confident or faithful in delivering his message. Jehoshaphat gave too gentle a reproof to Ahab for expressing his indignation against a faithful prophet: Let not the king say so, 1Ki 22:8. He should have said, "Thou art unjust to the prophet, unkind to thyself, and puttest an affront upon his Lord and thine, in saying so."Such sinners as Ahab must be rebuked sharply. However he so far yielded to the reproof that, for fear of provoking Jehoshaphat to break off from his alliance with him, he orders Micaiah to be sent for with all speed, 1Ki 22:9. The two kings sat each in their robes and chairs of state, in the gate of Samaria, ready to receive this poor prophet, and to hear what he had to say; for many will give God's word the hearing that will not lend it an obedient ear. They were attended with a crowd of flattering prophets, that could not think of prophesying any thing but what was very sweet and very smooth to two such glorious princes now in confederacy. Those that love to be flattered shall not want flatterers.

VII. Micaiah is pressed by the officer that fetches him to follow the cry, 1Ki 22:13. That officer was unworthy the name of an Israelite who pretended to prescribe to a prophet; but he thought him altogether such a one as the rest, who studied to please men and not God. He told Micaiah how unanimous the other prophets were in foretelling the king's good success, how agreeable it was to the king, intimating that it was his interest to say as they said - he might thereby gain, not only enlargement, but preferment. Those that dote upon worldly things themselves think every body else should do so too, and true or false, right or wrong, speak and act for their secular interest only. He intimated likewise that it would be to no purpose to contradict such a numerous and unanimous vote; he would be ridiculed, as affecting a foolish singularity, if he should. But Micaiah, who knows better things, protests, and backs his protestation with an oath, that he will deliver his message from God with all faithfulness, whether it be pleasing or displeasing to his prince (1Ki 22:14): " What the Lord saith to me, that will I speak, without addition, diminution, or alteration."This was nobly resolved, and as became one who had his eye to a greater King than either of these, arrayed with brighter robes, and sitting on a higher throne.

Keil-Delitzsch: 1Ki 22:1-40

Allied Campaign of Ahab and Jehoshaphat against the Syrians at Ramoth, and Death of Ahab (compare 2 Chron 18:2-34). - 1Ki 22:1. "And they rested three years; there was no war between Aram and Israel," ישׁב here is to keep quiet, to undertake nothing, as in Jdg 5:17, etc. The subject to ויּשׁבוּ is Aram and Israel mentioned in the second clause. The length of time given here points back to the end of the war described in 1 Kings 20.

1Ki 22:2-4

In the third year (not necessarily "towards the end of it,"as Thenius supposes, for Jehoshaphat's visit preceded the renewal of the war) Jehoshaphat visited the king of Israel, with whom he had already formed a marriage alliance by marrying his son to Ahab's daughter (2Ch 18:1; 2Ki 8:18). Ahab then said to his servants that the king of Syria had kept the city of Ramoth in Gilead (probably situated on the site of the present Szalt : see at Deu 4:43), which he ought to have given up, according to the conditions of the peace in 1Ki 20:34, and asked Jehoshaphat whether he would go with him to the war against Ramoth, which the latter promised to do. "I as thou, my people as thy people, my horses as thy horses;"i.e., I am at thy service with the whole of my military power. In the place of the last words we have therefore in the Chronicles ועמך בּמּלחמה , "I am with thee in the war,"i.e., I will assist thee in the war.

1Ki 22:5-7

But as Jehoshaphat wished also to inquire the word of the Lord concerning the war, Ahab gathered together about 400 prophets, who all predicted as out of one mouth a prosperous result to the campaign. These 400 prophets are neither the 400 prophets of Asherah who had not appeared upon Carmel when Elijah was there (1Ki 18:19-20), nor prophets of Baal, as some of the earlier commentators supposed, since Ahab could not inquire of them את־דּבר יהוה . On the other hand, they were not "true prophets of Jehovah and disciples of the prophets"(Cler., Then.), but prophets of Jehovah worshipped under the image of an ox, who practised prophesying as a trade without any call from God, and even if they were not in the pay of the idolatrous kings of Israel, were at any rate in their service. For Jehoshaphat did not recognise them as genuine prophets of Jehovah, but inquired whether there was not such a prophet still in existence (1Ki 22:7), that they might inquire the will of the Lord of him ( מאותו ).

1Ki 22:8

Ahab then named to him one, but one whom he hated, because he never prophesied good concerning him, but only evil,

(Note: Just as Agamemnon says to Calchas in Il . iv. 106: μάντι κακῶν, ου ̓ πώποτέ μοι τὸ κρήγουν εἶπας, κ.τ.λ. )

namely, Micah the son of Jimlah. Josephus and the Rabbins suppose him to have been the prophet, whose name is not given, who had condemned Ahab in the previous war for setting Benhadad at liberty (1Ki 20:35.). But there is no foundation for this, and it is mere conjecture. At any rate, Ahab had already come to know Micah as a prophet of evil, and, as is evident from 1Ki 22:26, had had him imprisoned on account of an unwelcome prophecy. Ahab's dislike to this prophet had its root in the belief, which was connected with heathen notions of prophecy and conjuring, that the prophets stood in such a relation to the Deity that the latter necessarily fulfilled their will; a belief which had arisen from the fact that the predictions of true prophets always came to pass (see at Num 22:6 and Num 22:17).

1Ki 22:9

By Jehoshaphat's desire, Ahab nevertheless sent a chamberlain ( סריס ; see at 1Sa 8:15 and Gen 37:36) to fetch Micah ( מהרה , bring quickly).

1Ki 22:10-12

In the meantime the prophets of the calves continued to prophesy success before the two kings, who sat upon thrones "clothed in robes,"i.e., in royal attire, upon a floor in front of the gate of Samaria. גּרן , a threshing-floor, i.e., a levelled place in the open air. In order to give greater effect to their announcement, one of them, named Zedekiyah the son of Cnaanah, made himself iron horns, probably iron spikes held upon the head (Thenius), and said, "With these wilt thou thrust down Aram even to destruction."This symbolical action was an embodiment of the figure used by Moses in the blessing of Joseph (Deu 33:17): "Buffalo horns are his (Joseph's) horns, with them he thrusts down nations"(vid., Hengstenberg, Beitrr . ii. p. 131), and was intended to transfer to Ahab in the case before them that splendid promise which applied to the tribe of Ephraim. But the pseudo-prophet overlooked the fact that the fulfilment of the whole of the blessing of Moses was dependent upon fidelity to the Lord. All the rest of the prophets adopted the same tone, saying, "Go to Ramoth, and prosper,"i.e., and thou wilt prosper. (On this use of two imperatives see Ges. §130, 2).

1Ki 22:13-14

The messenger who fetched Micah tried on the way to persuade him to prophesy success to the king as the other prophets had done; but Micah replied with a solemn oath, that he would only speak what Jehovah said to him.

1Ki 22:15-17

Micah's prophecy concerning the war, and his testimony against the lying prophets . - 1Ki 22:15, 1Ki 22:16. When Micah had come into the presence of the king, he replied to his question, "Shall we go against Ramoth?"etc., in just the same words as the pseudo-prophets, to show the king how he would speak if he were merely guided by personal considerations, as the others were. From the verbal agreement in his reply, and probably also from the tone in which he spoke, Ahab perceived that his words were ironical, and adjured him to speak only truth in the name of Jehovah. Micah then told him what he had seen in the spirit (1Ki 22:17): "I saw all Israel scatter itself upon the mountains, as sheep that have no shepherd;"and then added the word of the Lord: "These have no master; let them return every one to his house in peace."That is to say, Ahab would fall in the war against Ramoth in Gilead, and his army scatter itself without a leader upon the mountains of Gilead, and then every one would return home, without being pursued and slain by the enemy. Whilst Zedekiyah attempted to give greater emphasis to his prophecy by symbolically transferring to Ahab's enterprise the success predicted by Moses, Micah, on the other hand, showed to the king out of the law that would really take place in the intended war, namely, that very state of things which Moses before his departure sought to avert from Israel, by the prayer that the Lord would set a man over the congregation to lead them out and in, that the congregation might not become as sheep that have no shepherd (Num 27:16-17).

1Ki 22:18

But although Ahab had asked for a true word of the Lord, yet he endeavoured to attribute the unfavourable prophecy to Micah's persona enmity, saying to Jehoshaphat, "Did I not tell thee that he prophesies nothing good concerning me, but only evil (misfortune)?"

1Ki 22:19-25

Micah was not led astray, however, by this, but disclosed to him by a further revelation the hidden ground of the false prophecy of his 400 prophets. וגו שׁמע לכן , "therefore, sc. because thou thinkest so, hear the word of Jehovah: I saw the Lord sit upon His throne, and all the army of heaven stand around him ( עליו עמד as in Gen 18:8, etc.) on His right hand and on His left. And the Lord said, Who will persuade Ahab to go up and fall at Ramoth in Gilead? and one spake so, the other so; and the spirit came forth (from the ranks of the rest), stood before Jehovah, and said, I will persuade him...I will go out and be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets. And He (Jehovah) said, Persuade, and thou wilt also be able; go forth and do so. And now Jehovah has put a lying spirit into the mouth of all his prophets; but Jehovah (Himself) has spoken evil (through me) concerning thee."The vision described by Micah was not merely a subjective drapery introduced by the prophet, but a simple communication of the real inward vision by which the fact had been revealed to him, that the prophecy of those 400 prophets was inspired by a lying spirit. The spirit ( הרוּח ) which inspired these prophets as a lying spirit is neither Satan, nor any evil spirit whatever, but, as the definite article and the whole of the context show, the personified spirit of prophecy, which is only so far a πνεῦμα ἀκάθαρτον τῆς πλάνης (Zec 13:2; 1Jo 4:6) and under the influence of Satan as it works as שׁקר רוּח in accordance with the will of God. For even the predictions of the false prophets, as we may see from the passage before us, and also from Zec 13:2 and the scriptural teaching in other passages concerning the spiritual principle of evil, were not mere inventions of human reason and fancy; but the false prophets as well as the true were governed by a supernatural spiritual principle, and, according to divine appointment, were under the influence of the evil spirit in the service of falsehood, just as the true prophets were moved by the Holy Spirit in the service of the Lord. The manner in which the supernatural influence of the lying spirit upon the false prophets is brought out in Micah's vision is, that the spirit of prophecy ( רוח הנבואה ) offers itself to deceive Ahab as שׁקר רוּח in the false prophets. Jehovah sends this spirit, inasmuch as the deception of Ahab has been inflicted upon him as a judgment of God for his unbelief. But there is no statement here to the effect that this lying spirit proceeded from Satan, because the object of the prophet was simply to bring out the working of God in the deception practised upon Ahab by his prophets. - The words of Jehovah, "Persuade Ahab, thou wilt be able,"and "Jehovah has put a lying spirit,"etc., are not to be understood as merely expressing the permission of God, as the fathers and the earlier theologians suppose. According to the Scriptures, God does work evil, but without therefore willing it and bringing forth sin. The prophet's view is founded upon this thought: Jehovah has ordained that Ahab, being led astray by a prediction of his prophets inspired by the spirit of lies, shall enter upon the war, that he may find therein the punishment of his ungodliness. As he would not listen to the word of the Lord in the mouth of His true servants, God had given him up ( παρέδωκεν , Rom 1:24, Rom 1:26, Rom 1:28) in his unbelief to the working of the spirits of lying. But that this did not destroy the freedom of the human will is evident from the expression תּפתּה , "thou canst persuade him,"and still more clearly from תּוּכל גּם , "thou wilt also be able,"since they both presuppose the possibility of resistance to temptation on the part of man.

Zedekiah was so enraged at this unveiling of the spirit of lying by which the pseudo-prophets were impelled, that he smote Micah upon the cheek, and said (1Ki 22:24): "Where did the Spirit of Jehovah depart from me, to speak to thee?"To אי־זה the Chronicles add as an explanation, הדּרך : "by what way had he gone from me?"(cf. 2Ki 3:8, and Ewald, §326, a .) Zedekiah was conscious that he had not invented his prophecy himself, and therefore it was that he rose up with such audacity against Micah; but he only proved that it was not the Spirit of God which inspired him. If he had been inspired by the Spirit of the Lord, he would not have thought it necessary to try and give effect to his words by rude force, but he would have left the defence of his cause quietly to the Lord, as Micah did, who calmly replied to the zealot thus (1Ki 22:25): "Thou wilt see it (that the Spirit of Jehovah had departed from thee) on the day when thou shalt go from chamber to chamber to hide thyself"( החבה for החבא , see Ges. § 75, Anm. 21). This was probably fulfilled at the close of the war, when Jezebel or the friends of Ahab made the pseudo-prophets suffer for the calamitous result; although there is nothing said about this in our history, which confines itself to the main facts.

