Text -- 2 Corinthians 11:1-12 (NET)

Paul and His Opponents

11:1 I wish that you would be patient with me in a little foolishness, but indeed you are being patient with me! 11:2 For I am jealous for you with godly jealousy, because I promised you in marriage to one husband, to present you as a pure virgin to Christ. 11:3 But I am afraid that just as the serpent deceived Eve by his treachery, your minds may be led astray from a sincere and pure devotion to Christ. 11:4 For if someone comes and proclaims another Jesus different from the one we proclaimed, or if you receive a different spirit than the one you received, or a different gospel than the one you accepted, you put up with it well enough! 11:5 For I consider myself not at all inferior to those “super-apostles.” 11:6 And even if I am unskilled in speaking, yet I am certainly not so in knowledge. Indeed, we have made this plain to you in everything in every way. 11:7 Or did I commit a sin by humbling myself so that you could be exalted, because I proclaimed the gospel of God to you free of charge? 11:8 I robbed other churches by receiving support from them so that I could serve you! 11:9 When I was with you and was in need, I was not a burden to anyone, for the brothers who came from Macedonia fully supplied my needs. I kept myself from being a burden to you in any way, and will continue to do so. 11:10 As the truth of Christ is in me, this boasting of mine will not be stopped in the regions of Achaia. 11:11 Why? Because I do not love you? God knows I do! 11:12 And what I am doing I will continue to do, so that I may eliminate any opportunity for those who want a chance to be regarded as our equals in the things they boast about.

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Robertson: 2Co 11:1

Would that ye could bear with me ( ophelon aneichesthe mou ).

Koiné[28928]š way of expressing a wish about the present, ophelon (as a conjunction, really second aorist active indicative of opheilō without augment) and the imperfect indicative instead of eithe or ei gar (Robertson, Grammar , p. 1003). Cf. Rev 3:15. See note on Gal 5:12 for future indicative with ophelon and note on 1Co 4:8 for aorist. Mou is ablative case after aneichesthe (direct middle, hold yourselves back from me). There is a touch of irony here.

Robertson: 2Co 11:1

Bear with me ( anechesthe mou ).

Either imperative middle or present middle indicative (ye do bear with me). Same form.

Robertson: 2Co 11:1

In a little foolishness ( mikron ti aphrosunēs ).

Accusative of general reference (mikron ti ). "Some little foolishness"(from aphrōn , foolish). Old word only in this chapter in N.T.

Robertson: 2Co 11:2

With a godly jealousy ( theou zēlōi ).

Instrumental case of zēlos . With a jealousy of God.

Robertson: 2Co 11:2

I espoused ( hērmosamēn ).

First aorist middle indicative of harmozō , old verb to join, to fit together (from harmos , joint). Common for betrothed, though only here in N.T. The middle voice indicates Paul’ s interest in the matter. Paul treats the Corinthians as his bride.

Robertson: 2Co 11:3

The serpent beguiled Eve ( ho ophis exēpatēsen Heuan ).

Paul’ s only mention of the serpent in Eden. The compound exapataō means to deceive completely.

Robertson: 2Co 11:3

Lest by any means ( mē pōs ).

Common conjunction after verbs of fearing.

Robertson: 2Co 11:3

Corrupted ( phtharēi ).

Second aorist passive subjunctive with mē pōs of phtheirō , to corrupt.

Robertson: 2Co 11:4

Another Jesus ( allon Iēsoun ).

Not necessarily a different Jesus, but any other "Jesus"is a rival and so wrong. That would deny the identity.

Robertson: 2Co 11:4

A different spirit ( pneuma heteron ).

This is the obvious meaning of heteron in distinction from allon as seen in Act 4:12; Gal 1:6. But this distinction in nature or kind is not always to be insisted on.

Robertson: 2Co 11:4

A different gospel ( euaggelion heteron ).

Similar use of heteron .

Robertson: 2Co 11:4

Ye do well to bear with him ( kalōs anechesthe ).

Ironical turn again. "Well do you hold yourselves back from him"(the coming one, whoever he is). Some MSS. have the imperfect aneichesthe (did bear with).

Robertson: 2Co 11:5

That I am not a whit behind the very chiefest apostles ( mēden husterēkenai tōn huperlian apostolōn ).

Perfect active infinitive of hustereō , old verb to fall short with the ablative case. The rare compound adverb huperlian (possibly in use in the vernacular) is probably ironical also, "the super apostles"as these Judaizers set themselves up to be. "The extra-super apostles"(Farrar). Also in 2Co 12:11. He is not referring to the pillar-apostles of Gal 2:9.

Robertson: 2Co 11:6

Rude in speech ( idiōtēs tōi logōi ).

Locative case with idiōtēs for which word see note on Act 4:13; note on 1Co 14:16, note on 1Co 14:23, and 1Co 14:24. The Greeks regarded a man as idiōtēs who just attended to his own affairs (ta idia ) and took no part in public life. Paul admits that he is not a professional orator (cf. 2Co 10:10), but denies that he is unskilled in knowledge (all' ou tēi gnōsei ).

Robertson: 2Co 11:6

Among all men ( en pāsin ).

He has made his mastery of the things of Christ plain among all men. He knew his subject.

Robertson: 2Co 11:7

In abasing myself ( emauton tapeinōn ).

Humbling myself by making tents for a living while preaching in Corinth. He is ironical still about "doing a sin"(hamartian epoiēsa ).

Robertson: 2Co 11:7

For nought ( dōrean ).

Gratis . Accusative of general reference, common adverb. It amounts to sarcasm to ask if he did a sin in preaching the gospel free of expense to them "that ye may be exalted."

Robertson: 2Co 11:8

I robbed ( esulēsa ).

Old verb to despoil, strip arms from a slain foe, only here in N.T. He allowed other churches to do more than their share.

Robertson: 2Co 11:8

Taking wages ( labōn opsōnion ).

For opsōnion see note on 1Co 9:7; note on Rom 6:23. He got his "rations"from other churches, not from Corinth while there.

Robertson: 2Co 11:9

I was not a burden to any man ( ou katenarkēsa outhenos ).

First aorist active indicative of katanarkaō . Jerome calls this word one of Paul’ s cilicisms which he brought from Cilicia. But the word occurs in Hippocrates for growing quite stiff and may be a medical term in popular use. Narkaō means to become numb, torpid, and so a burden. It is only here and 2Co 12:13. Paul "did not benumb the Corinthians by his demand for pecuniary aid"(Vincent).

Robertson: 2Co 11:9

From being burdensome ( abarē ).

Old adjective, free from weight or light (a privative and baros , weight). See note on 1Th 2:9 for same idea. Paul kept himself independent.

Robertson: 2Co 11:10

No man shall stop me of this glorying ( hē kauchēsis hautē ou phragēsetai eis eme ).

More exactly, "This glorying shall not be fenced in as regards me."Second future passive of phrassō , to fence in, to stop, to block in. Old verb, only here in N.T.

Robertson: 2Co 11:10

In the regions of Achaia ( en tois klimasin tēs Achaias ).

Klima from klinō , to incline, is Koiné[28928]š word for declivity slope, region (our climate). See chapter 1 Corinthians 9 for Paul’ s boast about preaching the gospel without cost to them.

Robertson: 2Co 11:11

God knoweth ( ho theos oiden ).

Whether they do or not. He knows that God understands his motives.

Robertson: 2Co 11:12

That I may cut off occasion ( hina ekkopsō tēn aphormēn ).

Purpose clause with hina and first aorist active subjunctive of ekkoptō , old verb to cut out or off (Mat 3:10; Mat 5:30). See note on 2Co 5:12 for aphormēn .

Robertson: 2Co 11:12

From them which desire an occasion ( tōn thelontōn aphormēn ).

Ablative case after ekkopsō . There are always some hunting for occasions to start something against preachers.

Robertson: 2Co 11:12

They may be found ( heurethōsin ).

First aorist passive subjunctive of heuriskō , to find with final conjunction hina .

Vincent: 2Co 11:1

Folly

As my boasting may seem to you. Ironically spoken of that legitimate self-vindication demanded by the circumstances. Rev., foolishness .

Vincent: 2Co 11:1

Bear with me ( ἀνέχεσθε )

Some render as indicative: ye do bear with me .

Vincent: 2Co 11:2

I am jealous ( ζηλῶ )

The translation is correct. The word is appropriate to the image which follows, in which Paul represents himself as the marriage-friend who has betrothed the bride to the bridegroom, and consequently shares the bridegroom's jealousy of his bride (see on Joh 3:29). Compare the Old-Testament passages in which God is represented as the spouse of His people: Isa 54:5; Isa 62:5; Jer 3:1; Eze 16:8; Hos 2:18, Hos 2:19. For the different senses of the word, see on envying , Jam 3:14. Theodoret's comment on the passage is: " I was your wooer for your husband, and the mediator of your marriage; through me you received the bridegroom's gifts; wherefore I am now affected with jealousy."

Vincent: 2Co 11:2

I have espoused ( ἡρμοσάμην )

Only here in the New Testament. Lit., have fitted together . Used in the classics of carpenter's or joiner's work; of arranging music, tuning instruments, and fitting clothes or armor. As here, of betrothing or taking to wife. The Septuagint usage is substantially the same.

Vincent: 2Co 11:2

Present

Compare Eph 5:27.

Vincent: 2Co 11:3

The serpent

Paul's only allusion to the story of the serpent in Eden.

Vincent: 2Co 11:3

Eve

In accordance with the representation of the Church as the bride.

Vincent: 2Co 11:3

Simplicity that is in Christ

Rev. adds, and the purity , following Westcott and Hort's text. Simplicity , single-hearted loyalty. In Christ; better, as Rev., towards (εἰς ).

Vincent: 2Co 11:4

Another Jesus - another Spirit ( ἄλλον - ἕτερον )

Rev., another Jesus, a different Spirit. See on Mat 6:24. Another denies the identity ; a different denies the similarity of nature . It is the difference of " individuality and kind " (Alford). See on Gal 1:6, Gal 1:7.

Vincent: 2Co 11:4

Ye might well bear ( καλῶς ἠνείχεσθε )

Following the reading which makes the verb in the imperfect tense, putting the matter as a supposed case. The Rev. follows the reading ἀνεχέσθε , present tense, and puts it as a fact: ye do well to bear . Lit., ye endure them finely . The expression is ironical. You gladly endure these false teachers, why do you not endure me?

Vincent: 2Co 11:5

The very chiefest apostles (τῶν ὑπερλίαν ἀποστόλων ) Lit., those who are preeminently apostles . Not referring to the genuine apostles, but ironically to the false teachers , the false apostles of 2Co 11:13. Compare 2Co 12:11. Farrar renders the extra-super apostles .

Vincent: 2Co 11:6

Rude ( ἰδίωτης )

See on 1Co 14:16.

Vincent: 2Co 11:6

Have been made manifest ( φανερωθέντες )

The correct reading is φανερώσαντες , active voice, we have made it manifest .

Vincent: 2Co 11:7

Abasing myself

By working at his trade.

Vincent: 2Co 11:7

Preached the Gospel - freely ( δωρεὰν )

Gratuitously. Rev., for nought , is not an improvement, but is quite as ambiguous as freely. Without charge would be better. Paul's very self-denial in this matter had been construed to his injury by his opponents, as indicating his want of confidence in the Corinthian Church, and his making gain for himself under the guise of disinterestedness. It was also urged that a real apostle would not thus relinquish his right to claim subsistence from the Church. Hence his question, Did I commit a sin , etc.?

Vincent: 2Co 11:8

I robbed ( ἐσύλησα )

Only here in the New Testament, though it appears in the verb ἱεροσυλέω to commit sacrilege , Rom 2:22, and in ἱεροσύλοι robbers of churches , Act 19:37. Originally to strip off , as arms from a slain foe, and thence, generally, to rob , plunder , with the accompanying notion of violence. Paul thus strongly expresses the fact that he had accepted from other churches more than their share, that he might not draw on the Corinthians.

Vincent: 2Co 11:8

Wages ( ὀψώνιον )

See on Rom 6:23.

Vincent: 2Co 11:9

I was chargeable ( κατενάρκησα )

Only in this epistle. From νάρκη numbness , deadness ; also a torpedo or gymnotus , which benumbs whatever touches it. Compare Homer: " His hand grew stiff at the wrist" (" Iliad," viii., 328). Meno says to Socrates: " You seem to me both in your appearance and in your power over others, to be very like the flat torpedo-fish (νάρκῃ ), who torpifies (ναρκᾶν ποιεῖ ) those who come near him with the touch, as you have now torpified (ναρκᾶν ) me, I think" (Plato, " Meno," 80). The compound verb used here occurs in Hippocrates in the sense of growing quite stiff . The simple verb occurs in the Sept., Gen 32:25, Gen 32:32, of Jacob's thigh, which was put out of joint and shrank . Compare Job 33:19. According to the etymology of the word, Paul would say that he did not benumb the Corinthians by his demand for pecuniary aid. Rev., rather mildly, I was not a burden .

Vincent: 2Co 11:10

No man shall stop me of this boasting ( ἡ καύχησις αὕτη οὐ φραγήσεται εἰς ἐμὲ )

Lit., this boasting shall not be blocked up as regards me . The boasting is that of preaching gratuitously. For the verb, compare Rom 3:19; Heb 11:33.

Vincent: 2Co 11:12

I will do

Will continue to do; refuse to receive pay.

Vincent: 2Co 11:12

Cut off ( ἐκκόψω )

Lit., cut out . See on Luk 13:7, and compare Rom 11:24.

Vincent: 2Co 11:12

Occasion ( τὴν ἀφορμὴν )

The force of the article must be carefully noted; the particular occasion of fault-finding which concerned his pecuniary relations with the Corinthians. His refusal to receive pay cut out from among other causes of complaint this one.

Vincent: 2Co 11:12

They may be found even as we

I can find no satisfactory explanation of this clause, and will not attempt to add to the hopeless muddle of the commentators. It is evident that the false teachers had sought occasion for glorifying themselves in comparison with Paul; that they consequently caught eagerly at every pretext for disparaging him; and that this disparagement was in some way connected with Paul's refusal to receive compensation from the Corinthians. Further, that Paul's way of counteracting their attempts was by persisting in this refusal. The intimation in the last clause is apparently to the effect that by this course he will not only remove the occasion for attack, but that the result will show both his opponents and himself in their true light. Compare find and be found , 2Co 12:20.

Wesley: 2Co 11:1

So does he pave the way for what might otherwise have given offence.

Wesley: 2Co 11:1

Of commending myself; which to many may appear folly; and really would be so, were it not on this occasion absolutely necessary.

Wesley: 2Co 11:2

The cause of his seeming folly is expressed in this and the following verse; the cause why they should bear with him, 2Co 11:4.

Wesley: 2Co 11:3

Love is full of these fears.

Wesley: 2Co 11:3

A most apposite comparison.

Wesley: 2Co 11:3

Simple, ignorant of evil.

Wesley: 2Co 11:3

Which is in the highest degree dangerous to such a disposition.

Wesley: 2Co 11:3

We might therefore be tempted, even if there were no sin in us.

Wesley: 2Co 11:3

Losing their virginal purity.

Wesley: 2Co 11:3

That simplicity which is lovingly intent on him alone, seeking no other person or thing.

Wesley: 2Co 11:4

Any could show you another Saviour, a more powerful Spirit, a better gospel.

Wesley: 2Co 11:4

But this is impossible.

Wesley: 2Co 11:6

If I speak in a plain, unadorned way, like an unlearned person. So the Greek word properly signifies.

Wesley: 2Co 11:7

Will any turn this into an objection? In humbling myself - To work at my trade.

Wesley: 2Co 11:7

To be children of God.

Wesley: 2Co 11:8

I, as it were, took the spoils of them: it is a military term. Taking wages (or pay, another military word) of them - When I came to you at first. And when I was present with you, and wanted - My work not quite supplying my necessities.

Wesley: 2Co 11:8

Of Corinth.

Wesley: 2Co 11:9

I choose to receive help from the poor Macedonians, rather than the rich Corinthians! Were the poor in all ages more generous than the rich?

Wesley: 2Co 11:10

For I will receive nothing from you.

Wesley: 2Co 11:11

Do I refuse to receive anything of you, because I love you not? God knoweth that is not the case.

Wesley: 2Co 11:12

To censure me. That wherein they boast, they may be found even as we - They boasted of being "burdensome to no man." But it was a vain boast in them, though not in the apostle.

JFB: 2Co 11:1

Translate as Greek, "I would that."

JFB: 2Co 11:1

I may ask not unreasonably to be borne with; not so the false apostles (2Co 11:4, 2Co 11:20).

JFB: 2Co 11:1

Not in the oldest manuscripts.

JFB: 2Co 11:1

The Greek is a milder term than that for "foolishness" in 1Co 3:19; Mat 5:22; Mat 25:2. The Greek for "folly" here implies imprudence; the Greek for "foolishness" includes the idea of perversity and wickedness.

JFB: 2Co 11:1

A request (so 2Co 11:16). But the Greek and the sense favor the translation, "But indeed (I need not wish it, for) ye do bear with me"; still I wish you to bear with me further, while I enter at large into self-commendations.

JFB: 2Co 11:2

The justification of his self-commendations lies in his zealous care lest they should fall from Christ, to whom he, as "the friend of the Bridegroom" (Joh 3:29), has espoused them; in order to lead them back from the false apostles to Christ, he is obliged to boast as an apostle of Christ, in a way which, but for the motive, would be "folly."

JFB: 2Co 11:2

Literally, "jealousy of God" (compare 2Co 1:12, "godly sincerity," literally, "sincerity of God"). "If I am immoderate, I am immoderate to God" [BENGEL]. A jealousy which has God's honor at heart (1Ki 19:10).

JFB: 2Co 11:2

Paul uses a Greek term applied properly to the bridegroom, just as he ascribes to himself "jealousy," a feeling properly belonging to the husband; so entirely does he identify himself with Christ.

JFB: 2Co 11:2

At His coming, when the heavenly marriage shall take place (Mat 25:6; Rev 19:7, Rev 19:9). What Paul here says he desires to do, namely, "present" the Church as "a chaste virgin" to Christ, Christ Himself is said to do in the fuller sense. Whatever ministers do effectively, is really done by Christ (Eph 5:27-32). The espousals are going on now. He does not say "chaste virgins"; for not individual members, but the whole body of believers conjointly constitute the Bride.

JFB: 2Co 11:3

(2Co 12:20); not inconsistent with love. His source of fear was their yielding character.

JFB: 2Co 11:3

The utter foe of the "simplicity" which is intent on ONE object, Jesus, and seeks none "other," and no "other" and different Spirit (2Co 11:4); but loves him with tender SINGLENESS OF AFFECTION. Where Eve first gave way, was in mentally harboring for a moment the possibility insinuated by the serpent, of GOD not having her truest interests at heart, and of this "other" professing friend being more concerned for her than God.

JFB: 2Co 11:3

So as to lose their virgin purity through seducers (2Co 11:4). The same Greek stands for "minds" as for "thoughts" (2Co 10:5, also see on 2Co 10:5); intents of the will, or mind. The oldest manuscripts after "simplicity," add, "and the purity" or "chastity."

JFB: 2Co 11:3

Rather, "that is towards Christ."

JFB: 2Co 11:4

Which in fact is impossible. However, if it were possible, ye might then bear with them (see on 2Co 11:1). But there can be no new Gospel; there is but the one which I first preached; therefore it ought not to be "borne" by you, that the false teachers should attempt to supersede me.

JFB: 2Co 11:4

The high-sounding title assumed by the false teachers, who arrogated Christ's own peculiar title (Greek, Mat 11:3, and Heb 10:37), "He that is coming." Perhaps he was leader of the party which assumed peculiarly to be "Christ's" (2Co 10:7; 1Co 1:12); hence his assumption of the title.

JFB: 2Co 11:4

Is preaching . . . ye are receiving.

JFB: 2Co 11:4

The "Jesus" of Gospel history. He therefore does not say "Christ," which refers to the office.

JFB: 2Co 11:4

Greek, "another Jesus . . . a different Spirit . . . a different Gospel." Another implies a distinct individual of the same kind; different implies one quite distinct in kind.

JFB: 2Co 11:4

From us.

JFB: 2Co 11:4

The will of man is passive in RECEIVING the "Spirit"; but it is actively concurrent with the will of God (which goes before to give the good will) in ACCEPTING the "Gospel."

JFB: 2Co 11:4

There would be an excuse for your conduct, though a bad one (for ye ought to give heed to no Gospel other than what ye have already heard from me, Gal 1:6-7); but the false teachers do not even pretend they have "another Jesus" and a "different Gospel" to bring before you; they merely try to supplant me, your accredited Teacher. Yet ye not only "bear with" them, but prefer them.

JFB: 2Co 11:5

My claim is superior to that of the false teachers, "For," &c.

JFB: 2Co 11:5

I reckon [ALFORD].

JFB: 2Co 11:5

Greek, "That I have not been, and am not."

JFB: 2Co 11:5

James, Peter, and John, the witnesses of Christ's transfiguration and agony in Gethsemane. Rather, "those overmuch apostles," those surpassers of the apostles in their own esteem. This sense is proved by the fact that the context contains no comparison between him and the apostles, but only between him and the false teachers; 2Co 11:6 also alludes to these, and not to the apostles; compare also the parallel phrase, "false apostles" (see on 2Co 11:13 and 2Co 12:11) [ALFORD].

JFB: 2Co 11:6

Greek, "a common man"; a "laic"; not rhetorically trained; unskilled in finish of diction. 1Co 2:1-4, 1Co 2:13; 2Co 10:10-11, shows his words were not without weight, though his "speech" was deficient in oratorical artifice. "Yet I am not so in my knowledge" (2Co 12:1-5; Eph 3:1-5).

JFB: 2Co 11:6

Read with the oldest manuscripts, "We have made things (Gospel truths) manifest," thus showing our "knowledge." English Version would mean, I leave it to yourselves to decide whether I be rude in speech . . . : for we have been thoroughly (literally, "in everything") made manifest among you (literally, "in respect to you"; "in relation to you"). He had not by reserve kept back his "knowledge" in divine mysteries from them (2Co 2:17; 2Co 4:2; Act 20:20, Act 20:27).

JFB: 2Co 11:6

The Greek rather favors the translation, "among all men"; the sense then is, we have manifested the whole truth among all men with a view to your benefit [ALFORD]. But the Greek in Phi 4:12, "In each thing and in all things," sanctions English Version, which gives a clearer sense.

JFB: 2Co 11:7

Literally, "OR have I?" Connected with 2Co 11:6, "Or will any of you make it an objection that I have preached to you gratuitously?" He leaves their good feeling to give the answer, that this, so far from being an objection, was a decided superiority in him above the false apostles (1Co 9:6-15).

JFB: 2Co 11:7

In my mode of living, waiving my right of maintenance, and earning it by manual labor; perhaps with slaves as his fellow laborers (Act 18:3; Phi 4:12).

JFB: 2Co 11:7

Spiritually, by your admission to Gospel privileges.

JFB: 2Co 11:7

"in that."

JFB: 2Co 11:7

"of God" implies its divine glory to which they were admitted.

JFB: 2Co 11:7

"without charge."

JFB: 2Co 11:8

That is, took from them in order to spare you more than what was their fair share of contribution to my maintenance, for example, the Philippian Church (Phi 4:15-16).

JFB: 2Co 11:8

"subsidy."

JFB: 2Co 11:8

Greek, "with a view to ministration to you"; compare "supplied" (Greek, "in addition"), 2Co 11:9, implying, he brought with him from the Macedonians, supplies towards his maintenance at Corinth; and (2Co 11:9) when those resources failed ("when I wanted") he received a new supply, while there, from the same source.

JFB: 2Co 11:9

"was in want."

JFB: 2Co 11:9

Greek, "burdensome," literally, "to torpify," and so to oppress. JEROME says it is a Cilician word (2Co 12:14, 2Co 12:16).

JFB: 2Co 11:9

Rather, as Greek, "the brethren when they came." Perhaps Timotheus and Silas (Act 8:1, Act 8:5). Compare Phi 4:15-16, which refers to donations received from the Philippians (who were in Macedonia) at two distinct periods ("once and again"), one at Thessalonica, the other after his departure from Macedonia, that is, when he came into Achaia to Corinth (from the church in which city he would receive no help); and this "in the beginning of the Gospel," that is, at its first preaching in these parts. Thus all three, the two Epistles and history, mutually, and no doubt undesignedly, coincide; a sure test of genuineness.

JFB: 2Co 11:9

Greek, "supplied in addition," namely, in addition to their former contributions; or as BENGEL, in addition to the supply obtained by my own manual labor.

JFB: 2Co 11:10

Greek, "There is (the) truth of Christ in me that," &c. (Rom 9:1).

JFB: 2Co 11:10

The oldest manuscripts read, "This boasting shall not be shut (that is, stopped) as regards me." "Boasting is as it were personified . . . shall not have its mouth stopped as regards me" [ALFORD].

JFB: 2Co 11:11

Love is often offended at its favors being not accepted, as though the party to whom they are offered wished to be under no obligation to the offerer.

JFB: 2Co 11:12

I will continue to decline help.

JFB: 2Co 11:12

Greek, "the occasion," namely, of misrepresenting my motives, which would be afforded to my detractors, if I accepted help.

JFB: 2Co 11:12

BENGEL joins this clause with "the occasion," namely, of glorying or boasting; the occasion "that they may be found (a point wherein they glory) even as we," that is, quite as disinterested, or virtually, quite as gain-seeking and self-seeking. It cannot mean that the false teachers taught gratuitously even as Paul (compare 2Co 11:20; 1Co 9:12). ALFORD less clearly explains by reference to 2Co 11:18, &c., where the "glorying" here is taken up and described as "glorying after the flesh"; thus it means, that in the matters of which they beast they may be found even as we, that is, we may been a fair and equal footing; that there may be no adventitious comparisons made between us, arising out of misrepresentations of my course of procedure, but that in every matter of boasting we may be fairly compared and judged by facts; FOR (2Co 11:13) realities they have none, no weapons but misrepresentation, being false apostles.

Clarke: 2Co 11:1

Would to God ye could bear with me - Οφελον ηνειχεσθε μου μικρον . As the word God is not mentioned here, it would have been much better to have translated the passage literally thus: I wish ye could bear a little with me. The too frequent use of this sacred name produces a familiarity with it that is not at all conducive to reverence and godly fear

Clarke: 2Co 11:1

In my folly - In my seeming folly; for, being obliged to vindicate his ministry, it was necessary that he should speak much of himself, his sufferings, and his success. And as this would appear like boasting; and boasting is always the effect of an empty, foolish mind; those who were not acquainted with the necessity that lay upon him to make this defense, might be led to impute it to vanity. As if he had said: Suppose you allow this to be folly, have the goodness to bear with me; for though I glory, I should not be a fool, 2Co 12:6. And let no man think me a fool for my boasting, 2Co 11:16.

Clarke: 2Co 11:2

I am jealous over you, etc. - The apostle evidently alludes either to the שושבינים shoshabinim or paranymphs among the Hebrews, whose office is largely explained in the notes on Joh 3:29, and the observations at the end of that chapter (see note at Joh 3:36); or to the harmosyni , a sort of magistrates among the Lacedemonians who had the care of virgins, and whose business it was to see them well educated, kept pure, and properly prepared for married life

Clarke: 2Co 11:2

That I may present you as a chaste virgin - The allusion is still kept up; and there seems to be a reference to Lev 21:14, that the high priest must not marry any one that was not a pure virgin. Here, then, Christ is the high priest, the spouse or husband; the Corinthian Church the pure virgin to be espoused; the apostle and his helpers the shoshabinim , or harmosyni , who had educated and prepared this virgin for her husband, and espoused her to him. See the observations already referred to at the end of the third chapter of John. (Joh 3:36 (note))

Clarke: 2Co 11:3

As the serpent beguiled Eve through his subtilty - This is a strong reflection on the false apostle and his teaching: he was subtle, πανουργος and by his subtlety ( πανουργια, from παν, all, and εργον, work; his versatility of character and conduct, his capability of doing all work, and accommodating himself to the caprices, prejudices, and evil propensities of those to whom he ministered) he was enabled to corrupt the minds of the people from the simplicity of the Gospel of Christ; or, to follow the metaphor, he had seduced the pure, chaste, well educated virgin, from her duty, affection, and allegiance to her one only true husband, the high priest, Jesus Christ. And here he seems to intimate that the serpent had seduced the mind of Eve from her affections and allegiance to Adam, her true husband; and certainly from God, her creator and governor. See at the end of the chapter (note).

Clarke: 2Co 11:4

For if he that cometh - The false apostle, who came after St. Paul had left Corinth

Clarke: 2Co 11:4

Preacheth another Jesus - Who can save more fully and more powerfully than that Jesus whom I have preached

Clarke: 2Co 11:4

Or if ye receive another spirit - And if in consequence of believing in this new saviour ye receive another spirit, the gifts, graces, and consolations of which are greater than those which ye have received from the Holy Ghost, which has been given to you on your believing on the Christ whom we preached

Clarke: 2Co 11:4

Or another Gospel - Containing more privileges, spiritual advantages, and stronger excitements to holiness, than that which we have preached and which ye have accepted, ye might well bear with him. This would be a sufficient reason why you should not only bear with him, but prefer him to me

Others think that the last clause should be rendered, Ye might well bear with Me - notwithstanding he brought you another Jesus, spirit, and gospel, ye might bear with me, who have already ministered so long to and done so much for you. But the former sense seems best.

Clarke: 2Co 11:5

I was not - behind the very chiefest apostles - That is: The most eminent of the apostles have not preached Christ, ministered the spirit, explained and enforced the doctrines of the Gospel in a more powerful and effectual manner than I have done.

Clarke: 2Co 11:6

But though I be rude in speech - Ιδιωτης τῳ λογῳ Though I speak like a common unlettered man, in plain unadorned phrase, studying none of the graces of eloquence; yet I am not unskilled in the most profound knowledge of God, of spiritual and eternal things, of the nature of the human soul, and the sound truths of the Gospel system: ye yourselves are witnesses of this, as in all these things I have been thoroughly manifested among you

Inspired men received all their doctrines immediately from God, and often the very words in which those doctrines should be delivered to the world; but in general the Holy Spirit appears to have left them to their own language, preventing them from using any expression that might be equivocal, or convey a contrary sense to that which God intended

That St. Paul wrote a strong, nervous, and sufficiently pure language, his own writings sufficiently testify; but the graces of the Greek tongue he appears not to have studied, or at least he did not think it proper to use them; for perhaps there is no tongue in the world that is so apt to seduce the understanding by its sounds and harmony, as the Greek. It is not an unusual thing for Greek scholars to the present day to be in raptures with the harmony of a Greek verse, the sense of which is but little regarded, and perhaps is little worth! I should suppose that God would prevent the inspired writers from either speaking or writing thus, that sound might not carry the hearer away from sense; and that the persuasive force of truth might alone prevail, and the excellence of the power appear to be of God and not of man. Taking up the subject in this point of view, I see no reason to have recourse to the supposition, or fable rather, that the apostle had an impediment in his speech, and that he alludes to this infirmity in the above passage.

Clarke: 2Co 11:7

Have I committed an offense in abasing myself - Have I transgressed in labouring with my hands that I might not be chargeable to you? and getting my deficiencies supplied by contributions from other Churches, while I was employed in labouring for your salvation? Does your false apostle insinuate that I have disgraced the apostolic office by thus descending to servile labor for my support? Well; I have done this that you might be exalted - that you might receive the pure doctrines of the Gospel, and be exalted to the highest pitch of intellectual light and blessedness. And will you complain that I preached the Gospel gratis to you? Surely not. The whole passage is truly ironical.

Clarke: 2Co 11:8

I robbed other Churches - This part of the sentence is explained by the latter, taking wages to do you service. The word οψωνιον signifies the pay of money and provisions given daily to a Roman soldier. As if he had said: I received food and raiment, the bare necessaries of life, from other Churches while labouring for your salvation. Will you esteem this a crime?