1Ki 22:26-27

But Ahab had Micah taken back to Amon the commander of the city, and to Joash the king's son, with the command to put him in prison and to feed him with bread and water of affliction, till he came safe back ( בּשׁלום ) from the war. From the expression השׁיבהוּ , "lead him back,"it evidently follows that Micah had been fetched from the commander of the city, who had no doubt kept him in custody, as the city-prison was probably in his house. The opposite cannot be inferred from the words "put him into the prison;"for this command, when taken in connection with what follows, simply enjoins a more severe imprisonment.

1Ki 22:28

In his consciousness of the divine truth of his announcement, Micah left the king with these words: "If thou come back safe, Jehovah has not spoken by me. Hear it, all ye nations." עמּים does not mean people, for it is only in the antique language of the Pentateuch that the word has this meaning, but nations; and Micah thereby invokes not only the persons present as witnesses of the truth of his words, but the nations generally, Israel and the surrounding nations, who were to discern the truth of his word from the events which would follow (see at Mic 1:2).

1Ki 22:29-40

The issue of the war, and death of Ahab . - 1Ki 22:29. Ahab, disregarding Micah's prophecy, went on with the expedition, and was even joined by Jehoshaphat, of whom we should have thought that, after what had occurred, he at any rate would have drawn back. He was probably deterred by false shame, however, from retracting the unconditional promise of help which he had given to Ahab, merely in consequence of a prophetic utterance, which Ahab had brought against his own person from Micah's subjective dislike. But Jehoshaphat narrowly escaped paying the penalty for it with his life (v. 32), and on his fortunate return to Jerusalem had to listen to a severe reproof from the prophet Jehu in consequence (2Ch 19:2).

1Ki 22:30-31

And even Ahab could not throw off a certain fear of the fulfilment of Micah's prophecy. He therefore resolved to go to the battle in disguise, that he might not be recognised by the enemy. ובא התהפּשׂ ("disguise myself and go into the battle,"i.e., I will go into the battle in disguise): an infin. absol ., - a broken but strong form of expression, which is frequently used for the imperative, but very rarely for the first person of the voluntative (cf. Ewald, § 328, c .), and which is probably employed here to express the anxiety that impelled Ahab to take so much trouble to ensure his own safety. (Luther has missed the meaning in his version; in the Chronicles, on the contrary, it is correctly given.) לבשׁ ואתּה , "but do thou put on thy clo thes. "These words are not to be taken as a command, but simply in this sense: "thou mayest (canst) put on thy (royal) dress, since there is no necessity for thee to take any such precautions as I have to take."There is no ground for detecting any cunning, vafrities , on the part of Ahab in these words, as some of the older commentators have done, as though he wished thereby to divert the predicted evil from himself to Jehoshaphat. but we may see very clearly that Ahab had good reason to be anxious about his life, from the command of the Syrian king to the captains of his war-chariots (1Ki 22:31) to fight chiefly against the king of Israel. We cannot infer from this, however, that Ahab was aware of the command. The measure adopted by him may be sufficiently accounted for from his fear of the fulfilment of Micah's evil prophecy, to which there may possibly have been added some personal offence that had been given on his part to the Syrian king in connection with the negotiations concerning the surrender of Ramoth, which had no doubt preceded the war. The thirty-two commanders of the war-chariots and cavalry are, no doubt, the commanders who had taken the place of the thirty-two kings (1Ki 21:24). "Fight not against small and great, but against the king of Israel only,"i.e., endeavour above all others to fight against the king of Israel and to slay him.

1Ki 22:32-33

And when the leaders of the war-chariots saw Jehoshaphat in the battle in his royal clothes, they took him for the king of Israel (Ahab), and pressed upon him. Then Jehoshaphat cried out; and from this they perceived that he was not the king of Israel, and turned away from him. וגו אך אמרוּ והמּה , "and they thought, it is only (i.e., no other than) the king of Israel." עליו יסרוּ , "they bent upon him."Instead of this we have in the Chronicles עליו יסבּוּ , "they surrounded him,"and Thenius proposes to alter our text to this; but there is no necessity for doing so, as סוּר also occurs in a similar sense and connection in 1Ki 20:39. How far Jehoshaphat was saved by his crying out, is not precisely stated. He probably cried out to his followers to come to his aid, from which the Syrians discovered that he was not the king of Israel, whom they were in search of. The chronicler adds (1Ki 2:18, 1Ki 2:31): "and the Lord helped him and turned them off from him;"thus believingly tracing the rescue of the king to its higher causality, though without our having any right to infer from this that Jehoshaphat cried aloud to God for help, which is not implied in the words of the Chronicles.

1Ki 22:34

But notwithstanding the precaution he had taken, Ahab did not escape the judgment of God. "A man drew his bow in his simplicity"( לתמּו as in 2Sa 15:11), i.e., without trying to hit any particular man, "and shot the king of Israel between the skirts and the coat of mail." דּבקים are "joints by which the iron thorax was attached to the hanging skirt, which covered the abdomen"(Cler.). The true coat of mail covered only the breast, to somewhere about the last rib; and below this it had an appendage (skirts) consisting of moveable joints. Between this appendage and the true coat of mail there was a groove through which the arrow passed, and, entering the abdomen, inflicted upon the king a mortal would; so that he said to his charioteer: ידיך הפך , verte manus tuas , i.e., turn round (cf. 2Ki 9:23). The Chethîb ידיך (plural) is the only correct reading, since the driver held the reins in both his hands. החליתי כּי : for I am wounded.

1Ki 22:35

"And the conflict ascended,"i.e., became more violent. The use of the verb עלה in this sense may be accounted for on the supposition that it is founded upon the figure of a rising stream, which becomes more and more impetuous the higher it rises (vid., Isa 8:7). "And the king was stationed (i.e., remained or kept himself in an upright posture) upon the chariot before the Syrians,"that he might not dishearten his soldiers, "and died in the evening, and poured the blood of the wounds in the middle hollow ( חיק ) of the chariot."

1Ki 22:36-37

Towards sunset the cry went through the army ( המּחנה , the army drawn up in battle array), "Every one into his city and into his land!"- In 1Ki 22:37 the historian shows how the word of the Lord was fulfilled in the case of Ahab. "Thus the king died and came to Samaria:"equivalent to, thus the king reached Samaria dead; and he was buried there.

1Ki 22:38

When they washed the chariot at the pool of Samaria, the dogs licked his blood, while the harlots were bathing (in the pool). והזּנות רחצוּ is a circumstantial clause, and רחץ means to bathe, as in Exo 2:5. This explanation, which is sustained by the grammar and is the only tenable one, disposes of the several arbitrary interpretations of these words, together with the emendations of the text of which Thenius is so fond. In this way was the word of the Lord through Elijah (1Ki 21:19) and the unknown prophet (1Ki 20:42) fulfilled; also the prediction of Micah (1Ki 22:17). Ahab had paid the penalty with his own life for sparing the life of Benhadad (1Ki 20:42), and his blood was licked up by the dogs (1Ki 21:19). The fact that the dogs licked up the blood and the harlots were bathing in the pool, when the chariot that was stained with the blood of Ahab was being washed, is mentioned as a sign of the ignominious contempt which was heaped upon him at his death.

1Ki 22:39-40

Close of Ahab's history. We have no further account of his buildings. "The ivory palace,"i.e., the palace inlaid with ivory, he had probably built in his capital Samaria (cf. Amo 3:15).

Constable: 1Ki 16:29--22:41

1. Ahab's evil reign in Israel 16:29-22:40

Ahab ruled Israel from Samaria for 22 years (874-853 B.C.). During the first of these years Asa ruled alone in Judah. Then for three years Asa and Jehoshaphat shared the throne. For the remainder of Ahab's reign Jehoshaphat ruled alone.

Constable: 1Ki 22:1-28

Yahweh's plan to terminate Ahab 22:1-28

Another significant battle occurred between the battle of Ramoth-gilead that the writer recorded in chapter 22 (853 B.C.) and the battles he recorded in chapter 20. Ahab and his Aramean ally Ben-Hadad II (860-841 B.C.) defeated their mutual foe King Shalmaneser III of Assyria at Qarqar on the Orontes River in Aram (also in 853 B.C.).²²⁸ The writers of Scripture did not refer to this battle, but a record of it that Shalmaneser wrote has survived and is now in the British Museum.²²⁹ Perhaps it was this victory that encouraged Ahab to challenge his ally at Ramoth-gilead.

Jehoshaphat had come to Judah's throne in 873 B.C. and had allied himself by marriage to Ahab (2 Chron. 18:1). He had undoubtedly come down from Jerusalem (topographically and symbolically) to Samaria at Ahab's invitation. Verses 1 and 2 seem to introduce the events in verses 3-40 as they read in the text. However several years passed between Jehoshaphat's visit in verse 2 and Ahab's invitation to him in verse 4 (cf. 2 Chron. 18:1-2).²³⁰ Evidently the three years of peace mentioned in verse 1 followed the Battle of Aphek (20:26-30; 873 B.C.). Ahab's invitation to Jehoshaphat to join him in battle against the Arameans at Ramoth-gilead (vv. 3-4) must have taken place in 854 or 853 B.C.

Ramoth-gilead had been one of the chief cities in Gad, east of Jezreel about 33 miles, but the Arameans had captured it. Jehoshaphat was a devotee of Yahweh. It was typical of him to inquire concerning the Lord's will (v. 5) though Ahab could not have cared less to do so. The 400 prophets Ahab assembled may have been apostate prophets of Yahweh since Baal prophets would probably have been unacceptable to Jehoshaphat (v. 6; cf. vv. 11, 12, 24). We should therefore interpret Jehoshaphat's request for a prophet of Yahweh (v. 7) as a request for a faithful prophet. Ahab hated Micaiah because he always told the king the truth. Ahab wanted to feel good more than he wanted to know the truth. This is another evidence of Ahab's continuing antagonism toward Yahweh and His representatives (cf. 21:20).

Like Elijah, Micaiah was willing to stand alone for God (v. 14; cf. 18:22). Micaiah had stood before Ahab many times before (v. 8). This time he told the king what he wanted to hear sarcastically (v. 15). Ahab's reply was also sarcastic (v. 16). He had never had to tell Micaiah to speak the truth in Yahweh's name. Micaiah's vision of Israel was of defenseless sheep without a human shepherd, namely, Ahab. They would come home after the battle peacefully (v. 17). The king responded to this prophecy of his death glibly (v. 18). He could not have believed the Lord's word and gone into battle.²³¹ Micaiah proceeded to explain that Ahab was the target of God's plan. He would lure him into battle. Still Ahab remained unbelieving. God was Ahab's real enemy, not Aram.²³²

"Foolishly, Ahab thought Elijah and Micaiah were his enemies when, quite the contrary, they were his only links to a future worth living. Today's readers of Scripture have the same option that was offered Ahab: they may hear and repent, or they may sulk and resent the messenger."²³³

The identity of the spirit that stood before the Lord and offered to entice Ahab (v. 21, cf. v. 6) is problematic. This "spirit" may be a personified spirit of prophecy, or it may have been a demon or Satan.

". . . God Himself instigated and authorized the deception of Ahab, as indicated by the Lord's initial question to the assembly (22:20), His commission to the spirit (v. 22), and Micaiah's willingness to prophesy a lie after he had vowed to speak only the word of the Lord (vv. 14-15). If the spirit of verses 20-23 can be identified with the divine spirit that energizes prophecy (v. 24), this thesis is further corroborated. The introduction of the truth, rather than ameliorating the deception, shows how effective it was. Even when faced with the truth, Ahab insisted on charging into battle, for the lying spirit working through the prophetic majority had convinced him he would be victorious."²³⁴

". . . God is truthful in that He keeps His unconditional promises to His people and fulfills His sovereign decrees and oaths. God's commitment to truthfulness, however, does not mean that He never uses deceit as a method of judgment on sinners. But He does so without compromising His truthful character and commitment to righteousness."²³⁵

Another view is that Satan initiated and superintended demonic activity, which God permitted (cf. 2 Sam. 24:1; 1 Chron. 21:1; Job 1:13-22; 2:7; Zech. 3:1; Matt. 12:24; John 8:44).²³⁶

Striking on the cheek (v. 24) was a much greater insult then than it is now. Zedekiah was bluffing to the very end. Ahab proved to be hard to the point of insensibility instead of repenting at this prophetic word of judgment, as he had previously done (vv. 26-27; cf. 21:27). Time would tell that Micaiah's words were from the Lord (v. 28).

"The comment in verses 25-26 [about Ahab's wickedness] certainly makes Ahab to be the worst of all twenty kings of Israel."²³⁷

Guzik: 1Ki 22:1-53

1 Kings 22 - The Death of Ahab

A. God foretells Ahab's doom.

1. (1-4) Ahab sets his eyes upon Ramoth-Gilead.

Now three years passed without war between Syria and Israel. Then it came to pass, in the third year, that Jehoshaphat the king of Judah went down to visit the king of Israel. And the king of Israel said to his servants, "Do you know that Ramoth in Gilead is ours, but we hesitate to take it out of the hand of the king of Syria?" So he said to Jehoshaphat, "Will you go with me to fight at Ramoth Gilead?" Jehoshaphat said to the king of Israel, "I am as you are, my people as your people, my horses as your horses."

a. Do you know that Ramoth in Gilead is ours, but we hesitate to take it out of the hand of the king of Syria? Previously, the King of Syria promised to return certain cities to Israel (1 Kings 20:34) in exchange for leniency after defeat in battle. Apparently this was a city that Ben-Hadad never returned to Israel and it was in a strategically important location.

b. Will you go with me to fight at Ramoth Gilead? King Ahab of Israel asked King Jehoshaphat of Judah to help him in this dispute against Syria. This made some sense, because Ramoth-Gilead was only 40 miles from Jerusalem.

2. (5-9) Jehoshaphat proposes that they seek God in the matter.

Also Jehoshaphat said to the king of Israel, "Please inquire for the word of the LORD today." Then the king of Israel gathered the prophets together, about four hundred men, and said to them, "Shall I go against Ramoth Gilead to fight, or shall I refrain?" So they said, "Go up, for the Lord will deliver it into the hand of the king." And Jehoshaphat said, "Is there not still a prophet of the LORD here, that we may inquire of Him?" So the king of Israel said to Jehoshaphat, "There is still one man, Micaiah the son of Imlah, by whom we may inquire of the LORD; but I hate him, because he does not prophesy good concerning me, but evil." And Jehoshaphat said, "Let not the king say such things!" Then the king of Israel called an officer and said, "Bring Micaiah the son of Imlah quickly!"

a. Please inquire for the word of the LORD today: Considering the generally adversarial relationship between Ahab and the prophets of Yahweh, this was a bold request of Jehoshaphat to ask of Ahab. It wasn't surprising that Ahab picked prophets who would tell them that they wanted to hear.

b. Go up, for the Lord will deliver it into the hand of the king: When Ahab gathered the prophets, they were not faithful prophets of the LORD. These were prophets happy to please their kings, and to tell them what they wanted to hear. Jehoshaphat still wanted to hear from a prophet of Yahweh, the LORD (Is there not still a prophet of the LORD here, that we may inquire of Him?).

c. I hate him, because he does not prophesy good concerning me, but evil: Ahab hated the messenger because of the message. His real conflict was with God, but he focused his hatred against the prophet Micaiah. Yet he was willing to listen to the King of Judah when he advised that Ahab should listen to the Prophet Micaiah.

3. (10-12) An object less from the unfaithful prophets.

The king of Israel and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, having put on their robes, sat each on his throne, at a threshing floor at the entrance of the gate of Samaria; and all the prophets prophesied before them. Now Zedekiah the son of Chenaanah had made horns of iron for himself; and he said, "Thus says the LORD: 'With these you shall gore the Syrians until they are destroyed.'" And all the prophets prophesied so, saying, "Go up to Ramoth Gilead and prosper, for the LORD will deliver it into the king's hand."

a. Sat each on his throne, at a threshing floor at the entrance of the gate of Samaria: This illustrates the ancient custom of holding court and making decisions at the gates of the city. There were even thrones for high officials to sit on at the gates of the city of Samaria.

b. Thus says the LORD: These unfaithful prophets (such as Zedekiah) prophesied in the name of the LORD, but they did not prophesy truthfully. Many commentators believe these prophets were pagan prophets, perhaps representatives of Asherah or other pagan gods or goddesses. Yet they clearly prophesied in the name of the LORD. It is best to regard these not as pagan prophets, but unfaithful prophets to the true God.

i. Perhaps these were true followers of Yahweh who were seduced by Ahab's sincere but shallow repentance three years before (1 Kings 21:27-29). After that, they began to align with Ahab uncritically. Three years later they were willing to prophesy lies to Ahab if that was what he wanted to hear.

c. With these you shall gore the Syrians until they are destroyed: Zedekiah used a familiar tool of ancient prophets - the object lesson. He used horns of iron to illustrate the thrust of two powerful forces, armies that would rout the Syrians. Zedekiah had the agreement of 400 other prophets (all the prophets prophesied so).

i. This must have been a vivid and entertaining presentation. We can be certain that every eye was on Zedekiah when he used the horns of iron to powerfully illustrate the point. It was certainly persuasive to have 400 prophets speak in agreement on one issue. No matter how powerful and persuasive the presentation, their message was unfaithful.

4. (13-16) The prophecy of Micaiah, the faithful prophet.

Then the messenger who had gone to call Micaiah spoke to him, saying, "Now listen, the words of the prophets with one accord encourage the king. Please, let your word be like the word of one of them, and speak encouragement." And Micaiah said, "As the LORD lives, whatever the LORD says to me, that I will speak." Then he came to the king; and the king said to him, "Micaiah, shall we go to war against Ramoth Gilead, or shall we refrain?" And he answered him, "Go and prosper, for the LORD will deliver it into the hand of the king!" So the king said to him, "How many times shall I make you swear that you tell me nothing but the truth in the name of the LORD?"

a. As the LORD lives, whatever the LORD says to me, that I will speak: The assistants of King Ahab tried to persuade Micaiah to speak in agreement with the 400 other prophets. Micaiah assured him that he would simply repeat what God said to him.

i. This was a dramatic scene. Micaiah was brought out from prison (1 Kings 22:26 indicates that he came from prison). We see a prophet in rags and chains stand before two kings, ready to speak on behalf of the LORD.

ii. "This might have daunted the good prophet, but that he had lately seen the Lord sitting upon His throne with all the host of heaven standing by Him, and hence he so boldly looked in the face these two kings in their majesty; for he beheld them as so many mice." (Trapp)

b. Go and prosper, for the LORD will deliver it into the hand of the king! When Micaiah said this, his tone was probably mocking and sarcastic. He said similar words to the 400 unfaithful prophets, but delivered a completely different message.

c. How many times shall I make you swear that you tell me nothing but the truth in the name of the LORD? King Ahab recognized the mocking tone of Micaiah's prophecy and knew it contradicted the message of the 400 prophets. He demanded that Micaiah tell nothing but the truth - which Ahab believed and hoped was the message of the 400 other prophets.

5. (17-18) Micaiah speaks the true prophecy from the LORD.

Then he said, "I saw all Israel scattered on the mountains, as sheep that have no shepherd. And the LORD said, 'These have no master. Let each return to his house in peace.'" And the king of Israel said to Jehoshaphat, "Did I not tell you he would not prophesy good concerning me, but evil?"

a. I saw all Israel scattered on the mountains, as sheep that have no shepherd: Micaiah was challenged to tell the truth, and now he changed his tone from mocking to serious. He said that not only would Israel be defeated, but also that their leader (shepherd) would perish.

b. Did I not tell you he would not prophesy good concerning me, but evil? King Ahab said that he wanted the truth - but he couldn't handle the truth. What he didn't consider was that though Micaiah prophesied evil towards Ahab, he prophesied truth.

i. "Ahab knew in his heart that Micaiah would not fear or flatter him, but only declare the word of Jehovah. This he construed into personal hatred . . . Hatred of the messenger of God is clear evidence of willful wickedness." (Morgan)

6. (19-23) Micaiah reveals the inspiration behind the 400 prophets.

Then Micaiah said, "Therefore hear the word of the LORD: I saw the LORD sitting on His throne, and all the host of heaven standing by, on His right hand and on His left. And the LORD said, 'Who will persuade Ahab to go up, that he may fall at Ramoth Gilead?' So one spoke in this manner, and another spoke in that manner. Then a spirit came forward and stood before the LORD, and said, 'I will persuade him.' The LORD said to him, 'In what way?' So he said, 'I will go out and be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets.' And the LORD said, 'You shall persuade him, and also prevail. Go out and do so.' Therefore look! The LORD has put a lying spirit in the mouth of all these prophets of yours, and the LORD has declared disaster against you."

a. I saw the LORD sitting on His throne, and all the host of heaven standing by: King Ahab and others at the court found it hard to explain how one prophet could be right and 400 prophets could be wrong. Here Micaiah explained the message of the 400 prophets. It is possible that this was just a parable, but it is more likely that Micaiah had an accurate prophetic glimpse into the heavenly drama behind these events.

b. On His right hand and on His left: Since the right hand was the place of favor, this may indicate that God spoke to the combined host of heaven, both faithful and fallen angelic beings.

i. Some people forget that Satan and his fellow fallen angels have access to heaven (Job 1:6, Revelation 12:10). There is a well-intentioned but mistaken teaching that God can allow no evil in His presence, meaning that Satan and other fallen angels could not be in His presence. These passages show that God can allow evil in His presence, though He can have no fellowship with evil and one day all evil will be removed from His presence (Revelation 20:14-15).

c. Who will persuade Ahab to go up, that he may fall at Ramoth Gilead? God wanted to bring judgment against Ahab, so He asked this group of the host of heaven for a volunteer to lead Ahab into battle.

d. I will go out and be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets: Apparently, one of the fallen angels volunteered for this task. Since Ahab wanted to be deceived, God would give him what He wanted, using a willing fallen angel who worked through willing unfaithful prophets.

i. "It is rather a personified spirit of prophecy (Zechariah 13:2; 1 John 4:6), for even the false prophets may be governed by supernatural or spiritual forces rather than merely human reason. It represents the power of a lie in the mouth of someone opposed to the truth and speaking for his own ends." (Wiseman)

7. (24-28) The reaction of the false prophets and Ahab.

Now Zedekiah the son of Chenaanah went near and struck Micaiah on the cheek, and said, "Which way did the spirit from the LORD go from me to speak to you?" And Micaiah said, "Indeed, you shall see on that day when you go into an inner chamber to hide!" So the king of Israel said, "Take Micaiah, and return him to Amon the governor of the city and to Joash the king's son; and say, 'Thus says the king: "Put this fellow in prison, and feed him with bread of affliction and water of affliction, until I come in peace."' " But Micaiah said, "If you ever return in peace, the LORD has not spoken by me." And he said, "Take heed, all you people!"

a. Now Zedekiah the son of Chenaanah went near and struck Micaiah: Zedekiah responded the way many do when they are defeated in argument - he responded with violence.

b. Put this fellow in prison: King Ahab responded the way many tyrants do when they are confronted with the truth. Ahab wanted Micaiah imprisoned and deprived (feed him with the bread of affliction and water of affliction).

i. Take Micaiah, and return him tells us that they took Micaiah from the prison to speak to these kings.

ii. "The phrase 'bread of affliction and water of affliction' may be translated 'bread and water of scant measure.'" (Dilday)

c. If you ever return in peace, the LORD has not spoken by me: The prophet Micaiah made one final and ultimate appeal. He was willing to be judged by whether his prophecy came to pass or not.

B. Ahab dies in battle.

1. (29-30) Jehoshaphat and Ahab go into battle.

So the king of Israel and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah went up to Ramoth Gilead. And the king of Israel said to Jehoshaphat, "I will disguise myself and go into battle; but you put on your robes." So the king of Israel disguised himself and went into battle.

a. So the king of Israel and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah went up to Ramoth Gilead: It is easy to understand why King Ahab of Israel went to this battle; he didn't want to believe that Micaiah's prophecy was true and wanted to courageously oppose it. It is less easy to understand why King Jehoshaphat of Judah went to this battle with Ahab. He should have believed the prophecy of Micaiah and known that the battle would end in disaster and the death of at least Ahab.

i. It may be that Jehoshaphat had a fatalistic attitude towards the will of God, figuring that if it all was God's will then there was nothing he or anyone else could do about it.

b. I will disguise myself and go into battle; but you put on your robes: Going into the battle, Ahab did not want to be identified as a king and therefore be a special target. He thought this would help protect him against Micaiah's prophecy of doom. It is more difficult to explain why Jehoshaphat agreed to go into the battle as the only clearly identified king. Perhaps he was either not very smart or he had very great faith.

2. (31-36) Jehoshaphat is saved and Ahab dies in battle.