Clarke: 2Co 11:9

And when I was present with you - The particle και which we translate and, should be rendered for in this place: For when I was with you, and was in want, I was chargeable to no man. I preferred to be, for a time, even without the necessaries of life, rather than be a burden to you. To whom was this a reproach, to me or to you

Clarke: 2Co 11:9

The brethren which came from Macedonia - He probably refers to the supplies which he received from the Church at Philippi, which was in Macedonia; of which he says, that in the beginning of the Gospel no Church communicated with me, as concerning giving and receiving, but you only; for even at Thessalonica ye sent once and again to my necessity, Phi 4:15, Phi 4:16. See the Introduction, Section 6.

Clarke: 2Co 11:10

As the truth of Christ is in me - Εστιν αληθεια Χριστου εν εμοι· The truth of Christ is in me. That is: I speak as becomes a Christian man, and as influenced by the Gospel of Christ. It is a solemn form of asseveration, if not to be considered in the sense of an oath

Clarke: 2Co 11:10

In the regions of Achaia - The whole of the Peloponnesus, or Morea, in which the city of Corinth stood. From this it appears that he had received no help from any of the other Churches in the whole of that district.

Clarke: 2Co 11:11

Wherefore - Why have I acted thus? and why do I propose to continue to act thus? is it because I love you not, and will not permit you to contribute to my support? God knoweth the contrary; I do most affectionately love you.

Clarke: 2Co 11:12

But what I do, etc. - I act thus that I may cut off occasion of glorying, boasting, or calumniating from them - the false prophets and his partisans, who seek occasion - who would be glad that I should become chargeable to you, that it might in some sort vindicate them who exact much from you; for they bring you into bondage, and devour you, 2Co 11:20

Nothing could mortify these persons more than to find that the apostle did take nothing, and was resolved to take nothing; while they were fleecing the people. It is certain that the passage is not to be understood as though the false apostles took nothing from the people, to whatever disinterestedness they might pretend, for the apostle is positive on the contrary; and he was determined to act so that his example should not authorize these deceivers, who had nothing but their self-interest in view, to exact contribution from the people; so that if they continued to boast, they must be bound even as the apostle, taking nothing for their labors; which could never comport with their views of gain and secular profit.

Calvin: 2Co 11:1

1.Would that ye did bear with me As he saw that the ears of the Corinthians were still in part pre-engaged, ⁷⁹³ he has recourse to another contrivance, for he turns to express a wish, as persons do when they do not venture openly to entreat. ⁷⁹⁴ Immediately afterwards, however, as if gathering confidence, he nevertheless entreats the Corinthians to bear with his folly. He gives the name of folly to that splendid proclamation of his praises, which afterwards follows. Not as if he were a fool in glorying; for he was constrained to it by necessity, and besides, he restrained himself in such a manner, that no one could justly regard him as going beyond bounds; but as it is an unseemly thing to herald one’s own praises, and a thing that is foreign to the inclinations of a modest man, he speaks by way of concession.

What I have rendered in the imperative — bear with me, Chrysostom interprets as an affirmation, and certainly the Greek word is ambiguous, and either sense suits sufficiently well. As, however, the reasons that the Apostle subjoins are designed to induce the Corinthians to bear with him, and as we will find him afterwards expostulating with them again on the ground of their not conceding anything to him, I have followed the Old Interpreter. ⁷⁹⁵ By saying, Would that, etc., he had seemed to be distrustful; now, as if correcting that hesitation, he openly and freely commands.

Calvin: 2Co 11:2

2.For I am jealous Mark why it is that he acts the fool, for jealousy hurries a man as it were headlong. “Do not demand that I should show the equable temper ⁷⁹⁶ of a man that is at ease, and not excited by any emotion, for that vehemence of vehemence of jealousy, with which I am inflamed towards you, does not suffer me to be at ease.” As, however, there are two kinds of jealousy — the one springs from self love, and of a wicked and perverse nature, while the other is cherished by us on God’s account, ⁷⁹⁷ he intimates of what sort his zeal is. For many are zealous — for themselves, not for God. That on the other hand, is the only pious and right zeal, that has an eye to God, that he may not be defrauded of the honors that of right belong to him.

For I have united you to one man That his zeal was of such a nature, he proves from the design of his preaching, for its tendency was to join them to Christ in marriage, and retain them in connection with him. ⁷⁹⁸ Here, however, he gives us in his own person a lively picture of a good minister; for One alone is the Bridegroom of the Church — the Son of God. All ministers are the friends of the Bridegroom, as the Baptist declares respecting himself. (Joh 3:29.) Hence all ought to be concerned, that the fidelity of this sacred marriage remain unimpaired and inviolable. This they cannot do, unless they are actuated by the dispositions of the Bridegroom, so that every one of them may be as much concerned for the purity of the Church, as a husband is for the chastity of his wife. Away then with coldness and indolence in this matter, for one that is cold ⁷⁹⁹ will never be qualified for this office. Let them, however, in the mean time, take care, not to pursue their own interest rather than that of Christ, that they may not intrude themselves into his place, lest while they give themselves out as his paranymphs, ⁸⁰⁰ they turn out to be in reality adulterers, by alluring the bride to love themselves.

To present you as a chaste virgin We are married to Christ, on no other condition than that we bring virginity as our dowry, and preserve it entire, so as to be free from all corruption. Hence it is the duty of ministers of the gospel to purify our souls, that they may be chaste virgins to Christ; otherwise they accomplish nothing. Now we may understand it as meaning, that they individually present themselves as chaste virgins to Christ, or that the minister presents the whole of the people, and brings them forward into Christ’s presence. I approve rather of the second interpretation. Hence I have given a different rendering from Erasmus. ⁸⁰¹

Calvin: 2Co 11:3

3.But I fear He begins to explain, what is the nature of that virginity of which he has made mention — our cleaving to Christ alone, sincerely, with our whole heart. God, indeed, everywhere requires from us, that we be joined with him in body and in spirit, and he warns us that he is a jealous God, (Exo 20:5,) to avenge with the utmost severity the wrong done to him, in the event of any one’s drawing back from him. This connection, however, is accomplished in Christ, as Paul teaches in Ephesians, (Eph 5:25.) He points out, however, at present the means of it — when we remain in the pure simplicity of the gospel, for, as in contracting marriages among men, there are written contracts ⁸⁰² drawn out, so the spiritual connection between us and the Son of God is confirmed by the gospel, as a kind of written contract. ⁸⁰³ Let us maintain the fidelity, love, and obedience, that have been there promised by us; he will be faithful to us on his part.

Now Paul says that he is concerned, that the minds of the Corinthians may not be corrupted from the simplicity that is in Christ Paul, it is true, says in Greek εἰς Χριστόν , which Erasmus renders towards Christ, ⁸⁰⁴ but the Old Interpreter has come nearer, in my opinion, to Paul’s intention, ⁸⁰⁵ because by the simplicity that is in Christ is meant, that which keeps us in the unadulterated and pure doctrine of the gospel, and admits of no foreign admixtures ⁸⁰⁶ By this he intimates that men’s minds are adulterated, ⁸⁰⁷ whenever they turn aside, even in the least degree, to the one side or to the other, from the pure doctrine of Christ. Nor is it without good reason, for who would not condemn a matron as guilty of unchastity, so soon as she lends an ear to a seducer? So in like manner we, when we admit wicked and false teachers, who are Satan’s vile agents, show but too clearly, that we do not maintain conjugal fidelity towards Christ. We must also take notice of the term simplicity, for Paul’s fear was not, lest the Corinthians should all at once openly draw back altogether from Christ, but lest, by turning aside, by little and little, from the simplicity which they had learned, so as to go after profane and foreign contrivances, they should at length become adulterated.

He brings forward a comparison as the serpent beguiled Eve through his subtilty For if false teachers have a show of wisdom, if they have any power of eloquence for persuading, if they plausibly insinuate themselves into the minds of their hearers, and instill their poison by fawning artifices, it was in a similar way that Satan also beguiled Eve, as he did not openly declare himself to be an enemy, but crept in privily under a specious pretext.

Calvin: 2Co 11:4

4.For if he that cometh He now reproves the Corinthians for the excessive readiness, which they showed to receive the false apostles. For while they were towards Paul himself excessively morose and irritable, ⁸⁰⁸ so that on any, even the least occasion, they were offended if he gave them even the slightest reproof, there was, on the other hand, nothing that they did not bear with, on the part of the false Apostles. They willingly endured their pride, haughtiness, and unreasonableness. An absurd reverence of this nature he condemns, because in the mean time they showed no discrimination or judgment. “How is it that they take ⁸⁰⁹ so much liberty with you, and you submit patiently to their control? Had they brought you another Christ, or another gospel, or another Spirit, different from what you received through my hands, I would assuredly approve of your regard for them, for they would be deserving of such honor. But as they have conferred upon you nothing, that I had not given you previously, what sort of gratitude do you show in all but adoring those, to whom you are indebted for nothing, while you despise me, through whom God has bestowed upon you so many and so distinguished benefits?” Such is the reverence that is shown even at this day by Papists towards their pretended Bishops. For while they are oppressed by their excessively harsh tyranny, ⁸¹⁰ they submit to it without difficulty; but, at the same time, do not hesitate to treat Christ himself with contempt. ⁸¹¹

The expressions — another Christ, and another gospel, are made use of here in a different sense from what they bear in Gal 1:8. For another is used there in opposition to what is true and genuine, and hence it means false and counterfeit. Here, on the other hand, he means to say — “If the gospel had come to you through their ministry, and not through mine.”

Calvin: 2Co 11:5

5.For I reckon that I am He now convicts them of ingratitude, by removing the only thing that could serve as an excuse for them, for he shows that he is on a level, even with the chief of the Apostles. The Corinthians, therefore, were ungrateful ⁸¹² in not esteeming him more highly, after having found him, by experience, to be such; while, on the other hand, the authority that was justly due to him, they transferred to persons of no value. For the sake of modesty, however, he says that he reckons so, while the thing was known and manifest to all. His meaning, however, is, that God had honored his Apostleship with no less distinguished marks of favor, than that of John or Peter. Now the man that despises the gifts of God, which he himself recognizes, cannot clear himself from the charge of being spiteful and ungrateful. Hence, wherever you see the gifts of God, you must there reverence God himself: ⁸¹³ I mean, that every one is worthy of honor, in so far as he is distinguished by graces received from God, and especially if any advantage has redounded to thee from them.

Calvin: 2Co 11:6

6.But though I am rude There was one thing ⁸¹⁴ in which he might appear, at first view, to be inferior — that he was devoid of eloquence. This judgment, ⁸¹⁵ therefore, he anticipates and corrects, while he acknowledges himself, indeed, to be rude and unpolished in speech, while at the same time he maintains that he has knowledge By speech here he means, elegance of expression; and by knowledge he means, the very substance of doctrine. For as man has both a soul and a body, so also in doctrine, there is the thing itself that is taught, and the ornament of expression with which it is clothed. Paul, therefore, maintains that he understands, what should be taught, and what is necessary to be known, though he is not an eloquent orator, so as to know how to set off his doctrine by a polished and eloquent manner of expression.

It is asked, however, whether elegance of speech ⁸¹⁶ is not also necessary for Apostles; for how will they otherwise be prepared for teaching? Knowledge might perhaps suffice for others, but how could a teacher be dumb? I answer, that, while Paul acknowledges himself to be rude in speech, it is not as though he were a mere infant, but as meaning, that he was not distinguished by such splendid eloquence as others, to whom he yields the palm as to this, retaining for himself what was the principal thing — the reality itself, ⁸¹⁷ while he leaves them talkativeness without gravity. If, however, any one should inquire, why it is that the Lord, who made men’s tongues, (Exo 4:11,) did not also endow so eminent an apostle with eloquence, that nothing might be wanting to him, I answer, that he was furnished with a sufficiency for supplying the want of eloquence. For we see and feel, what majesty there is in his writings, what elevation appears in them, what a weight of meaning is couched under them, what power is discovered in them. In fine, they are thunderbolts, not mere words. Does not the efficacy of the Spirit appear more clearly in a naked rusticity of words, (so to speak,) than under the disguise of elegance and ornament? Of this matter, however, we have treated more largely in the former Epistle. ⁸¹⁸ In short, he admits, as far as words are concerned, what his adversaries allege by way of objection, while he denies in reality what they hold forth. Let us also learn, from his example, to prefer deeds to words, and, to use a barbarous but common proverb — “ Teneant alii quid nominis, nos autem quid rei ;” — “Let others know something of the name, but let us know something of the reality. ” ⁸¹⁹ If eloquence is superadded, let it be regarded by us as something over and above; and farther, let it not be made use of for disguising doctrine, or adulterating it, but for unfolding it in its genuine simplicity.

But everywhere As there was something magnificent in placing himself on a level with the chief Apostles, that this may not be ascribed to arrogance, he makes the Corinthians judges, provided they judge from what they have themselves experienced; for they had known sufficiently well, from many proofs, that he did not boast needlessly, or without good reason. He means, therefore, that he needs not make use of words, inasmuch as reality and experience afford clear evidence of every thing that he was about to say ⁸²⁰

Calvin: 2Co 11:7

7.Have I committed an offense? His humility was cast up to him by way of reproach, while it was an excellence that was deserving of no ordinary commendation. Humility here means — voluntary abasement; for in conducting himself modestly, as if he had nothing in him that was particularly excellent, so that many looked upon him as one of the common people, he had done that for the advantage of the Corinthians. For the man was inflamed with so great a desire, ⁸²³ and so great an anxiety for their salvation, that he made a regard to himself a secondary consideration. Hence he says, that he had of his own accord made a surrender of his own greatness, that they might become great through his abasement. For his design was, that he might promote their salvation. He now indirectly charges them with ingratitude, in imputing to him as a fault so pious a disposition — not indeed for the purpose of reproaching him, but with the view of restoring them so much the better to a sound mind. And certainly, he wounded them more severely by speaking ironically, than if he had spoken in a simple way, and without a figure. He might have said, “What is this? Am I despised by you, because I have lowered myself for your advantage?” The questioning, however, which he makes use of, was more forcible for putting them to shame.

Because I preached freely This is a part of his abasement. For he had given up his own right, as though his condition had been inferior to that of others; but such was the unreasonableness of some of them, that they esteemed him the less on that account, as if he had been undeserving of remuneration. The reason, why he had given his services to the Corinthians gratuitously, is immediately subjoined — for he did not act in this manner everywhere, but, as we have seen in the former Epistle, ⁸²⁴ there was a danger of his furnishing the false Apostles with a handle against him.

Calvin: 2Co 11:8

8.I robbed other churches He has intentionally, in my opinion, made use of an offensive term, that he might the more forcibly express the unreasonableness of the matter — in respect of his being despised by the Corinthians. “I have,” says he, “procured pay for myself from the spoils of others, that I might serve you. While I have thus spared you, how unreasonable it is to make me so poor a return!” It is, however, a metaphor, that is taken from what is customary among soldiers; for as conquerors take spoils from the nations that they have conquered, so every thing that Paul took from the Churches that he had gained to Christ was, in a manner, the spoils of his victories, though, at the same time, he never would have taken it from persons against their will, but what they contributed gratuitously was, in a manner, due by right of spiritual warfare. ⁸²⁵

Calvin: 2Co 11:9

Observe, however, that he says that he had been in want, for he would never have been a burden to them, had he not been constrained by necessity. He, nevertheless, in the mean time, labored with his hands, as we have seen before, (1Co 4:12,) but, as the labor of his hands was not sufficient for sustaining life, something additional was contributed by the Macedonians. Accordingly he does not say, that his living had been furnished to him by the Macedonians, ⁸²⁶ but merely that they had supplied what was wanting. We have spoken elsewhere of the Apostle’s holy prudence and diligence in providing against dangers. Here we must take notice of the pious zeal of the Macedonians, who did not hesitate to contribute of their substance for his pay, that the gospel might be proclaimed to others, and those, too, that were wealthier than themselves. Ah! how few Macedonians are there in the present day, and on the other hand how many Corinthians you may find everywhere!

Calvin: 2Co 11:10

10.The truth of Christ is in me Lest any one should suspect, that Paul’s words were designed to induce the Corinthians to be more liberal to him in future, and endeavor to make amends for their error in the past, he affirms with an oath, that he would take nothing from them, or from others in Achaia, though it were offered to him. For this manner of expression — the truth of Christ is in me, is in the form of oath. Let me not be thought to have the truth of Christ in me if I do not retain this glorying among the inhabitants of Achaia. Now Corinth was in Achaia. ⁸²⁷

Calvin: 2Co 11:11

11.Is it because I love you not? Those that we love, we treat with greater familiarity. Lest the Corinthians, therefore, should take it amiss, that he refused their liberality, while he allowed himself to be assisted by the Macedonians, and even declared with an oath that he would do so still, he anticipates that suspicion also. And by the figure termed anthypophora, ⁸²⁸ he asks, as it were in their name, whether this is a token of a malevolent mind? He does not return a direct answer to the question, but the indirect answer that he returns has much more weight, inasmuch as he calls God to be a witness of his good disposition towards them. You see here, that in the course of three verses ⁸²⁹ there are two oaths, but they are lawful and holy, because they have a good design in view, and a legitimate reason is involved. Hence to condemn indiscriminately all oaths is to act the part of fanatics, who make no distinction between white and black. ⁸³⁰

Calvin: 2Co 11:12

12.But what I do He again explains the reason of his intention. ⁸³¹ The false Apostles, with the view of alluring to themselves ignorant persons, took no pay. Their serving gratuitously was a show of uncommon zeal. ⁸³² If Paul had availed himself of his right, he would have given them occasion to raise their crest, as if they had been greatly superior to him. Paul, accordingly, that he might give them no occasion of doing injury, did himself, also, preach the Gospel, free of charge, and this is what he adds — that he is desirous to cut off occasion from those that desire occasion For the false Apostles were desirous to insinuate themselves by this artifice, and to detract, in proportion to this, from Paul’s credit, if they were superior to him in any respect. He says, that he will not give them this advantage. “They will be found,” says he, “on a level with us in that glorying which they would wish to have for themselves exclusively.” This, however, is a useful admonition in connection with cutting off occasion from the wicked, as often as they desire one. For this is the only way to overcome them — not in the way of furnishing them with arms through our imprudence. ⁸³³

Defender: 2Co 11:2

The true church of Christ, encompassing all who have received Him as Savior and Lord, is also called the bride of Christ. Paul, as the spiritual "father" of the Corinthian Christians, desired to present his "daughter" pure and whole to the heavenly Bridegroom when He comes to claim her and take her to His Father's house, where He has prepared "mansions" for her (Joh 14:2, Joh 14:3). There are numerous other references to this unique espousal relation of the church to Christ (Joh 3:29; Eph 5:31, Eph 5:32; Rev 19:7-9; Rev 21:2, Rev 21:9), as well as numerous Old Testament references to Israel as the wife of Jehovah (Isa 54:5; Hos 2:19).

Defender: 2Co 11:2

The very fact that the New Testament writers use the engagement relationship of the Bride to the Bridegroom as a representation of the ideal relation of the church to Christ proves unequivocally that each human bride should come to her marriage as a chaste virgin; the same is equally true of the bridegroom. This is surely the best foundation for a godly home. God can and does forgive repentant sinners, but it is far better - especially in marriage - if this sin has never been committed at all."

Defender: 2Co 11:3

Paul here asserts and confirms that the Genesis record of Eve's temptation and fall is true and historical, not allegorical. The "serpent" in Genesis is explicitly identified as Satan, the arch deceiver (2Co 11:14), who turned Adam's bride against her Maker, in similar fashion to what he was now doing at Corinth, using false apostles (instead of a serpent's body) to turn His espoused Bride away from the soon-coming Bridegroom (Rev 12:9)."

Defender: 2Co 11:4

The fact that a preacher or teacher talks about "Jesus" means little, for false prophets and false teachers have always invoked His name whenever it suited their purposes, and they still do. There are the "buddy" Jesus of country music, the socialist Jesus of liberal theology, the esoteric Jesus of the New Age and the ritualistic Jesus of sacramentalism, but none of these Jesus-figures is the Savior. The true Jesus is the Creator of the universe, the Word made flesh, the one Sacrifice for sins forever, the resurrected Lord and our coming King.

Defender: 2Co 11:4

There are many evil spirits at large in the world who would seek to counterfeit the Holy Spirit in the believer's experience if they could. We must "try the spirits." "Hereby know ye the Spirit of God: Every spirit that confesseth that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh is of God" (see note on 1Jo 4:2).

Defender: 2Co 11:4

Paul warned against believing any man or even any angel who came preaching some other Gospel than the true saving Gospel of Christ which he had preached (Gal 1:6-9). That Gospel includes the fullness of the person and work of Christ, from eternity to eternity (see Mat 4:23, note; 1Co 15:1-4, note; Rev 14:6, Rev 14:9, note)."

TSK: 2Co 11:1

Would : Num 11:29; Jos 7:7; 2Ki 5:3; Act 26:29; 1Co 4:8

bear with me a : 2Co 11:4; Act 18:14; Heb 5:2

in : 2Co 11:16, 2Co 11:17, 2Co 11:19, 2Co 11:21, 2Co 5:13, 2Co 12:11; 1Co 1:21, 1Co 3:18, 1Co 4:10

bear with me : or, ye do bear with me

TSK: 2Co 11:2

jealous : Gal 4:11, Gal 4:17-19; Phi 1:8; 1Th 2:11

I have : Gen 24:2-5, Gen 24:58-67; Psa 45:10,Psa 45:11; Isa 54:5, Isa 62:4, Isa 62:5; Hos 2:19, Hos 2:20; Joh 3:29; Rom 7:4; 1Co 4:15

I may : Eph 5:27; Col 1:28

a chaste : Lev 21:13-15; Eze 44:22

TSK: 2Co 11:3

I fear : 2Co 11:29, 2Co 12:20,2Co 12:21; Psa 119:53; Gal 1:6, Gal 3:1, Gal 4:11; Phi 3:18, Phi 3:19

as : Gen 3:4, Gen 3:13; Joh 8:44; 1Ti 2:14; Rev 12:9, Rev 20:2

so : 2Co 11:13-15, 2Co 2:17, 2Co 4:2; Mat 24:24; Act 20:30,Act 20:31; Gal 1:6, Gal 2:4, Gal 3:1; Eph 4:14; Eph 6:24; Col 2:4, Col 2:8, Col 2:18; 2Th 2:3-11; 1Ti 1:3, 1Ti 4:1-4; 2Ti 3:1-9, 2Ti 3:13; 2Ti 4:3, 2Ti 4:4; Tit 1:10; Heb 13:9; 2Pe 2:1-14, 2Pe 3:3, 2Pe 3:17; 1Jo 2:18, 1Jo 4:1; Jud 1:4; Rev 12:9

the simplicity : 2Co 1:12; Rom 12:8, Rom 16:18, Rom 16:19

TSK: 2Co 11:4

preacheth : Act 4:12; 1Ti 2:5

receive : 1Co 12:4-11; Gal 3:2; Eph 4:4, Eph 4:5

another gospel : Gal 1:7, Gal 1:8

with him : or, with me

TSK: 2Co 11:5

I was not : 2Co 12:11, 2Co 12:12; 1Co 15:10; Gal 2:6-9

TSK: 2Co 11:6

rude : 2Co 10:10; 1Co 1:17, 1Co 1:21, 1Co 2:1-3, 1Co 2:13

not : Eph 3:4; 2Pe 3:15, 2Pe 3:16

but we : 2Co 4:2, 2Co 5:11, 2Co 7:2, 2Co 12:12

TSK: 2Co 11:7

in : 2Co 10:1, 2Co 12:13; Act 18:1-3, Act 20:34; 1Co 4:10-12, 1Co 9:6, 1Co 9:12, 1Co 9:14-18; 1Th 2:9; 2Th 3:8

TSK: 2Co 11:8

2Co 11:9; Phi 4:14-16

TSK: 2Co 11:9

2Co 11:8

wanted : 2Co 6:4, 2Co 9:12; Phi 2:25, Phi 4:11-14; Heb 11:37

I was : 2Co 12:13; Neh 5:15; Act 18:3, Act 20:33; 1Th 2:9; 2Th 3:8, 2Th 3:9

the brethren : 2Co 8:1, 2Co 8:2; Phi 4:10,Phi 4:15, Phi 4:16

burdensome : 2Co 12:14-16; 1Th 2:6

TSK: 2Co 11:10

the truth : 2Co 11:31, 2Co 1:23, 2Co 12:19; Rom 1:9, Rom 9:1; Gal 1:20; 1Th 2:5, 1Th 2:10; 1Ti 2:7

no man shall stop me of this boasting : Gr. this boasting shall not be stopped in me, 2Co 11:12, 2Co 11:16, 2Co 11:17, 2Co 10:15; 1Co 9:15-18

the regions : 2Co 1:1, 2Co 9:2; Act 18:12, Act 18:27; Rom 16:5; 1Co 16:15; 1Th 1:7, 1Th 1:8

TSK: 2Co 11:11

because : 2Co 6:11, 2Co 6:12, 2Co 7:3, 2Co 12:15

God : 2Co 11:10, 2Co 12:2, 2Co 12:3; Jos 22:22; Psa 44:21; Joh 2:24, Joh 2:25, Joh 21:17; Act 15:8; Heb 4:13; Rev 2:23

TSK: 2Co 11:12

what : 2Co 11:9, 2Co 1:17; Job 23:13

that I may : 1Co 9:12; 1Ti 5:14

them : Gal 1:7; Phil. 1:15-30

they glory : 2Co 11:18, 2Co 5:12, 2Co 10:17; 1Co 5:6; Gal 6:13, Gal 6:14

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: 2Co 11:1

Would to God - Greek, "I would"( Ὄφελον Ophelon ). This expresses earnest desire, but in the Greek there is no appeal to God. The sense would be well expressed by "O that,"or "I earnestly wish."

Ye could bear with me - That you would bear patiently with me; that you would hear me patiently, and suffer me to speak of myself.

In my folly - Folly in boasting. The idea seems to be, "I know that boasting is generally foolish, and that it is not to be indulged in. But though it is to be generally regarded as folly, yet circumstances compel me to it, and I ask your indulgence in it."It is possible also that his opponents accused him of folly in boasting so much of himself.

And indeed bear with me - Margin, "Ye do bear."But the text has probably the correct rendering. It is the expression of an earnest wish that they would tolerate him a little in this. He entreats them to bear with him because he was constrained to it.

Barnes: 2Co 11:2

For I am jealous over you - This verse expresses the reason why he was disposed to speak of his attainments, and of what he had done. It was because he loved them, and because he feared that they were in danger of being seduced from the simplicity of the gospel. The phrase "I am jealous"( Ζηλῶ Zēlō ) means properly, I ardently love you; I am full of tender attachment to you. The word was usual among the Greeks to denote an ardent affection of any kind (from ζέω zeō , to boil, to be fervid or fervent). The precise meaning is to be determined by the connection; see the note on 1Co 12:31. The word may denote the jealousy which is felt by an apprehension of departure from fidelity on the part of those whom we love; or it may denote a fervid and glowing attachment. The meaning here probably is, that Paul had a strong attachment to them.

With godly jealousy - Greek, "with the zeal of God" Θεοῦ ζήλῳ Theou zēlō ). That is, with very great or vehement zeal - in accordance with the Hebrew custom when the name God is used to denote any thing signally great, as the phrase "mountains of God,"meaning very elevated or lofty mountains. The mention of this ardent attachment suggested what follows. His mind reverted to the tenderness of the marriage relation, and to the possibility that in that relation the affections might be estranged. He makes use of this figure, therefore, to apprize them of the change which he apprehended.

For I have espoused you ... - The word used here ( ἁρμόζω harmozō ) means properly "to adapt, to fit, to join together."Hence, "to join in wedlock, to marry."Here it means to marry to another; and the idea is, that Paul had been the agent employed in forming a connection, similar to the marriage connection. between them and the Saviour. The allusion here is not certain. It may refer to the custom which prevailed when friends made and procured the marriage for the bridegroom; or it may refer to some custom like that which prevailed among the Lacedemonians where persons were employed to form the lives and manners of virgins and prepare them for the duties of the married life. The sense is clear. Paul claims that it was by his instrumentality that they had been united to the Redeemer. Under him they had been brought into a relation to the Saviour similar to that sustained by the bride to her husband; and he felt all the interest in them which naturally grew out of that fact and from a desire to present them blameless to the pure Redeemer. The relation of the Church to Christ is often represented by marriage; see Eph 5:23-33; Rev 19:7; Rev 21:9.

To one husband - To the Redeemer.

That I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ - The allusion here, according to Doddridge, is, to the custom among the Greeks "of having an officer whose business it was to educate and form young women, especially those of rank and figure, designed for marriage, and then to present them to those who were to be their husbands, and if this officer through negligence permitted them to be corrupted between the espousals and the consummation of the marriage, great blame would fall upon him."Such a responsibility Paul felt. So anxious was he for the entire purity of that church which was to constitute "the bride, the Lamb’ s wife;"so anxious that all who were connected with that church should be presented pure in heaven.

Barnes: 2Co 11:3

But I fear - Paul had just compared the church to a virgin, soon to be presented as a bride to the Redeemer. The mention of this seems to have suggested to him the fact that the first woman was deceived and led astray by the tempter, and that the same thing might occur in regard to the church which he was so desirous should be preserved pure. The grounds of his fear were:

(1)    That Satan had seduced the first woman, thus demonstrating that the most holy ones were in danger of being led astray by temptation; and,

(2)    That special efforts were made to seduce them from the faith. The persuasive arts of the false teachers; the power of philosophy; and the attractive and corrupting influences of the world, he had reason to suppose might be employed to seduce them from simple attachment to Christ.

Lest by any means - Lest somehow ( μήπως mēpōs ). It is implied that many means would be used; that all arts would be tried; and that in some way, which perhaps they little suspected, these arts would be successful, unless they were constantly put upon their guard.

As the serpent beguiled Eve - see Gen 3:1-11. The word "serpent"here refers doubtless to Satan, who was the agent by whom Eve was beguiled see Joh 8:44; 1Jo 3:8; Rev 12:9; Rev 20:2. Paul did not mean that they were in danger of being corrupted in the same way, but that similar efforts would be made to seduce them. Satan adapts his temptations to the character and circumstances of the tempted. He varies them from age to age, and applies them in such a way as best to secure his object. Hence, all should be on their guard. No one knows the mode in which he will approach him, but all may know that he will approach them in some way.

Through his subtilty - see Gen 3:1. By his craft, art, wiles ( ἐν τῇ πανουργίᾳ en tē panourgia ). The word implies that shrewdness, cunning, craft was employed. A tempter always employs cunning and art to accomplish his object. The precise mode in which Satan accomplished his object is not certainly known. Perhaps the cunning consisted in assuming an attractive form - a fascinating manner - a manner suited to charm; perhaps in the idea that the eating of the forbidden fruit had endowed a serpent with the power of reason and speech above all other animals, and that it might be expected to produce a similar transformation in Eve. At all events there were false pretences and appearances, and such Paul apprehended would be employed by the false teachers to seduce and allure them; see on 2Co 11:13-14.

So your minds should be corrupted - So your thoughts should be perverted. So your hearts should be alienated. The mind is corrupted when the affections are alienated from the proper object, and when the soul is filled with unholy plans, and purposes, and desires.

From the simplicity that is in Christ -

(1) From simple and single-hearted devotedness to him - from pure and unmixed attachment to him. The fear was that their affections would be fixed on other objects, and that the singleness and unity of their devotedness to him would be destroyed.

\caps1 (2) f\caps0 rom his pure doctrines. By the admixture of philosophy; by the opinions of the world there was danger that their minds should be turned away from their hold on the simple truths which Christ had taught.