Now the king of Syria had commanded the thirty-two captains of his chariots, saying, "Fight with no one small or great, but only with the king of Israel." So it was, when the captains of the chariots saw Jehoshaphat, that they said, "Surely it is the king of Israel!" Therefore they turned aside to fight against him, and Jehoshaphat cried out. And it happened, when the captains of the chariots saw that it was not the king of Israel, that they turned back from pursuing him. Now a certain man drew a bow at random, and struck the king of Israel between the joints of his armor. So he said to the driver of his chariot, "Turn around and take me out of the battle, for I am wounded." The battle increased that day; and the king was propped up in his chariot, facing the Syrians, and died at evening. The blood ran out from the wound onto the floor of the chariot. Then, as the sun was going down, a shout went throughout the army, saying, "Every man to his city, and every man to his own country!"

a. Fight with no one small or great, but only with the king of Israel: Ahab's previous mercy to Ben-Hadad did not win any lasting favor with the rulers of Syria. This strategy of the Syrian army made Ahab's counter-strategy of disguising himself in battle seem very wise.

i. "Thus doth the unthankful infidel repay the mercy of his late victor . . . but God had a holy hand in it." (Trapp)

b. Jehoshaphat cried out: Finding himself as the only identifiable king in the battle, Jehoshaphat found himself quickly in danger. He cried out unto the LORD and was rescued when they turned back from pursuing him.

i. 2 Chronicles 18:31 makes it clear that the LORD heard Jehoshaphat's cry and rescued him.

ii. After the close escape at Ramoth Gilead, Jehoshaphat rededicated himself to the spiritual reform of Judah: he went out again among the people from Beersheba to the mountains of Ephraim, and brought them back to the LORD God of their fathers (2 Chronicles 19:4).

c. Now a certain man drew a bow at random, and struck the king of Israel: This seemed to be pure chance. It was a certain man, and he pulled his bow at random - but it struck as if it were a sin-seeking missile. God orchestrated the unintended actions of man to result in an exercise of His judgment.

i. "And now what joy could Ahab's black soul, ready to depart, have of his ivory house? Who had not rather be a Micaiah in the jail than Ahab in the chariot? Wicked men have the advantage of the way, godly men of the end." (Trapp)

d. The king was propped up in his chariot, facing the Syrians, and died at evening: Ahab faced the end of his life bravely, dying propped up in his chariot to inspire his troops. When his death became known the battle was over.

i. "It appears that the Israelites and Jews maintained the fight the whole of the day; but when at evening the king died, and this was known, there was a proclamation made, probably with the consent of both Syrians and Israelites, that the war was over." (Clarke)

3. (37-40) God's word to Ahab is fulfilled.

So the king died, and was brought to Samaria. And they buried the king in Samaria. Then someone washed the chariot at a pool in Samaria, and the dogs licked up his blood while the harlots bathed, according to the word of the LORD which He had spoken. Now the rest of the acts of Ahab, and all that he did, the ivory house which he built and all the cities that he built, are they not written in the book of the chronicles of the kings of Israel? So Ahab rested with his fathers. Then Ahaziah his son reigned in his place.

a. So the king died: The word through the Prophet Micaiah proved true. King Ahab never returned to Samaria or Israel in peace.

b. The dogs licked up his blood while the harlots bathed: This was an almost fulfillment of God's word through Elijah in 1 Kings 21:19, where Elijah prophesied that dogs would lick the blood of Ahab. This proved true, but not in the place Elijah said it would happen. God relented from His original judgment against Ahab announced in 1 Kings 21, but because of Ahab's false repentance and continued sin a very similar judgment came upon him.

c. According to the word of the LORD which He had spoken: There was another prophecy was fulfilled in the death of Ahab. It was the word from the anonymous prophet of 1 Kings 20:42, that Ahab spared Ben-Hadad's life at the expense of his own.

d. The ivory house which he built and all the cities that he built: By materialist standards the reign of Ahab was a success. He was generally militarily successful and enjoyed a generally prosperous economy. Yet spiritually his reign was a disaster, one of the worst ever for Israel.

C. The reigns of Jehoshaphat and Ahaziah.

1. (41-50) Summary of the reign of Jehoshaphat.

Jehoshaphat the son of Asa had become king over Judah in the fourth year of Ahab king of Israel. Jehoshaphat was thirty-five years old when he became king, and he reigned twenty-five years in Jerusalem. His mother's name was Azubah the daughter of Shilhi. And he walked in all the ways of his father Asa. He did not turn aside from them, doing what was right in the eyes of the LORD. Nevertheless the high places were not taken away, for the people offered sacrifices and burned incense on the high places. Also Jehoshaphat made peace with the king of Israel. Now the rest of the acts of Jehoshaphat, the might that he showed, and how he made war, are they not written in the book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah? And the rest of the perverted persons, who remained in the days of his father Asa, he banished from the land. There was then no king in Edom, only a deputy of the king. Jehoshaphat made merchant ships to go to Ophir for gold; but they never sailed, for the ships were wrecked at Ezion Geber. Then Ahaziah the son of Ahab said to Jehoshaphat, "Let my servants go with your servants in the ships." But Jehoshaphat would not. And Jehoshaphat rested with his fathers, and was buried with his fathers in the City of David his father. Then Jehoram his son reigned in his place.

a. Jehoshaphat the son of Asa: Asa was a good king and Jehoshaphat his son followed in his footsteps and did what was right in the eyes of the LORD.

i. The writer of 1 Kings actually summarized many of the remarkable accomplishments of Jehoshaphat, who was one of the better kings of Judah. From 2 Chronicles we learn many of Jehoshaphat's other accomplishments.

· He sent teachers of God's Word out to all his kingdom (2 Chronicles 17:7-9).

· He established a permanent military garrison along the northern frontier (2 Chronicles 17:1-2, 12).

· He trained and equipping a sizeable army (2 Chronicles 17:14-19) that was able to quell a Transjordan invasion (2 Chronicles 20:1-30).

· He placed Edom under Judean control, controlling an important caravan route to the south (2 Kings 3:8-27; 2 Chronicles 20:36).

· God blessed his reign so much that the fear of the LORD came upon neighboring nations so that they did not make war against Jehoshaphat (2 Chronicles 17:10).

· Jehoshaphat was also an able administrator, implementing judicial reforms (2 Chronicles 19:5-11) and religious reforms (2 Chronciles 17:3-9).

· Jehoshaphat was also the king connected to the famous incident when the army of Judah saw a great victory won as the Levites led the battle with praise (2 Chronicles 20:15-23).

b. Nevertheless the high places were not taken away: Jehoshaphat did not do everything he should have as a king. Yet he reformed Israel even more deeply than Asa did (the rest of the perverted persons, who remained in the days of his father Asa, he banished from the land).

i. "In 2 Chronicles 17:6, it is expressly said, that he did take way the high places. Allowing that the text is right in 2 Chronicles the two places may be easily recognized. There were two kinds of high places in the land: 1. Those used for idolatrous purposes. 2. Those that were consecrate to God, and were used before the temple was built. The former he did take away, the latter he did not." (Clarke)

c. There was then no king in Edom: "This note is introduced by the writer to account for Jehoshaphat's building ships at Ebion-geber, which was in the territory of the Edomites, and which showed them to be at that time under the Jewish yoke." (Clarke)

d. Let my servants go with your servants in the ships: After a disastrous shipping venture Jehoshaphat was tempted to make an alliance with Israel, but Jehoshaphat would not. This was to his credit. He learned the lesson of not entering a partnership with the ungodly.

i. 2 Chronicles 20:35-37 tells us more about this shipping venture with Israel. It tells us that Jehoshaphat did make an alliance with Ahaziah and it ended in disaster. The LORD told Jehoshaphat why: Because you have allied yourself with Ahaziah, the LORD has destroyed your works (2 Chronicles 20:37). It was after this word of the LORD that Jehoshaphat turned down the offer of a continued alliance with King Ahaziah of Israel.

e. Then Jehoram his son reigned in his place: Jehoshaphat gave his son Jehoram to Athaliah in marriage, the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel (2 Chronicles 18:1). This was a serious error because the reign of Ahaziah was a spiritual and national disaster for Judah because Jehoram walked in the ways of the kings of Israel, just as the house of Ahab had done, for he had the daughter of Ahab as a wife (2 Chronicles 21:6). The ill effects of this were felt even to the next generation, because Ahaziah the son of Jehoram was also a bad king for Judah (2 Chronicles 22:2-4).

2. (51-53) The evil reign of King Ahaziah of Israel, the son of Ahab.

Ahaziah the son of Ahab became king over Israel in Samaria in the seventeenth year of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, and reigned two years over Israel. He did evil in the sight of the LORD, and walked in the way of his father and in the way of his mother and in the way of Jeroboam the son of Nebat, who had made Israel sin; for he served Baal and worshiped him, and provoked the LORD God of Israel to anger, according to all that his father had done.

a. He reigned two years over Israel: Ahab reigned 22 years, but his son only reigned two years. Though his repentance was shallow, when Ahab repented after an announcement of judgment in 1 Kings 21, God relented from the immediate judgment and promised to bring judgment in the days of Ahab's son. Ahaziah's short reign was a fulfillment of this prophecy in 1 Kings 21:29.

i. "By comparing this verse with verse 41, it appears that Ahaziah was made king by his father, and reigned in conjunction with him, a year or two before Ahab's death." (Poole)

b. He did evil in the sight of the LORD, and walked in the way of his father and in the way of his mother and in the way of Jeroboam: Considering the sinful ways of Jeroboam, Ahab, and Jezebel, there is hardly anything worse that could be said of a king.

i. With this, the Book of 1 Kings ends on a low note. It began with the promise of the twilight of Israel greatest king, David. It ends with the sad reign of one of the most wicked kings over a divided nation.

© 2004 David Guzik - No distribution beyond personal use without permission

Introduction / Outline

JFB: 1 Kings (Book Introduction)

THE FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF KINGS, in the ancient copies of the Hebrew Bible, constitute one book. Various titles have been given them; in the Septuagint and the Vulgate they are called the Third and Fourth Books of Kings. The authorship of these books is unknown; but the prevailing opinion is that they were compiled by Ezra, or one of the later prophets, from the ancient documents that are so frequently referred to in the course of the history as of public and established authority. Their inspired character was acknowledged by the Jewish Church, which ranked them in the sacred canon; and, besides, it is attested by our Lord, who frequently quotes from them (compare 1Ki 17:9; 2Ki 5:14 with Luk 4:24-27; 1Ki 10:1 with Mat 12:42).

JFB: 1 Kings (Outline)

• ABISHAG CHERISHES DAVID IN HIS EXTREME AGE. (1Ki 1:1-4)
• ADONIJAH USURPS THE KINGDOM. (1Ki. 1:5-31)
• SOLOMON, BY DAVID'S APPOINTMENT, IS ANOINTED KING. (1Ki. 1:32-49)
• ADONIJAH, FLEEING TO THE HORNS OF THE ALTAR, IS DISMISSED BY SOLOMON. (1Ki 1:50-53)
• DAVID DIES. (1Ki 2:1-11)
• SOLOMON SUCCEEDS HIM. (1Ki 2:12-24)
• JOAB SLAIN. (1Ki. 2:28-45)
• SHIMEI PUT TO DEATH. (1Ki 2:34-46)
• SOLOMON MARRIES PHARAOH'S DAUGHTER. (1Ki 3:1)
• HIGH PLACES BEING IN USE, HE SACRIFICES AT GIBEON. (1Ki 3:2-5)
• HE CHOOSES WISDOM. (1Ki 3:6-15)
• HIS JUDGMENT BETWEEN TWO HARLOTS. (1Ki 3:16-28)
• SOLOMON'S PRINCES. (1Ki 4:1-6)
• HIS TWELVE OFFICERS. (1Ki 4:7-21)
• HIS WISDOM. (1Ki 4:29-34)
• HIRAM SENDS TO CONGRATULATE SOLOMON. (1Ki 5:1-6)
• FURNISHES TIMBER TO BUILD THE TEMPLE. (1Ki 5:7-12)
• SOLOMON'S WORKMEN AND LABORERS. (1Ki 5:13-18)
• THE BUILDING OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. (1Ki 6:1-4)
• THE CHAMBERS THEREOF. (1Ki 6:5-10)
• GOD'S PROMISES UNTO IT. (1Ki 6:11-14)
• THE CEILING AND ADORNING OF IT. (1Ki 6:15-22)
• THE TIME TAKEN TO BUILD IT. (1Ki 6:37-38)
• BUILDING OF SOLOMON'S HOUSE. (1Ki 7:1)
• OF THE HOUSE OF LEBANON. (1Ki 7:2-7)
• HIRAM'S WORKS. (1Ki. 7:13-51)
• THE DEDICATION OF THE TEMPLE. (1Ki 8:1-12)
• SOLOMON'S BLESSING. (1Ki 8:12-21)
• HIS PRAYER. (1Ki. 8:22-61)
• HIS SACRIFICE OF PEACE OFFERING. (1Ki 8:62-64)
• THE PEOPLE JOYFUL. (1Ki 8:65)
• GOD'S COVENANT IN A SECOND VISION WITH SOLOMON. (1Ki 9:1-9)
• THE MUTUAL PRESENTS OF SOLOMON AND HIRAM. (1Ki 9:10-23)
• SOLOMON'S YEARLY SACRIFICES. (1Ki 9:24-28)
• THE QUEEN OF SHEBA ADMIRES THE WISDOM OF SOLOMON. (1Ki 10:1-13)
• HIS RICHES. (1Ki. 10:14-29)
• SOLOMON'S WIVES AND CONCUBINES IN HIS OLD AGE. (1Ki 11:1-8)
• GOD THREATENS HIM. (1Ki 11:9-13)
• REFUSING THE OLD MEN'S COUNSEL. (1Ki 12:1-5)
• JEROBOAM MADE KING OVER THEM. (1Ki 12:20-33)
• JEROBOAM'S HAND WITHERS. (1Ki. 13:1-22)
• THE DISOBEDIENT PROPHET SLAIN BY A LION. (1Ki 13:23-32)
• AHIJAH DENOUNCES GOD'S JUDGMENTS AGAINST JEROBOAM. (1Ki. 14:1-20)
• REHOBOAM'S WICKED REIGN. (1Ki 14:21-24)
• SHISHAK SPOILS JERUSALEM. (1Ki 14:25-31)
• ABIJAM'S WICKED REIGN OVER JUDAH. (1Ki 15:1-8)
• ASA'S GOOD REIGN. (1Ki 15:9-22)
• NADAB'S WICKED REIGN. (1Ki 15:25-34)
• JEHU'S PROPHECY AGAINST BAASHA. (1Ki 16:1-8)
• ZIMRI'S CONSPIRACY. (1Ki 16:9-22)
• OMRI BUILDS SAMARIA. (1Ki 16:23-28)
• JOSHUA'S CURSE FULFILLED UPON HIEL THE BUILDER OF JERICHO. (1Ki 16:34)
• ELIJAH, PROPHESYING AGAINST AHAB, IS SENT TO CHERITH. (1Ki 17:1-7)
• HE IS SENT TO A WIDOW OF ZAREPHATH. (1Ki 17:8-16)
• HE RAISES HER SON TO LIFE. (1Ki 17:17-24)
• ELIJAH MEETS OBADIAH. (1Ki. 18:1-16)
• ELIJAH, BY PRAYER, OBTAINS RAIN. (1Ki 18:41-46)
• ELIJAH FLEES TO BEER-SHEBA. (1Ki 19:1-3)
• ELISHA FOLLOWS ELIJAH. (1Ki 19:19-21)
• BEN-HADAD BESIEGES SAMARIA. (1Ki 20:1-12)
• THE SYRIANS ARE SLAIN. (1Ki 20:13-20)
• A PROPHET REPROVES HIM. (1Ki 20:35-42)
• NABOTH REFUSES AHAB HIS VINEYARD. (1Ki 21:1-4)
• JEZEBEL CAUSES NABOTH TO BE STONED. (1Ki 21:5-16)
• ELIJAH DENOUNCES JUDGMENTS AGAINST AHAB AND JEZEBEL. (1Ki 21:17-29)
• AHAB SLAIN AT RAMOTH-GILEAD. (1Ki. 22:1-36)

TSK: 1 Kings 22 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

1Ki 22:1, Ahab, seduced by false prophets, according to the word of Micaiah, is slain at Ramoth-gilead; 1Ki 22:37, The dogs lick up his blood, and Ahaziah succeeds him; 1Ki 22:41, Jehoshaphat’s good reign; 1Ki 22:45, His acts; 1Ki 22:46, Jehoram succeeds him; 1Ki 22:51, Ahaziah’s evil reign.

Poole: 1 Kings (Book Introduction)

FIRST BOOK OF KINGS COMMONLY CALLED

THE THIRD BOOK OF THE KINGS

THE ARGUMENT

THESE two Books called Of the Kings, because they treat of the kings of Judah and Israel, were written by the prophets, or holy men of God, living in or near their several times, and by some one of them digested into this order. But whoever was the penman, that these are a part of those Holy Scriptures which were Divinely inspired is sufficiently evident first,

From the concurring testimony of the whole Jewish church in all ages, to whom were committed the oracles of God, Rom 3:2 , who also did faithfully discharge their duty in preserving and delivering them entirely and truly to their posterity from time to time, as plainly appears, because Christ and his apostles, who reproved them freely for their several sins, never taxed them with this fault, of depraving the Holy Scriptures of the Old Testament. Secondly, Because this is manifest concerning divers parcels of them which were taken out of the records of the prophets Nathan, Ahijah, and Iddo, 2Ch 9:29 , and out of the prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah; and the rest doubtless were of the same nature.

Thirdly, From the approbation of these books by the New Testament, both generally, as 2Ti 3:16 , All Scripture is given by inspiration from God, &c., which is affirmed concerning all those Holy Scriptures which Timothy had known, from a child, 2Ti 3:15 , and therefore must necessarily be meant of all the books of the Old Testament, which the Jews owned for canonical Scripture; and particularly Rom 11:2,3 , &c., where a passage out of these books is quoted and owned as a part of the Holy Scripture, called the Scripture by way of eminency.

Poole: 1 Kings 22 (Chapter Introduction)

KINGS CHAPTER 22

Ahab, intending war against the Syrians, is advised by Jehoshaphat first to ask counsel of God: Ahab’ s prophets advise him to it, especially Zedekiah, 1Ki 22:1-12 , Micaiah, a prophet of the Lord, dissuadeth him from it; and is put in prison by Ahab, 1Ki 22:13-28 . Ahab goeth to the battle; is slain; the dogs lick his blood; and Ahaziah succeedeth him, 1Ki 22:29-40 . Jehoshaphat’ s good reign over Judah: his acts and death: Jehoram succeedeth him, 1Ki 22:41-50 . Ahaziah’ s evil reign, 1Ki 22:51-53 .

MHCC: 1 Kings (Book Introduction)

The history now before us accounts for the affairs of the kingdoms of Judah and Israel, yet with special regard to the kingdom of God among them; for it is a sacred history. It is earlier as to time, teaches much more, and is more interesting than any common histories.

MHCC: 1 Kings 22 (Chapter Introduction)

(1Ki 22:1-14) Jehoshaphat makes a league with Ahab.

(1Ki 22:15-28) Micaiah predicts the death of Ahab.

(1Ki 22:29-40) Death of Ahab.

(1Ki 22:41-50) Jehoshaphat's good reign over Judah.

(1Ki 22:51-53) Ahaziah's evil reign over Israel.

Matthew Henry: 1 Kings (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The First Book of Kings

Many histories are books of kings and their reigns, to which the affairs of their kingdoms are reduced; this is a piece of honour that has commonly been paid to crowned heads. The holy Scripture is the history of the kingdom of God among men, under the several administrations of it; but there the King is one and his name one. The particular history now before us accounts for the affairs of the kingdoms of Judah and Israel, yet with special regard to the kingdom of God among them; for still it is a sacred history, much more instructive and not less entertaining than any of the histories of the kings of the earth, to which (those of them that are of any certainty) it is prior in time; for though there were kings in Edom before there was any king in Israel, Gen 36:31 (foreigners, in that point of state, got the precedency), yet the history of the kings of Israel lives, and will live, in holy Writ, to the end of the world, whereas that of the kings of Edom is long since buried in oblivion; for the honour that comes from God is durable, while the honour of the world is like a mushroom, which comes up in a night and perishes in a night. - The Bible began with the story of patriarchs, and prophets, and judges, men whose converse with heaven was more immediate, the record of which strengthens our faith, but is not so easily accommodated to our case, now that we expect not visions, as the subsequent history of affairs like ours under the direction of common providence; and here also we find, though not many types and figures of the Messiah, yet great expectations of him; for not only prophets, but kings, desired to see the great mysteries of the gospel, Luk 10:24 - The two books of Samuel are introductions to the books of the Kings, as they relate the origin of the royal government in Saul and of the royal family in David. These two books give us an account of David's successor, Solomon, the division of his kingdom, and the succession of the several kings both of Judah and Israel, with an abstract of their history down to the captivity. And as from the book of Genesis we may collect excellent rules of economics, for the good governing of families, so from these books we may collect rules of politics, for the directing of public affairs. There is in these books special regard had to the house and lineage of David, from which Christ came. Some of his sons trod in his steps, and others did not. The characters of the kings of Judah may be thus briefly given: - David the devout, Solomon the wise, Rehoboam the simple, Abijah the valiant, Asa the upright, Jehoshaphat the religious, Jehoram the wicked, Ahaziah the profane, Joash the backslider, Amaziah the rash, Uzziah the mighty, Jotham the peaceable, Ahaz the idolater, Hezekiah the reformer, Manasseh the penitent, Amon the obscure, Josiah the tender-hearted, Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah, all wicked, and such as brought ruin quickly on themselves and their kingdom. The number of the good and bad is nearly equal, but the reigns of the good were generally long and those of the bad short, the consideration of which will make the state of Israel not altogether so bad in this period as at first it seems. In this first book we have, I. The death of David, ch. 1 and 2. II. The glorious reign of Solomon, and his building the temple (ch. 3-10), but the cloud his sun set under, ch. 11. III. The division of the kingdoms in Rehoboam, and his reign and Jeroboam's, ch. 12-14. IV. The reigns of Abijah and Asa over Judah, Baasha and Omri over Israel, ch. 15 and 16. V. Elijah's miracles, ch. 17-19. VI. Ahab's success against Benhadad, his wickedness and fall, ch. 20-22. And in all this history it appears that kings, though gods to us, are men to God, mortal and accountable.

Matthew Henry: 1 Kings 22 (Chapter Introduction)

This chapter finishes the history of Ahab's reign. It was promised in the close of the foregoing chapter that the ruin of his house should not come in his days, but his days were soon at an end. His war with the Syrians at Ramoth-Gilead is that which we have an account of in this chapter. I. His preparations for that war. He consulted, 1. His privy-council (1Ki 22:1-3). 2. Jehoshaphat (1Ki 22:4). 3. His prophets. (1.) His own, who encouraged him to go on this expedition (1Ki 22:5, 1Ki 22:6), Zedekiah particularly (1Ki 22:11, 1Ki 22:12). (2.) A prophet of the Lord, Micaiah, who was desired to come by Jehoshaphat (1Ki 22:7, 1Ki 22:8), sent for (1Ki 22:9, 1Ki 22:10-13, 1Ki 22:14), upbraided Ahab with his confidence in the false prophets (1Ki 22:15), but foretold his fall in this expedition (1Ki 22:16-18), and gave him an account how he came to be thus imposed upon by his prophets (1Ki 22:19-23). He is abused by Zedekiah (1Ki 22:24, 1Ki 22:25), and imprisoned by Ahab (1Ki 22:26-28). II. The battle itself, in which, 1. Jehoshaphat is exposed. But, 2. Ahab is slain (1Ki 22:29-40). In the close of the chapter we have a short account, (1.) Of the good reign of Jehoshaphat king of Judah (1Ki 22:41-50). (2.) Of the wicked reign of Ahaziah king of Israel (1Ki 22:51-53).

Constable: 1 Kings (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Title

The Books of 1 and 2 Kings received their names because they document the reigns of the 40 kings of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah following David.¹

In the Hebrew Bible 1 and 2 Kings were one book until the sixteenth century. The ancients regarded them as the continuation of the narrative begun in Samuel. The Septuagint (Greek) translation of the Hebrew text, dating from about 250 B.C., was the first to divide Kings into two books. That division has continued to the present day. The Septuagint translators, however, called these two books 3 and 4 Kingdoms. First and 2 Kingdoms were our 1 and 2 Samuel. Jerome's Vulgate (Latin) translation, which dates about A.D. 400, changed the name from Kingdoms to Kings.

"The English Bible presents the books primarily as historical accounts. Their placement next to 1, 2 Chronicles demonstrates the collectors' interest in detailing all the events of Israel's history. In contrast, the Hebrew Bible places Joshua-Kings with the prophets, which highlights their common viewpoints. This decision implies that 1, 2 Kings are being treated as proclamation and history."²

Writer and Date

Most Old Testament scholars today believe several different individuals wrote and edited Kings because of theories concerning textual transmission that have gained popularity in the last 150 years. However, many conservatives have continued to follow the older tradition of the church that one individual probably put Kings together.³ This view finds support in the stylistic and linguistic features that run through the whole work and make it read like the product of a single writer. Some of these features are the way the writer described and summarized each king's reign, the consistent basis on which he evaluated all the kings, and recurring phrases and terms.

The identity of the writer is unknown today and has been for centuries. Ancient Jewish tradition suggested Ezra or Ezekiel as possible writers since both of these men were biblical writers who lived after the Babylonian exile. The record of King Jehoiachin's release from Babylonian captivity (2 Kings 25:27-30) points to a date of final composition sometime after that event. Jeremiah has traditional Talmudic support as well though he never went to Babylon but died in Egypt. Of course, someone else may have written Kings. Scholars have suggested these men only because they were famous writers who lived when Kings reached its final form.