\caps1 (3) f\caps0 rom that simplicity of mind and heart; that childlike candor and docility; that freedom from all guile, dishonesty, and deception which so eminently characterized the Redeemer. Christ had a single aim; was free from all guile; was purely honest; never made use of any improper arts; never resorted to false appearances; and never deceived. His followers should in like manner be artless and guileless. There should be no mere cunning, no trick, no craft in advancing their purposes. There should be nothing but honesty and truth in all that they say. Paul was afraid that they would lose this beautiful simplicity and artlessness of character and manner; and that they would insensibly be led to adopt the maxims of mere cunning, of policy, of expediency, of seductive arts which prevailed so much in the world - a danger which was imminent among the shrewd and cunning people of Greece; but which is confined to no time and no place. Christians should be more guileless than even children are; as pure and free from trick, and from art and cunning as was the Redeemer himself.

\caps1 (4) f\caps0 rom the simplicity in worship which the Lord Jesus commended and required. The worship which the Redeemer designed to establish was simple, unostentatious, and pure - strongly in contrast with the gorgeousness and corruption of the pagan worship, and even with the imposing splendor of the Jewish temple service. He intended that it should be adapted to all lands, and such as could be offered by all classes of people - a pure worship, claiming first the homage of the heart, and then such simple external expressions as should best exhibit the homage of the heart. How easily might this be corrupted! What temptations were there to attempt to corrupt it by those who had been accustomed to the magnificence of the temple service, and who would suppose that the religion of the Messiah could not be less gorgeous than that which was designed to shadow forth his coming; and by those who had been accustomed to the splendid rites of the pagan worship, and who would suppose that the true religion ought not to be less costly and splendid than the false religion had been. If so much expense had been lavished on false religions, how natural to suppose that equal costliness at least should be bestowed on the true religion. Accordingly the history of the church for a considerable part of its existence has been little more than a record of the various forms in which the simple worship instituted by the Redeemer has been corrupted, until all that was gorgeous in pagan ceremonies and splendid in the Jewish ritual has been introduced as a part of Christian worship.

\caps1 (5) f\caps0 rom simplicity in dress and manner of living. The Redeemer’ s dress was simple. His manner of living was simple. His requirements demand great simplicity and plainness of apparel and manner of life; 1Pe 3:3-6; 1Ti 2:9-10. Yet how much proneness is there at all times to depart from this! What a besetting sin has it been in all ages to the church of Christ! And how much pains should there be that the very simplicity that is in Christ should be observed by all who bear the Christian name!

Barnes: 2Co 11:4

For if he that cometh ... - There is much difficulty in this verse in ascertaining the true sense, and expositors have been greatly perplexed and divided in opinion, especially with regard to the true sense of the last clause, "ye might well bear with him."It is difficult to ascertain whether Paul meant to speak ironically or seriously; and different views will prevail as different views are taken of the design. If it be supposed that he meant to speak seriously, the sense will be, "If the false teacher could recommend a better Saviour than I have done, or a Spirit better able to sanctify and save, then there would be a propriety in your receiving him and tolerating his doctrines."If the former, then the sense will be, "You cannot well bear with me; but if a man comes among you preaching a false Saviour, and a false Spirit, and a false doctrine. then you bear with him without any difficulty."

Another interpretation still has been proposed, by supposing that the word "me"is to be supplied at the close of the verse instead of "him,"and then the sense would be, "If you receive so readily one who preaches another gospel, one who comes with far less evidence that he is sent from God than I have, and if you show yourselves thus ready to fall in with any kind of teaching that may be brought to you, you might at least bear with me also."Amidst this variety it is not easy to ascertain the true sense. To me it seems probable, however, that Paul spoke seriously, and that our translation has expressed the true sense. The main idea doubtless is, that Paul felt that there was danger that they would be corrupted. If they could bring a better gospel, a more perfect system, and proclaim a more perfect Saviour, there would be no such change. But that could not be expected. It could not be done.

If therefore they preached any other Saviour or any other gospel; if they departed from the truths which he had taught them, it would be for the worse. It could not be otherwise. The Saviour whom he preached was perfect, and was able to save. The Spirit which he preached was perfect, and able to sanctify. The gospel which he preached was perfect, and there was no hope that it could be improved. Any change must be for the worse; and as the false teachers varied from his instructions, there was every reason to apprehend that their minds would be corrupted from the simplicity that was in Christ. The principal idea, therefore, is, that the gospel which he preached was as perfect as it could be, and that any change would be for the worse. No doctrine which others brought could be recommended because it was better. By the phrase "he that cometh"is meant doubtless the false teacher in Corinth.

Preacheth another Jesus - Proclaims one who is more worthy of your love and more able to save. If he that comes among you and claims your affections can point out another Christ who is more worthy of your confidence, then I admit that you do well to receive him. It is implied here that this could not be done. The Lord Jesus in his character and work is perfect. No Saviour superior to him has been provided; none but he is necessary.

Whom we have not preached - Let them show, if they can, that they have any Saviour to tell of whom we have not preached. We have given all the evidence that we are sent by God, and have laid all the claim to your confidence, which they can do for having made known the Saviour. They with all their pretensions have no Saviour to tell you of with whom we have not already made you acquainted. They have no claims, therefore, from this quarter which we have not also.

Or if ye receive another spirit ... - If they can preach to you another Sanctifier and Comforter; or if under their ministry you have received higher proofs of the power of the Spirit in performing miracles; in the gift of tongues; in renewing sinners and in comforting your hearts. The idea is, that Paul had proclaimed the existence and agency of the same Holy Spirit which they did; that his preaching had been attended with as striking proofs of the presence and power of that Spirit; that he had all the evidence of a divine commission from such an influence attending his labors which they could possibly have. They could reveal no spirit better able to sanctify and save; none who had more power than the Holy Spirit which they had received under the preaching of Paul, and there was therefore no reason why they should be "corrupted"or seduced from the simple doctrines which they had received and follow others.

Or another gospel ... - A gospel more worthy of your acceptance - one more free, more full, more rich in promises; one that revealed a better plan of salvation, or that was more full of comfort and peace.

Ye might well bear with him - Margin, "with me."The word "him"is not in the Greek; but is probably to be supplied. The sense is, there would then be some excuse for your conduct. There would be some reason why you should welcome such teachers. But if this cannot be done; if they can preach no other and no better gospel and Saviour than I have done, then there is no excuse. There is no reason why you should follow such teachers and forsake those who were your earliest guides in religion. - Let us never forsake the gospel which we have until we are sure we can get a better. Let us adhere to the simple doctrines of the New Testament until some one can furnish better and clearer doctrines. Let us follow the rules of Christ in our opinions and our conduct; our plans, our mode of worship, our dress, and our amusements, engagements, and company, until we can certainly ascertain that there are better rules. A man is foolish for making any change until he has evidence that he is likely to better himself; and it remains yet to be proved that anyone has ever bettered himself or his family by forsaking the simple doctrines of the Bible, and embracing a philosophical speculation; by forsaking the scriptural views of the Saviour as the incarnate God, and embracing the views which represent him as a mere man; by forsaking the simple and plain rules of Christ about our manner of life, our dress, and our words and actions, and embracing those which are recommended by mere fashion and by the customs of a frivolous world.

Barnes: 2Co 11:5

For I suppose ... - I think that I gave as good evidence that I was commissioned by God as the most eminent of the apostles. In the miracles which I performed; in the abundance of my labors, and in my success, I suppose that I did not fall behind any of them. If so, I ought to be regarded and treated as an apostle; and if so, then the false teachers should not be allowed to supplant me in your affections, or to seduce you from the doctrines which I have taught. On the evidence that Paul was equal to others in the proper proof of a commission from God; see notes on 2Co 11:21-30.

Barnes: 2Co 11:6

But though I be rude in speech - see the note, 2Co 10:10. The word rendered "rude"here ( ἰδιώτης idiōtēs ) means properly a private citizen, in opposition to one in a public station; then a plebeian, or one unlettered or unlearned, in opposition to one of more elevated rank, or one who is learned; see the Act 4:13 note; 1Co 14:16 note. The idea is, my language is that of a plain unlettered person. This was doubtless charged upon him by his enemies, and it may be that he designed in part to admit the truth of the charge.

Yet not in knowledge - I do not admit that I am ignorant of the religion which I profess to teach. I claim to be acquainted with the doctrines of Christianity. It does not appear that they charged him with ignorance. If it be asked how the admission that he was rude in speech consists with the fact that he was endowed by the Holy Spirit. with the power of speaking languages, we may observe that Paul had undoubtedly learned to speak Greek in his native place (Tarsus in Cilicia). and that the Greek which he had learned there was probably a corrupt kind, such as was spoken in that place. It was this Greek which he probably continued to speak; for there is no more reason to suppose that the Holy Spirit would aid him in speaking language which he had thus early learned than he would in speaking Hebrew. The endowments of the Holy Spirit were conferred to enable the apostles to speak languages which they had never learned, not in perfecting them in languages with which they were before acquainted. It may have been true, therefore, that Paul may have spoken some languages which he never learned with more fluency and perfection than he did those which he had learned to speak when he was young. See the remarks of the Archbishop of Cambray, as quoted by Doddridge in loc. It may be remarked. also, that some estimate of the manner of Paul on this point may be formed from his writings. Critics profoundly acquainted with the Greek language remark, that while there is great energy of thought and of diction in the writings of Paul; while he chooses or coins most expressive words, yet that there is everywhere a lack of Attic elegance of manner, and of the smoothness and beauty which were so grateful to a Grecian ear.

But we have been thoroughly made manifest ... - You have known all about me. I have concealed nothing from you, and you have had ample oppotunity to become thoroughly acquainted with me. The meaning is, "I need not dwell on this. I need speak no more of my manner of speech or knowledge. With all that you are well acquainted."

Barnes: 2Co 11:7

Have I committed an offence - Have I done wrong. Greek, "Have I committed a sin."There is here a somewhat abrupt transition from the previous verse; and the connection is not very apparent. Perhaps the connection is this. "I admit my inferiority in regard to my manner of speaking. But this does not interfere with my full understanding of the doctrines which I preach, nor does it interfere with the numerous evidences which I have furnished that I am called to the office of an apostle. What then is the ground of offence? In what have I erred? Wherein have I shown that I was not qualified to be an apostle? Is it in the fact that I have not chosen to press my claim to a support, but have preached the gospel without charge?"There can be no doubt that they urged this as an objection to him, and as a proof that he was conscious that he had no claim to the office of an apostle; see the notes on 1Co. 9:3-18. Paul here answers this charge; and the sum of his reply is, that he had received a support, but that it had come from others, a support which they had furnished because the Corinthians had neglected to do it.

In abasing myself - By laboring with my own hands; by submitting to voluntary poverty, and by neglecting to urge my reasonable claims for a support.

That ye might be exalted - In spiritual blessings and comforts. I did it because I could thus better promote religion among you. I could thus avoid the charge of aiming at the acquisition of wealth; could shut the mouths of gainsayers, and could more easily secure access to you. Is it now to be seriously urged as a fault that I have sought your welfare, and that in doing it I have submitted to great self-denial and to many hardships? See notes on 1Co 9:18 ff.

Barnes: 2Co 11:8

I robbed other churches - The churches of Macedonia and elsewhere, which had ministered to his needs. Probably he refers especially to the church at Philippi (see Phi 4:15-16), which seems to have done more than almost any other church for his support. By the use of the word "robbed"here Paul does not mean that he had obtained anything from them in a violent or unlawful manner, or anything which they did not give voluntarily. The word ( ἐσύλησα esulēsa ) means properly, "I spoiled, plundered, robbed,"but the idea of Paul here is, that he, as it were, robbed them, because he did not render an equivalent for what they gave him. They supported him when he was laboring for another people. A conqueror who plunders a country gives no equivalent for what he takes. In this sense only could Paul say that he had plundered the church at Philippi. His general principle was, that "the laborer was worthy of his hire,"and that a man was to receive his support from the people for whom he labored (see 1Co 9:7-14), but this rule he had not observed in this case.

Taking wages of them - Receiving a support from them. They bore my expenses.

To do you service - That I might labor among you without being supposed to be striving to obtain your property, and that I might not be compelled to labor with my own hands, and thus to prevent my preaching the gospel as I could otherwise do. The supply from other churches rendered it unnecessary in a great measure that his time should be taken off from the ministry in order to obtain a support.

Barnes: 2Co 11:9

And when I was present with you - When I was laboring in order to build up the church in Corinth.

I was chargeable to no man - I was burdensome to no one; or more liter ally,"I did not lie as a dead weight upon you."The word used here, which occurs nowhere else in the New Testament ( κατενάρκησα katenarkēsa ), means, literally, to become torpid against, that is, to the detriment of anyone; and hence, to be burdensome. According to Jerome, its use here is a Cilicism of Paul. The idea is that he did not lead a torpid, inactive life at the expense of others. He did not expect a support from them when he was doing nothing; nor did he demand support which would in any sense be a burden to them. By his own hands Act 18:3, and by the aid which he received from abroad, he was supported without deriving aid from the people of Corinth.

And in all things ... - In all respects I have carefully kept myself from being a burden on the church. Paul had no idea of living at other people’ s expense when he was doing nothing. He did not, as a general thing, mean to receive anything for which he had not rendered a fair equivalent; a just principle for ministers and for all other people; see 2Co 12:13.

Barnes: 2Co 11:10

As the truth of Christ is in me - That is, I solemnly declare this as in the presence of Christ. As I am a Christian man; as I feel bound to declare the truth, and as I must answer to Christ. It is a solemn form of asseveration, equal to an oath; see the note on Rom 9:1; compare 1Ti 2:7.

No man shall stop me ... - Margin, "This boasting shall not be stopped in me;"see the note on 1Co 9:15. The idea here is, that Paul was solemnly determined that the same thing should continue. He had not been burdensome to any, and he was resolved that he would not be. Rather than be burdensome he had labored with his own hands, and he meant to do it still. No man in all Achaia should ever have reason to say that he had been an idler, and had been supported by the churches when he was doing nothing. It was the fixed and settled purpose of his life never to be burdensome to any man. What a noble resolution! How fixed were the principles of his life! And what an instance of magnanimous self-denial and of elevated purpose! Every man, minister or otherwise, should adopt a similar resolution. He should resolve to receive nothing for which he has not rendered a fair equivalent, and resolve if he has health never to be a burden to his friends or to the church of God. And even if sick he may yet feel that he is not burdensome to others. If he is gentle and grateful; if he makes no unnecessary care; and especially if he furnishes an example of patience and piety, and seeks the blessing of God on his benefactors, he furnishes them what they will usually esteem an ample equivalent. No man need be burdensome to his friends; and all should resolve that by the grace of God they never will be. There is considerable variety in the mss. here (see Mill on the place), but in regard to the general sense there can be no doubt. Nothing should ever hinder this boasting; nothing should deprive him of the privilege of saying that he had not been a burden.

In the regions of Achaia - Achaia was that part of Greece of which Corinth was the capital; see the note on Act 18:12.

Barnes: 2Co 11:11

Wherefore ... - It is not because I do not love you. It is not from pride, or because I would not as willingly receive aid from you as from any other. It is not because I am more unwilling to be under obligation to you than to others. I have a deep and tender attachment to you; but it is because I can thus best promote the gospel and advance the kingdom of the Redeemer. Possibly it might have been thought that his unwillingness to receive aid from them was some proof of reserve toward them or lack of affection, and this may have been urged against him. This he solemnly denies.

Barnes: 2Co 11:12

But what I do - The course of life which I have been pursuing I will continue to pursue. That is, I will continue to preach as I have done without demanding a support. I will labor with my own hands if necessary; I will preach without demanding rigidly what I might be entitled to.

That I may cut off occasion - That I might give them no opportunity of accusing me of desiring to grow rich, and of calumniating me. Paul meant that they should have no plausible pretext even for accusing him; that no man should be able to say that he was preaching merely for the hire.

Which desire occasion - No doubt his enemies eagerly sought opportunities of accusing him, and greatly wished for some plausible reason for charging him with that which would be disgraceful and ruinous to his character. Or it may mean that they desired opportunity from the example of Paul to justify themselves in their course; that they took wages from the church at Corinth largely, and desired to be able to say that they had his example.

That wherein they glory - Probably meaning that they boasted that they preached the gospel for free (gratis); that they received nothing for their labors. Yet while they did this, it is not improbable that they received presents of the Corinthians, and under various pretences contrived to get from them an ample support, perhaps much more than would have been a reasonable compensation. People who profess to preach the gospel gratis, usually contrive in various ways to get more from the people than those who receive a regular and stipulated compensation. By taxing pretty liberally their hospitality; by accepting liberal presents; by frequent proclamation of their self-denial and their poverty, they usually filch large amounts from the people. No people were ever louder in praise of poverty, or in proclamation of their own self-denials than some orders of monks, and that when it might be said almost that the richest possessions of Europe were passing into their hands. At all events, Paul meant that these people should have no opportunity from his course to take any such advantage. He knew what he had a right to 1 Cor. 9, but he had not urged the right. He had received nothing from the church at Corinth, and he meant to receive nothing. He had honestly preached the gospel to them without charge, and he meant still to do it, 1Co 9:18. They should, therefore, have no opportunity from his conduct either to accuse him of preaching for money, or of sheltering themselves under his example in pretending to preach for nothing when they were in fact obtaining large sums from the people.

They may be found even as we - That they may be compelled honestly to pursue such a course as I do, and be found to be in fact what they pretend to be. The sense is, "I mean so to act that if they follow my example, or plead my authority, they may be found to lead an honest life; and that if they boast on this subject, they shall boast strictly according to truth. There shall be no trick; nothing underhanded or deceptive in what they do so far as my example can prevent it."

Poole: 2Co 11:1

2Co 11:1-4 Paul unwillingly entereth upon a commendation of

himself, out of jealousy lest the Corinthians should

be perverted by false apostles from the pure doctrine

of Christ.

2Co 11:5,6 He showeth that he was in all respects equal to the

chiefest apostles.

2Co 11:7-15 That he declined being chargeable to them, not for

want of love toward them, but to cut off occasion

from those deceitful workers of taking shelter under

his example.

2Co 11:16-22 That he was not inferior to those, whom they so patiently

submitted to, in any of their boasted pretogatives,

2Co 11:23-33 but as a minister of Christ, in labours and

sufferings for the gospel’ s sake, was abundantly

their superior.

That which the apostle here calls his folly was his speaking so much in his own commendation; which indeed is no better than folly, unless there be a great reason; which was here, for it was the false teachers, vilifying his person and office, that put him upon it. The verb in the latter part of the verse, may be read either imperatively, (and so we translate it), as if it were an entreaty of them to excuse him in speaking so much good of himself; or indicatively, you do bear with me.

Poole: 2Co 11:2

Jealousy is a passion in a person which makes him impatient of any rival or partner in the thing or person beloved. The apostle tells them, that he was jealous over them, and thereby lets them know, that he so passionately loved them, as that he was not patient that any should pretend more kindness to them than he had for them; and withal, that he had some fear of them, lest they should be perverted and drawn away from the simplicity of the gospel; upon this account he calls it a

godly jealousy For (saith he) I have been instrumental to bring you to Christ; this he calls an espousing of them, the union of persons with Christ being expressed in Scripture under the notion of a marriage, Eph 5:23 , &c. And he expresseth his earnest desire to present them to Christ uncorrupted, like a chaste virgin

Poole: 2Co 11:3

In all jealousy there is a mixture of love and fear: the apostle’ s love to this church, together with his earnest desire to present them in the day of judgment unto Christ pure and uncorrupted, caused him to write; because he was afraid, lest that as the serpent by his subtlety deceived Eve, so some subtle seducers should corrupt them, and so withdraw them from the simplicity of their faith in Christ, and obedience to him. This danger was partly from the pagan philosophers, mixing their philosophical notions with the plain doctrine of the gospel; and partly from some that were tenacious of the Judaical rites, and would not understand the abolition of the ceremonial law.

Poole: 2Co 11:4

How our translators have interpreted kalwv hneicesye ,

ye might well bear I cannot tell: the words manifestly are to be interpreted, you have well borne, and so are plainly a reflection upon some in this church, who had patiently endured false teachers, who had preached other doctrine than what Paul had preached. And this the apostle giveth as a reason of his fear, lest they should be corrupted and drawn away from the simplicity of the gospel. This certainly is more obviously the sense of the words, than what others incline to, who make the sense this: If any other could come to you, who could preach to you a better Jesus, a more excellent Saviour, than we have done; or a more excellent spirit than him whom you have received; or a more excellent doctrine than the doctrine of the gospel, which we have preached; you might bear with him. For I see no pretence to interpret the verb as in the potential mood, it is manifestly the indicative mood; and declareth, not what they might do, but what they had done; which made the apestle jealous of them, lest they should be perverted. And our Saviour, Joh 5:43 , hath taught us, that those who with the most difficulty receive those who come to them in God’ s name, are always most easy to receive those who come in their own name, without any due authority or commission from God.

Poole: 2Co 11:5

The apostle, doubtless, meaneth those that were the true apostles of our Lord. those who were immediately sent out by him to preach the gospel, behind whom the apostle was not, either in respect of ministerial gifts and graces, or in respect of labours, or in respect of success which God had given him in his work. One method that false teachers used to vilify Paul, was by magnifying some others of the apostles above him, and preferring them before him; which makes him, both here, and in Gal 2:1-21 , and Rom 11:13 , to magnify his office, by showing them, there was no reason why they should make a difference between him and other apostles; for he had the same immediate call, was intrusted with the same power, furnished and adorned with the same gifts, in labours (as he elsewhere saith) he had been more than they all; nor had God been wanting in giving him success in his labours, proportionable to the chiefest of them: so as he was not a whit behind them.

Poole: 2Co 11:6

But though I be rude in speech admit (saith the apostle) that I be no orator, speaking to you in high language, or in a neat style and phrase; either having no faculty that way, or, if I have, yet choosing rather to speak plainly, and home to your consciences, than floridly, to tickle your ears with a fine sound and chiming of words.

Yet not in knowledge yet, I bless God, I am not defective in knowledge; and, as God hath enlightened me with a large knowledge of his will, so I have communicated to you the whole counsel of God.

But we have been throughly made manifest among you in all things and in all things, which may declare me an apostle, one sent of Christ about the business of the gospel, I have been made manifest amongst you; preaching amongst you the whole doctrine of the gospel, and having been an instrument to convert many of you from paganism to Christianity.

Poole: 2Co 11:7

What is it that hath made you take such offence at me; seeing you cannot say, that either in my call, or in my gifts and graces, or in my labours, or in the success of my labours, I have been inferior to the chiefest of the apostles? Doth this offend you, that for your sake I have veiled my authority, and departed from my right? Which makes some of you say, I am base in presence. Is it for my putting you to no charge in my preaching the gospel? This was a thing wherein he gloried, and told them, 1Co 9:6,12,15 , that he would rather die, than have his glorying void in this particular.

Poole: 2Co 11:8

He interpreteth the term of robbed other churches by a taking wages of them; which indeed is no robbery, as he had proved, 1Co 9:1-27 . All the robbery that was in it lay in this, that his maintenance, in strictness of right, should have been proportionably from this, as well as from other churches; but for some reasons (which he thinks fit to conceal) he refused to receive any thing from this church; but spared them, and lived upon the maintenance he had from other churches, while he was doing them service. Either he saw the members of this church were poor, or that there were some in this clulrch who would sooner have taken advantage to reproach him for it, and so have hindered the success of the gospel. Whatever it was that caused the apostle to do it, certain it is, that he did it, and make it a great piece of his glorying.

Poole: 2Co 11:9

The word which we translate chargeable signifies to benumb; I benumbed no man: or, (as others), I was not myself more benumbed in any thing. If we take it in the first mentioned sense, it lets us see a reason why Paul refused to take wages of the church of Corinth, test he should cool and benumb them as to the receiving of the gospel, when they saw it would prove chargeable to them. If in the latter sense, the apostle seems to reflect upon such whom wages only edged to their work, who preached merely for gain and filthy lucre. To distinguish himself from such hirelings, he tells them, that when he was with them, and laboured amongst them in preaching the gospel, he put them to no charge; yet he was not slothful in his work, but as laborious as those who did take wages. As to himself, he had want enough whilst he was amongst them; but the providence of God ordered him a supply from the churches of Macedonia, and by that means he kept himself from being burdensome to them; and, he tells them, so he was resolved that he would still be.

Poole: 2Co 11:10

The apostle often repeateth this, glorying much in it, that in this region of Achaia he had preached the gospel without charge to the hearers: he did so also at Thessalonica, 1Th 2:5,6,9 ; but concerning them, he saith, what he no where saith of the Corinthians, that they received the word in much affliction; which might, probably, be the cause. It is most likely that he either discerned this people to be more covetous, and too much lovers of their money: or that there was a generation among them, who, if he had taken wages for his labours, would have reproached him as one that was a hireling, and who did all that he did for money. And, indeed, himself seemeth in the next verses to give this as a reason.

Poole: 2Co 11:11

Can you possibly interpret my not being chargeable to you, as proceeding from a want of love in me to you? God knoweth the contrary.

Poole: 2Co 11:12

I know (saith the apostle) that there are some amongst you who, out of their hatred to me, would seek any occasion to asperse me to justify themselves. If I had (as I might) have taken wages amongst you for my labours, they would either have taken occasion from it to have aspersed me, (as doing what I did from a mercenary spirit), or at least to have justified themselves in their exactings upon you. I had a mind to prevent any such occasions of boasting.

That wherein they glory, they may be found even as we: it should seem by these words, that some teachers in this church, being (possibly) men of estates, required no maintenance of the people; and would have taken advantage against the apostle, if he had taken any: or, possibly, some others exacted upon them unreasonably, who, had Paul taken wages, would have justified themselves by his example. The apostle therefore was resolved to cut off from them any pretence or occasion of boasting, and to do whatever any of them did, in sparing the Corinthians as to the business of their purses.

Haydock: 2Co 11:1

My folly. So he calls his reciting his own praises, which commonly speaking, is looked upon as a piece of folly and vanity; though the apostle was constrained to do it, for the good of the souls committed to his charge. (Challoner)

Haydock: 2Co 11:2

With the jealousy of God, or that came from God: it may also signify a great, or godly jealousy. ---

To present you, that is, the Church of Corinth, a chaste virgin to Christ, as the whole Catholic Church is called the chaste spouse of Christ. See Matthew ix. 13.; Apocalypse xxi. 2. (Witham) ---

I cannot suffer these false prophets thus to destroy what has been prepared with so much labour, but I am not jealous for my own sake; it is for the honour of God; for I do not wish to prepare this spouse for myself, but for God. (Tirinus) ---

It is a duty incumbent on me to preserve you in the purity of the faith you have received, to present you to him as a virgin, holy, and free from every spot or blemish, and hence arise my fear and solicitude, lest by insinuating and designing men, you suffer yourselves to be drawn away from the simplicity of your faith in Christ Jesus, the Lord.

Haydock: 2Co 11:3

So your minds shall be corrupted by those false teachers, from the simplicity in Christ, from the sincerity and purity of the gospel doctrine. (Witham)

Haydock: 2Co 11:4

You might well bear with him. These new teachers pretended at least to preach only the doctrine of Christ. St. Paul tells them, they might in some measure be excused, if they preached a new doctrine, or another gospel that brought them greater blessings, or another Spirit accompanied with greater spiritual gifts, than they had already received by his preaching. But I think, and may say, I have nothing less than the greatest apostles, and you have received the same blessings from me, as others from them. (Witham)

Haydock: 2Co 11:5

For I suppose. Many understand this as spoken ironically, and alluding to the false apostles, who called themselves great. But it ought rather to be understood in a literal sense, that God had performed as many and great miracles by his hands, as by any of the apostles. St. Paul here wished to refute those who called themselves the disciples of Peter, and other apostles. (Calmet)

Haydock: 2Co 11:6

Though I be rude in speech, (as St. Jerome also thought) in my expressions in the Greek tongue, yet not in knowledge, the chief or only thing to be regarded. Nay, St. Paul's adversaries acknowledged that his letters were weighty and strong. (chap. x. ver. 11.) St. John Chrysostom in many places, and St. Augustine, lib. iv. de Doct. Christians, chap. vi. and vii tom. 3. p. 68. and seq., shews at large the solid rhetoric and eloquence of St. Paul, even in this and the next chapter. (Witham)

Haydock: 2Co 11:7

Did I commit a fault? &c. It is a kind of reproach to them, and by the figure, called irony, with a reflection on the false preachers, who some way or other, got themselves handsomely maintained, while St. Paul neither took, nor would take any thing of them, that his adversaries might not have an occasion to say, he did as they did, or that they only did as he did. And lest they should suspect that he would receive nothing from them, because he did not love them (as men sometimes refuse presents from those whom they do not love) he appeals to God, how much he loves them. But he will have this to boast of against his adversaries, those false apostles and crafty labourers, who cunningly endeavoured to transform themselves, that they might be thought the apostles of Christ, insinuating themselves into their favour, and receiving at least presents from them, which St. Paul would not do, though it was but reasonable that he should live by the gospel. See 1 Corinthians chap. ix. (Witham)

Haydock: 2Co 11:10

The truth of Christ is in me. This is a kind of asseveration; I assure you by the truth of Christ, which is in me, that what I say is true, and that no one can deny it in Achaia. (Theodoret)

Haydock: 2Co 11:12

St. Paul declares that he will continue to receive nothing for his preaching and his labours, that the false apostles may not glory in their disinterestedness; or rather, that he will not, by receiving any thing, authorize by his example, these new teachers, who only seek their own ease, to live on the Church, and to receive their support from it. (St. Augustine and Estius)

Gill: 2Co 11:1

Would to God you could bear with me a little,.... The false apostles boasted so much of their gifts, abilities, and usefulness, that the apostle found himself under a necessity of saying some things in his own defence, for the honour of God, and the good of this church; which otherwise his modesty would not have permitted him, and which he saw would be accounted and censured as folly in him by others; and therefore he entreats their patience a little while, and that they would suffer him to say a few things in vindication of his character, and not be offended; though it would be in commendation of himself, which, were he not forced to, would look vain and foolish: and therefore says,

bear with me a little in my folly, and which he presses with importunity,

and indeed bear with me; he insists upon it, he urges it as what he must not be denied in; for could he have avoided it, he would not have done it; but such was the case, that if he did not do it, he must greatly suffer in his character and usefulness; the members of this church would be in great danger from these false apostles, and the honour and glory of Christ lay greatly at stake; which when considered, he hoped his request would be granted: the last clause may be rendered, but also ye do bear with me; signifying that they had done so already, and continued to do so, and therefore he could not but encourage himself, that they still would bear with him a little longer, and in a few things more.