Most non-conservatives date Kings considerably later than the sixth or fifth centuries.⁴

Scope

The historical period Kings covers totals about 413 years. The events that frame this period were Solomon's coronation as co-regent with David (973 B.C.) and Jehoiachin's release from Babylonian exile (560 B.C.).

However, most of Kings deals with the period that spans Solomon's coronation and the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C., a period of 387 years. In terms of the temple, at the beginning we see the temple built and at the end the temple burnt.

". . . 1, 2 Kings present Israel's history as a series of events that describe how and why the nation fell from the heights of national prosperity to the depths of conquest and exile."⁵

"More specifically, 1, 2 Kings explain how and why Israel lost the land it fought so hard to win in Joshua and worked so hard to organize in Judges and 1, 2 Samuel."⁶

"Plot relates the causes and effects in a story. Thus, the story line in 1, 2 Kings may be that Israel went into exile, but the plot is Israel went into exile because of its unfaithfulness to God. To make cause and effect unfold, plots normally have at least two basic aspects: conflict and resolution. A plot's conflict is the tension in a story that makes it an interesting account, while a plot's resolution is the way the conflict is settled. How the author develops these two components usually decides the shape and effectiveness of the plot."⁷

This historical period is more than twice that of the one the Books of Samuel covered, which was about 150 years in length. The Book of Judges covers about 300 years of Israel's history.

The dates of the kings of Israel and Judah that I have used in the following notes are those of Edwin Thiele.⁸ He has worked out the many problems regarding these dates more satisfactorily than anyone else in the opinion of most scholars.⁹

Message¹⁰

The fact that this book opens and closes with death should be a clue as to its message.

It opens with David's death, and it closes with Ahab's death. The intervening period of about a century and a half is a story of national decline, disruption, disintegration, and disaster. Israel and Judah passed from affluence and influence to poverty and paralysis.

There is an emphasis in this book on thrones.

Obviously there were the thrones of Judah and Israel on earth with their kings who succeeded one another. However there is also the throne in heaven with its one King. Rehoboam and Jeroboam had their successors, the kings who replaced one another. Yahweh also in a sense had His successors, the prophets who replaced one another as His messengers to the people. While the kings remind us of the thrones on earth, the prophets remind us of the throne in heaven.

The thrones on earth present a story of disruption, disintegration, and disaster in both kingdoms, Judah and Israel. This trend continued despite changes in the methods the various rulers employed to govern their people.

Solomon's method of government was oppression. He taxed the people greatly and conscripted them into government service. The result was material magnificence. He multiplied riches and manifested great displays in the temple, the palace, and throughout his kingdom. He increased the military strength of the nation. Nevertheless in the process he ground down the people. The state became more important than the people. The testimony to this appears in 12:4. The result was dissatisfaction with Solomon's method of government.

In reaction to this method Rehoboam chose a new method of government: autocracy. He decided to tighten his grip on the people so he could control them (12:14). He believed the people should trust in their rulers, but he did not trust in God. Consequently he failed. Autocracy led to revolution (12:16).

Jeroboam chose a third method of government: democracy. He let the people determine how they would live. While this resulted in more pleasant conditions for the people, it also resulted in ultimate disaster for his nation. Notice what democracy produced in Jeroboam's day: 12:27-29. People cannot rule themselves effectively. We need God to govern us. Jeroboam believed rulers should trust in the people, but he did not trust in God. Consequently he failed. He made religion convenient, and the people became corrupt (12:30-31).

Rehoboam's successors in Judah chose a method of government we could call government by policy. That is, they chose to follow precedent, the pattern of their predecessors, rather than getting and following God's direction for their nation. There were some exceptions to this approach, but on the whole this was Judah's method of government.

Jeroboam's successors in Israel, however, chose a different method of government: selfishness. The kings of Israel cared little for the people of Israel. What concerned them primarily was what they could get out of being king for themselves. That is why the story of the kingdom of Israel is a story of intrigue, assassinations, and much bloodshed.

In summary, every form of human government results in disastrous failure if people do not acknowledge God's sovereignty. People cannot govern themselves effectively. The result is always decline, disruption, and disintegration. This is one of the great revelations of 1 Kings.

However there is another throne in view in this book: the throne in heaven. Whereas 1 Kings reveals that human government always fails, it also reveals that God's government never fails. There are two ways God exercised His kingship over His people during Israel's monarchy.

First, He broke in on human life with messages that the prophets delivered. Ahijah announced the division of the kingdom (11:26-39). Later he announced the death of Jeroboam's son (14:4-16). Shemaiah directed Rehoboam not to fight against Jeroboam (12:21-24). An unnamed prophet announced the fate of Jeroboam's altar (13:1-10). Jehu announced Baasha's doom (16:1-4). Elijah vindicated Yahweh in the days of Ahab's apostasy (chs. 17-21). Another unnamed prophet rebuked Ahab for allowing Ben-Hadad to escape (20:35-43). Micaiah foretold Israel's scattering (22:8-28). These are all evidences that God was governing His people independently of the kings when they forgot Him. The heavenly throne ruled in spite of the earthly thrones.

The second way God exercised His rule, in addition to sending messages by the prophets, was by directly and indirectly intervening in the lives of His people. He appeared and spoke directly to Solomon, which resulted in the building of the temple. He raised up an adversary to Solomon, namely Jeroboam. He slew Abijah. He withheld rain and brought famine. He sent fire from heaven on Mt. Carmel. He sent rain. He appeared to Elijah in an earthquake. He enticed Ahab into battle through the mouths of lying prophets.

In short, God ruled by exercising direct and indirect influence over people, by directly intervening and by controlling circumstances occasionally. He manipulated history. God sits in perfect control and continuity over all the human chaos that peoples' failure to rule themselves causes.

The message of the book, therefore, is that when people exclude God, every method of human government will fail; but even so God is still on His throne and is in control.

If people exclude God, every method of government ends in disaster. Even though in Solomon's reign the king emphasized religious forms and ceremonies, internal development, foreign treaties, and intellectual attainment, his oppression did not bring stability and peace. Autocracy will end in revolution eventually. Democracy that locks God out can result in the most terrible consequences for the people whose interests it professes to advocate. Government by policy can only deteriorate. Selfish rulers will only rape their nations.

Man cannot govern himself because he does not know himself apart from God's Word. How can he govern others about whom he knows even less? If people do not submit to the throne in heaven, no matter what method of government they choose, they will fail. As Christians, we must remember who is in control. We must look beyond our government to our God.

First Kings also reveals God's method in the midst of human failures.

First, when a throne on earth rebels against the throne in heaven God abandons that throne on earth. He separated Himself from it. He allowed the evil choices of the rulers to work themselves out to their inevitable consequences. Departure leads to disaster. Apostasy results in awful consequences (cf. Rom. 1).

Second, God keeps some consciousness of Himself and His government alive in the hearts and minds of a remnant. The prophets spoke. All Christians exercise that ministry today. We should speak for God to our generation.

Third, God maintains ultimate control. He controls history directly and indirectly so His purposes get accomplished. The Christian never needs to panic. God has revealed His plan for history. Knowledge of the Word should give us stability in uncertain times.

What I have said is true on the national scale is also true on the individual level. If a person excludes God from his or her life, no matter how the person may live, he or she will fail. We can resist God's authority, but we cannot overcome it. People only break themselves by refusing to submit to the throne in heaven. People need reminding of the throne in heaven. These principles have worked out throughout history. God's plan moves ahead.

Constable: 1 Kings (Outline)

Outline

I. The reign of Solomon chs. 1-11

A. Solomon's succession to David's throne 1:1-2:12

1. David's declining health 1:1-4

2. Adonijah's attempt to seize the throne 1:5-53

3. David's charge to Solomon 2:1-9

4. David's death 2:10-12

B. The foundation of Solomon's reign 2:13-4:34

1. Solomon's purges 2:13-46

2. Solomon's wisdom from God ch. 3

3. Solomon's political strength ch. 4

C. Solomon's greatest contribution chs. 5-8

1. Preparations for building ch. 5

2. Temple construction ch. 6

3. Solomon's palace 7:1-12

4. The temple furnishings 7:13-51

5. The temple dedication ch. 8

D. The fruits of Solomon's reign chs. 9-11

1. God's covenant with Solomon 9:1-9

2. Further evidences of God's blessing 9:10-28

3. Solomon's greatness ch. 10

4. Solomon's apostasy ch. 11

II. The divided kingdom -1 Kings 12-2 Kings 17

A. The first period of antagonism 12:1-16:28

1. The division of the kingdom ch. 12

2. Jeroboam's evil reign in Israel 12:25-14:20

3. Rehoboam's evil reign in Judah 14:21-31

4. Abijam's evil reign in Judah 15:1-8

5. Asa's good reign in Judah 15:9-24

6. Nadab's evil reign in Israel 15:25-32

7. Baasha's evil reign in Israel 15:33-16:7

8. Elah's evil reign in Israel 16:8-14

9. Zimri's evil reign in Israel 16:15-20

10. Omri's evil reign in Israel 16:21-28

B. The period of alliance -1 Kings 16:29-2 Kings 9:29

1. Ahab's evil reign in Israel 16:29-22:40

2. Jehoshaphat's good reign in Judah 22:41-50

3. Ahaziah's evil reign in Israel -1 Kings 22:51-2 Kings 1:18

(Continued in notes on 2 Kings)

One writer observed that a chiastic structure marks the Books of Kings.¹¹

A Solomon/United Monarchy -- 1 Kings 1:1-11:25

B Jeroboam/Rehoboam; the division of the kingdom -- 1 Kings 11:26-14:31

C Kings of Judah/Israel -- 1 Kings 15:1-16:22

D The Omride dynasty; the rise and fall of the Baal cult in Israel and Judah -- -1 Kings 16:23-2 Kings 12

C' Kings of Judah/Israel -- 2 Kings 13-16

B' The fall of the Northern Kingdom -- 2 Kings 17

A' The Kingdom of Judah -- 2 Kings 18-25.

Constable: 1 Kings

1 Kings

Bibliography

Aharoni, Yohanan. "The Building Activities of David and Solomon." Israel Exploration Journal 24:1(1974):13-16.

Aharoni, Yohanan, and Michael Avi-Yonahl. The Macmillan Bible Atlas. Revised ed., New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1977.

Albright, William F. Archaeology and the Religion of Israel. 5th ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1968.

_____. The Archaeology of Palestine. 1949 Revised ed. Pelican Archaeology series. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, Eng.: Penguin Books, 1956.

_____. "Two Cressets From Marisa and the Pillars of Jachin and Boaz." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 85 (February 1942):18-27.

_____. Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1969.

Allen, Nigel. "Jeroboam and Shechem." Vetus Testamentum 24:3(July1974):353-57.

Allen, Ronald B. "Elijah the Broken Prophet." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 22:3(1979):193-202.

Andersen, Francis I. "The Socio-Juridical Background of the Naboth incident." Journal of Biblical Literature 85(1966):46-57.

"Annotated Bibliography on I Kings." Biblical Viewpoint 17:1 (April 1973):57-63.

Ap-Thomas, D. R. "Elijah on Mount Carmel." Palestine Exploration Quarterly 92(1960):146-55.

Archer, Gleason L., Jr. "Old Testament History and Recent Archaeology From Solomon to Zedekiah." Bibliotheca Sacra 127:507 (July-September 1970):195-211.

_____. A Survey of Old Testament Introduction. Revised ed. Chicago: Moody Press, 1974.

Auld, A. Graeme. I & II Kings. Daily Study Bible Series. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1986.

_____. "Prophets and Prophecy in Jeremiah and Kings." Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 96:1(1984):66-82.

B., J. G. Short Meditations on Elisha. New York: Loizeaux Brothers, n.d.

Ball, E. "The Co-Regency of David and Solomon (1 Kings 1). Vetus Testamentum 27:3 (July 1977):268-79.

Bartlett, John R. "The Moabites and Edomites." In Peoples of Old Testament Times, pp. 229-258. Edited by D. J. Wiseman. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973.

Battenfield, James R. "YHWH's Refutation of the Baal Myth through the Actions of Elijah and Elisha." In Israel's Apostasy and Restoration: Essays in Honor of Roland K. Harrison, pp. 19-37. Edited by Avraham Gileadi. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1988.

Baxter, J. Sidlow. Explore the Book. 6 vols. London: Marshall, Morgan, and Scott, n.d.; reprint ed., 6 vols. in 1, Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1966.

Berlin, Adele. "Characterization in Biblical Narrative: David's Wives." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 23 (July 1982):69-85.