Gill: 2Co 11:2

For I am jealous over you with godly jealousy,.... He lets them know it was not so much on his own account, or at all with any selfish views, or for any secular interest of his own, that he was so concerned, but it was "a godly jealousy", or a "zeal of God"; which he was inspired with by God, and which was for the honour and glory of God, even Jesus Christ, who is God overall; and for their real good and spiritual welfare, as a church of Christ, that possessed him, which put him upon saying what he was about to do; and what affected him the more was, when he considered himself as a friend of the bridegroom, who had been concerned in the betrothing of them to Christ:

for I have espoused you to one husband; by whom is meant Christ, as the following clause explains it: Christ stands in the relation of an husband to the church catholic and universal; to the whole general assembly and church of the firstborn, whose names are written in heaven; even to all the elect of God, that ever were, are, or shall be; and so he does to particular congregated churches, as he did to this church at Corinth, and so he does to every individual believer: which character he responds to, by loving them with a love prior to theirs, a love of complacency and delight, which is single, special, and peculiar, strong and affectionate, wonderful and inconceivable, constant, and what will last for ever; by sympathizing with them under all their afflictions, temptations, desertions, and exercises of every kind; by nourishing and cherishing them, which phrases are expressive of the spiritual food and clothing he provides for them, of that intimate communion he admits them to, and of that whole care he takes of them; by paying all their debts, supplying all their wants, supporting them with his right hand, protecting them against all their enemies, giving them grace here, and glory hereafter; and, last of all, by interesting them in his person, and all that he has, in all the blessings and promises of the covenant in his wisdom, righteousness, sanctification, and redemption. The act of espousing, the apostle here, with respect to this church, takes to himself, though in another sense, and which is the principal one, it is ascribed to Christ himself, who betroths all his to himself in righteousness, in judgment, in lovingkindness, and tender mercies; he saw them in his Father's purposes and decrees, in all the glory they were designed to be brought unto, when he loved them as his Father did, and desired them for his spouse and bride, which was granted to him; and then secretly in covenant betrothed them to himself, and ever after looked upon them as in a conjugal relation to him; wherefore though they fell in Adam, and became guilty and filthy, he gave himself for them as his church and bride, to sanctify and cleanse them, that he might present them to himself, just such a glorious church he had seen them before. In consequence of this, the Spirit of God attends the ministration of the Gospel, to the conversion of each of these souls, when they become willing to be the Lord's, and give their free and full consent to have him for their husband; and this is the day of their open espousal to him, and in this the apostle had, and other ministers of the Gospel have a concern; he was a means, in the hands of the Spirit, of their regeneration, a minister by whom they believed, an instrument in directing their souls to Christ, by setting forth his unsearchable riches, the glory of his person, and fulness of his grace: as Abraham's servant set forth the greatness of his master, and the large possessions his son was heir to, and brought out his bracelets and ear rings, his jewels of gold and silver, and thereby gained his point, a wife for Isaac; so the Spirit of God going along with the ministration of the apostle so wrought upon these Corinthians, as to give up themselves to the Lord, and take him for their head and husband, Saviour and Redeemer. This was the concern the apostle had herein, and his view, desire, and hope were, to set them before Christ their husband, pure and incorrupt:

that I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ; that is, single in their love to, him, strictly adhering to him, and him only, as standing in such a relation to them; pure in the principles of faith, sincere and upright in their worship, and holy in their lives and conversations; nothing was more desirable to him than this, that he might thus present them to Christ at the great day; whereby it would appear, that his labour was not in vain in the Lord: now having been concerned in this affair of espousing them to Christ, and they not yet presented to him, or took home by him, he could not, as things were circumstanced, but entertain a godly jealousy over them in his own breast, lest the false apostles should draw them aside in any degree from their love to Christ, and faith in him.

Gill: 2Co 11:3

But I fear lest by any means,.... Jealousy is always attended with fear, care, and solicitude, whether in things natural or spiritual. The apostle, as things were in this church, could not but express his fears, lest

as the serpent beguiled Eve through his subtlety; that is, the old serpent the devil, who made use of a serpent, the most subtle creature of all the beasts of the field, and seduced Eve from her obedience to God, to transgress his command, by eating the forbidden fruit. The apostle here speaks the language and sense of the Jews, who say ^p, that, שטן ונחש שם אחד להם "Satan and the serpent have one name", i.e. are the same; and that it was the old serpent (the devil), דפתי לחוה, "that beguiled Eve" ^q, and who is said to be corrupted by him;

"the serpent (they say ^r) was corrupted first, after that, נתקלקלה חוה, "Eve was corrupted", and after that Adam was corrupted.''

So the apostle was jealous and fearful, knowing that the false apostles were ministers of Satan, artful and cunning men, lest, through their craftiness and sophistry,

your minds, says he,

should be corrupted from the simplicity that is in Christ; that is, lest their judgments should be misled, their minds be vitiated with corrupt principles, and be carried away in any degree with the error of the wicked, from off the pure and simple doctrine of the Gospel, which respects the person and grace of Christ; and chiefly lies in this one plain, easy, and important truth, salvation alone by him. The Vulgate Latin version reads, "your minds should be corrupted, and should fall from the simplicity that is in Christ".

Gill: 2Co 11:4

For if he that cometh,.... Meaning either some particular man, the apostle might have had some information of, who came from Judea to Corinth, under the character of a true apostle; or anyone of the false apostles whatever, who came of their own accord, and was never sent by Christ, or by any of his churches:

preacheth another Jesus whom we have not preached; that is, if he proposes and recommends in his ministry, a better Saviour and Redeemer than had been preached by the apostles; one that was better qualified, and more fit for the purposes of salvation; one that they could more safely venture their souls upon, and believe in, as the alone able and all sufficient Saviour, a thing impossible to be: or the sense is, if this other apostle taught the doctrine of salvation by Christ, in another and better method and in a clearer manner, more to the honour of the Redeemer, the glory of God, and the good of their souls, they would have some reason then to pay a greater regard to him:

or if ye receive another spirit which ye have not received; a better spirit than the Spirit of God, which the had received through the preaching of the Gospel by the apostles; either for graces, for they had received him as a spirit of regeneration and conversion, of sanctification and faith, of adoption and liberty, of peace and joy, and comfort; or for gifts, both ordinary and extraordinary, which could not possibly be; the spirit which the contrary ministers brought with it, and tended to not generate in them, must be the reverse of this, even a spirit of bondage again to fear:

or another Gospel which ye have not accepted, or "embraced"; a better Gospel than had been preached by the apostles, and received by them; which contained more wholesome doctrines, more comfortable truths, more excellent promises, better tidings of good things, than those of peace, pardon, righteousness, life, and salvation, by a crucified Jesus; proposed a better scheme of things, more for the honour of the divine perfections, and for the comfort and safety of believers; and which laid a better foundation for faith and hope, and tended more to encourage true religion and powerful godliness:

ye might well bear with him; receive his doctrine, submit to his authority, and prefer him to the apostles: but since another and a better Saviour than Jesus of Nazareth could not be proposed, or the doctrine of salvation by him be preached in another and better manner than it was; nor had they received, nor could they receive, another and a better spirit, than the spirit of grace and truth, which was communicated to them, through the apostle's ministry; nor was a better and a more excellent Gospel preached to them, than what they had heard; therefore they ought not to connive at, indulge and tolerate, such a false apostle among them, which it seems they did; and was the reason of the apostle's fears and jealousies, before expressed: and besides, supposing that this man that was among them, and caressed by many of them, did preach the same Jesus, and the same doctrine of salvation by him, and the same Spirit and power went along with his ministry, it being the same Gospel that was preached by Paul and others, there was no reason why he should be set up above them, who had been the instruments of conveying the Gospel, and the Spirit of it, to them, long before he was known by them.

Gill: 2Co 11:5

For I suppose I was not a whit behind,.... This is very modestly expressed by the apostle; for he does not assert, and in a haughty and confident way affirm, but only supposes, or thinks that this might be admitted, that he was not inferior to, or did not come short of, in gifts, grace, and usefulness,

the very chiefest of the apostles: such as Peter, James, and John; who seemed to be pillars, were eminent apostles, of great note among them, and such as Christ, in the days of his flesh, took particular notice of. This he says, not to exalt himself, but to show, how weakly and injudiciously the Corinthians acted in setting up the false apostle above him; or else these words are spoken ironically, and design the false teachers, who vaunted so much of their gifts, learning, eloquence, and usefulness; and extolled themselves at such a rate, as if they were υπερ λιαν αποστολων, "greatly above the apostles"; and therefore he jeeringly calls them

the very chiefest of them; and yet thinks fit to put himself at least, upon an equality with them: one manuscript reads, "the chiefest of the apostles among you"; and the Ethiopic version seems to have read you.

Gill: 2Co 11:6

But though I be rude in speech,.... Which might be objected to him, setting himself upon a level with men so famous for their diction, and elegance of style; and to this he answers, not by owning he was so, but granting it to be so; for the Apostle Paul was not an unlearned man, an idiot in speech, unskilful in language, his writings testify the contrary; he did not indeed, in his public ministry, dress his sermons with the flowers of rhetoric, or adorn his discourses with the words of human wisdom, with bombast, and great swelling words of vanity; he chose a plainer and easier style, more accommodated to the vulgar, to the capacities of the people he was concerned with; for he had not to do with philosophers and senators, but with the common people chiefly; with persons of every sex, age, and condition of life: in this sense indeed he acted as an idiot, a plebeian, a private person; he used a popular style, or, as the Jews say of several of their Rabbins ^s, he דורש לשון הדיוט, "preached", or explained "in the common language" of people; which the common people used, and not the learned, and to which reference may be had here: but though he wisely pursued this method, as being most likely to be useful,

yet he was

not rude

in knowledge, or unskilful in the mysteries of the Gospel; he was well learned in the knowledge of Christ, and in the doctrines of grace, as all his discourses, sermons, and letters testified; and however negligent he might be thought to be of his style, and take no pains or care about the elegance of his language, but rather studied a plain and popular diction, yet he was always careful to convey profitable and useful knowledge to the souls of men; and thought his discourses might not be fraught with all the beauties of oratory, and enticing words of man's wisdom, they were full of spiritual knowledge, and showed him to have a large understanding of divine things, for the truth of which he appeals to the Corinthians:

but we have been thoroughly manifest among you in all things; his faith and doctrine, as well as manner of life, were well known unto them; he had not shunned to declare the whole counsel of God unto them: his knowledge in the mystery of Christ's person and grace, and in all the parts of the everlasting Gospel, was no secret to them; he had used no artful methods to hide himself, or conceal the truth; but by manifestation of it, had commended himself to every man's conscience in the sight of God; and by observing this, as he had witnesses now among them of the truth of it, so he strikes at the hypocrisy and deceitful methods the false teachers took to cover themselves, their practices, and principles.

Gill: 2Co 11:7

Have I committed an offence in abasing myself,.... Either by behaving among them, when he was first with them, in a very modest and humble manner, in much fear and trembling, without pride and haughtiness, or affectation of power and authority over them; or by using a popular style, suited to the capacity of the common people; or by labouring with his own hands, exercising his trade of tent making among them, that he might provide food for himself, and not be chargeable to them; and which he suggests was so far from being criminal in him, that he ought rather to be commended for it; since it could not be thought to be with any view to himself, and his own advantage, but purely for their good:

that you might be exalted; that nothing might lie in their way of receiving the Gospel of Christ, or prejudice them against it; that they might the more easily be brought to listen to it, come to the knowledge of it, and embrace it, and so be exalted, as they were, to a participation of the grace of Christ; to fellowship with him; to the honour and dignity of being a church of Christ; to an enjoyment of the privileges of God's house; to have a name better than that of sons and daughters, and to have a right and title to the heavenly glory: "because", or is it

because I have preached to you the Gospel of God freely? The Gospel he preached was not his own, but God's; of which he was the author; his grace was the subject of it, and his glory the end of its ministration; which he had given to the apostle to preach; to which he had separated him, for which he had abundantly qualified him, and in which he was greatly succeeded by him. This he preached "freely" to the Corinthians at his first coming among them, without putting them to any expense, or receiving anything from them; which though he might lawfully have done, yet he judged it most advisable, at that time, to minister to his own necessities, by working with his hands, lest he should be burdensome to them; and this be an objection to the Gospel he preached, that he sought rather theirs than them; and for so doing he was not to be blamed, but to be praised: and yet such was the weakness of many at least in this church, that they highly valued the false apostles, who made merchandise of them, and treated with contempt this excellent servant of Christ, who had freely imparted the Gospel to them.

Gill: 2Co 11:8

I robbed other churches,.... Meaning the churches of Macedonia; not that what he had of them was by force and rapine, or by plundering of them, and spoiling of their substance, and living upon them against their wills, as soldiers use a conquered people, though the allusion is to such a custom; for what he had of theirs was freely communicated to him; as appears from the following verse: but because these churches from whom he received were poor, and the Corinthians whom he served were rich, he calls it a robbing of the former, though there was no injury in the case, for it was voluntary, because it was expended for the service of the latter:

taking wages of them to do you service; or "for your ministry"; either to supply their poor, or rather to support the ministry of the Gospel among them. The apostle continues the metaphor, taken from soldiers, to whom wages are due for their warfare; as are also to the ministers of the Gospel, the good soldiers of Jesus Christ; since no man goes a warfare at his own charges and expense but is for by those in whose service he is: and therefore, though the apostle did not think it advisable to ask for, and insist upon wages from them at that time, for his service among them, yet he took it of others in lieu of it; and this he mentions, partly to show that wages were due to him for his ministry, and partly to observe to them who they were beholden to for the support of the Gospel at first among them; as also to stir them up to be serviceable to other churches, as others had been to them.

Gill: 2Co 11:9

And when I was present with you, and wanted,.... Whilst he was among them, preaching the Gospel to them, he wanted the common necessaries of life: and yet, says he,

I was chargeable to no man, or "benumbed no man"; a metaphor, as some think, taken from the torpedo, or cramp fish; which is of such a cold and benumbing nature, as that, when even at the hook, it will strike the fisherman with its cold, and so benumb him as to take away his feeling, and the use of his limbs: now the apostle's meaning is, that he did not chill and benumb any man's charity, by asking relief from him, for he importuned no man on this account; nor was he benumbed himself, to the detriment of any man; for though he was reduced to great straits, he was not slothful and sluggish in preaching the Gospel, but pursued it with as much diligence and industry as if he had been supported by it in the most handsome manner; nor did he act the part of an idle drone, sit still and starve, but laboured with his own hands, to the relief of himself and others; and whereas it could not be thought he should be able to provide this way thoroughly, both for himself and these that were with him, it was made up by other hands:

for that which was lacking to me; which he could not make up by his own hand labour and industry:

the brethren which came from Macedonia supplied; meaning either Silas and Timotheus, who came to him from Macedonia, whilst he was at Corinth, working at his trade with Aquila and Priscilla, Act 18:5 who might bring him a supply out of these parts; or else some that belonged to the churches of Macedonia, particularly the Philippians, who frequently communicated to him, and sent him presents by some or other of the brethren, as by Epaphroditus, Phi 4:15.

And in all things, adds he,

I have kept myself from being burdensome unto you; he worked hard, lived sparingly, and received from others; that as in respect to his maintenance, so in everything else he might live without being a dead weight upon them, or any ways troublesome to them: not that a minister's maintenance is, or ought to be reckoned a burden upon a people; it is but a due debt, and what is their just right; but because it is accounted so by carnal men, and such as are disaffected to the Gospel, and the ministry of it, therefore the apostle uses such language:

and so will I keep myself; time is, for the future; he having taken up a resolution in himself not to be chargeable and troublesome to them, but to provide for himself some other way. This he adds, lest they should think that he had said what lie did to stir them up to a discharge of their duty, in contributing towards his support for time to come.

Gill: 2Co 11:10

As the truth of Christ is in me,.... To show the firmness of his resolution, and how determined he was to abide by it, he joins an oath to it; for these words are the form of an oath; and it is as if he should say, as sure as Christ is truth, who is in me; or as that the truth of grace, or the truth of the Gospel of Christ is in my heart and mouth, so sure will I constantly persevere in this determination; or let the truth of Christ never be thought to be in me, if I do not:

no man shall stop me of this boasting in the regions of Achaia; or this boasting shall not be stopped in me; of preaching the Gospel freely at Corinth, and that he had not been chargeable and burdensome to them; nor would he be for time to come, neither there, nor in any part of Achaia, of which Corinth was the metropolis; See Gill on 2Co 9:2. No man should stop his mouth from boasting of this, by putting anything into his hands, for he was determined not to receive anything from any person in these climates; not but that he reserved a liberty in himself to receive from other persons and churches, for his comfortable subsistence, and so much the limitation of his resolution to these parts implies; for if he had not intended to have received a supply from any persons whatever, the restriction to the regions of Achaia would have been unnecessary; and he should rather have said, that no man should stop him of this boasting in any part of the world. The Vulgate Latin version reads, "this boasting shall not be broken"; and to the same sense the Syriac version, "this boasting shall not be abolished".

Gill: 2Co 11:11

Wherefore? because I love you not?.... Why did the apostle do this? why did he take nothing, and resolve to take nothing of the Corinthians, for preaching the Gospel to them? why did he determine, that no man should prevent his glorying of this, in all the country of Achaia? was it because he did not love the Corinthians? some might insinuate this was the reason of it, that he had no true affection for them, and therefore would take none of their gifts, but despised both them and theirs, and loved the Macedonian and other churches better than they. To which he answers by saying,

God knoweth; which is another form of an oath, and is a solemn appeal to God, the searcher of hearts, who knows all things, that he knew he heartily loved them; that it was not want of love to them, which was the reason of his entering into such a resolution, never to take anything of them; but it was something else, quite another thing, which induced him to it, and is mentioned in the following verse.

Gill: 2Co 11:12

But what I do, that I will do,.... As he preached the Gospel freely at Corinth and in Achaia, so he was determined to do it for the future, for this reason only, or chiefly:

that, says he,

I may cut off occasion from them which desire occasion: meaning the false apostles, who sought for, and were desirous of every occasion and opportunity of exalting themselves, and reproaching him: that wherein they glory, they may be found even as we; the sense of which according to some interpreters is, that whereas some of the false apostles, at least who were rich men, took nothing for preaching, but gave their labours freely, were very desirous that the apostle would receive of the churches in these parts, that they might have an occasion against him, and an opportunity of showing themselves, as in learning and eloquence, so in this respect, to be superior to him, in that they preached freely, and he for gain; wherefore to cut off such an occasion, the apostle determines he would take nothing; that in this very thing which they boasted of, that they preached the Gospel freely, they might appear to be at most to be but upon a par with the apostle, and not to exceed him. This sense would seem very appropriate, was it a clear point that the false apostles received nothing for preaching; but the contrary is most evident; wherefore the apostle's meaning is, that these men were desirous that he would take wages, because they did; that in this respect he might not excel them, and that they might be able to plead his example and authority, and so get an occasion of extorting more money from the Corinthians: wherefore to cut off all such occasion from them, the apostle resolves to take nothing himself; that whereas they boasted they were equal to, or superior to the apostles, they might be found, would they follow their example, even as they, not taking any money at all of them, and poor, and working with their own hands.

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

NET Notes: 2Co 11:2

¹ tn That is, to Christ.

² tn Or “chaste.”

NET Notes: 2Co 11:3

¹ tn Grk “I fear lest somehow.”

² tn Or “the snake.”

³ tn Or “craftiness.”

⁴ tn Or “corrupted,” “seduced.”

⁵ tc Although most mss (א² H Ψ 0121 0243 1739 1881 Ï) lack “and pure” (καὶ τῆς ἁγνότητος, kai th" Jagnothto"; Grk “and purity”) several important and early witnesses (Ì⁴⁶ א* B D^[2] F G 33 81 104 pc ar r co) retain these words. Their presence in such mss across such a wide geographical distribution argues for their authenticity. The omission from the majority of mss can be explained by haplography, since the -τητος ending of ἁγνότητος is identical to the ending of ἁπλότητος (Japlothto", “sincerity”) three words back (ἁπλότητος καὶ τῆς ἁγνότητος); further, since the meanings of “sincerity” and “purity” are similar they might seem redundant. A copyist would scarcely notice the omission because Paul’s statement still makes sense without “and from purity.”

NET Notes: 2Co 11:4

¹ tn Or “preaches.”

² tn Grk “another Jesus whom we have not proclaimed.”

³ tn Grk “a different spirit which you did not receive.”

⁴ tn Grk “a different gospel which you did not accept.”

⁵ tn Or “you endure it very well.”

NET Notes: 2Co 11:5

¹ tn The implicit irony in Paul’s remark is brought out well by the TEV: “I do not think that I am the least bit inferior to those very special so-called ‘apostles’ of yours!”

sn The ‘super-apostles’ refers either (1) to the original apostles (the older interpretation) or (2) more probably, to Paul’s opponents in Corinth, in which case the designation is ironic.

NET Notes: 2Co 11:6

¹ sn Unskilled in speaking means not professionally trained as a rhetorician.

NET Notes: 2Co 11:7

¹ sn Paul is referring to humbling himself to the point of doing manual labor to support himself.

² tn Or “preached.”

NET Notes: 2Co 11:8

¹ sn That is, serve them free of charge (cf. the end of v. 7).

NET Notes: 2Co 11:9

¹ tn Grk “you, and when.” A new sentence was started here in the translation.

² tn If the participle ἐλθόντες (elqonte") is taken as temporal rather than adjectival, the translation would be, “for the brothers, when they came from Macedonia, fully supplied my needs” (similar to NASB).

³ tn Grk “needs, and I kept.” A new sentence was started here in the translation.

NET Notes: 2Co 11:10

¹ tn That is, that Paul offers the gospel free of charge to the Corinthians (see 2 Cor 11:7).

² tn Or “silenced.”

NET Notes: 2Co 11:11

¹ tn Grk “God knows!” The words “I do” are supplied for clarity. Direct objects were often omitted in Greek when clear from the context.

NET Notes: 2Co 11:12

¹ tn Grk “an opportunity, so that they may be found just like us.”

Geneva Bible: 2Co 11:1

Would ^{( 1 )} to God ye could bear with me a little in [my] folly: and indeed bear with me.

^{( 1 )} He grants that in a way he is playing the fool in this exalting of things, but he adds that he does it against his will for their profit, because he sees them deceived by certain vain and crafty men, through the craft and subtilty of Satan.

Geneva Bible: 2Co 11:2

For I am jealous over you with ^{( a )} godly jealousy: for I have espoused you to one husband, that I may ^{( b )} present [you as] a chaste virgin to Christ.

^{( a )} He speaks as one who woos them, but yet as one that seeks them not for himself, but for God.

^{( b )} To marry you together.

Geneva Bible: 2Co 11:3

But I fear, lest by any means, as the serpent beguiled Eve through his subtilty, so your minds should be ^{( c )} corrupted from the simplicity that is in ^{( d )} Christ.

^{( c )} This passage is to be noted against those who hate the plain and pure simplicity of the scriptures, in comparison of the elegance and fluency of man's eloquence.

^{( d )} Which is proper for those who are in Christ.

Geneva Bible: 2Co 11:4

^{( 2 )} For if he that cometh preacheth ^{( e )} another Jesus, whom we have not preached, or [if] ye receive another spirit, which ye have not received, or another gospel, which ye have not accepted, ye might well bear with [him].

^{( 2 )} He shows that they deceive themselves, if they look to receive from any other man, either a more excellent Gospel, or more excellent gifts of the Holy Spirit.

^{( e )} A more perfect doctrine of Jesus Christ.

Geneva Bible: 2Co 11:6

^{( 3 )} But though [I be] ^{( f )} rude in speech, yet not in knowledge; but we have been throughly made manifest among you in all things.

^{( 3 )} He refutes the slanders of those boastful and proud men. I grant, he says, that I am not so eloquent an orator, but yet they cannot take away the knowledge of the Gospel from me, of which you have had good proof, and that in every manner of way.

^{( f )} Paul did not lack the type of eloquence which is proper for a man, and fit for the Gospel, but he willingly lacked that eloquent type of speech, which too many now a days search after and follow.

Geneva Bible: 2Co 11:7

^{( 4 )} Have I committed an offence in abasing myself that ye might be exalted, because I have preached to you the gospel of God freely?

^{( 4 )} Another slander, that is, that he was a rascal, and lived by the labour of his own hands. But in this, the apostle says, what can you lay against me, except that I was content to take any pains for your sakes? For when I lacked, I travailed for my living with my own hands. And also when poverty forced me, I chose rather to seek my sustenance than to be any burden to you, even though I preached the Gospel to you.

Geneva Bible: 2Co 11:9

And when I was present with you, and wanted, I was chargeable to no man: for that which was lacking to me the brethren which came from Macedonia supplied: and in all [things] I have kept myself from being burdensome unto you, ^{( 5 )} and [so] will I keep [myself].

^{( 5 )} An amplification: so far is he from being ashamed of this act, that he has also resolved with himself to act in no other way while he is among them, in order that it may always be truly said that he taught in Achaia for nothing. And this is not because he disdains the Corinthians, but rather so that these proud and boastful men may never find the occasion which they have already sought for, and he in the meantime may set something before the Corinthians to follow, so that at length they may truly say that they are like Paul.

Geneva Bible: 2Co 11:10

As the ^{( g )} truth of Christ is in me, no man shall ^{( h )} stop me of this boasting in the regions of Achaia.

^{( g )} This is a form of an oath, as if he said, "Let me not be thought to have any truth in me."

^{( h )} Will be always open to me.

Geneva Bible: 2Co 11:12

But what I do, that I will do, that I may cut off occasion from them which desire occasion; that wherein they ^{( i )} glory, they may be found even as we.

^{( i )} Paul's adversaries sought all occasions they could to be equal to him. And therefore seeing they had rather live off the Corinthians then preach to them for nothing, they sought another occasion, that is, to make Paul take something. And if he had done this, then they hoped by this means to be equal to him. For they made such a show of zeal and knowledge, and set it forth with such a flattering type of eloquence, that some of them even despised Paul. But he shows that all this is nothing but frivolities and pretensions.

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: 2Co 11:1-33

1 Out of his jealousy over the Corinthians, who seemed to make more account of the false apostles than of him, he enters into a forced commendation of himself,

5 of his equality with the chief apostles,

7 of his preaching the gospel to them freely, and without any charge to them;

13 shewing that he was not inferior to those deceitful workers in any legal prerogative;

23 and in the service of Christ, and in all kinds of sufferings for his ministry, far superior.

Maclaren: 2Co 11:3

Simplicity Towards Christ

But I fear, lest by any means, as the serpent beguiled Eve through his subtilty, so your minds should be corrupted from the simplicity that is in Christ.--2 Cor. 11:3.

THE Revised Version, amongst other alterations, reads, the simplicity that is towards Christ.'

The inaccurate rendering of the Authorised Version is responsible for a mistake in the meaning of these words, which has done much harm. They have been supposed to describe a quality or characteristic belonging to Christ or the Gospel; and, so construed, they have sometimes been made the watchword of narrowness and of intellectual indolence. Give us the simple Gospel' has been the cry of people who have thought themselves to be evangelical when they were only lazy, and the consequence has been that preachers have been expected to reiterate commonplaces, which have made both them and their hearers listless, and to sink the educational for the evangelistic aspect of the Christian teacher's function.

It is quite true that the Gospel is simple, but it is also true that it is deep, and they will best appreciate its simplicity who have most honestly endeavoured to fathom its depth. When we let our little sounding lines out, and find that they do not reach the bottom, we begin to wonder even more at the transparency of the clear abyss. It is not simplicity in Christ, but towards Christ of which the Apostle is speaking; not a quality in Him, but a quality in us towards Him. I wish, then, to turn to the two thoughts that these words suggest. First and chiefly, the attitude towards Christ which befits our relation to Him; and, secondly and briefly, the solicitude for its maintenance.

I. First, Then, Look At The Attitude Towards Christ Which Befits The Christian Relation To Him.

The word simplicity' has had a touch of contempt associated with it. It is a somewhat doubtful compliment to say of a man that he is simple-minded.' All noble words which describe great qualities get oxidised by exposure to the atmosphere, and rust comes over them, as indeed all good things tend to become deteriorated in time and by use. But the notion of the word is really a very noble and lofty one. To be without a fold,' which is the meaning of the Greek word and of its equivalent simplicity,' is, in one aspect, to be transparently honest and true, and in another to be out and out of a piece. There is no underside of the cloth, doubled up beneath the upper which shows, and running in the opposite direction; but all tends in one way. k man with no under-currents, no by-ends, who is down to the very roots what he looks, and all whose being is knit together and hurled in one direction, without reservation or back-drawing, that is the simple' man whom the Apostle means. Such simplicity is the truest wisdom; such simplicity of devotion to Jesus Christ is the only attitude of heart and mind which corresponds to the facts of our relation to Him. That relation is set forth in the context by a very sweet and tender image, in the true line of scriptural teaching, which in many a place speaks of the Bride and Bridegroom, and which on its last page shows us the Lamb's wife descending from Heaven to meet her husband. The state of devout souls and of the community of such here on earth is that of betrothal. Their state in heaven is that of marriage. Very beautiful it is to see how this fiery Paul, like the ascetic John, who never knew the sacred joys of that state, lays hold of the thought of the Bridegroom and the Bride, and of his individual relation to both as indicating the duties of the Church and the solicitude of the Apostle. He says that he has been the intermediary who, according to Oriental custom, arranged the preliminaries of the marriage, and brought the bride to the bridegroom, and, as the friend of the latter, standing by rejoices greatly to hear the bridegroom's voice, and is solicitous mainly that in the tremulous heart of the betrothed there should be no admixture of other loves, but a whole-hearted devotion, an exclusive affection, and an absolute obedience. I have espoused you,' says he, to one husband that I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ. But I fear lest … your mind should be corrupted from the simplicity that is towards Him.'

Now that metaphor carries in its implication all that anybody can say about the exclusiveness, the depth, the purity, the all-pervasiveness of the dependent love which should knit us to Jesus Christ. The same thought of whole-hearted, single, absolute devotion is conveyed by other Scripture metaphors, the slave and the soldier of Christ. But all that is repellent or harsh in these is softened and glorified when we contemplate it in the light of the metaphor of my text.

So I might leave it to do its own work, but I may perhaps be allowed to follow out the thought in one or two directions.

The attitude, then, which corresponds to our relation to Jesus Christ is that, first, of a faith which looks to Him exclusively as the source of salvation and of light. The specific danger which was alarming Paul, in reference to that little community of Christians in Corinth, was one which, in its particular form, is long since dead and buried. But the principles which underlay it, the tendencies to which it appealed, and the perils which alarmed Paul for the Corinthian Church, are perennial. He feared that these Judaising teachers, who dogged his heels all his life long, and whose one aim seemed to be to build upon his foundation and to overthrow his building, should find their way into this church and wreck it. The keenness of the polemic, in this and in the contextual chapters, shows how real and imminent the danger was. Now what they did was to tell people that Jesus Christ had a partner in His saving work. They said that obedience to the Jewish law, ceremonial and other, was a condition of salvation, along with trust in Jesus Christ as the Messiah. And because they thus shared out the work of salvation between Jesus Christ and something else, Paul thundered and lightened at them all his life, and, as he tells us in this context, regarded them as preaching another Jesus, another spirit, and another gospel. That particular error is long dead and buried.

But is there nothing else that has come into its place.

Has this old foe not got a new face, and does not it live amongst us as really as it lived then? I think it does; whether in the form of the grosser kind of Sacramentarianism and ecclesiasticism which sticks sacraments and a church in front of the Cross, or in the form of the definite denial that Jesus Christ's death on the Cross is the one means of salvation, or simply in the form of the coarse, common wish to have a finger in the pie and a share in the work of saving oneself, as a drowning man will sometimes half drown his rescuer by trying to use his own limbs. These tendencies that Paul fought, and which he feared would corrupt the Corinthians from their simple and exclusive reliance on Christ, and Christ alone, as the ground and author of their salvation, are perennial in human nature, and we have to be on our guard for ever and for ever against them. Whether they come in organised, systematic, doctrinal form, or whether they are simply the rising in our own hearts of the old Adam of pride and self-trust, they equally destroy the whole work of Christ, because they infringe upon its solitariness and uniqueness. It is not Christ and anything else. Men are not saved by a syndicate. It is Jesus Christ alone, and beside Him there is no Saviour.' You go into a Turkish mosque and see the roof held up by a forest of slim pillars. You go into a cathedral chapter-house and see one strong support in the centre that bears the whole roof. The one is an emblem of the Christless multiplicity of vain Supports, the other of the solitary strength and eternal sufficiency of the one Pillar on which the whole weight of a world's salvation rests, and which lightly bears it triumphantly aloft. I fear lest your minds be corrupted from the simplicity' of a reasonable faith directed towards Christ.

And in like manner He is the sole light and teacher of men as to God, themselves, their duty, their destinies and prospects. He, and He alone, brings these things to light. His word, whether it comes from His lips or from the deeds which are part of His revelation, or from the voice of the Spirit which takes of His and speaks to the ages through His apostles, should be the end of all strife.' What He says, and all that He says, and nothing else than what He says, is the creed of the Christian. He, and He only, is the light which lighteth every man that cometh into the world.' In this day of babblements and confusions, let us listen for the voice of Christ and accept all which comes from Him, and let the language of our deepest hearts be, Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou only hast the words of eternal life.'

Again, our relation to Jesus Christ demands exclusive love to Him. Demands' is an ugly word to bracket with love. We might say, and perhaps more truly, permits or privileges. It is the joy of the betrothed that her duty is to love, and to keep her heart clear from all competing affections. But it is none the less her duty because it is her joy. What Christ is to you, if you are a Christian, and what He longs to be to us all, whether we are Christians or not, is of such a character as that the only fitting attitude of our hearts to Him in response is that of exclusive affection. I do not mean that we are to love nothing but Him, but I mean that we are to love all things else in Him, and that, if any creature so delays or deflects our love as that either it does not pass, by means of the creature, into the presence of the Christ, or is turned away from the Christ by the creature, then we have fallen beneath the sweet level of our lofty privilege, and have won for ourselves the misery due to distracted and idolatrous hearts. Love to one who has done what He has done for us is in its very nature exclusive, and its exclusiveness is all-pervasive exclusiveness. The centre diamond makes the little stones set round it all the more lustrous. We must love Jesus Christ all in all or not at all. Divided love incurs the condemnation that falls heavily upon the head of the faithless bride.

Dear friends, the conception of the essence of religion as being love is no relaxation, but an increase, of its stringent requirements. The more we think of that sweet bond as being the true union of the soul with God, who is its only rest and home, the more reasonable and imperative will appear the old commandment, Thou shalt love Him with all thy heart, and soul, and strength, and mind.'

But, further, our relation to Jesus Christ is such as that nothing short of absolute obedience to His commandment corresponds to it. There must be the simplicity, the single-mindedness that thus obeys, obeys swiftly, cheerfully, constantly. In all matters His command is my law, and, as surely as I make His command my law, will He make my desire His motive. For He Himself has said, in words that bring together our obedience to His will and His compliance with our wishes, in a fashion that we should not have ventured upon unless He had set us an example, If ye love Me, keep My commandments. If ye ask anything in My name I will do it.' The exclusive love that binds us, by reason of our faith in Him alone, to that Lord ought to express itself in unhesitating, unfaltering, unreserved, and unreluctant obedience to every word that comes from His mouth.

These brief outlines are but the poorest attempt to draw out what the words of my text imply. But such as they are, lot us remember that they do set forth the only proper response of the saved man to the saving Christ. Ye cannot serve God and Mammon.' Anything short of a faith that rests on Him alone, of a love that knits itself to His single, all-sufficient heart, and of an obedience that bows the whole being to the sweet yoke of His commandment is an unworthy answer to the Love that died, and that lives for us all.

II. And Now I Have Only Time To Glance At The Solicitude For The Maintenance Of This Exclusive Single-Mindedness Towards Christ.

Think of what threatens it. I say nothing about the ferment of opinion in this day, for one man that is swept away from a thorough whole-hearted faith by intellectual considerations, there are a dozen from whom it is filched without their knowing it, by their own weaknesses and the world's noises. And so it is more profitable that we should think of the whole crowd of external duties, enjoyments, sweetnesses, bitternesses, that solicit us, and would seek to draw us away. Who can hear the low voice that speaks peace and wisdom when Niagara is roaring past his ears? The world is too much with us, late and soon. Buying and selling we lay waste our powers,' and break ourselves away from our simple devotion to that dear Lord. But it is possible that we may so carry into all the whirl the central peace, as that we shall not be disturbed by it; and possible that' whether we eat or drink, or whatsoever we do, we may do all to His glory,' so that we can, even in the midst of our daily pressing avocations and cares be keeping our hearts in the heavens, and our souls in touch with our Lord.

But it is not only things without that draw us away.

Our own weaknesses and waywardnesses, our strong senses, our passions, our desires, our necessities, all these have a counteracting force, which needs continual watchfulness in order to be neutralised. No man can grasp a stay, which alone keeps him from being immersed in the waves, with uniform tenacity, unless every now and then he tightens his muscles. And no man can keep himself firmly grasping Jesus Christ without conscious effort directed to bettering his hold.

If there be dangers around us, and dangers within us, the discipline which we have to pursue in order to secure this uniform, single-hearted devotion is plain enough. Let us be vividly conscious of the peril--which is what some of us are not. Let us take stock of ourselves lest creeping evil may be encroaching upon us, while we are all unaware--which is what some of us never do. Let us clearly contemplate the possibility of an indefinite increase in the closeness and thoroughness of our surrender to Him--a conviction which has faded away from the minds of many professing Christians. Above all, let us find time or make time for the patient, habitual contemplation of the great facts which kindle our devotion. For if you never think of Jesus Christ and His love to you, how can you love Him back again? And if you are so busy carrying out your own secular affairs, or pursuing your own ambitions, or attending to your own duties, as they may seem to be, that you have no time to think of Christ, His death, His life, His Spirit, His yearning heart over His bride, how can it be expected that you will have any depth of love to Him? Let us, too, wait with prayerful patience for that Divine Spirit who will knit us more closely to our Lord.

Unless we do so, we shall get no happiness out of our religion, and it will bring no praise to Christ or profit to ourselves. I do not know a more miserable man than a half-and-half Christian, after the pattern of, I was going to say, the ordinary average of professing Christians of this generation. He has religion enough to prick and sting him, and not enough to impel him to forsake the evil which yet he cannot comfortably do. He has religion enough to inflame his conscience,' not enough to subdue his will and heart. How many of my hearers are in that condition it is for them to settle. If we are to be Christian men at all, let us be it out and out. Half-and-half religion is no religion.

One foot in sea, and one on shore;To one thing constant never!

That is the type of thousands of professing Christians. I fear lest by any means your minds be corrupted from the simplicity that is towards Christ.'

MHCC: 2Co 11:1-4

The apostle desired to preserve the Corinthians from being corrupted by the false apostles. There is but one Jesus, one Spirit, and one gospel, to be preached to them, and received by them; and why should any be prejudiced, by the devices of an adversary, against him who first taught them in faith? They should not listen to men, who, without cause, would draw them away from those who were the means of their conversion.

MHCC: 2Co 11:5-15

It is far better to be plain in speech, yet walking openly and consistently with the gospel, than to be admired by thousands, and be lifted up in pride, so as to disgrace the gospel by evil tempers and unholy lives. The apostle would not give room for any to accuse him of worldly designs in preaching the gospel, that others who opposed him at Corinth, might not in this respect gain advantage against him. Hypocrisy may be looked for, especially when we consider the great power which Satan, who rules in the hearts of the children of disobedience, has upon the minds of many. And as there are temptations to evil conduct, so there is equal danger on the other side. It serves Satan's purposes as well, to set up good works against the atonement of Christ, and salvation by faith and grace. But the end will discover those who are deceitful workers; their work will end in ruin. Satan will allow his ministers to preach either the law or the gospel separately; but the law as established by faith in Christ's righteousness and atonement, and the partaking of his Spirit, is the test of every false system.

Matthew Henry: 2Co 11:1-4

Here we may observe, 1. The apology the apostle makes for going about to commend himself. He is loth to enter upon this subject of self-commendation: Would to God you could bear with me a little in my folly, 2Co 11:1. He calls this folly, because too often it is really no better. In his case it was necessary; yet, seeing others might apprehend it to be folly in him, he desires them to bear with it. Note, As much against the grain as it is with a proud man to acknowledge his infirmities, so much is it against the grain with a humble man to speak in his own praise. It is no pleasure to a good man to speak well of himself, yet in some cases it is lawful, namely, when it is for the advantage of others, or for our own necessary vindication; as thus it was here. For, 2. We have the reasons for what the apostle did. (1.) To preserve the Corinthians from being corrupted by the insinuations of the false apostles, 2Co 11:2, 2Co 11:3. He tells them he was jealous over them with godly jealousy; he was afraid lest their faith should be weakened by hearkening to such suggestions as tended to lessen their regard to his ministry, by which they were brought to the Christian faith. He had espoused them to one husband, that is, converted them to Christianity (and the conversion of a soul is its marriage to the Lord Jesus); and he was desirous to present them as a chaste virgin - pure, and spotless, and faithful, not having their minds corrupted with false doctrines by false teachers, as Eve was beguiled by the subtlety of the serpent. This godly jealousy in the apostle was a mixture of love and fear; and faithful ministers cannot but be afraid and concerned for their people, lest they should lose that which they have received, and turn from what they have embraced, especially when deceivers have gone abroad, or have crept in among them. (2.) To vindicate himself against the false apostles, forasmuch as they could not pretend they had another Jesus, or another Spirit, or another gospel, to preach to them, 2Co 11:4. If this had been the case, there would have been some colour of reason to bear with them, or to hearken to them. But seeing there is but one Jesus, one Spirit, and one gospel, that is, or at least that ought to be, preached to them and received by them, what reason could there be why the Corinthians should be prejudiced against him, who first converted them to the faith, by the artifices of any adversary? It was a just occasion of jealousy that such persons designed to preach another Jesus, another Spirit, and another gospel.

Matthew Henry: 2Co 11:5-15

After the foregoing preface to what he was about to say, the apostle in these verses mentions,

I. His equality with the other apostles - that he was not a whit behind the very chief of the apostles, 2Co 11:5. This he expresses very modestly: I suppose so. He might have spoken very positively. The apostleship, as an office, was equal in all the apostles; but the apostles, like other Christians, differed one from another. These stars differed one from another in glory, and Paul was indeed of the first magnitude; yet he speaks modestly of himself, and humbly owns his personal infirmity, that he was rude in speech, had not such a graceful delivery as some others might have. Some think that he was a man of very low stature, and that his voice was proportionably small; others think that he may have had some impediment in his speech, perhaps a stammering tongue. However, he was not rude in knowledge; he was not unacquainted with the best rules of oratory and the art of persuasion, much less was he ignorant of the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven, as had been thoroughly manifested among them.

II. His equality with the false apostles in this particular - the preaching of the gospel unto them freely, without wages. This the apostle largely insists on, and shows that, as they could not but own him to be a minister of Christ, so they ought to acknowledge he had been a good friend to them. For, 1. He had preached the gospel to them freely, 2Co 11:7-10. He had proved at large, in his former epistle to them, the lawfulness of ministers' receiving maintenance from the people, and the duty of the people to give them an honourable maintenance; and here he says he himself had taken wages of other churches (2Co 11:8), so that he had a right to have asked and received from them: yet he waived his right, and chose rather to abase himself, by working with his hands in the trade of tent-making to maintain himself, than be burdensome to them, that they might be exalted, or encouraged to receive the gospel, which they had so cheaply; yea, he chose rather to be supplied from Macedonia than to be chargeable unto them. 2. He informs them of the reason of this his conduct among them. It was not because he did not love them (2Co 11:11), or was unwilling to receive tokens of their love (for love and friendship are manifested by mutual giving and receiving), but it was to avoid offence, that he might cut off occasion from those that desired occasion. He would not give occasion for any to accuse him of worldly designs in preaching the gospel, or that he intended to make a trade of it, to enrich himself; and that others who opposed him at Corinth might not in this respect gain an advantage against him: that wherein they gloried, as to this matter, they might be found even as he, 2Co 11:12. It is not improbable to suppose that the chief of the false teachers at Corinth, or some among them, were rich, and taught (or deceived) the people freely, and might accuse the apostle or his fellow-labourers as mercenary men, who received hire or wages, and therefore the apostle kept to his resolution not to be chargeable to any of the Corinthians.

III. The false apostles are charged as deceitful workers (2Co 11:13), and that upon this account, because they would transform themselves into the likeness of the apostles of Christ, and, though they were the ministers of Satan, would seem to be the ministers of righteousness. They would be as industrious and as generous in promoting error as the apostles were in preaching truth; they would endeavour as much to undermine the kingdom of Christ as the apostles did to establish it. There were counterfeit prophets under the Old Testament, who wore the garb and learned the language of the prophets of the Lord. So there were counterfeit apostles under the New Testament, who seemed in many respects like the true apostles of Christ. And no marvel (says the apostle); hypocrisy is a thing not to be much wondered at in this world, especially when we consider the great influence Satan has upon the minds of many, who rules in the hearts of the children of disobedience. As he can turn himself into any shape, and put on almost any form, and look sometimes like an angel of light, in order to promote his kingdom of darkness, so he will teach his ministers and instruments to do the same. But it follows, Their end is according to their works (2Co 11:15); the end will discover them to be deceitful workers, and their work will end in ruin and destruction.

Barclay: 2Co 11:1-6

All through this section Paul has to adopt methods which are completely distasteful to him. He has to stress his own authority, to boast about himself and to keep comparing himself with those who are seeking to seduce the Corinthian Church; and he does not like it. He apologizes every time he has to speak in such a way, for he was not a man to stand on his dignity. It was said of a great man, "He never remembered his dignity until others forgot it." But Paul knew that it was not really his dignity and honour that were at stake, but the dignity and the honour of Jesus Christ.

He begins by using a vivid picture from Jewish marriage customs. The idea of Israel as the bride of God is common in the Old Testament. "Your Maker," said Isaiah, "is your husband." (Isa 54:5). "As the bridegroom rejoices over the bride, so shall your God rejoice over you." (Isa 62:5). So it was natural for Paul to use the metaphor of marriage and to think of the Corinthian Church as the bride of Christ.

At a Jewish wedding there were two people called the friends of the bridegroom, one representing the bridegroom and one the bride. They had many duties. They acted as liaisons between the bride and the bridegroom; they carried the invitations to the guests; but they had one particular responsibility, that of guaranteeing the chastity of the bride. That is what is in Paul's thought here. In the marriage of Jesus Christ and the Corinthian Church he is the friend of the bridegroom. It is his responsibility to guarantee the chastity of the bride, and he will do all he can to keep the Corinthian Church pure and a fit bride for Jesus Christ.

There was a Jewish legend current in Paul's time that, in the Garden of Eden, Satan had actually seduced Eve and that Cain was the child of their union. Paul is thinking of that old legend when he fears that the Corinthian Church is being seduced from Christ.

It is clear that there were in Corinth men who were preaching their own version of Christianity and insisting that it was superior to Paul's. It is equally clear that they regarded themselves as very special people--super-apostles, Paul calls them. Ironically Paul says that the Corinthians listen splendidly to them. If they give them such an excellent hearing will they not listen to him?

Then he draws the contrast between these false apostles and himself He is quite untrained in speaking. The word he uses is idiotes (2399). This word began by meaning a private individual who took no part in public life. It went on to mean someone with no technical training, what we would call a layman. Paul says that these false but arrogant apostles may be far better equipped orators than he is; they may be the professionals and he the mere amateur in words; they may be the men with the academic qualifications and he the mere layman. But the fact remains, however unskilled he may be in technical oratory, he knows what he is talking about and they do not.

There is a famous story which tells how a company of people were dining together. After dinner it was agreed that each should recite something. A well-known actor rose and, with all the resources of elocution and dramatic art, he declaimed the twenty-third psalm and sat down to tremendous applause. A quiet man followed him. He too began to recite the twenty-third psalm and at first there was rather a titter. But before he had ended there was a stillness that was more eloquent than any applause. When he had spoken the last words there was silence, and then the actor leant across and said, "Sir, I know the psalm, but you know the shepherd."

Paul's opponents might have all the resources of oratory and he might be unskilled in speech; but he knew what he was talking about because he knew the real Christ.

Barclay: 2Co 11:7-15

Here again Paul is meeting a charge that has been levelled against him. This time the charge is clear. It was rankling in the minds of the Corinthian Church that Paul had refused to accept any support from them whatsoever. When he was in want it was the Philippian Church who had supplied his needs (compare Phi 4:10-18).

Before we go further with this passage, we must ask, how could Paul maintain this attitude of utter independence with regard to the Corinthian Church and yet accept gifts from the Philippian Church? He was not being inconsistent and the reason was a very practical and excellent one. As far as we know, Paul never accepted a gift from the Church at Philippi when he was in Philippi. He did so only after he had moved on. The reason is clear. So long as he was in any given place he had to be utterly independent, under obligation to no man. It is hardly possible to accept a man's bounty and then condemn him or preach against him. When he was in the middle of the Philippian community Paul could not be beholden to any man. It was different when he had moved on. He was then free to take what the love of the Philippians chose to give, for then it would commit him to no man or party. It would have been impossible for Paul, when in Corinth, to receive Corinthian support and at the same time maintain the independence which the situation demanded. He was not in the least inconsistent; he was only wise.

Why were the Corinthians so annoyed about his refusal? For one thing, according to the Greek way of thinking, it was beneath a free man's dignity to work with his hands. The dignity of honest toil was forgotten, and the Corinthians did not understand Paul's point of view. For another thing, in the Greek world, teachers were supposed to make money out of teaching. There never was an age in which a man who could talk could make so much money. Augustus, the Roman Emperor, paid Verrius Flaccus, the rhetorician, an annual salary of 100,000 sesterces, which, in present day purchasing power was the equivalent of a quarter of a million pounds. Every town was entitled to grant complete exemption from all civic burdens and taxes to a certain number of teachers of rhetoric and literature. Paul's independence was something that the Corinthians could not understand.

As for the false apostles, they, too, made Paul's independence a charge against him. They took support all right, and they claimed that the fact that they took it was a proof that they really were apostles. No doubt they maintained that Paul refused to take anything because his teaching was not worth anything. But in their heart of hearts they were afraid that people would see through them, and they wanted to drag Paul down to their own level of acquisitiveness so that his independence would no longer form a contrast to their greed.

Paul accused them of masquerading as apostles of Christ. The Jewish legend was that Satan had once masqueraded as one of the angels who sang praises to God and that it was then that Eve had seen him and been seduced.

It is still true that many masquerade as Christians, some consciously but still more unconsciously. Their Christianity is a superficial dress in which there is no reality. The Synod of the Church in Uganda drew up the following four tests by which a man may examine himself and test the reality of his Christianity.

(i) Do you know salvation through the Cross of Christ?

(ii) Are you growing in the power of the Holy Spirit, in

prayer, meditation and the knowledge of God?

(iii) Is there a great desire to spread the Kingdom of God

by example, and by preaching and teaching?

(iv) Are you bringing others to Christ by individual

searching, by visiting, and by public witness?

With the conscience of others we have nothing to do, but we can test our own Christianity lest our faith also should be not a reality but a masquerade.

Constable: 2Co 10:1--13:11

IV. APPEALS CONCERNING PAUL'S APOSTOLIC AUTHORITY 10:1--13:10

In this third and last major division of his epistle the apostle Paul defended his apostolic authority. He did this to silence his critics in Corinth and perhaps elsewhere permanently and to confirm the united support of the Christians there. One of Paul's major purposes in writing this letter was to prepare the way for his next visit. He had just referred to that "anticipated visit" (9:3-4). Consequently he felt compelled to establish his apostolic authority firmly. Broomall's observation on the tone of 2 Corinthians generally is especially true of chapters 10-13.

"The progress of thought in this epistle is like the movement of a mighty army advancing over rugged terrain still inhabited by pockets of stubborn resistance."²⁴³

Constable: 2Co 11:1--12:19

B. Claims made by Paul 11:1-12:18

In this section Paul gave further evidence that he possessed apostolic authority to encourage the whole Corinthian church to continue to respond positively to his ministry.

Constable: 2Co 11:1-6

1. Paul's reasons for making these claims 11:1-6

In the first subsection he explained his need to present this evidence.

11:1 Paul found it necessary to remind and reveal to the Corinthians some of the evidences of the Lord's commendation of his ministry (cf. 10:18). He called this "foolishness" because he should not have had to speak of these things. He and his ministry were well-known to his readers.²⁵⁴

11:2 God had jealously guarded His people Israel from the deceitfulness of deceivers who sought to draw their affections away from Himself (cf. Hos. 2:19-20; 4:12; 6:4; 11:8). Paul felt the same concern for the Corinthians. His jealousy was in that sense "godly" (God-like). Paul pictured himself as the father of a virgin bride (cf. 1 Cor. 4:15; 2 Cor. 12:14). His desire was to keep his daughter, the Corinthian church, pure until she would consummate her marriage to Christ (cf. 4:14; Eph. 5:27; 1 John 3:2-3). This will take place at the Rapture.

"Human jealousy is a vice, but to share divine jealousy is a virtue. It is the motive and object of the jealousy that is all-important. There is a place for a spiritual father's passionate concern for the exclusive and pure devotion to Christ of his spiritual children, and also a place for anger at potential violators of that purity (11:29)."²⁵⁵

The motive of Paul's critics in citing what they had done was self-glorification, but Paul's was the welfare of his readers. This is the first of three reasons that Paul gave for the Corinthians to bear with him (v. 1). He wanted them to be completely loyal to Christ.

11:3 Paul's critics were not just calling his apostolic authority into question. They were leading the Corinthians astray. The apostle communicated the seriousness of this seduction by comparing it with the serpent's cunning deception (Gr. exepatesen) of Eve (Gen. 3:13).

"The very future of the Corinthians as an apostolic church is in jeopardy."²⁵⁶

Genuine Christians can be and are being deceived by false teachers and are abandoning their faith today. This sometimes happens when young people go off to college, and it happens when cultists come knocking on Christians' doors.

11:4 The Jesus they were preaching was different enough from Him whom Paul preached that Paul could say their Jesus was a different person. The "if" in this verse does not represent a hypothetical possibility but a past reality. In listening to the false teachers' message the church was under the influence of some sort of spirit, but it was not the Holy Spirit. They were in danger of accepting a different gospel (cf. 10:5; Gal. 1:8-9). In all this they were bearing up "beautifully." Paul described ironically their accepting it all very graciously and submissively from the false apostles (cf. 10:7). Since they showed such remarkable toleration of false teachers surely they owed their father in the faith the same toleration.

This is the second reason the Corinthians should bear with Paul (v. 1): their willingness to accept visitors who presented an adulterated message.

11:5 The "eminent apostles" were probably the false apostles who claimed to be eminent rather than the other genuine apostles. The context supports this interpretation as does the rare term translated "eminent" (NASB, Gr. huperlian apostolon, lit. "exceedingly beyond apostles"). It is perhaps a term more appropriate to phonies claiming apostleship than to genuine apostles. However this term may have been one that Paul's critics used to describe the Twelve in contrast to Paul (cf. 12:11-12).²⁵⁷ By elevating the Twelve exceedingly they effective denigrated the apostle to the Gentiles. Whichever view is correct the meaning is clear. Paul's foes were claiming that he was an inferior apostle.

This is the third reason the readers should bear with Paul (v. 1). He claimed that he was not inferior to these "super-apostles."

11:6 Paul had just said that he was not inferior. He was not now claiming that he was inferior in speech. He evidently meant that even if his critics' charge that he was inferior in speech was true, which it was not, no one could charge him with being inferior in knowledge. The Corinthians knew very well Paul's superior knowledge of the revelations of God (cf. Eph. 3:4-5; 1 Cor. 2:6-11). He had expounded divine truth to his readers exhaustively in person and in his letters. Obviously knowledge is more important than speech.

Paul had previously revealed that some of his Corinthian hearers criticized him for not being a skilled rhetorician (10:10). Nevertheless Paul was as competent as any of the Twelve or any of his critics in his ability to communicate as well as in his ability to understand God's revelations. He was responding to criticism of him here, not conceding inferiority.

The fact that the early Christians used the word "apostle" in a general sense (e.g., 8:23; Acts 14:4, 14; et al.) and in a technical sense (e.g., 2 Cor. 1:1; et al.) probably created some confusion. In what sense was Paul an apostle? He claimed to be an apostle on a level equal with the Twelve. Yet the word in the general sense means anyone sent out on the Christian mission, and in this sense the teachers in Corinth who were criticizing Paul were apostles. Perhaps it would be more accurate to define the Corinthians' question about Paul as what type of apostle was he rather than was he an apostle or not.

Constable: 2Co 11:7-15

2. Freedom to minister without charge 11:7-15

Paul claimed the freedom to minister in Corinth without receiving financial support from the Corinthians to illustrate his self-sacrificing love for his readers and his critics' selfishness. He digressed from his "foolish" boasting (vv. 1-6) to defend his policy regarding his own financial support (vv. 7-12) and to describe his opponents' true identity (vv. 13-16).

11:7-8 Paul had written that apostles have the right to refrain from working for a living and to live off the gifts of their audience (1 Cor. 9:6, 14). Yet he had made tents in Corinth and had refused to accept gifts from the Corinthians (cf. Acts 18:3; 1 Cor. 9:4-15). This indicated to some in Corinth that he did not believe he was an apostle. The other apostles normally accepted support from the recipients of their ministries, and these false apostles evidently did so consistently.

Paul had expounded God's truth in Corinth without accepting money from his converts there for doing so. He adopted this policy in Corinth and elsewhere because he did not want to burden the people he was currently ministering to. He also did so because he knew there were people who would accuse him of preaching to receive payment. He accepted financial help from other church while not ministering to them directly ("robbed them") so he could serve the Corinthians without taxing them.

11:9 Paul had practiced his trade of leather working (Gr. skenopoios) when he had first arrived in Corinth (Acts 18:3). When Silas and Timothy joined him from Macedonia, Paul stopped this work and devoted all his time to preaching and teaching (Acts 18:5). He apparently did this because these brothers had brought financial gifts with them from the Macedonian churches (cf. Phil. 4:15; 1 Thess. 3:6). Paul's principle was to preach and teach without charging those who benefitted directly from his ministry. This is a good policy in church planting, but it is not normative for a settled pastoral ministry (1 Cor. 9:14; 1 Tim. 5:17-18).²⁵⁸

11:10-12 Paul claimed that he had not sinned in behaving as he had (v. 7). He had not deceived his readers. Rather, as God knew his heart, he had behaved as he had because he loved the Corinthians. Furthermore it was not necessary for him to change his policy of accepting or declining support on the basis of the welfare of those he served. His critics uniformly accepted support. By giving up his right to preach the gospel without cost Paul would have been descending to their level. He also would have enabled his critics to compare themselves with him favorably.

11:13-15 "The moment has come for Paul to drop the veil of irony and to speak in the plainest possible terms in denunciation of these would-be super-apostles' who have invaded his territory in Achaia."²⁵⁹

Paul did not want the Corinthians to associate him with these people because they were counterfeit ambassadors of Christ. It is for this reason that their accusations concerned Paul. They were self-servers who were the true sons of their father Satan, the consummate hypocrite.²⁶⁰ They may have been genuine believers. Indeed they appear to have been. Nevertheless in their conduct they were following the example of Satan. They perverted the thinking and misdirected the affections of the Corinthians.²⁶¹

In our own day when people value toleration so highly and practice it so widely even in the church, we need to learn from Paul's example of calling a spade a spade. The welfare of those under his ministry required him to identify his critics for who they really were. We will serve our generation faithfully if we do the same. We should point out teachers who lead others into error and warn people about them if we want to keep the naive from harm.

College: 2Co 11:1-33

2 CORINTHIANS 11

B. COMPARISON TO FALSE APOSTLES MADE (11:1-15)

1. True Message of Jesus Preached (11:1-6)

11:1 I hope you will put up with a little of my foolishness; but you are already doing that.

Like a shy schoolboy Paul haltingly climbs onto the stage, eyes downcast, stammering, fidgety, embarrassed, cautiously opens his mouth to speak, determined to be bold, but out comes a squeaky-voiced apology. Paul is not accustomed to listing his litany of credentials in order to win over a crowd. He is used to presenting the gospel plainly, boldly, convincingly. Yet, he is sidling up to the idea of writing out his entire resumι in order to provide the majority of Corinthians the ammunition to win the rest away from the outside challengers. Incredibly, despite his opening sentence, Paul will not actually get to listing his apostolic credentials until 11:21b. After harsh denunciation of his rivals through 11:15, Paul will restart the introduction to his credentials in 11:16. This will last until 11:21b when he finally gets his credentials under way.

Part of Paul's hesitation to list his credentials is that presenting them is too much like boasting. Self-adulation of the sort his rivals seem to have specialized in he has already blasted as unbiblical in 10:17-18. Yet, once he gets into his credentials, it will be seen that they are not really much like normal boasting. In fact, they are more like antiboasting, boasting in suffering service, not in achievements and awards.

Paul's first word in the sentence, translated by the NIV as "I wish" is not a verb but a special word (o[felon, ophelon ), rare in the NT, which is used to introduce an unattainable desire. With it Paul, like one forlorn of hope, betrays his lack of confidence, expecting rejection. Such self-deprecation combined with a verb like "put up with" (ajnevcw, anechô) was a common opening ploy in Greek rhetorical practice. Since Paul's rhetorical competence is one area which has been ridiculed by his attackers (10:10; 11:6), this may signal an effort by Paul to introduce a show of rhetorical flourish, even as he answers his critics. If that is the case, then this opening should be taken as somewhat tongue-in-cheek.

One can almost hear Paul chuckle as he writes the second half of the verse musing how the church has already patiently listened to a long letter. The NIV's "You are already doing that" paraphrases what is simply a repetition of the verb "put up with" (ajnevcw, anechô) in the present tense and could be rendered, "But in fact you are putting up with me." This second use of "put up with" may be an imperative, "But in fact put up with me." This would fit well with Paul's remarks which follow. However, it takes the punch out of the adversative "but" (ajllav, alla ) which separates the two clauses.

Many interpreters consider this verse the beginning of Paul's "Fool's Speech" because between here and 12:13 Paul will utter the word "folly," "foolishness" (ajfrosuvnh, aphrosynç), as here, or "fool," "foolish" (a[frwn, aphrôn) eight times (11:16 - twice, 17,19,21; 12:6,11). Elsewhere, he uses "fool" only three other times, in 1 Cor 15:36, Rom 2:20, and Eph 5:17. These two words are negations of Greek nouns which refer to prudent, discreet conduct which stems from a sound mind. Paul repeatedly refers to what he is doing in this speech as foolish because he is loosening control of his faculties to do it. This is highly uncomfortable for him, but he does open up to it because bringing all the Corinthians back into the fold is his highest priority.

11:2 I am jealous for you with a godly jealousy.

The verb "I am jealous" (zhlovw, zçloô) and the noun "jealousy" (zh'lo", zçlos), formed on the same Greek stem, can indicate "deep concern," as in 2 Cor 7:7, or "enthusiastic zeal," as in 2 Cor 9:2 or Gal 4:17. However, the NIV quite appropriately translates them from the reference point of desiring to get something back that has been taken away. In Exod 20:5 God can speak of being jealous for Israel when they go after other gods because they are his people. This also fits frequent OT language which depicts Israel as God's bride (Isa 54:5-6; 62:5; Ezek 16:8; Hos 2:19-20). Thus, Paul qualifies "jealousy" with "godly." Paul now speaks for Christ's claim on the Corinthian church using similar imagery. Christ's jealousy over some of the Corinthians who have left him means he wants them back. Paul sees it as his responsibility to accomplish this through his presentation.

I promised you to one husband, to Christ, so that I might present you as a pure virgin to him

Paul pictures himself as the father of the bride, who in Jewish culture negotiated the binding marriage contract of his daughter to her suitor. In return for safeguarding his daughter's sexual purity until the actual marriage (Gen 29:23; Deut 22:13-19), the father received the promise of goods, herds, or money for his daughter. The betrothal, or engagement period lasted about a year. During this year-long period, it was the father's responsibility to ward off any other suitors.

When the wedding ceremony took place, the groom honored his end of the contract and the father escorted his daughter to the groom's home. Should the groom find his bride to be sexually impure on their wedding night, he could return her to her father's house and reclaim his goods since the father's end of the contract had been broken. This in fact is what Joseph intended to do to Mary according to Matt 1:18-25 until Gabriel explained the extraordinary circumstances of Mary's pregnancy.