Berry, George Ricker. "The Glory of Yahweh and the Temple." Journal of Biblical Literature 56(1937):115-17.

Bright, John A. A History of Israel. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1959.

Brindle, Wayne A. "The Causes of the Division of Israel's Kingdom." Bibliotheca Sacra 141:563 (July-September 1984):223-33.

Bronner, Leah. The Stories of Elijah and Elisha. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1968.

Burney, C. F. Judges and Kings. Reprint ed. New York: KTAV Publishing House, 1970.

Bury, J. B.; S. A. Cook; and F. E. Adcock, eds. The Cambridge Ancient History. 12 vols. 2nd ed. reprinted. Cambridge, Eng.: University Press, 1928.

Carroll, R. P. "The Elijah-Elisha Sagas: Some Remarks on Prophetic Succession in Ancient Israel." Vetus Testamentum 19:4 (October 1969):408-14.

Childs, Brevard S. Old Testament Theology in a Canonical Context. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986.

Chisholm, Robert B., Jr. "Does God Deceive?" Bibliotheca Sacra 155:617 (January-March 1998):11-28.

_____. "The Polemic against Baalism in Israel's Early History and Literature." Bibliotheca Sacra 151:603 (July-September 1994):267-83.

Cohen, Rudolph. "The Fortresses King Solomon Built to Protect His Southern Border." Biblical Archaeology Review 11:3 (May-June 1985):56-70.

_____. "Solomon's Negev Defense Line Contained Three Fewer Fortresses." Biblical Archaeology Review 12:4 (July-August 1986):40-45.

Cohen, Shaye J. D. "Solomon and the Daughter of Pharaoh: Intermarriage, Conversion, and the Impurity of Women." Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society 16-17 (1984-85):23-27.

Cohn, Robert L. "The Literary Logic of 1 Kings 17-19." Journal of Biblical Literature 101:3 (September 1982):333-50.

_____. "Literary Technique in the Jeroboam Narrative." Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 97 (1985):23-35.

Constable, Thomas L. "Analysis of Bible Books--Old Testament." Paper submitted for course 685 Analysis of Bible Books--Old Testament. Dallas Theological Seminary, January 1967.

_____. "1 Kings." In The Bible Knowledge Commentary: Old Testament, pp. 483-536. Edited by John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck. Wheaton: Scripture Press Publications, Victor Books, 1985.

Crenshaw, James L. Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction. Atlanta: John Knox, 1981.

Crockett, William Day. A Harmony of the Books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1973.

Cross, Frank M, Jr. Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973.

_____. "An Interpretation of the Nora Stone." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 208 (December 1972):13-19.

Danelius, Eva. "The Sins of Jeroboam Ben-Nebat." Jewish Quarterly Review 58:(1967-68):95-114 and 204-23.

Darby, John Nelson. Synopsis of the Books of the Bible. 5 vols. Revised ed. New York: Loizeaux Brothers Publishers, 1942.

Davis, John J., and John C Whitcomb. A History of Israel. Reprint ed., Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1980.

Day, John. "Asherah in the Hebrew Bible and Northwest Semitic Literature." Journal of Biblical Literature 105:3 (September 1986):385-408.

de Vaux, Roland. Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions. 2 vols. Translated by John McHugh. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961.

DeVries, Simon. 1 Kings. Word Biblical Commentary. Waco: Word Books, 1985.

Dumbrell, William J. "What Are You Doing Here? Elijah at Horeb." Crux 22:1 (March 1986):12-19.

Edwards, I. E. S. "Egypt: From the Twenty-second to the Twenty-fourth Dynasty." In Cambridge Ancient History. 3rd ed. Edited by John Boardman, et al. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1982.

Farrar, F. W. The First Book of Kings. Reprint ed. Minneapolis: Klock and Klock, 1981.

Fensham, F. C. "A Few Observations on the Polarisation between Yahweh and Baal in I Kings 17-19." Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 92:2 (1980):227-36.

Fritz, Volkmar. "Temple Architecture." Biblical Archaeology Review 13:4 (July-August 1987):38-49.

Gaebelein, Arno C. The Annotated Bible. 4 vols. Reprint ed. Chicago: Moody Press, and New York: Loizeaux Brothers, Inc., 1970.

Galil, Gershon. "The Message of the Book of Kings in Relation to Deuteronomy and Jeremiah." Bibliotheca Sacra 158:632 (October-December 2001):406-14.

Gates, John T., and Harold Stigers. "First and Second Kings." In The Wycliffe Bible Commentary, pp. 307-66. Edited by Charles F. Pfeiffer and Everett F. Harrison. Chicago: Moody Press, 1962.

Gray, John. I & II Kings. Old Testament Library series. London: SCM Press, 1964; revised ed., Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1970.

Green, Alberto R. "Israelite Influence at Shishak's Court." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 233 (1979):59-62.

Gross, Walter. "Lying Prophet and Disobedient Man of God in 1 Kings 13: Role Analysis as an Instrument of Theological Interpretation of an OT Narrative Text." Semeia 15 (1979):97-135.

Gunn, David M. "David and the Gift of the Kingdom (2 Samuel 2-4, 9-20, 1 Kings 1-2)." Semeia 3 (1975):14-45.

Halpern, Baruch. The Constitution of the Monarchy in Israel. Harvard Semitic Monograph 25. Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1981.

_____. "Levitic Participation in the Reform Cult of Jeroboam I." Journal of Biblical Literature 95:1 (1976):31-42.

Harrison, Roland K. Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1969.

Harton, George M. "Fulfillment of Deuteronomy 28-30 in History and in Eschatology." Th.D. dissertation, Dallas Theological Seminary, 1981.

Hayman, Leo. "A Note on I Kings 18:27." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 10(1951):57-58.

Heater, Homer, Jr. "A Theology of Samuel and Kings." In A Biblical Theology of the Old Testament, pp. 115-55. Edited by Roy B. Zuck. Chicago: Moody Press, 1991.

Hendricks, Howard G. Taking A Stand. Portland: Multnomah Press, 1983.

Herrmann, Siegfried. A History of Israel in Old Testament Times. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1975.

Hickman, D. "The Chronology of Israel and Judah." Catastrophism and Ancient History 7:2 (July 1985):57-70; 8:1 (January 1986):5-23.

Hoffmeier, James K. "Egypt As an Arm of Flesh: A Prophetic Response." In Israel's Apostasy and Restoration: Essays in Honor of Roland K. Harrison, pp. 79-97. Edited by Avraham Gileadi. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1988.

House, Paul R. 1, 2 Kings. New American Commentary series. N.c.: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1995.

Hurowitz, V. I Have Built You an Exalted House: Temple Building in the Bible in Light of Mesopotamian and Northwest Semitic Writing. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement 115. Sheffield, Eng.: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992.

Johnson, John E. "The Old Testament Offices as Paradigm for Pastoral Identity." Bibliotheca Sacra 152:606 (April-June 1995):182-200.

Jones, Gwilym H. 1 and 2 Kings. 2 vols. New Century Bible Commentary series. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., and London: Marshall, Morgan, and Scott, 1984.

Josephus, Flavius. The Works of Flavius Josephus. Translated by William Whiston. Antiquities of the Jews. London: T. Nelson and Sons, 1866.

Kaufman, Asher S. "Where the Ancient Temple of Jerusalem Stood." Biblical Archaeology Review 9:2 (March-April 1983):40-59.

Keil, C. F. The Books of the Kings. Translated by James Martin. Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. Reprint ed., Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., n.d.

Kitchen, K. A. The Bible In the World. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1977.

_____. "The Old Testament in its Context: 4 The Twin Kingdom, Judah and Assyria (c. 930-640 BC)." Theological Students' Fellowship Bulletin 62 (1972):2-10.

Klein, Ralph W. "Jeroboam's Rise to Power." Journal of Biblical Literature 89:2 (June 1970):217-18.

_____. "Once More: Jeroboam's Rise to Power.'" Journal of Biblical Literature 92:4(December 1973):582-84.

Krummacher, F. W. Elijah the Tishbite. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, n.d.

Lange, John Peter, ed. Commentary on the Holy Scriptures. 12 vols. Reprint ed., Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1960. Vol. 3: Samuel-Kings, by Chr. Fr. David Erdmann and Karl Chr. W. T. Bahr. Translated, enlarged, and edited by C. H. Toy, John A. Broadus, Edwin Harwood, and W. G. Sumner.

Liver, J. "The Books of the Acts of Solomon." Biblica 48:1(1967):75-101.

Long, Burke O. "A Darkness Between Brothers: Solomon and Adonijah." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 19 (February 1981):79-94.

Luckenbill, D. D. "Benhadad and Hadadezer." American Journal of Semitic Languages 27(1911):267-84.

Lundquist, John M. "Temple, Covenant, and Law in the Ancient Near East and in the Old Testament." In Israel's Apostasy and Restoration: Essays in Honor of Roland K. Harrison, pp. 293-305. Edited by Avraham Gileadi. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1988.

Lust, J. "A Gentle Breeze or a Roaring Thunderous Sound?" Vetus Testamentum 25:1(January 1975):110-15.

Maller, Allen S. "Hiram from Tyre." Journal or Reform Judaism 29:2(Spring 1982):41-42.

Mayhue, Richard L. "False Prophets and the Deceiving Spirit." Master's Seminary Journal 4:2 (Fall 1993):135-63.

Mazar, Benjamin. "The Campaign of Pharaoh Shishak to Palestine." Vetus Testamentum Supplements 4 (1957):57-66.

McFall, Leslie. "A Translation Guide to the Chronological Data in Kings and Chronicles." Bibliotheca Sacra 148:589 (January-March 1991):3-45.

McNeely, Richard I. First and Second Kings. Everyman's Bible Commentary series. Chicago: Moody Press, 1979.

McNicol, Allan J. "The Heavenly Sanctuary in Judaism: A Model for Tracing the Origin of an Apocalypse." Journal of Religious Studies 13:2 (1987):66-94.

Meyer, F. B. Elijah and the Secret of His Power. Chicago: Fleming H. Revell, n.d.

Mitchell, T. C. "Israel and Judah Until the Revolt of Jehn (931-841 B.C.)." In Cambridge Ancient History. 3rd ed. Edited by John Boardman, et al. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1982.

Miller, J. Max. "So Tibni Died." Vetus Testamentum 18(1968):392-94.

Monson, James M. The Land Between. Jerusalem: By the author, P.O. Box 1276, 1983.

Montgomery, James A. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Books of Kings. International Critical Commentary series. Edited by Henry Snyder Gehman. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1967.

_____. "Archival Data in the Books of Kings." Journal of Biblical Literature 53(1934):46-52.

Morgan, G. Campbell. Living Messages of the Books of the Bible. 2 vols. New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1912.

Morgenstern, Julian. "Chronological Data of the Dynasty of Omri." Journal of Biblical Literature 59(1940):385-96.

Myers, Jacob. II Chronicles. Anchor Bible series. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965.

Napier, B. D. "The Omrides of Jezreel." Vetus Testamentum 9 (1959):366-78.

Nelson, R. D. First and Second Kings. Interpretation: A Biblical Commentary for Preaching and Teaching series. Louisville: John Knox, 1987.

Newsome, James D., Jr. ed. A Synoptic Harmony of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1986.

Noth, Martin. The Deuteronomistic History. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series, 15. Sheffield, Eng.: JSOT Press, 1981.

Oppenheim, A. Leo. Ancient Mesopotamia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.

Oswalt, John N. "The Golden Calves and the Egyptian Concept of Deity." Evangelical Quarterly 45 (1973):13-20.

Ovellette, Jean. "The Solomonic Debir according to the Hebrew Text of I Kings 6." Journal of Biblical Literature 89:3 (September 1970):338-43.

Parker, Kim Ian. "Repetition as a Structuring Device in 1 Kings 1-11." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 42 (October 1988):19-27.

Patterson, Richard D. "The Widow, the Orphan, and the Poor in the Old Testament and the Extra-Biblical Literature." Bibliotheca Sacra 130:519 (July-September 1973):223-34.

Patterson, Richard D., and Hermann J Austel. "1, 2 Kings." In 1 Kings--Job. Vol. 4 of The Expositor's Bible Commentary. 12 vols. Edited by Frank E. Gaebelein and Richard P. Polcyn. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1988.

Payne, J. Barton. The Theology of the Older Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1962.

Pfeiffer, Charles F., and Howard F. Vos. The Wycliffe Historical Geography of Bible Lands. Chicago: Moody Press, 1967.

Porten, Bezalel. "The Structure and Theme of the Solomon Narrative (1 Kings 3-11)." Hebrew Union College Annual 38 (1967):93-128.

Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 2nd ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1955.