Viewing himself as father to the Corinthian church is in keeping with what Paul says in 1 Cor 4:15 in which he declares, "You do not have many fathers, for in Christ Jesus I became your father through the gospel." In 2 Cor 6:13, he calls them "my children" who he hopes will give their father a hug, and in 2 Cor 12:13-15, he again calls them "children" to whom he pledges to provide for all their needs. Such a paternal view of his relationship to the Corinthians can be seen in the way he conceives of individual converts as well (1 Thess 2:11; Phlm 10; 1 Tim 1:2; 2 Tim 1:2). In Gal 4:9 he pictures his relationship to those churches as a mother giving birth.

Paul's portrayal of an individual congregation as the bride of Christ is unique in the NT. However, the whole, universal church is conceived of as Christ's bride in Eph 5:23-32, Rev 19:7-9 and Rev 22:2. But even when James 4:12 cries to the church as, "You adulterous people," this marital relationship between Christ and the church is presumed. This image undoubtedly draws upon the OT imagery between God and Israel.

The adjective "pure" (aJgnov", hagnos ), besides its appropriateness for expressing sexual innocence, often stands opposite to sin of any nature as when 1 Tim 5:22 speaks of keeping oneself pure as the positive result of not sharing in the sins of others. It can also be found in lists of Christian virtues in association with being self-controlled and kind (Titus 2:5) as well as being right and noble (Phil 4:8). It amounts to keeping oneself untainted from a particular sin or sins as a whole.

Paul views the church as in the engagement period. His vigilance as a protective father commits him to watch out for the faithfulness of congregations which he has helped bring into the world until Christ returns at the Parousia to consummate his marriage to the bride. The engagement contract, most likely, is initiated when individuals are sealed by the Holy Spirit in baptism. Responsibility for caring discipleship of Christians beyond conversion, such as Paul articulates with the wedding imagery, remains a critical job for the church still today.

11:3 But I am afraid that just as Eve was deceived by the serpent's cunning,

From the image of marriage Paul's mind focuses on the first wife and her first temptation recorded in Genesis 3, not only to undermine her husband, but to transgress God's will. By the time of Paul, it was conjectured by Jewish Rabbis that Eve in fact was sexually seduced by an evil angel or the devil in the cloak of the serpent. Although the word translated "was deceived" (ejxapatavw, exapataô) can mean "seduce," in the NT it is consistently used in the context of deception not seduction (Rom 7:11; 16:18; 1 Cor 11:3; 2 Thess 2:3; 1 Tim 2:14). Paul's reference to the "minds" of the Corinthians in the second half of this verse confirms this interpretation.

Paul employs a different Greek word than the fairly complimentary "wise" (frovnimo", phronimos ) which the Septuagint translation of Gen 3:1 uses to describe the serpent. Rather, he appropriately employs the Greek word for "cunning" (panourgiva, panourgia ) which indisputably paints the serpent black, full of trickery and villainy. He does not want the Corinthians to think that the outside disrupters who deceive have anything but bad motives. They are not just zealously but naοvely wrong. They are sinister. Like the serpent their plan to woo the Corinthians is premeditated and intentional.

your minds may somehow be led astray from your sincere and pure devotion to Christ.

Paul focuses on the "minds" (novhma, noçma) of the Corinthians as the location of deception. This is now the last of five uses of this word in 2 Corinthians. The only other use in the NT is also by Paul in Phil 4:7. This word depicts the sphere in which people make decisions, design strategies, plan for the future. If this focal point of Christian influence is captured by an errant notion, particularly in reference to Christ and the gospel, it has huge ramifications for the integrity of their Christian lifestyle as well as the reality of their salvation. Paul presumes that the schemers have already made an impact and have taken some out of the true Christian fold. That's why he writes this letter, to dislodge the influence of the outsiders from the church and particularly those who have already been victimized by them.

Paul reminds the Corinthians of their vows of commitment to Christ as one might counsel a woman who is tempted to betray her husband. He uses the synonyms "sincere" (aJplovth", haplotçs) and "pure" (aJgnovth", hagnotçs). The first emphasizes the simplicity of devotion to something or someone, uncomplicated by other ideas or notions. The second, like its related word in 11:2, emphasizes 100% commitment, no mixed motives, no second thoughts. Remaining true to Christ through all the ups and downs of life, in the face of conflicting philosophies and moral principles, is no easy task in any generation. But this is what the unblemished bride Christ deserves.

11:4 For if someone comes to you and preaches a Jesus other than the Jesus we preached,

Even though Paul expresses himself in a conditional construction ("if"), given the context it is doubtful that he intends it to be taken as purely hypothetical. More than likely, his threefold description of heretical preaching is based on his knowledge of the intruders in Corinth. Certainly, it is also intended to stand as a grid to screen out future heresies or those which are ongoing in other localities. It remains as a valuable tool for evaluating contemporary heresies as well.

While it is important to attempt to explore the implications of the threefold criteria with regard to Paul's current problems in Corinth, probably the most revealing words are "other" (a[llo", allos ) and "different" (e{tero", heteros ), the first of which hovers over "Jesus," the second of which cradles "spirit" and "gospel." These two words are synonyms. The first refers to something which has been added to something else, the second refers simply to something different. As far as Paul is concerned, anything preached in these three areas which is different from what Paul has preached is not true, valid Christianity. The variety of differences is incalculable, but the standard of true Christianity against which they are to be measured is singular and unchanging.

Paul gives the Corinthians and Christians in general the credit, indeed the responsibility, for knowing what he preaches. He also presumes they can detect differences in the instruction they have received from Paul's opponents. The ultimate issue is whether they will recognize Paul's teaching as true. Really the bottom line is Paul's own credibility as an apostle in their eyes and Paul's success in unmasking his opponents as frauds. That is what Paul hopes to accomplish in the rest of chapter eleven.

Simply identifying the message of his opponents as different in these three respects does not give readers that much to go on. For this reason, interpreters offer a wide variety of possibilities for the identity of Paul's opponents. Most, however, tend to focus their attention on the first member of the threefold list, "Jesus." It strikes many as significant that Paul says "Jesus" and not "Christ." Paul tends to speak of Christ when dwelling on the saving gospel of grace. Some suggest that by using "Jesus" Paul's rivals are emphasizing the Jewishness of Jesus and perhaps a legalistic gospel. Going to the extreme opposite, others suggest Paul's rivals must be early Christian Gnostics, who under Greek influence tended to magnify the earthly Jesus as the pure vessel in whom the divine presence dwelt. Still another supports that these teachers thought of Jesus as a Greek divine man.

All of these strain more out of the simple word "Jesus" than can be proved. However, a more convincing theory draws on the broader context of 2 Corinthians as well as other Pauline uses of "Jesus" for its suggestion. It first notes that Paul only uses "Jesus" 16 times as compared to "Jesus Christ" or "Christ Jesus" 142 times and "Christ" alone an additional 166 times. Seven of the 16 uses of Jesus alone are in 2 Corinthians, of which the use in 11:4 is the last. Most of these concentrate in 2 Cor 4:5-14 in which Paul talks of true apostleship being "servants" and carrying "in our body the death of Jesus." This compares to Gal 6:17 in which Paul speaks of "bearing on my body the marks of Jesus." Further, Eph 2:10 points to "Jesus" as worshiped by all, but only after the Eph 2:7-8 passage exalts him for becoming "a servant," "humbled," and "obedient to death - even death on a cross."

This evidence brings the reasonable conclusion that if "Jesus" implies anything in 11:4, it is the humiliation and suffering of Jesus, particularly on the cross. The temptation to minimize this radical message of crucifixion and sacrifice is readily acknowledged by Paul, in fact in 1 Corinthians. In 1 Cor 1:18-25, Paul admits that the message of the cross which he preaches seems foolish to most, a stumbling block to Jews and Greeks alike. But he preaches it anyway because it is God's wisdom.

The vulnerability of the Corinthians to a Christianity which ignores the cross and the suffering of Jesus in his physical body is already evident in 1 Corinthians. Thus, it is not so surprising that some would be attracted to those who represent themselves as truer apostles than Paul, presenting a gospel not so disgustingly radical in its focus on the suffering and death of the one being worshiped. However, a Jesus like this which denies the central tenet of the incarnation and the horror of the cross, as far as Paul is concerned, is a false Christianity.

or if you receive a different spirit from the one you received, or a different gospel from the one you accepted,

The words "Jesus," "spirit," and "gospel" surprisingly form a unique combination in the NT, especially linked with "receive" (lambavnw, lambanô) and "accept" (devcomai, dechomai ). The word "accept" usually links with "the word," as in Luke 8:13; Acts 17:11; 1 Thess 1:6 and James 1:2. It makes sense that they rise and fall together. Yet, the fact that "Jesus" is listed first suggests the true notion that the preaching of a different Jesus necessarily will create both a different spirit and a different gospel. This is self-evident since the center of the gospel is the message of Jesus Christ and the salvation that can be found in him. Any "gospel" which distorts this or minimizes him certainly is not Christianity. This is true whether the distortion involves a sanitized Jesus that does not suffer on the cross as suggested here, or any other modern distortion of Jesus.

How "spirit" relates to the other two begins with the matter of how the word should be taken here. Most translations (NASB, KJV, NAB, JB, RSV, NRSV) agree with the lower case translation of the NIV, while only the LB and NLT make it upper case. Interpreters divide on this as well. The lower case seems most appropriate because it is inconceivable that Paul could even consider a different Holy Spirit existing, much less being passed on in the context of a false gospel. By a lower case "spirit," he may have in mind some kind of bad attitude, perhaps arrogant, authoritative, or ecstatic. If personalized at all, most likely he would intend, then, the spirit of Satan which Paul associates with his opponents in 11:13-14.

Even though the word "spirit" only appears once in the Greek, the NEB and TEV probably have the right idea by translating it twice, in the first instance as lower case, referring to the inferior "spirit" of Paul's opponents, and then again as upper case, referring to the true Spirit the Corinthian Christians received when they first accepted the gospel and were baptized. To receive another gospel, as far as Paul is concerned, also eradicates the power of the true Spirit in the lives of the Corinthians.

The only other place Paul uses the term "different gospel" is in Gal 1:6 in reference to the Judaizers who disrupted the Galatian churches with a false message of Jewish legalism. This may mean that Paul's opponents in Corinth were of the same ilk, essentially Judaizers with a few new wrinkles. However, the fact that Paul never brings up circumcision and the law in 2 Corinthians must not be overlooked in holding such a view. Yet another mutation of the gospel could be taking place in Corinth altogether different from Galatia. It could even be an offshoot of the same group still claiming official Jerusalem credentials but now with a message which has transmuted yet again since the Galatian situation, adding more disruptive Hellenistic permutations.

you put up with it easily enough.

Paul's tone is sarcastic. He deliberately reuses the verb "put up with" (ajnevcw, anechô) which began the paragraph in 11:1. He does this to pick up the tenor of his opening appeal for the Corinthians to "put up with" or "bear with" him in the foolish boasting which he is about to do. Since they are even now allowing themselves to be influenced by people spreading a false gospel - they can put up with it - surely they will indulge him in his representation of the true gospel. The tragedy is that they are not even resisting this false gospel. This is even more clearly indicated by the adverb "easy enough" (kalw'", kalôs) Paul adds to the verb. This word means "well" or even "beautifully." The Corinthians are bearing with the false gospel beautifully, meaning, they are lapping it up.

11:5 But I do not think I am in the least inferior to those "super-apostles."

That the outsiders have set their sights on lowering the Corinthians' esteem, for Paul, particularly as a legitimate apostle, fueled much of Paul's defense beginning in 2 Cor 3:1. His waving off the need for a letter of recommendation could only occur as a response to others with letters of some sort who are claiming a greater apostolic pedigree than Paul's. The center of their attack on Paul's gospel continues to be his lack of bona fide credentials, not being one of the original Twelve apostles. On the other hand, it appears they themselves have letters, probably at least from the Jerusalem church if not from one of the Twelve. Where or when they got them does not matter to Paul. Even if the credentials are genuine, they are being misused now to subvert the true gospel.

Some suggest that by "super-apostles" Paul refers directly to the three apostles he called "pillars" in Gal 2:9, Peter, James, and John. The point, then, is that he considers himself equal to them in his apostolic calling. However, to read it like this is to introduce a foreign element into the context. Second Corinthians 11:4 indicates that Paul is dealing with those who have come into the Corinthian situation from outside. Most likely they claim to be superior to Paul, so Paul sarcastically calls them "super-apostles." So, the NIV is quite right to put this word in quotation marks to indicate this. At the conclusion of his "boasting" speech, in 2 Cor 12:11, he will once again affirm that these so-called "super-apostles" are not superior to him. Really, they are not apostles at all, despite their claims, as he says in 11:13-14. How can they be if the gospel they preach is not the true gospel?

11:6 I may not be a trained speaker, but I do have knowledge.

The NIV's "speaker" (lovgo", logos ) literally is "the word." He is not admitting any lack of scriptural knowledge but rather an insufficiency in his rhetorical ability, his spoken word. The NIV's "not trained" (ijdiwvth", idiôtçs) refers to someone who has not had formal instruction in whatever subject or skill is at hand. In this case, it refers to Paul's lack of formal rhetorical training particularly when compared to his rival "apostles" in Corinth.

This harkens back to the criticism Paul acknowledges back in 10:10. There, he also seems to acknowledge a certain validity to the criticism. Paul may be trained exquisitely as a Jewish rabbi, and he may have received a good Greek education growing up in Tarsus as a Hellenistic Jew. However, this is not the same as having formal, advanced mentoring in the rhetorical arts. Since high proficiency in speech was prized and admired in Greek culture, it could well be that his opponents in Corinth are capable of impressing the church in these ways. The Corinthians might easily be persuaded that excellence in rhetorical form is an apostolic requisite and find Paul lacking in comparison to these Christian representatives among them now.

It is suggested that Paul may still be ironic here and only voicing a criticism from his opponents which he feels is invalid. This is possible since Paul's letters do portray considerable rhetorical flair. However, valid or not, Paul does not seem to be interested much in rhetorical wisdom, as he voices in 1 Cor 1:18-2:16. Rather, he claims the mantle of "knowledge" as the true trophy of superiority, and the incontrovertible mark of true apostleship.

It is unlikely that by "knowledge" (gnw'si", gnôsis) Paul means just that he is smart from a human perspective or that he is a walking encyclopedia. Knowledge like that, Paul usually views negatively. It "puffs up," he says in 1 Cor 8:1, is "vastly inferior to love," he says in 1 Cor 13:8. Rather, special knowledge that comes from God is more likely in his mind. This kind of knowledge, he says in 2 Cor 2:14, is the fragrance apostles spread everywhere, and is "the knowledge of the glory in the face of Christ," he says in 2 Cor 4:6. It is this knowledge of God which Paul in 2 Cor 10:5 says is besieged by human "arguments and pretension," which Paul wields to "demolish arguments" and "take captive every thought to make it obedient to Christ."

Interpreters suggest "knowledge" here centers in "deep spiritual insight," "insight into the mystery of the gospel," the claim "to know God personally and truly," an understanding of the truths of the gospel and insight into God's purposes," "knowledge of God and his Gospel," "'Jesus' and 'the gospel,'" and the ability to "distinguish the genuine and the spurious gospel." Note that the common factor in all but one of these interpretations is the gospel. This must be in the foreground of Paul's thoughts since he is contending with those whom he believes have brought a false gospel into Corinth and, unfortunately, have had some success with it.

Regardless, of rhetorical ability - and Paul probably has more training in this regard than any of the Twelve - authoritative knowledge of what the true gospel message entails is what sets true apostles apart from all others. Eyewitnesses of Christ's resurrection, understanding his victory over death and sin, knowledge of the horrors of Christ's sacrifice on the cross for humanity's sin, humility in the knowledge of God's grace which brings everything to pass - these things set true apostles apart in their knowledge. This kind of apostolic knowledge Paul emphatically claims for himself. In so doing, he denies it to his Corinthian opponents. Let them claim rhetoric. It is nothing. Divinely enhanced knowledge and understanding of the gospel is the only knowledge that really matters. Only this knowledge can save the world from God's judgment.

We have made this perfectly clear to you in every way.

The participle translated as a verb, "made clear" (fanerovw, phaneroô) is used for its ninth and last time in 2 Corinthians. It suggests that something becomes visible which could not be seen previously. Paul emphasizes the reality of this in the Greek by including the word "all" (pa'", pas ) in two prepositional phrases, first in the plural, "in all things" (translated as "perfectly" by the NIV) and in the singular, "in every way."

Paul believes, given his long personal history with the Corinthians, not only in bringing the gospel to them initially and living with them for 18 months "teaching them the word of God" (Acts 18:11) but through subsequent contact as well, that they know him well and have seen his knowledge of the gospel displayed in its powerful effect over and over again. Indeed, this is what baffles him. After seeing the genuine gospel displayed so consistently, how can even a minority of them be so easily attracted to what Paul observes to be a patently false gospel?

2. No Money Accepted (11:7-12)

11:7 Was it a sin for me to lower myself in order to elevate you by preaching the gospel of God to you free of charge?

Having contrasted his emphasis on true gospel content in his message as opposed to his rivals who magnify only themselves in their concentration on mesmerizing style, Paul now contrasts their approaches to money. While Paul has not accepted any money from the Corinthians, it appears that the so-called super-apostles have. In fact, like traveling Sophist teachers in the Greek world, these people seem to have believed that the value of their message was determined by the amount of compensation they received for delivering it. Paul believed it was critical for people to recognize that the gospel cannot be bought any more than it can be earned. It comes freely out of God's grace. However, while Paul expected the Corinthians to appreciate his self-sacrifice for them, Paul's rivals have been able to use this feature of Paul's ministry to their advantage, especially with those who hold the common Greek view.

Paul has dealt with this issue of monetary compensation before. In 1 Cor 9:1-18 he enthusiastically defends the right of other apostles and Christian workers to be supported by churches benefiting from their efforts. Yet, in the same breath he defends his right not to exercise this right so that he can offer the gospel free of charge. Given his bold sentiments on the matter, it seems hypocritical for him to receive financial support from the Macedonians, mentioned in 11:9 but also confirmed by Phil 4:15-16. Most likely his actual policy was to accept monetary support from congregations after he had left them to bring the gospel to new people and places but not while he was with them.

While the word for "sin" (aJmartiva, hamartia ) can refer to a "mistake" rather than a culpable sin, it is better to recognize the sarcastic tone of Paul once again. Thus, he asks the question with its gravest implications but believes what he has done is really the opposite of sin. Some in Corinth may have called Paul's refusal of payment a sin against them in the sense that he dishonored them by not accepting money that was offered.

Not only did Paul dishonor the wealthier Corinthians by not accepting their money, he aggravated the situation by actually working at a menial trade in the marketplace. Those of the upper class, instilled with Aristotle's disdain for manual labor, believed Paul humiliated himself and demeaned the gospel by this practice. He also embarrassed and insulted them in doing this. Learning a self-supporting skill was expected of a rabbi like Paul from his Jewish context. Yet, his considerable Greek background may have caused uneasiness even in himself in working beneath his social station.

The word "lower" (tapeinovw, tapeinoô) is usually translated as "humble" in its 13 other uses in the NT. It can refer to anything that is low, either of place (lying low), status, or rank. Normally it is taken as a moral and spiritual positive, juxtaposed with "being exalted," as in "he who humbles himself will be exalted" (Matt 23:12; Luke 14:11; 18:14; Jas 4:10). Paul puts a twist on it as he speaks of his lowering accomplishing the exaltation of others, the Corinthians. However, the fact that it turns out positively does not mean he does not feel the pangs of humiliation in working his trade while preaching the gospel.

Paul's trade skill, as indicated by Acts 18:3, was making tents. This could refer to work with leather or more likely with goats'-hair cloth, the latter a specialty of his home area of Cilicia. As well as material for tents, this cloth was used for making curtains, cloaks, and other articles which needed to be rain-resistant.

Paul usually speaks of the gospel as being "of Christ" (2:12; 9:13; 10:14), meaning Christ is what it is about. As here, he does occasionally refer to it as "of God" (Rom 1:1; 15:16; 1 Thess 2:2,8,9), emphasizing its origin as being in the character of God. The following qualification that the gospel was free to the Corinthians probably influenced Paul to implicate God's grace rather than Christ's work.

11:8 I robbed other churches by receiving support from them so as to serve you.

Once again Paul employs words with a history of war application. The word "robbed," used only here in all the NT, can refer to stripping the equipment from a slain combatant and also to pillaging a conquered village. The latter would seem more to Paul's mind as he sarcastically puts in the worst possible light the help sent to him by other churches while he labored in Corinth. The word "support" can refer to provisions or wages for an army on the move. This also fits with Paul's image of himself going from place to place conquering people with the power of the gospel message.

Taking Paul's language as sarcastic helps the reader realize that Paul fully appreciates those who have supported him. They have sacrificed willingly - right down to the bone - not just for him but ultimately for the sake of the Corinthians who became believers. Will the Corinthians disdain the self-sacrifice of others for their eternal welfare? The very fact that Corinthians benefited from all this should indicate to them that the sacrifice of others was worth it and that Paul's refusing money from them was for the best.

11:9 And when I was with you and needed something, I was not a burden to anyone,

Paul refers primarily to his initial visit to Corinth during the second missionary tour, described in Acts 18:1-17, when he stayed with them for eighteen months. The NIV "needed something" translates a Greek word (uJsterevw, hystereô) which indicates to be short, either in distance ("be behind"), in time ("come late"), in accomplishment ("fail"), or, as here, in basic human provision. When Paul ran short of funds for food or other necessities, he never asked a dime from the Corinthians. He does not say this to make the Corinthians feel guilty. On the contrary, he seeks their own verification that he stuck to his principles of not accepting money from people he sought to convert.

The verb "burden" (katanarkevw, katanarkeô), related to the English word "narcotics," can have a medical reference to make someone numb or stupefied. Used only here and in 2 Cor 12:13 and 12:14, the idea is more general in the sense of harming someone or being detrimental to their health. Paul chose not in any way to endanger the livelihood of the Corinthians as he preached the gospel to them, even if his own livelihood was left endangered, by being dependent on the demand for cilicium cloth and unsolicited help from other churches. Again, this was his choice in order to keep the Corinthians fertile recipients of the free gospel.

for the brothers who came from Macedonia supplied what I needed.

Acts 18:5 says, "When Silas and Timothy came from Macedonia, Paul devoted himself exclusively to preaching," whereas previous to their coming he worked as a tentmaker with Priscilla and Aquila and spoke in the synagogue on the Sabbath (Acts 18:3-4). This suggests that it is Silas and Timothy, and perhaps unnamed Macedonians with them, that Paul has in mind here in 2 Cor 11:9. Their generous provisions allowed him to stop tentmaking and give himself to the work of the gospel every day.

I have kept myself from being a burden to you in any way, and will continue to do so.

Paul emphasizes that he has remained true to his principle of not accepting money or other support from the Corinthians. Presumably, Paul means that he has maintained this principle even after leaving Corinth to evangelize other areas and that he has no plans to change this stance in the future. Yet, in these very circumstances he did accept help from the Macedonians and probably other churches as well. Why is he so firmly entrenched with regard to the Corinthians? It may simply be that the continuing presence of the apostolic rivals who do accept money - maybe even demand it - compels Paul not to budge. This special circumstance makes the Corinthians a unique case for not accepting help even after going elsewhere.

Another concern may be the collection. Very likely Paul does not want anything to take away from the Corinthians finalizing a generous offering for the Jerusalem Christians.

Another reason Paul refuses to ever accept money from the Corinthians may have to do with the influence on them of the Greek social convention regarding benefactors and clients. Affluent Greeks frequently were benefactors of civic enterprises and buildings. For this, they expected favors. The same principle applied if they were benefactors of artists or philosophers. There is every reason to believe such ideas were firmly entrenched in Corinth. If so, then Paul likely refuses money from the Corinthians for fear of becoming obligated to them. As a minister of the gospel, commissioned by Christ, he could not become their client. Rather, he saw himself as their benefactor, bringing them the gospel. If they have any obligation, then, it is to Paul, but especially to the Lord.

11:10 As surely as the truth of Christ is in me, nobody in the regions of Achaia will stop this boasting of mine.

Paul's opening oath formula signals that he feels it is essential to impress upon the Corinthians that he will never ever take their money. His position on this with regard to them is permanent, no matter how often they shove money under his nose. This suggests that Paul's problem goes deeper than the rivals or the collection and has more to do with their socially-embedded attitudes regarding benefactors and clients discussed above.

It is noteworthy that Paul employs supportive oath formulas more often in 2 Corinthians than in any other of his epistles. This is just one of six, others being in 1:18,23; 2:10; 11:11,31. Outside of 2 Corinthians, Paul uses oath formulas in Rom 1:9; 9:1; Gal 1:20; Phil 1:18; and 1 Thess 2:5,10. His formula "I speak the truth in Christ" in Rom 9:1 most closely resembles the words here in 11:10. This large volume of oaths may reflect the more highly rhetorical character of 2 Corinthians. It may also indicate Paul's insecure feelings about his relationship with the Corinthians. Underscoring his most heartfelt statements with supportive oaths helps cry out for the Corinthians' attention to his concerns.

Paul's reference to "regions of Achaia" serves as a reminder that he includes Christian congregations surrounding Corinth as the audience for 2 Corinthians. This he states directly in 2 Cor 1:1 and suggests in 2 Cor 9:2. Only the church in Cenchrea, a few miles from Corinth, is known from NT evidence. Phoebe, the bearer of Romans, is from Cenchrea (Rom 16:1). Other churches must have been planted in the area that simply do not register on NT records. The word "regions" (klivma, klima ) is interesting because it originates as a geographical zone, coming into English as "climate."

Paul's mention of "boasting" (kauvchsi", kauchçsis) suggests that he has not forgotten that his actions are being compared to his rivals in Corinth and that he is in the midst (begun in 2 Corinthians 10) of mustering up his daring to "boast" if he must. One of his "boasts," or signal differences from his rivals, involves the issue of money. He doesn't take any money from the Corinthians while his rivals do. This, he believes, should be in his favor. Furthermore, it is an important matter of principle for Paul. Early on in his relationship with the Corinthians, he silently sacrificed his time through working his trade among them. He feels really good about that choice and believes any shift from it would compromise his integrity with them and with himself. This self-sacrifice becomes increasingly important to maintain with respect to the Corinthians as they insist more and more on financially supporting Paul.

The verb translated "will stop" (fravssw, phrassô) is only used here and in two other places in the NT. The other references involve the shutting of mouths, of people (Rom 3:19) and of lions (Heb 11:33). The word usually assumes that something is being blocked from proceeding, as a dam does to a river, a barricade to travelers on a road, a shield to arrows, or a fence to those seeking to cross a field. In the case of mouths, the image suggests clenched teeth as barricading the flow of human speech and rendering the danger of lions harmless. In Paul's case in this verse he defiantly announces that his mouth cannot and will not be shut regarding his commitment to refuse support from the Corinthians. He strongly implies it is his clear understanding that this is what God wants in Paul's relationship to them.

11:11 Why? Because I do not love you? God knows I do!

Paul's denial suggests that at least some of the Corinthians have felt injured by Paul's refusal to accept their money. Perhaps this reaction has been egged on by Paul's opponents. If they have been affronted by his refusal to take their money, it only demonstrates further that they are being affected by the social conventions of their Greek culture regarding benefactors (discussed in 11:9 above).

The emotional nature of Paul's declaration of love for the Corinthians is deepened by the oath formula which follows. Paul's concern to convey his love for them is emphasized also in 2 Cor 2:4; 7:3; 8:7; and 12:15. Their insecurity in this regard and Paul's own insecurity about their love for him demonstrates the tenuousness of the relationship all round. Paul's arduous efforts to bridge the emotional gap are critical for the survival of genuine Christianity in Corinth.

In many ways, this kind of emotional to and fro between Paul and the Corinthian church typifies the difficulties between contemporary ministers and their congregations as well. Paul's capacity to express his love for this church despite all the problems models what all successful ministers must be able to do. Such love isn't necessarily simply caving in to situations in the congregation but must at times involve confrontation on both sides.

11:12 And I will keep on doing what I am doing in order to cut the ground from under those who want an opportunity to be considered equal with us in the things they boast about.

Many Bible versions begin a new paragraph with this verse (RSV, TEV, NEB, NRSV, and NLT). Although the reference to Paul's opponents in the latter part of the verse does lead into a fuller depiction of them in 11:13-15, the front part of the verse clearly fits with the topic of 11:7-11, Paul's reflections on refusing money from the Corinthians as a stance for "boasting." The NIV's decision on this seems best.

The language of "doing" seems a bit odd since it is what Paul is expressly not doing that fosters the whole debate. It does, however, help dramatize the determined effort involved on Paul's part to continue to refuse Corinthian financial support. Perhaps certain wealthier members of the Corinthian fellowship continue to offer him money despite his stated position.

Not only does he feel convicted about his position; he believes it puts him on higher ground than his opponents. As they try to convince the Corinthian Christians that they are every bit as much the apostles that Paul is, and more, their acceptance of payment from the Corinthians stands in stark contrast to Paul who accepts none. Paul believes his position on this enables him to "cut the ground from under" them, the Greek verb (ejkkovptw, ekkoptô) meaning "cut off," "cut out," or "cut down."

This word fits well with its object in the verse, "opportunity" (ajformhv, aphormç), since the latter is often associated with the base of operations for a war or even the resources for a war. Paul's encounter with his opponents in Corinth is warlike, and he believes his position on refusing money from the Corinthians weakens his enemies' claim to be apostles and in the long run will undermine their entire operation to oust Paul from his influential role in the Corinthian church.

It's as if Paul lays down the gauntlet to his opponents. If they wish to be viewed even on an equal footing with Paul, they will have to begin refusing money as Paul does. Paul banks on the fact that their avarice will never allow them to do this and that this will eventually lead to their undoing in Corinth. Do they believe in their "gospel" enough to preach it for free? If not, perhaps they are there just for the money and will be observed by the Corinthians to be every bit the rogues Paul believes they are.

The NIV's "equal" is well justified but does not rest on just one word. The idea comes from three words which literally read "just as also we" (kaqw'" kaiÉ hJmei", kathôs kai hçmeis). The whole expression suggests that despite all their boasting about being legitimate apostles, Paul's opponents in Corinth are obliged to use Paul as their measure of comparison since he is the only other apostle the Corinthians know. Paul presses this to his advantage. Let these so-called apostles put their money where their mouth is and measure up to Paul in refusing Corinthian money.

3. The False Apostles Serve Satan (11:13-15)

11:13 For such men are false apostles, deceitful workmen,

Having set himself apart from his Corinthian rivals on the basis of the true gospel he preaches and his self-sacrificing refusal to accept money from the Corinthians, Paul's invective against the impostors reaches fever pitch in these three short verses. Nowhere else in all his letters does he compact such stark denunciation of opponents into so few words. The fact that these Corinthian opponents would consider themselves not just apostles but committed Christian believers doing the Lord's work makes Paul's sinister depiction of them disturbing. Are they consciously disguising themselves, or are they unaware that Satan is their bedfellow? Can Satan use well-intentioned Christians to do his dirty work? This passage suggests that he can and does.

Nowhere else in all the NT is anyone called a "false apostle" (yeudapovstolo", pseudapostolos ), making it a likely suggestion that Paul has coined the term himself especially for this occasion of branding his opponents in Corinth. Warnings against "false prophets" come from the lips of Jesus in the gospels (Matt 7:15; 24:11,24; Mark 13:22; Luke 6:26) and elsewhere (2 Pet 2:1; 1 John 4:1). "The false prophet" figures prominently in Rev 16:13; 19:20; and 20:10. In the gospels Jesus also warns of "false Christs" (Matt 24:24; Mark 13:22). First John 2:18,22; 4:3 and 2 John 1:7 speak of "anti-Christs."