Rasmussen, Carl G. "The Economic Importance of Caravan Trade for the Solomonic Empire." In A Tribute to Gleason Archer, pp. 153-66. Edited by Walter C. Kaiser Jr. and Ronald F. Youngblood. Chicago: Moody Press, 1986.

Rendsburg, Gary A. "The Mock of Baal in 1 Kings 18:27." Catholic Biblical Quarterly 50:3 (July 1988):414-17.

Rice, Gene. Nations under God. International Theological Commentary series. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., and Edinburgh: The Handsel Press Ltd., 1990.

Ringgren, Helmer. Religions of the Ancient Near East. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1973.

Rofe, Alexander. "The Vineyard of Naboth: The Origin and Message of the Story." Vetus Testamentum 38:1 (1988):89-104.

Rogers, Jeffrey S. "Narrative Stock and Deuteronomistic Elaboration in 1 Kings 2." Catholic Biblical Quarterly 50:3 (July 1988):398-413.

Rowley, H. H. "Elijah on Mount Carmel." Bulletin of the Johns Rylands Library 43:1 (September 1960):190-219.

Ruth, Richard L. "The Doctrine of Dreams." Bibliotheca Sacra 124:500 (October-December 1968):360-64.

Ruthven, Jon. "A Note on Elijah's Fire from Yahweh.'" Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 12:2 (1969):111-15.

Saint-Laurent, George. "Light from Ras Shamra on Elijah's Ordeal upon Mount Carmel." In Scripture in Context, pp. 123-39. Edited by Carl D. Evans, et al. Pittsburgh: Pickwick, 1980.

Savran, George. "1 and 2 Kings." In The Literary Guide to the Bible, pp. 146-64. Edited by Robert Alter and Frank Kermode. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987.

Schulman, Alan R. "Diplomatic Marriage in the Egyptian New Kingdom." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 38 (1979):177-193.

Schwantes, Siegfried J. A Short History of the Ancient Near East. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1965.

Selms, A. Van. "The Origin of the Title The King's Friend.'" Journal of Near Eastern Studies 16 (1957):118-23.

Shea, William H. "A Note on the Date of the Battle of Qarqar." Journal of Cuneiform Studies 29 (1977):240-42.

Simon, Uriel. "I Kings 13: A Prophetic Sign--Denial and Persistence." Hebrew Union College Annual 47 (1976):81-117.

Slotki, I. W. Kings. London: Soncino Press, 1950.

Smith, James E. "Prolegomena to the Study of Kings." Seminary Review 21:3 (September 1975):77-115.

Soards, Marion L., Jr. "Elijah and the Lord's Word: A Study of I Kings 17:17-24." Studia Biblica et Theologica 13:1 (April 1983):39-50.

Soggin, J. Alberto. "Compulsory Labor Under David and Solomon." In Studies in the Period of David and Solomon and Other Essays, pp. 259-67. Edited by Tomoo Ishida. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983.

Smith, Morton. "The So-Called Biography of David' in the Books of Samuel and Kings." Harvard Theological Review 44 (1951):167-69.

Smith, J. M. P. "The Character of King David." Journal of Biblical Literature 52 (1933):1-11.

Student Map Manual. Jerusalem: Pictorial Archive (Near Eastern History) Est., 1979.

Thiele, Edwin R. A Chronology of the Hebrew Kings. Contemporary Evangelical Perspectives series. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1981.

_____. "Coregencies and Overlapping Reigns Among the Hebrew Kings." Journal of Biblical Literature 93 (1974):174-200.

_____. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1965.

Thomsom, H. C. "A Row of Cedar Beams." Palestinian Exploration Quarterly 92 (1960):57-63.

"Tirzah: An Early Capital of Israel." Buried History 22:1 (March 1986):14-24.

Torcszyner, Harry. "The Riddle in the Bible." Hebrew Union College Annual 1 (1924):125-49.

Tromp, Nicholas J. "Water and Fire on Mount Carmel." Biblica 56:4 (1975):480-502.

Ullendorff, Edward. "The Queen of Sheba." Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 45:2 (1963):486-504.

Unger, Merrill F. Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1980.

Ussishkin, David. "King Solomon's Palaces." Biblical Archaeologist 36 (1973):78-105.

Van Beek, Gus W. "Frankincense and Myrrh." Biblical Archaeologist 23:3 (September 1960):70-95.

Von Wyrick, Stephen. "Israel's Golden Calves." Biblical Illustrator 13:1 (Fall 1986):3, 9-12.

Wallace, N. H. "The Oracles Against the Israelite Dynasties in 1 and 2 Kings." Biblica 67:1 (1986):21-40.

Weinfeld, Moshe. "The Counsel of the Elders' to Rehoboam and Its Implications." MAARAV 3:1 (January 1982):27-53.

Whitelam, Keith W. "The Defence of David." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 29 (June 1984):61-87.

_____. "The Symbols of Power." Biblical Archaeologist 49:3 (September 1986):166-73.

Williamson, H. G. M. 1 and 2 Chronicles. New Century Bible Commentary series. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1982.

Wiseman, Donald John. 1 & 2 Kings: An Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries series. Downers Grove, Ill.. and Leicester, Eng.: Inter-Varsity Press, 1993.

Wood, Leon. Elijah, Prophet of God. Des Plaines, Ill.: Regular Baptist Press, 1968.

_____. Israel's United Monarchy. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1979.

_____. A Survey of Israel's History. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1970.

Zevit, Ziony. "Deuteronomistic Historiography in -1 Kings 12-2 Kings 17 and the Reinvestiture of the Israelian Cult." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32 (1985):57-73.

Zuidhof, Albert. "King Solomon's Molten Sea and (pi)." Biblical Archaeologist 45:3 (Summer 1982):179-84.

Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: 1 Kings (Book Introduction)

THE THIRD BOOK OF KINGS.

INTRODUCTION.

This and the following Book are called by the holy Fathers, The Third and Fourth Book of Kings; but by the Hebrews, the First and Second. They contain the history of the kingdoms of Israel and Juda, from the beginning of the reign of Solomon to the captivity. As to the writer of these books, it seem most probable they were not written by one man, nor at one time; but as there was all along a succession of prophets in Israel, who recorded, by divine inspiration, the most remarkable things that happened in their days, these books seem to have been written by these prophets. See 2 Paralipomenon, alias 2 Chronicles ix. 29., xii. 15., xiii. 22., xx. 34., xxvi. 22., and xxxii. 32. (Challoner) --- This book informs us of the death of David, chap. ii. 11, where some Greek copies concluded the second book "of the reigns or kingdoms," as they style all the four books. Theodoret and Diodorus follow this division. The point is of no consequence; and the Hebrew editions have often varied. Origen observes, that the Jews denoted these two books from the first words, "Ouammelech David." (Eusebius, Hist. vi. 25.) (Haydock) --- In St. Jerome's time, the four books made only two. The present book details the actions of Solomon, (Calmet) till the end of the 12th chapter. Then we behold the division of the kingdom: Roboam, Abias, Asa, and Josaphat, reign over Juda; Jeroboam, &c., over Israel; while the prophets Abias, Elias, Eliseus, appear in the remaining eleven chapters. (Worthington) --- Though the memoirs seem to have been left by contemporary authors, (Haydock) one, and most probably Esdras, made the compilation, after the captivity, inserting frequently the very words of his authors, yet so as to make some additional reflections. (Calmet) --- The Rabbins generally attribute the work to Jeremias. (Haydock) --- He is more attentive to the house of David, and to display the rewards of the piety, and the punishment of vice, as well as the glory of the temple and of religion, than to describe the military exploits, which occupy so much of the profane history. (Calmet)

Gill: 1 Kings (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 1 KINGS

This, and the following book, properly are but one book, divided into two parts, and went with the Jews under the common name of Kings. This, in the Syriac version, is called the Book of Kings; and in the Arabic version, the Book of Solomon, the Son of David the Prophet, because it begins with his reign upon the death of his father; and, in the Vulgate Latin version, the Third Book of Kings, the two preceding books of Samuel being sometimes called the First and Second Books of Kings, they containing the reigns of Saul and David; and in the Septuagint version both this and the following book are called Kingdoms, because they treat of the kingdom of Israel and Judah, after the division in the times of Rehoboam, son of Solomon, and of the several kings of them; as of Solomon before the division, so afterwards of the kings of Judah; Rehoboam, Abijam, Asa, Jehoshaphat, Jehoram, Ahaziah, Jehoash, Amaziah, Uzziah or Azariah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah, Manasseh, Amon, Josiah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah; and of the kings of Israel, Jeroboam, Nadab, Baasha, Elah, Zimri, Omri, Ahab, Ahaziah, Jehu, Jehoahaz, Jehoash, Jeroboam the son of Joash, Zachariah, Shallum, Menahem, Pekahiah, Pekah, and Hoshea; so that these books may, with great propriety, be called the books or histories of the kings in the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel: who they were written by, is not easy to say; some think they were written by piecemeal by the prophets that lived in the several reigns successively, as Nathan, Ahijah the Shilonite, Iddo, Isaiah, and Jeremiah, and afterwards put together by an inspired writer. The Jews commonly say ^a, that Jeremiah wrote the book of the Kings, by which they mean this, and the following book; though very probably they were written by Ezra, since the history in them is carried down to the liberty granted to Jehoiachin in Babylon; but that Ezra was the writer of all the preceding historical books, and even of the Pentateuch, cannot be admitted, which is the conceit of Spinosa ^b; part of whose tract is just now republished by somebody, word for word, under a title as in the margin ^c; but that Ezra was not the writer of the Pentateuch is clear, since he refers to it as written by Moses, and as the rule of religion and worship in his times, Ezr 3:2; and it is certain these writings were in being in the times of Josiah, Amaziah, Joash, yea, of David, and even of Joshua, 2Ch 34:14; and as for the book of Joshua, that also was written long before Ezra's time; it must be written long before the times of David, before the Jebusites were expelled from Jerusalem, since the writer of it says, that they dwelt there in his days, Jos 15:63; the book of Judges must be written before the times of Samuel and David, since the former refers to the annals of it, 1Sa 12:9; and the latter alludes to some passages in it, Psa 68:7; see Jdg 5:4; and a speech of Joab's, 2Sa 11:21, shows it to be an history then extant: to which may be added, that in it Jerusalem is called Jebus, Jdg 19:10; which it never was, after it was taken by David out of the hands of the Jebusites, 2Sa 5:6; the book of Ruth very probably was written by Samuel; had it been of a later date, or written by Ezra, the genealogy with which it concludes, would doubtless have been carried further than to David: the Book of Samuel, and particularly the song of Hannah in it, were written in all probability before the penning of the hundred thirteenth psalm, Psa 113:1, in which some expressions seem to be taken from it wherefore, though the two books of Kings may be allowed to be written or compiled by Ezra, the ten preceding ones cannot be assigned to him: however, there is no room to doubt of the divine authority of these two books, when the honour our Lord has done them is observed, by quoting or referring to several histories in them; as to the account of the queen of Sheba coming to hear the wisdom of Solomon; of the famine in the times of Elijah; and of that prophet being sent to the widow of Sarepta, and of the cleansing of Naaman the Syrian in the times of Elisha, Mat 12:42 from 1Ki 17:1 2Ki 5:10; to which may be added, the quotations and references made by the apostles to passages in them, as by the Apostle Paul in Rom 11:2 from 1Ki 19:14 where this book is expressly called the Scripture; and by the Apostle James, Jam 5:17; who manifestly refers to 1Ki 17:1; and there are various things in this part of Scripture, which are confirmed by the testimonies of Heathen writers, as will be observed in the exposition of it. The use of these books is to carry on the history of the Jewish nation, to show the state of the church of God in those times, and his providential care of it amidst all the changes and vicissitudes in the state; and, above all, to transmit to us the true genealogy of the Messiah, which serves to confirm the Evangelist Matthew's account of it.

Gill: 1 Kings 22 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 1 KINGS 22

This chapter relates, that after three years' peace with the king of Syria, Ahab was inclined to go to war with him, to take Ramothgilead out of his hands; and he drew in Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, to join him in it, 1Ki 22:1, but before they went into it, they took advice, Ahab of his four hundred prophets, which Jehoshaphat not being satisfied with, a true prophet of the Lord, Micahah, was sent for, 1Ki 22:5 who, when he came, jeered Ahab with what his prophets had said to him; intimated that he should be killed, and explained it to him how he came to be deceived by his prophets, 1Ki 22:15 upon which he was smitten on the cheek by Zedekiah, one of the false prophets, and imprisoned by the order of Ahab, 1Ki 22:24, after which the two kings went to the battle, and Jehoshaphat was in great danger of his life; but Ahab was wounded, and died, 1Ki 22:29, and the chapter is concluded with an account of the reign of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, 1Ki 22:41, and of Ahaziah king of Israel, 1Ki 22:51.