In calling his opponents in Corinth "false apostles," Paul could simply be condemning the message they bring as false without including a slam on their personal character. However, the images of deliberate dishonesty and Satanic influence which follow rule out any possibility of innocence or naοvety on their part from Paul's perspective.

The term "workmen" (ejrgavth", ergatçs) in the NT has a specific connection to missionary service as in Matt 9:37-38 where Jesus notably laments the harvest of people overwhelming the few "workers" to gather them in and in Matt 10:10 where he commissions the Twelve to go out as "workers." In 1 Tim 5:18 elders are also referred to as "workers." "Deceitful" (dovlio", dolios ) suggests his rivals' sinister motives. The adjective itself, only used here in all the NT, derives from the word "cunning" (dovlo", dolos ) which can refer to bait for catching fish. In using it, Paul deflects onto his opponents an accusation they have made about him (12:16).

Specifically, labeling his opponents "deceitful workers" in Paul's mind probably is rooted in his comments in 10:12-18. Thus, it likely connects to misusing whatever commission they may say they have received from Jerusalem apostles in order to invade Gentile territory Paul has staked out under his commission from the Lord (Acts 9:15) and from the apostolic council (Acts 15).

masquerading as apostles of Christ.

"Apostles of Christ" is no doubt what Paul's opponents call themselves. However, Paul believes this is no more than a costume or a mask covering their true identity and the one for whom they really work. The NIV's "masquerading" is an excellent rendition of the Greek participle. The verb on which it is built (metaschmativzw, metaschçmatizô) is rare in the NT but its repetition is a key linking the next three verses. Literally, it means to "change form," stressing an alteration of outward appearance. Phil 3:21 uses it to talk of the transformation of believers from their lowly bodies to those like the glorious body of Christ.

In this passage, it has more to do with concealing sinister motives behind friendly appearances. Paul's rivals may talk and look like true and even superior apostles to Paul, but this veneer conceals an evil plot to snatch the naοve Corinthians away from the truth and away from Paul, their apostle truly sent by Christ to them. To Paul the crack in this veneer is only too obvious as he has pointed out since 10:7: the self-praise, the encroachment on his territory, the vain elegance of their speech, and their hands held out for Corinthian money. He hopes the conclusion so obvious to him is becoming clear to all the Corinthians as well. The claims of these men are bogus and their impact dangerous.

11:14 And no wonder, for Satan himself masquerades as an angel of light.

Paul's assigning of a role for Satan in the current problems at Corinth was previously suggested in 2 Cor 2:11. Now, however, he begins to connect Satan specifically with the false apostles. The word "wonder" (qau'ma, thauma ), only used elsewhere in Rev 17:6, refers to marveling as the uninitiated crowd might to a juggler's or a magician's tricks. The sinister masquerade of the false apostles should be no marvel because of who they are associated with.

Nowhere else is Satan described precisely as a false "angel of light." Isaiah 14:12-14, often taken as a secondary reference to him, however, refers to the "morning star" and "son of dawn" who sought to usurp God and place his throne "above the stars of God." In Jewish literature outside the Bible, he is said to have "transformed himself into the brightness of angels" and even to have sung like an angel as a crucial disguise to deceive Eve. Paul previously in 11:3 connected the false apostles' influence on the Corinthians to the wily serpent's bad influence on Eve.

11:15 It is not surprising, then, if his servants masquerade as servants of righteousness.

Without the least hesitation, Paul links the rival "apostles" in Corinth to the enterprise of Satan, the cosmic enemy of Christ and his church. Their modus operandi is deception just like the one for whom they work. They masquerade as apostles, all too easily duping vulnerable Corinthian believers. Perhaps they dupe even themselves. Do they know they are working for Satan? We cannot know from this historical distance. However, that does not matter to Paul. His concern is with the Lord's sheep who are being lead astray. Whether his rivals recognize their duplicity with Satan or not, Paul's immediate concern is to quash their harmful influence.

Just like "masquerade" and "deception" are words which are readily associated with Satan, "servant" (diavkono", diakonos ) and "righteousness" (dikaiosuvnh, dikaiosynç) orbit in the sphere of God. Paul has already identified himself and other true apostles as "servants of God" (6:4) or as "servants of a new covenant" (3:6). He has spoken of his "ministry" (diakoniva, diakonia ) as that which "brings righteousness" (3:9) and "reconciliation" (5:18). "Righteousness" comes only from God (9:9) and is spread through the ministry of the gospel of Christ. Most likely, the false apostles do not necessarily refer to themselves as "servants of righteousness" as they do "apostles of Christ." Rather, these are Paul's peculiar terms which he equates with being true apostles of Christ. His rivals, despite appearances, are rather the antipathy of Paul's ideal.

Their end will be what their actions deserve.

Paul can associate the "end" (tevlo", telos ) with the ultimate judgment and condemnation of evildoers by God (Phil 3:19; 1 Thess 2:16) as he does here. However, he can also use the word to refer to the positive assessment of God on the righteous (Rom 6:22) or even to "the end" neutrally (1 Cor 1:18; 10:11; 15:24). No doubt, Paul expects the "end" of these false apostles working for Satan against Christ's church in Corinth to be personal condemnation.

Literally, Paul says "the end of them will be according to their work." The word "work" (e[rgon, ergon ) matches up with "workmen" (ergavth", ergatçs) in 11:12. Having already labeled what kind of workmen they are, "deceitful," what kind of "work" they do has been demonstrated by their actions. They are taking believers away from the fold of God. No worse work is possible than to neutralize someone else's eternal salvation. Paul leaves no doubt about their fate in God's hands of judgment or anyone else who leads believers astray.

As one wise commentator has noted, while Paul's extreme language against his rivals in Corinth has often been resurrected in the history of Christian doctrinal disputes and even local church splits, those of us in the contemporary church should be extremely hesitant to employ such vitriolic language. We are not in Paul's unique position with God. Rather, it's better for us to presume the sincerity of positions held by fellow believers and attempt to enter into positive dialogue anchored in the exegesis of Scripture. Perhaps Paul would have even done this with his rivals had he been personally present in Corinth. At a distance, and in writing, however, his only concern was to save the sheep, not the false shepherds.

C. BOASTING AS A "FOOL" (11:16-33)

1. Rationale Provided (11:16-21a)

11:16 I repeat: Let no one take me for a fool.

Paul recognizes he has diverted from his main theme in defending his policy toward Corinthian money (11:7-11) and in revealing the true identity of his opponents in Corinth (11:12-15). He gets himself back on track by reintroducing the banner he feels best categorizes the way he feels about what he is going to say. In 11:1, he called it "foolishness." Here, his fear of actually being thought "a fool" in the "foolishness" on which he is about to embark comes to the surface as he starts up his main focus once again.

It is important not to intermingle a more contemporary English idea of a fool in understanding the word "fool." It does not mean someone who is not very smart, nor does it have in mind a circus clown act or a court jester. Rather, it refers to someone who has lost his senses in relation to himself. A "fool" is out of touch with reality in either overestimating or underestimating the measure of himself. Paul does not want to be thought a fool in the sense of baseless boasting even though he feels foolish in attempting to quantify his apostolic credentials. He will risk it, however, out of his love for the Corinthians. If they need to take the measure of him over against his opponents in order to be convinced of his superior credentials, he will do it.

But if you do, then receive me just as you would a fool, so that I may do a little boasting.

The opening expression in Greek raises some complicated logic. The NIV's "but if you do" tries to smooth this out, but it should be noted that Paul's conditional statement is actually negated. What he says is "but if otherwise" or "but if you won't." What Paul seems to mean is that if no one considers him a fool for the boasting he is about to do, that's exactly what he wants. Let the Corinthians, then, allow him to play the role of a fool but understand it is only a part, as a character in a play. He will try this role on for their sakes, but it is not really him. In himself, he does not identify with this boastful activity of his character, as he forcefully stated in 10:12-18. They must not forget this as his character's monologue unfolds.

The adjective "little" preceding "boasting" should not be taken literally in this context. It is not that he has succumbed to do just a little real boasting to appease the Corinthians. Rather, it coordinates with the acting role he considers himself taking on, as one might try on the character of a play a little in order to try out for the part, deliver a few lines, sing a few bars. Paul's "boasting," then, is no more than a tool to enable the Corinthians to discover for themselves Paul's opponents revealed as phonies.

11:17 In this self-confident boasting I am not talking as the Lord would, but as a fool.

The word translated "self-confident" (uJpovstasi", hypostasis ) refers literally to that which settles at the bottom, or sediment, with the derived implication of something which is solidly supported. This idea matches his desire not to be out of line, or "a fool" (as noted in 11:16) in his "boasting" of himself. It is possible, though, that the word has a more general meaning of "undertaking" or "job" with which many commentators cautiously align themselves. Thus, Paul would be referring to "this business, or undertaking of boasting."

Paul's reference to the Lord demonstrates his embarrassment in all this. What he is about to do goes against what Paul understands as any kind of proper Christian boasting. That, he himself said in 10:17, should be "in the Lord." It should recognize no accomplishments in ministry as worthy of self-praise but only of the Lord's praise. However, Paul reminds the Corinthians once again that he is only playing the part of a fool. He disassociates himself personally from it because he does not morally approve of it.

11:18 Since many are boasting in the way the world does, I too will boast.

"Many" should not be taken as "most." Paul does not mean most of the Corinthians but all the false apostles in their midst. The term indicates that a substantial band of people make up this opposition group. The word "world" (savrx, sarx , actually "flesh") contains a sharp tone of disapproval. Paul has consistently used the word in antithesis to godly conduct in 2 Corinthians (1:17; 5:16; 10:2,3). Here, it stands as the opposite of boasting in the Lord. It is self-praise which focuses on externals which Paul has already indicated in 5:12 as characteristic of his rivals.

What is shocking is that Paul feels compelled to compete at the worldly level of his opponents in order to break the spell they seem to have over a number of the Corinthians. Essentially, he is announcing his determination to take the gloves off and fight at their level, even against his own spiritual scruples. This is the extent to which he is willing to go to win all the Corinthians back. It is an extraordinary demonstration of his love for them.

11:19 You gladly put up with fools since you are so wise!

The oft-repeated pejorative aphorism "suffer fools gladly" comes from the KJV rendering of the first half of this verse. Paul, of course, says it as a biting criticism of the Corinthians. "Fools" refers to Paul's rivals and their worldly manner of seeking to impress the Corinthians. A good portion of the Corinthians - enough, anyway, to warrant this letter - have been thoroughly taken in and continue to be so gullible, with no misgivings at all about these rivals, who are so obviously impostors from Paul's point of view. This is what terrifies Paul the most about this whole situation. But he will play the fool if need be to get their attention.

Calling these gullible Corinthians "wise" is scathingly sarcastic. They, of course, are the fools who are embracing fools so heartily. Thus, Paul's logic to play the fool as he is determined to do is not really so far-fetched. This is the language which communicates to them.

11:20 In fact, you even put up with anyone who enslaves you or exploits you or takes advantage of you or pushes himself forward or slaps you in the face.

The controlling verb, "put up with" (ajnevcomai, anechomai ), is a key word in 2 Corinthians 11, falling behind only "fool" and "foolish" in its importance. Not only is it used in this verse and in the previous one, Paul opens the chapter with it in 11:1 when he asks the Corinthians to "put up with a little foolishness" of his since they are so good at it with his rivals. Not so jokingly, in 11:4 he accuses the Corinthians of "putting up with" a false gospel. Now, he charges the Corinthians with being dangerously tolerant in many other ways. He pictures them as ridiculously benign in the face of a tyrant who has moved into their own house and taken over. Paul wishes to embolden them to throw the tyrant out. At the least, despite taking the low road of the fool like his rivals, he has not and will not abuse the Corinthians as they have.

The word "anyone" especially includes the false apostles. However, Paul continues to accentuate the Corinthians' gullibility in general which this situation only makes all too clear. Although understandably erased in translation, the word "anyone," preceded by the Greek word "if" (eij, ei ), rendered as "even" in the NIV, repeats in front of all five of the deprecating verbs which list the false apostles' abuses against the hapless Corinthians. This dramatizes even further the errors of the Corinthians as they hear the word "anyone" over and over each time.

Each of the five verbs can have literal applications. One commentator punctuates this point by turning each one into a descriptor of the false apostles: "slavers, gluttons, pocket-stuffers, swaggerers, and face-slappers." However, the major concern is to discern how Paul intended words to apply specifically to the Corinthian situation. Most likely, Paul envisages nonliteral understandings of these words. The Corinthians aren't literally slaves of the false apostles, but their tyrannical presence has solicited an unbelievable passivity to their ideas and demands.

Some suggest Paul's leading verb, "enslaves" (katadoulovw, katadouloô) refers to their introduction of Jewish legalism into the Corinthian scene. It is true that the only other NT use of this verb is in Gal 2:4 in which this is indisputably Paul's concern. When teamed with the fact that the only other use of "different gospel" other than in 2 Cor 11:4 is Gal 1:6, the point is well taken, even if Paul says nothing directly against Jewish law or circumcision in 2 Corinthians. However, even if Jewish legalism is a component in the Corinthian controversy, the situation seems to be more complicated than Galatians, as discussed in the Introduction.

The word "exploits" (katesqivw, katesthiô) usually refers to the animal kingdom in which certain species prey upon and consume other species. Birds are pictured as eating up all the seed that fell on the path in Jesus' Parable of the Sower (Matt 13:4; Mark 4:4; Luke 8:5). Yet, he also characterizes Jewish lawyers as devouring the houses of defenseless widows (Mark 12:40; Luke 20:47). Paul can even talk of rival factions in the church devouring one another (Gal 5:15). Here, the NIV correctly describes the false apostles as mooching off the starstruck Corinthians. This most likely not only includes being hosted for too long in their homes to the point of becoming a hardship but also their demand for payment for their "apostolic" teaching in the church. Paul distanced himself from this all too common exploitive activity in 11:7-12.

Normally, the verb translated "takes advantage of you" (lambavnw, lambanô) is more tame and neutral, simply "receive" or "take." It can be used in hunting or fishing situations in the sense of using the trickery of bait to catch or entrap the unwary fish or fowl. Here, the emphasis may still be on the Corinthians' polite hospitality toward the false apostles, but it probably also notes the naοve simpletons the Corinthians have allowed themselves to be in relation to these adept tricksters.

Again, the verb translated "pushes himself forward" (ejpaivrw, epairô) normally has a pretty benign sense, "lift up" one's eyes (John 4:35), head (Luke 21:28), hands (1 Tim 2:8), or voice (Acts 2:14). The first three senses often relate to prayer or worship of God. Here and in 2 Cor 10:5 are the only places in the NT which require the negative connotation of this word found often enough in Greek usage outside the NT of "putting on airs," "being presumptuous." These false teachers, Paul believes, have an overly high estimate of themselves that is not realistic. Based on this, they presume positions of authority and leadership over the Corinthian believers which are totally out of bounds.

The most debated word in the list is the last one, "slaps you in the face" (devrw, derô). Every other use of the word in the NT is taken physically and more harshly than "slap." The severe beating of servants (Mark 12:3), the public flogging of criminals, of Christians, and others by government and synagogue authorities (Acts 5:40; 16:37) are standard for this word. The commonness of those socially inferior being beaten by those socially superior in ancient Greek culture, leads some to suspect that Paul believes his opponents are literally beating some of the Corinthians into submission.

However, most likely Paul intends a sense of figurative hyperbole. He wants to jolt the Corinthians into seeing just how badly they are being treated by the false apostles. They're treated like slaves, servants. The NIV's "slap" is not likely intended to be taken literally but rather to suggest the insulting conduct of the false apostles toward the Corinthians.

11:21a To my shame I admit that we were too weak for that!

Virtually all versions and commentaries break this verse in half, viewing this part as a fitting conclusion, reeking with sarcasm, of his rationale for playing the fool for the Corinthians. The second part launches Paul into his fool's "boasting" which he has been leading to since 11:1.

The word "shame" (ajtimiva, atimia ) in Greek simply negates the Greek word for "honor" (timhv, timç). The verb "were weak" (ajsqenevw, astheneô) can mean to be physically ill (Matt 25:36; Jas 5:14) or disabled (John 5:3). It usually implies some sort of vulnerability whether physical, social, or even spiritual. This is the first of seven uses between 11:21 and 13:13. The noun cognate "weakness" (ajsqevneia, astheneia ) occurs an additional six times between 11:30 and 13:4. No other uses of either noun or verb form occur in 2 Corinthians. Clearly, this is a focus word which will frame much of Paul's perspective from this point on.

Paul's biting sarcasm is well reflected in the NIV's exclamation point at the end of the sentence. He is not at all ashamed of not mistreating the Corinthians. It's to his credit compared to his rivals. He is not at all embarrassed about being considered weak by some, most likely his rivals and their followers. What kind of leadership authority does someone really have if it is based on intimidation? It shows strength but not credibility. Such is antithetical to true apostolic authorization from God. What Paul means is that he will gladly have no part in the strong-arm tactics of his rivals, and the Corinthians will be smart to start to see through it as mirrors and smoke.

2. Ancestry and Hardships Listed (11:21b-29)

11:21b What anyone else dares to boast about-I am speaking as a fool-I also dare to boast about.

After much hand-wringing and a few diversions since 11:1, Paul comes to his last few words before launching into his "foolish boasting." That all this is a reaction to the boasting of his adversaries in Corinth is apparent. The word "anyone" has consistently been employed in reference to these adversaries (10:7; 11:20) and is so again here. Strikingly, his last use of the verb "dares to boast" (tolmavw, tolmaô) was in 10:12 where he announced that he wouldn't dare compare himself to his Corinthian adversaries, at least in the way they do it, comparing themselves with themselves. That his statement there is tongue-in-cheek comes out even more clearly now. He will dare to boast, if only to put his adversaries' boasts into meaningful perspective. Let's see how they measure up to a real apostle!

The word "dare to boast" usually just means to dare, take courage, or resolve to do something which would be easier to avoid but which must be done. Underneath its use must be Paul's pounding heart and the emotional trauma of overcoming the easier path of just keeping his mouth shut. His adversaries have already said he was a chicken in these matters (10:2), but he will be silent no longer. He will lay out the information from his personal history to allow them to be compared with him stride for stride and to show that they cannot keep up by half.

Paul interjects into his declared determination to "boast" a word which reflects his continuing emotional turmoil. Calling himself once again a "fool" (ajfrosunhv, aphrosynç) links his thoughts to those in 11:1, where he first labeled what he is about to do as "foolishness."

Despite his qualms, he will push ahead into the most exhaustive autobiographical sketch we have of Paul. Nothing told about him in Acts or anything Paul says elsewhere goes beyond the bounds of what he reveals here.

Though the list is unwieldy in places, it may broadly be grouped as including heritage (11:22), service record (11:23-25), dangers and deprivations (11:26-27), pastoral concerns (11:28), and beyond this section, daring escapades (11:31-33), and ecstatic experiences (12:1-6).

In basic outline, Paul's listing of "achievements" mirrors what is commonly found in Roman imperial res gestae , and interesting comparisons can be made between this list and that of Augustus. Even their purpose of proving a rightful claim over a group of people resonates with Paul's purpose with regard to the Corinthians. Indeed, Paul's rivals may have followed the well-known convention themselves with the same end in mind.

However, Paul's list is filled with hardship, suffering, and what most Greeks would view as failures illustrative of weakness. His list is not boasting; it is antiboasting. As some commentaries correctly observe, it is really a parody of achievement lists because it turns everything inside out. Enduring hardships for the sake of the gospel becomes the "achievements," not the number of churches planted, nor even people converted. Paul expects his adversaries to be mortified by his antilist. They will be the ones left feeling foolish in Paul's wake.

11:22 Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are they Israelites? So am I. Are they Abraham's descendants? So am I.

Paul's three expressions of heritage at first may look like they all say the same thing: he's Jewish (somewhat surprisingly not included). They certainly are intended to have a rhetorical impact, each phrased identically in Greek. Yet, Paul probably has a slightly different emphasis in mind for each.

Identifying himself as Hebrew most likely relies on the fact that he is full-blooded Hebrew, that his primary language was Aramaic (derivative of Hebrew), not Greek (which characterized Hellenistic Jews dispersed around the Mediterranean), and that he grew up in Palestine (despite his connections to Tarsus). In other words, his Hebrew genetic and behavioral influences couldn't be more solid.

Including himself as an Israelite underlines his cultural heritage. He has been raised in the traditional Jewish religious observances and continues to practice them. Because of Paul's continual social contact with Gentiles in his role as evangelist and church planter, most likely out of the three expressions regarding his Jewish heritage, this is the one most under attack by his opponents in Corinth and the one to which he is most vulnerable. How much of the Jewish food and Gentile contact restrictions does he disregard in order to relate to Gentiles in his mission? The news back home in Jerusalem, anyway, according to Acts 21:21, is that Paul's evangelistic activity includes encouraging devout Jews to abandon their cultural heritage in order to become Christians. It is to prove that he lives according to Jewish law and that he encourages other Jews around the world to do so, that he agrees to underwrite the Nazirite vows of four men.

Asserting that his ancestral line can be traced to Abraham says more than that both his parents are Hebrew. It highlights the purity of his genetic stock. His genealogy can be traced to father Abraham. Yet, Paul may mean to move into a more theological arena with this reference since he already emphasized bloodline with "Hebrew." If anything he will later write in Romans is at all in his mind, this is not a difficult conclusion to draw. After all, especially in Romans 4, he details his position that uncircumcised Gentiles who have faith like Abraham are more his true children than circumcised Jews who do not.

Paul's repeated, dramatic response to his own questions, "So am I" (kajgwv, kagô) presumes that his opponents have made all these three claims of fine Jewish heritage for themselves. His assertions, despite what some may be saying about him, are emphatic that he is at least equal to whatever claims they may be making. The natural climax surrounding the third expression and the theological swirl around who is truly descendent from Abraham may be Paul's way of registering a measure of superiority over his rivals, especially if he believes their "apostolic" message is false and their apostolic claims bogus.

11:23 Are they servants of Christ? (I am out of my mind to talk like this.) I am more.

Designating himself a servant of Christ functions in two ways. In one way, it is the fourth, and thereby the most important of the qualifications he began listing in 11:22. Sure, Jewish heritage has its significance. However, what is far more important is being a loyal and true servant of Christ. He particularly has in mind his apostolic calling and his dedication to fulfilling that calling. Although Paul's question may seem to allow for the fact that his opponents are also servants of Christ, he only gives this away for the sake of the question. He has already called them servants of Satan in 11:15. Here, we must assume they call themselves "servants of Christ" but that Paul doesn't really consider them so.

The designation "servant of Christ" also headlines the long, autobiographical list of events which unfolds through 12:10. Fundamentally, he wishes to show by this antiboast list what being a servant of Christ really involves and that his rivals do not fit the description. Presumably, they laud themselves with grandiose lists of self-achievements, not lists of suffering, pain, and heartache, such as this.

When Paul offers the aside of being "out of my mind," this reaction is probably due to two conflicts he is having difficulty holding together. The first, already explained, is that he has just allowed himself to call his opponents servants of Christ for the sake of this discussion. This must strike him nearly as an utterance of profanity against Christ since he is convinced these people are servants of Satan. The second conflict once again is just the idea that he has actually put himself in this position of boasting, even if it is "antiboasting," over against his rivals. He is extremely uncomfortable with this, but he is about to proceed anyway.

The actual Greek word (parafronevw, paraphroneô) is only used here in all the NT. It means to be "beside oneself, or "to set to the side one's good senses," (fronevw, phroneô) meaning "think." Since the word is followed by the word "speak" or "say," (levgw, legô), in current English vernacular, we could translate the two together as "I am talking crazy!"

What clearly sets this fourth designation apart from the first three is Paul's declaration which follows: "I am more." Equality with regard to being a servant of Christ is not sufficient for his purposes. They have tried to diminish his apostolic credibility in the eyes of the Corinthians for the sake of exalting their own. This must be reversed. He wishes the Corinthians to wind up recognizing, as he has, that his opponents are not just lesser servants of Christ, or lesser apostles. By showing that they cannot even stand on the same platform as Paul while claiming they are superior, it is made obvious they are not true servants or apostles at all.

I have worked much harder, been in prison more frequently, flogged more severely, and been exposed to death again and again.

By adding a subject, "I," the NIV has smoothed out what is a series of four bumpy, prepositional phrases with plural objects modified by adverbs, which more literally read, "in toils, more, in jails, more, in blows, beyond counting, in deaths, often." These four general categories of hardships will be filled out with specific numbers and instances in the catalogue which begins in 11:24.

The word "worked," "toils" (kovpo", kopos ) is used three other times in 2 Corinthians. In 6:5, it appears in a mini-list of hardships, probably referring to Paul's work as a tentmaker. In 10:15, it refers to missionary activity in general. In 11:27, again in a list, it most likely refers to his tentmaking work. The fact that the word usually describes physical labor and that Paul's tentmaking has already been raised as an issue in 11:7-9 makes many commentators lean toward this being the idea here. Yet, it is in a list that headlines general categories. Perhaps, his use here does include tentmaking in his mind, but that, especially since it is plural, includes other real, physically taxing labors involved in his apostolic ministry that are not necessarily related to his trade.

Paul's reference to multiple imprisonments goes beyond what is known from Acts, which up to this point in Paul's career, only accounts for the one night in jail at Philippi (Acts 17:23-40) from which he was miraculously released. The early church document of 1 Clement (5:6) numbers Paul's imprisonments at seven.

As with any historical account, Acts is not and does not claim to be exhaustive. This point about imprisonments and other instances in Paul's autobiographical listing here, which will go beyond what is known from Acts, should serve as an ample reminder of the selectivity involved. It also should be noted that a period of 11 to 14 years after Paul's conversion and initial period of preaching in Jerusalem and Damascus, up until being recruited by Barnabas to work in Antioch (Acts 11:25), is virtually unaccounted for. The only exceptions are for the brief mention in Gal 1:21 that he was in Syria and Cilicia and Acts 9:30 that he was in Tarsus. Paul's hardships listed may very well include situations which occurred during these so-called silent years.

Being "flogged" served as a fairly common form of punishment in ancient cultures. Paul will stipulate at least two forms of such public beatings in 11:24, with whips and with rods. The only detailed beating in Acts is at Philippi (Acts 17:23-40).

As with the four designations in 11:22-23b, these four hardship listings increase in significance, in this case in intensity, until the climax is reached with the fourth. In Greek, the word "deaths" comes as a jolt, not only in the fact that it jumps up suddenly, the ultimate hardship, but that it is plural. How does one do this twice? As the NIV and most translations recognize, Paul must mean instances in which punishment inflicted, or more likely mob action, resulted in his being brought to the point of death from which he was rescued by God and/or eventually recovered. Paul makes other references to such situations earlier in 2 Cor 1:9-10; 4:11; 1 Cor 15:32; and Rom 8:36.

11:24 Five times I received from the Jews the forty lashes minus one.

Notably, in Matt 10:17 and Mark 3:9, Jesus warns that his disciples would be flogged in the synagogues. Paul, who makes it a point to begin his evangelistic thrust by visiting the synagogues in each city he enters (Acts 9:20; 13:5,14; 14:1; 17:1-2,10,17; 18:4,19,26; 19:8), regularly exposes himself to the danger of this punishment should the reaction against the gospel be severe. Reading between the lines, this could have occurred at Pisidian Antioch (Acts 13:45,50) or certainly during those silent years, but neither Acts nor any of Paul's epistles specifically account for any official flogging of Paul.

The punishment follows clear legal warrant in Deut 25:1-3 which notes the number of lashes to be determined by the crime, but no crime deserving more than forty. Rabbinic sources speak of punishable offenses as including various sexual misconduct, false witnessing (especially against a priest), entering ritually unclean into the synagogue, and even tattooing, as deserving of synagogal flogging. Paul's contact with Gentiles may have gotten him in trouble in regard to ritual cleanliness, but his gospel message could have been perceived as offensive, even as Stephen's was (Acts 7).

The flogging procedure is described as involving binding the offender's hands on a post, tearing his shirt, then administering a three-hide thong with 26 lashes to the back and 13 to the chest. The "minus one" most likely came about as a precautionary measure to prevent, in the case of miscounting, the offender receiving more than 40 lashes, thus breaking the law.

No doubt the vigilant love of Paul for his own people, so adamantly expressed in Rom 9:3, kept him going into these Jewish synagogues flung across the Roman empire, despite the danger of flogging. He never considered himself other than a loyal Jew, even as his theology of Christianity blossomed. As one commentator puts it, he would rather be reckoned (unjustifiably) an "erring" member of Judaism by blinded synagogue leaders than no member at all.

11:25 Three times I was beaten with rods, once I was stoned,

Acts 16:22-23 provides at least one instance of Paul, along with Silas, receiving a public beating, this occurring in Philippi. Official beatings of this sort occurred in the public square before the judgment seat of the magistrates. They are administered by specially designated men called "lictors" who swung heavy birchwood rods onto the bared upper torso of the offenders. Such punishment was common but was not to be applied to Roman citizens, a point which Paul raises to the chagrin of the Philippian town officials in Acts 16:35-40. Other violations of this rule, however, are known from Greek sources.

The stoning Paul likely refers to is chronicled in Acts 14:19. This occurred as a roving mob of irate Jews (and probably Gentiles) came into Lystra from nearby Pisidian Antioch and Iconium, towns Paul and Barnabas had only recently left. Clearly, this was not an official synagogue stoning since the Lystrian synagogue doesn't seem to have had anything to do with it, and Gentiles were also probably involved. Also, it was not a stoning to the death, stoning being the official and most prevalent form of capital punishment among the Jews.

Stoning is the most common form of execution mentioned in the Bible and is the well-founded procedure for such offenses as child sacrifice (Lev 20:2), functioning as a spiritual medium (Lev 20:27), blasphemy (Lev 24:12), enticing someone toward idolatry (Deut 13:10), practicing idolatry (Deut 17:5), committing rape or consensual adultery (Deut 22:22-24).

three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and a day in the open sea,

The only shipwreck recorded in Acts occurs in chapter 27 during Paul's transfer as a prisoner to Rome well after he had written 2 Corinthians. Paul did move more frequently by sea than is sometimes realized: Seleucia to Cyprus (Acts 13:4), Paphos to Perga (Acts 13:13), Attalia to Antioch (Acts 14:25-26), Troas to Neapolis (Acts 16:11), Macedonia to Athens (Acts 17:14-15), Corinth to Ephesus to Caesarea (Acts 18:18-22), Ephesus to Achaia (Acts 18:27).

The potential for sea mishaps was always rife. The mortal threat was also high since lifeboats were rarely carried nor life-preserving precautions taken on ancient vessels. Shipwreck meant grabbing floating portions of the wreckage and hanging on until rescue or death. Paul says he experienced on one occasion at least a 24-hour period in this most perilous situation on the sea. This and the stoning incident must be among the specific near-death experiences he had in mind in 11:23.

11:26 I have been constantly on the move.

The phrase is much more succinct in the Greek, consisting of just a noun and an adverb. The noun (oJdoiporiva, hodoiporia ) usually refers to a walking journey, as it is used in John 4:6 of journeying to Samaria. It makes sense that Paul would use this terminology to headline his next list of problems, after just listing risks involved at sea. He did walk through Asia Minor on more than one occasion and other places as well. For the most part, this presumption holds true until Paul gets to the last two items out of eight on his list, where he notes problems at sea (again) and with false brothers.

I have been in danger from rivers, in danger from bandits,

The point of bringing up his movement is that this made him vulnerable in a number of ways from a variety of sources. The key word binding this eightfold list together is "danger" (kivnduno", kindynos ), repeated before each item and dutifully represented by the NIV. Amazingly, the word, which simply refers to a hazard of any kind, is only used one other time in the NT outside of the eight times it occurs in this passage (Rom 8:35). The effect of Paul's list is that he perceives himself as in constant danger of a variety of sorts. His life of danger is not sufficiently accounted for by listing beatings and the like. It is around him all the time, and he feels it.

Paul pairs the first four items on his list. These first two, rivers and bandits, clearly depict life on the road. Fording rivers in the days of few bridges was a necessary danger that always involved risks of losing valuable supplies, of sickness from disease, of harm from creatures in the water, of drowning in the current itself. Although Roman presence did create some security on the main highways, small travelling groups in particular were still vulnerable, especially as they moved on minor routes.

in danger from my own countrymen, in danger from Gentiles;

This pair includes two races of people. As depicted in Acts, his fellow Jews were the most constant and violent threat to Paul as he brought the gospel from place to place entering the synagogues first (Acts 9:23,29; 13:8,45; 14:2,19; 17:5; 18:6,12; 20:3,19; 21:11,27). Gentiles were less often antagonistic. Both in Philippi (Acts 16:19-21) and in Ephesus (Acts 19:23-41) their violent reaction was due to the economic impact of the gospel of God on pagan-driven cultural industries, such as soothsaying and idol manufacturing.

in danger in the city, in danger in the country, in danger at sea;

In terms of geography, these three cover all there is. The first two distinguish land features, inhabited and uninhabited areas, the third, everything else, covered by water. Their general nature helps them function as a general summary of Paul's escapades throughout the Roman Empire which he has already described so far.

and in danger from false brothers.

This last item draws special notice for a number of reasons. It is the only one in this list without a match. It is the last in the list and thus the climax. It alone describes a hazard that is internal rather than external. It is the worst danger of all because it comes from those who are unsuspected, fellow believers in the church. Their danger amounts to treachery. This threat is not so much to Paul's person as to the body of Christ. Having described his Corinthian rivals as false apostles in 11:12, one suspects Paul hopes the Corinthians will cringe at how their tolerance of such people contributes a risk to the church and yet another drag on Paul's apostolic energy.

The only other place Paul uses the word "false brothers" (yeudavdelfo", pseudadelphos ) is in Gal 2:4 to refer to those who somehow reported to others that Titus was not circumcised. These tend to be associated with Judaizers, Jewish Christians who believed Jewish legal distinctions should not be erased by the gospel. Such folks, it appears, followed Paul into areas like Galatia in which he had established Jewish-Gentile churches which celebrated freedom from Jewish law, at least for the Gentiles. As noted in the introduction and elsewhere, those Paul combats in this very letter of 2 Corinthians may be disrupting the Corinthian church with the same sort of Jewish interests. The fact that these people may trail Paul in his movements causes their mention to fit into this eightfold listing.

11:27 I have labored and toiled and have often gone without sleep;

Again, the NIV has supplied the subject and verb as it does through 11:28. The Greek simply has dative nouns, some preceded by the preposition "in" (ejn, en ), others not. The adverb "often" (pollavki", pollakis ) follows "without sleep" and "without food" which supplies a certain rhythm to the first six items which the NIV rendering duplicates nicely.

The word "have labored" (kovpo", kopos ) is the same word Paul already used in 11:23, translated "have worked" there. Its presence likely signals Paul's intention to elaborate on that aspect of his apostolic hardship. Its pairing with "toiled" (movcqo", mochthos ) functions as the headline of a new set of listings. That word only appears elsewhere in the NT following kopos in 1 Thess 2:9 and 2 Thess 3:8. The two are synonyms, kopos emphasizing physical labor and mochthos emphasizing the mental and physical stress created by hard work. Between the two of them, Paul probably intends to cover not only his labor as a tentmaker but other physically draining aspects of his apostolic life.

The stress created by being an apostle is highlighted by the mention of sleepless nights. Is he up late working on his trade, teaching and discipling his converts, or is he tossing and turning out of worry for his converts, his mission, his following of God's leading? Probably, he has in mind all of these and more since he says this occurs "often" (pollavki", pollakis ).

I have known hunger and thirst and have often gone without food;

Some read this as a possible description of Paul voluntarily fasting for the spiritual strength to endure his hard life. If this was voluntary, then it more likely involves situations as with the Corinthians (2 Cor 11:9) where he decided not to rely on financial or other assistance from communities of new believers. The occasional nature of his trade might very well leave him short on funds. However, deprivation of food and water might be even more frequent when he is traveling, by road or sea. Finding food and water, carrying it along, would not be so easy on long trips as it is today. Again, though, this falls under the rubric of his own choice since he has chosen to carry on in the missionary service to which Christ has called him, regardless of the obstacles and hardships. Note that he emphasizes his deprivation of food occurs "often".

I have been cold and naked.

This pairing is out of rhythm with the two three-part phrases which Paul has employed so far in this series of deprivations. With no third part modified by "often," it seems to come to an unexpected stop. If planned by Paul, this roughness reinforces the stark hardship it describes. The word "naked" (gumnovth", gymnotçs) is likely an exaggeration to reinforce "cold" (yu'co", psychos ). Imprisonment and shipwreck could put one in such conditions but so could Paul's constant travels. Not having the proper clothing for unknown and changing climactic situations could be a recurring problem for Paul. Note his request in 2 Tim 3:13 for Timothy to bring him his cloak which had been left at Troas. Feeling the effects of cold and inadequate clothing can also be exacerbated by deprivation of food, mentioned earlier, whereas the inability to sleep could be triggered by this condition.

11:28 Besides everything else, I face daily the pressure of my concern for all the churches.

Paul's opening interjection (cwriÉ" tw'n parektov", chôris tôn parektos) is taken two different ways in translation. Most, as the NIV, take it as something of an aside to the many other hardships Paul could list that he chooses not to. In other words, it is a signal that the detailed listing he has given is not exhaustive, but he has decided to end it at this point. This seems to make the most sense. Other translations, such as NASB, NEB, and KJV, suggest that Paul is labeling all that he listed so far as "external" hardships before he goes on to deal with internal, spiritual pressures. However, this translation of the Greek word parektos has no linguistic support in any Greek sources outside this passage in 2 Corinthians.

The only threat Paul has mentioned so far which relates to the church has been "false brothers." To his mind, that is not so much a burden from within the church since he would not consider such people part of the true church. Yet, no doubt, one of his chief worries for the churches connected to his apostolic ministry is internal tampering from those with less than virtuous motives as well as dangerous ideas about the gospel message.

The word "pressure" (ejpivstasi", epistasis ) conveys the effect of feeling responsible for a situation or a group of people. One who superintends others can get hammered with daily problems to deal with. Not surprisingly, then, the word can also refer to obstacles which must be overcome. Paul's emphasis on "all the churches" reveals the extent of his difficulties. With churches flung all over Asia Minor and Greece at this point, all with their own problems, it is not likely an exaggeration to say that each day he contemplates decisions and pastoral care involving one church or another.

This is the only context in which Paul uses the word "concern" (mevrimna, merimna ). Normally translated "worries" or "anxieties," it is thought of in a negative light, particularly by Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt 6:25-34; Luke 12:22-34). His disciples are encouraged not to worry about the daily cares of life because God can be trusted to take care of them. To his credit, it is not the daily provisions Paul worries about. That he has made clear in his list, particularly in the previous verse, 11:27. His worry is for others, new converts and disciples in the churches.

He is concerned about their ability to withstand the pressures and temptations from their pagan cultures and unsympathetic relatives, friends, and neighbors. He worries about their safety from violent forces which rise up against them. He fears the influence of false teaching. He desires to aid in doctrinal and behavioral maturity, in commitment to Christ, so that nothing will deter fulfillment of their justification. That's an enormous burden on Paul's plate and here he acknowledges how difficult it all is.

Paul's concern for a church can't be any more evident than what he displays for the Corinthians: their reception of a minimum of four letters, the long list of questions he fields in 1 Corinthians, anguish generating the harsh third letter (2 Cor 12-13; 7:5-7), and the obvious heart-wrenching going on over the Corinthians, even as he writes these very words in 2 Corinthians. Awareness of Paul's deep concern for them should cause a tinge of sorrow and regret by at least some of the Corinthians at this point.

11:29 Who is weak, and I do not feel weak?

Paul's question intends to serve as an elaboration of the kind of pressure he feels on behalf of the churches under his pastoral care. His return to the issue of weakness initiated in 11:21a provides framing for everything in between these uses of the verb "weak" (ajsqenevw, astheneô). Everything he has listed in his antiboast list stands as a weakness from a worldly, human perspective. The very reason that Paul lists these kinds of things, which he has endured through God's strength, suggests he believes these to be true, apostolic strengths. Strength through weakness is God's way, even as displayed on the cross in Jesus Christ. This is a paradox Paul understands and will dwell on further in 12:5-10 and 13:3-4,9, in which six uses of the noun "weakness" and four uses of the verb "weak" occur.

Because Paul feels his weaknesses every day through a variety of hardships as he has listed, he finds it relatively easy to identify with others who are weak, but especially Christians under his care who are beaten down by life around them, doubters, denigrators, or just hard economic conditions, or even illness that has nothing directly to do with their faith. It is also true that the energy Paul expends in caring for the weaknesses in others further drains his own stamina, physically, emotionally, and spiritually. But that's all right. It is all part of being a true apostle, as far as he is concerned.

Paul's views on weakness should be well-known to the Corinthians since in 1 Corinthians he uses the verb twice (8:11,12), the noun twice (2:3; 15:43), and the adjective an incredible eleven times (1:25,27; 4:10; 8:7,9,10; 9:22 - three times; 11:30; 12:22). There, he provides his views on God's embracing of what the world considers weaknesses and his philosophy of identifying with those who are weak in order to win them to Christ. His identification with the weak in relationship to the churches should not strike the Corinthians as a startling new development in Paul's thinking since it extends and incorporates earlier ideas.

Who is led into sin, and I do not inwardly burn?

Paul expresses yet another rhetorical question to illustrate the worrisome effect of pastoral ministry. With this question, he shares how deeply grieved he is when individual believers under his care embrace sinful behavior. Such people actively pursue patterns of behavior and thought Paul has warned against in his preaching, teaching, and writing. How can he react any other way, if he loves Christians toward whom he feels pastoral and leadership responsibility?

The word "led into sin" (skandalivzw, skandalizô) is a common NT word for sin which derives from its nonbiblical background as "stumble" or "fall." In the NT, while it can refer to an especially grievous sin, it very often describes a falling away from faith entirely (Matt 24:10). The word presumes that there is a cause which precipitates sin; it does not necessarily presume this is another person. The NIV's translation "led" presumes this and that Paul's burning is against the second party. This interpretation, however, is not mandatory. Paul is just as likely to hold sinners accountable for themselves and his fire burn not against them, but out of an intense desire to see them reunited with Christ through repentance and confession.

With this question, Paul may again have a glinting eye on the Corinthians themselves, particularly those enamored by the false teachers. Does not this whole procedure of 2 Corinthians reflect the intense desire of Paul to rescue these believers from a potentially disastrous fall away from Christ?

3. Weakness Boasted (11:30-33)

11:30 If I must boast, I will boast of the things that show my weakness.

Paul now labels what he has been doing in 11:21b-29. He admits it is a kind of boasting but not the normal kind. His list is full of painful, humiliating, harmful, dangerous, and depressing things. Most Greeks would brand such things as a wall of shame, not of honor. Yet, Paul knows something full well that most Greeks don't, including many of the Corinthians who seem to have been taken in by the false apostles. Honor in serving Christ is not based in self-achievement but in expending oneself totally for others as Christ himself did. Thus, an antiboasting list as Paul has presented suits a true apostle like Paul just fine. Even this makes him a little squeamish, but he does it because the situation in Corinth requires it. The conditional ("if") for this clause conveys this reality.

11:31 The God and Father of the Lord Jesus, who is to be praised forever, knows that I am not lying.

Supportive oath formulas are more prevalent in 2 Corinthians than in any of his other writings, found three other times, in 1:18,23; 11:10. This probably reflects more than the normal defensiveness on his part because of the attacks on his credibility by his opponents. This particular formula is beefed up with the paternal description of God as well as the mention of both God and Jesus. This suggests that the pertinence of this oath is not just regarding the Damascus event which will be described in 11:32-33 but probably looks backward up the hardship list. Everything on the list is factual.

It is interesting that the closest oath formula to this one in Paul's letters occurs in Gal 1:20, only two verses from where he makes a reference to his visits to Damascus. No mention of the specific event described in 11:32-33 appears there. Perhaps, this early, relatively obscure, aspect of his Christian life was a matter of unfounded speculation in the early church, which made Paul a bit touchy when he told the stories from his personal perspective.

11:32 In Damascus the governor under King Aretas had the city of the Damascenes guarded in order to arrest me.

Located 60 miles northeast of Galilee, Damascus is one of the oldest cities of the world, continuously occupied since 2000 B.C. It was on his way to Damascus to round up renegade Jews called Christians, as described in Acts 9:1-4, that Paul met Jesus Christ and became a disciple of Christ himself. The trouble Paul describes here in 2 Corinthians is also described in Acts 9:19-25. There, it melds together Paul's experiences in Damascus. Galatians 1:17 suggests that Paul spent three years in Arabia (possibly Nabatea) and then returned to Damascus. The problems more likely occurred during this second visit to Damascus. Paul may even have created a reputation for being a troublemaker there before coming back to Damascus. At any rate, his successful debates with the Jews in the synagogues "proving that Jesus is the Christ" (Acts 9:22) apparently caused a great stir.

The Acts account does not mention the governor's involvement, just a crowd of Jews. However, patrolling the city gate (Acts 9:24), surely a matter under government control, does suggest some role of the government in the actions of the Jews. Perhaps, as in other cities later in Paul's journeys, like Thessalonica (Acts 17:1-9) and indeed Corinth (Acts 18:1-17), because the Jewish community became incensed by Paul's provocation with the gospel, they were able to draw the authorities' attention to the fact that he was a "troublemaker."

The name of the actual governor over Damascus during the period when Paul might have been there is not known. It's even possible that the governor, as an "ethnarch," was only one major official over a large ethnic group of the population, like the Nabateans or even the Jews.

More is known about Aretas. This would have been Aretas IV who reigned over Nabatea, which occupied northern Arabia and the area east of the Jordan, from 9 B.C. to A.D. 40. His daughter was the wife of Herod Antipas, governor of Galilee and Perea during Jesus' day. She is the one he divorced to marry his brother Philip's wife. It was John the Baptist's public denunciation of the tawdry affair that landed him in prison, which eventually led to his being beheaded (Mark 14:3-12). In fact, Aretas went to war with Antipas over this situation.

What is not known for certain, at least from secular history, is how Aretas could have had enough political clout to have governance over Damascus, fairly far north from his territory. It is possible that the Roman emperor Caligula (reigning from A.D. 37-41) could have given someone like Aretas IV authority over just the city-state of Damascus apart from the region surrounding it.

The verb "guarded" (frourevw, phroureô) in Greek is imperfect, emphasizing ongoing action of some sort. This verbal suggestion that people were on the watch for many days corresponds with the statement in Acts 9:24 that the gates were watched "day and night" for a period of time.

11:33 But I was lowered in a basket from a window in the wall and slipped through his hands.

Acts 9:25 does not say Paul escaped through a "window" but rather "through an opening." However, similarities in this account, including the window, are striking with regard to Rahab's allowing the two Hebrew spies to escape Jericho (Josh 2:15) and even Michal's helping David escape Saul (1 Sam 19:11-12). The word for "basket" (sargavnh, sarganç) is unique in the NT. It was perhaps more like a large bag made of braided rope. Such flexible "baskets" could be used for carrying fish but also large amounts of hay, straw, or wool. Acts 9:25 uses a different Greek word for basket (spuriv", spyris ), the same word used in the account of the feeding of the four thousand (Matt 15:37; 16:10; Mark 8:8,20).

Why Paul has moved from his poetically cadenced listings to the telling of this incident is difficult to know for certain. It does have an impact from being described as a real event rather than getting a label in a list. Possibly, Paul sees this as a true example of being "in danger from Gentiles; in danger in the city." Most likely, it stands out in his mind - possibly because it occurred so early in his service career - as the epitome of weakness.

The feeling of being so utterly dependent on God in that basket may have seared itself into Paul's emotional and spiritual memory bank. Maybe, he relays it also as an incident people in Corinth and in the other churches don't really know about, a glimpse into his personal life. Whatever the case, the impact on the Corinthians - and maybe even Paul's rivals - must have been incredible when they read this. Who would admit to this kind of humiliating weakness except a genuine apostle?

Paul's story involving his memorable encounter with a city wall might trigger memories in some of his Corinthian readers with military background. One of the most highly prized Roman military honors, available only to centurions, was awarded to the one who was the first up and over the wall of a fortified city. This award for valor was an actual gold crown fashioned to resemble a turreted wall. Given that Corinth was a popular retirement area for Roman soldiers (see Introduction), perhaps these might even be seen on the heads of old men as one walked through the city.

Paul's "war story" is the opposite of military might and power. It is not about storming the wall at the head of hundreds of comrades, but rather sneaking down the wall secretly with enemies on the watch. It is not an act of pride but of shame. It is not an image of Paul's personal strength but of his weakness and total dependence on the strength of God's will for his life.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

McGarvey: 2Co 11:1

[While this third part of Paul's epistle is directed against his enemies, it is obvious that even these are, in his estimation, divided into two classes; i. e., the leaders and the led. The apostle does not always keep these separate in his mind, yet we frequently find him, as in this section, appealing to those who were led, and denouncing those who led them.] Would that ye could bear with me in a little foolishness: but indeed ye do bear with me .

McGarvey: 2Co 11:2

For I am jealous over you with a godly jealousy: for I espoused you to one husband, that I might present you as a pure virgin to Christ .

McGarvey: 2Co 11:3

But I fear, lest by any means, as the serpent beguiled Eve in his craftiness, your minds should be corrupted from the simplicity and the purity that is toward Christ .

McGarvey: 2Co 11:4

For if he that cometh preacheth another Jesus, whom we did not preach, or if ye receive a different spirit, which ye did not receive, or a different gospel, which ye did not accept, ye do well to bear with him . [These first four verses are introductory. The apostle, seeing the effect which the self-glorification of these false teachers has had upon certain of the Corinthians, determines, for a time, to adopt their tactics, descend to the foolishness of boasting, and thus overcome them on their own ground. Paul, in his consecration to Christ and forgetfulness of self, could not thus descend to the level of boasting, even though he merely related facts, without a sense of shame and a petition for consideration. When he considers the folly of the situation, it seems to him that the Corinthians could not put up with it, but when he remembers their affection for him, he is sure they will. He tells them that nothing but the strongest motives could induce him to thus belittle himself, but he found such a motive in his extreme jealousy for them on Christ's behalf. As the paranymph, or "bridegroom's friend" (Joh 3:29), the one whose office it was to procure and arrange the marriage, he had espoused them to one husband, even Christ, and had so instructed and led them as to present them pure and spotless before the Lord at his coming. But now he feared that as the serpent led Eve into sin by his crafty wickedness, so these false teachers were corrupting the church at Corinth from that simplicity of doctrine and purity of life which they owed to Christ, their espoused husband. Now, if these false teachers (and Paul speaks of one of them as a sample of them all) had come professing to preach another Jesus and another religious spirit, and a different gospel from any that Paul preached, there might have been sonic excuse in giving them a patient hearing. But such had not been the case. Professedly they were preaching the same Jesus, etc., that he did, and so the Corinthians were without excuse in permitting them to assail Paul. They had sold their apostle and had received nothing in exchange for him. With the next verse his boasting begins, but in a very mild and apologetic form.]

McGarvey: 2Co 11:5

For I reckon that I am not a whit behind the very chiefest apostles . [I can not think that you receive these rival teachers and professed apostles as so much superior to me, for I am not behind these super-apostolic apostles. Paul is not here comparing himself with the twelve, but with these spurious apostles at Corinth. Paul reveals his emotion by the use of that strange word which is translated "very chiefest." It means "out-and-out," "extra-super," "overmuch," a term he would have never applied to the twelve. It is as though he said, Though these men claim to be apostles a hundred times over, yet I can certainly take my place in the front ranks with them.]

McGarvey: 2Co 11:6

But though I be rude in speech, yet am I not in knowledge; nay, in every way have we made this manifest unto you in all things . [Paul admits that one criticism of him was true. He did indeed pay little regard to the laws of rhetoric, and scorned to weaken his thought by loading it with verbal ornament or the studied expressions which the schools regarded as eloquence. But though he was thus rude in speech, a very unimportant matter, he was not deficient in the all-important sphere of knowledge. The Corinthians had had every opportunity to test him in this particular, and he felt that the truth of his statement must be so manifest to them as to need no further proof.]

McGarvey: 2Co 11:7

Or did I commit a sin in abasing myself that ye might be exalted, because I preached to you the gospel of God for nought? [A second accusation which his enemies never wearied in presenting was that he had preached the gospel in Corinth without charge. They had said that he did this because he knew that he was not an apostle, and so was hindered by his conscience from taking the wages of an apostle -- see 1Co 9:1-15 and notes. As Paul has already refuted this charge, he does not repeat the refutation; he merely asks them if he had committed a sin in so doing.]

McGarvey: 2Co 11:8

I robbed other churches [Paul again shows his emotion by the indignant hyperbole "robbed"], taking wages of them that I might minister unto you ;

McGarvey: 2Co 11:9

and when I was present with you and was in want, I was not a burden on any man; for the brethren [i. e., Silas and Timothy, Act 18:5], when they came from Macedonia, supplied the measure of my want; and in everything I kept myself from being burdensome unto you, and so will I keep myself . [Here the apostle relates the well-known history of his ministry at Corinth. The church at Philippi is the only one which we know of that contributed to his needs while in Corinth (Phi 4:15-16). When his necessities had reached a crisis and he had come to want, he had not appealed to the Corinthians, but had endured until relieved by the coming of his friends from Macedonia. His enemies had slandered him as to this, hoping to drive him to receive wages that they might reduce his influence in this respect to the level of their own; but in this hope they would be disappointed, for he would continue to preach without compensation as he always had done.]

McGarvey: 2Co 11:10

As the truth of Christ is in me, no man shall stop me of this glorying in the regions of Achaia .

McGarvey: 2Co 11:11

Wherefore? because I love you not? God knoweth .

McGarvey: 2Co 11:12

But what I do, that I will do, that I may cut off occasion from them that desire an occasion; that wherein they glory, they may be found even as we . [The apostle is determined that whatever he may do elsewhere he will receive no compensation for any preaching in Achaia. Knowing that they would wish to know why he thus made an exception in their case, he raises the question himself, but does not answer it, because to do so frankly would have been to show the deficiencies of their entire character and nature. But that he does not thus except them because of any lack of love, is shown by his appeal to God, who knew his heart. Compare 2Co 6:11-13 ; 2Co 7:2 ; 2Co 12:15 . One motive for his conduct he will tell them, and that is that he may silence the tongues of those who seek an opportunity to detract him. Here the language of the apostle grows bitterly sarcastic. The false teachers had received wages from the beginning, yet he speaks of them as if they gloried in preaching the gospel for nothing and declares that he will do likewise that they may be found no better than he. In the next three verses Paul speaks with the most unreserved plainness, and, as Bengel observes, "calls a spade a spade."]

Lapide: 2Co 11:1-33

CHAPTER 11

SYNOPSIS OF THE CHAPTER

i. After declaring his love for the Corinthians, he proceeds (ver. 4) to defend his apostleship against the false apostles, pointing out that they had bestowed no more of the Spirit, nor given more Christian doctrine than S. Paul.

ii. He says, moreover (ver. 7), that they preached the Gospel for the sake of gain, but he freely.

iii. He insists (ver. 22) on his being equally with them a Hebrew, and what they were not, a minister of Christ. He then enumerates the marks of his apostleship, his labours for Christ, his persecutions, scourgings, sufferings, anxieties, and the care of all the Churches, and in them all he glories.

Ver. 1 . — Would to God ye could bear with me a little in my folly. In my boasting, which sounds like folly. It is, however, a mark of the highest wisdom on my part, for I do it out of zeal to protect the faith of the Gospel against the false apostles (Chrysostom and Anselm).  S. Paul anticipates an objection: he is about to praise himself, and he meets beforehand any charge of vainglory or self-seeking. The last clause, "and indeed bear with me," may be also indicative, and then it is a correction to his request for forbearance: "I need hardly make such a request: you do indeed bear with me."

At the commencement of his self-praise he thrice excuses himself: (1.) by saying, "Would ye could bear with me;" (2.) by calling himself foolish; (3.) when he says. "I am jealous over you"—he takes such pains to excuse himself that the Corinthians may see the violence he does to his feelings when he descends to self-praise. Chrysostom says: " Just as a horse, when about to leap some deep and precipitous ravine, collects its strength, as though it would cross it at a bound, but when it looks down on the yawning gulf refuses the leap; then, under the spur of the rider, approaches again and admits its ability to leap and the necessity of it by standing still for a time, till at last it takes courage, and of its own accord boldly makes the attempt; so too S. Paul, like one about to throw himself over a precipice, when going to sing his own praises, retreats once, twice, and thrice, and at length falls to the task of praising himself."

Ver. 2. — For I am jealous over you with a godly jealousy. I cannot endure any rivals, such as these false apostles, who seek to seduce you. Paul calls his great and unbounded love "jealousy," implying that he seeks to be first in the affections of the Corinthians.  S. Chrysostom remarks on this jealousy being a jealousy of God, which implies that Paul does not seek the bride for himself but for Christ and God—not for his own glory, pleasure, or gain. Christ is the Bridegroom, he is but the paranymph.

For I have espoused you to one husband. "I have fitted you" (Augustine, contra Manich. lib. ii.); "I have prepared you" (Ambrose); "I have united you " (Theophylact). The Greek verb may well bear the three meanings of, "I have invited you," "I have betrothed you," I have united you in wedlock." The three duties of the paranymph are: (1.) to gain the maiden's affections for the bridegroom, and to do all he can to get her to be the wife of his friend; (2.) to see that she is espoused to him; and, (3.) when betrothed, to unite them in marriage. S. Paul says in effect: I, as the paranymph of a spiritual marriage, have by my preaching betrothed you to one husband, Christ, and by betrothing you I have persuaded you to present yourselves to Christ as His espoused bride. Or better still, with Anselm and Theophylact: I have now espoused you to Christ through baptizing you into the Christian faith, that I may show you, or present you in the day of judgment, as virgins, i.e., pure in faith, hope, and charity, fitted for the nuptial couch of the glory of Christ.

Chrysostom remarks that the betrothal takes place in this life, the union in the next, when the espoused Church, i.e., all the elect, shall be brought to the marriage of the Lamb and the eternal kingdom (Rev. xxi. 2).

The Church of Corinth is described by S. Paul as the virgin spouse of Christ, whose paranymph he is. Then he transfers to himself the jealous love of the Bridegroom, and protests against Christ's bride being stolen by false apostles, and handed over to the tender mercies of heretics. Just as true Apostles and preachers are paranymphs of Christ and His Church (S. Joh 3:29), so, on the other hand, false preachers are Satan's panders.

This passage of the espousal of the Church and each faithful soul is famous and full of consolation. It has been commented on beautifully by most of the Fathers, and still is frequently treated in pulpits and elsewhere. That it may be clearly and fully understood, let us then dwell on it a little more at length.

Observe, then, firstly, that this espousal takes place by faith and hope and other virtues. For, as S. Augustine says ( Tract. xiii . in Johan.), " the mind's virginity consists in perfect faith, well-grounded hope, and unfeigned love." On the other hand, the soul becomes an adulteress or prostitute when she consents to unbelief, to sin, to the suggestions and wiles of the devil. " If, therefore," says Origen ( Hom. 12 in Lev. ii.), " you have admitted an adulterous devil into the chamber of your soul, then your soul has committed fornication with the devil. If there has entered there the spirit of anger, envy, pride, uncleanness, and you have welcomed in and listened to its words, and taken pleasure in its suggestions, then you have committed fornication with him."

Secondly, this betrothal makes the goods of each common to both, and therefore endows the Church and each faithful soul with the abundant riches of Christ. Hence, since the Bridegroom is a King, He makes His bride, even if she be a slave, however lowly and poor she be, a queen. S. Basil ( de Vita Virgin.) says, quoting Ps. xlv. " Upon thy right hand did stand the queen, in a vesture of gold wrought about with divers colours. Wherefore, she who now is counted vile for her sordid dress and servile habit, is ennobled by her station at the King's hand, and found in the kingdom of heaven to be a queen. Let her, then, despise all visible things, and with open face beholding her Spouse, let her be filled with His love, and make all her faculties His handmaidens. In no respect should a virgin be an adulteress, not in tongue, in ears, eyes, or any other sense, no, nor yet in thought; but let her keep her body as a temple, or bride-chamber ready for her Spouse. No unfaithfulness can escape the eye of Him of whom it is said, 'He that planted the ear, shall He not hear; or He that made the eye, shall He not see."

S. Bernard ( Serm. 2, Domin. 1, post Epiph.) thus describes the election, dignity, and glory of this bride: " For the sake of that Ethiopian woman, the Son of God came from afar to espouse her to Himself. Moses, indeed, married an Ethiopian wife, but her colour he could not change; but Christ, loving the Church, who till then was contemptible and foul, presented her to Himself, not having spot or wrinkle, or any such thing. Whence, 0 human soul, whence comes this to thee? Whence is the inestimable glory of meriting to be His spouse on whom the angels desire to gaze? Whence is it to thee that thou art the spouse of Him, whose beauty sun and moon wonder at, at whose will all things are changed? . . . What reward, then, will you give unto the Lord for all the benefits that He hath done unto you, in making you a sharer of His table, of His Kingdom, of His chamber? See with what arms of love should He be in turn lovingly embraced, who has thought so much of you, and made you so great. Leave all carnal affections, forget all worldly ways, undo all evil habits. For what thinkest thou? Does not the angel of the Lord stand ready to cut thee asunder, if perchance, which may He prevent, thou admittest any other lover?" Then he goes on to describe the nuptial feast: " Now thou art espoused to Him, now the wedding feast is being celebrated, for the banquet is prepared in heaven. There the wine will not fail for we shall be inebriated with the fulness of the house of Gad, and shall drink of the torrent of His pleasure. For that marriage, truly, there is got ready a river of wine, which maketh glad the heart, an impetuous stream, which maketh glad the city of God."

Thirdly, be it observed that from this betrothal and union of the soul to God, the fairest offspring are born. Origen ( Hom. 20 in Num. xxv.) thus Describes them. " When the soul, therefore, clings to her Spouse, and listens to His voice, and embraces Him, she doubtless receives from Him seed, even as He said: 'Of Thy fear, 0 Lord, have I conceived in the womb, and brought forth, and caused on the earth the spirits of Thy salvation.' Thence will proceed a noble offspring—thence will be born chastity, righteousness, patience, meekness, and charity, and a fair family of all the virtues. . . . But if the unhappy soul forsakes the chaste embraces of the Divine Word, and surrenders herself to the devil's adulterous endearments, without a doubt she will bring forth children, but they will be such as those of whom it is written: 'The adulterous children shall be imperfect, and the seed of the wicked bed shall be destroyed.' All sins, therefore, are children of adultery and fornication."

Fourthly, although this espousal is brought about by any virtues, yet the chief agent among them is charity. Charity carries with it towards God all the powers and affections of the soul, so much so that the more charity increases in a soul, the more closely is that soul united to God. Hence those whose souls are on fire with charity, and who are ever exercising themselves in it, enjoy the bliss of betrothal to God and the possession of His nuptial gifts of Divine joys. For charity is a marriage-union, the welding of two wills, the Divine and human, into one, whereby God and man mutually agree in all things. Hence springs familiar intercourse between the soul and God, hence spring peace and a wondrous delight of the soul. So great becomes the thirst for the Divine love that all other affections of the soul are absorbed in it and lost in God. S. Bernard ( Serm. 38 Cantic.) says: " Such conformity weds the soul to the Word, that, though naturally like Him, she none the less exhibits that likeness in the will, by loving as she has been loved. If, then, she loves perfectly, she is wedded to Him. What is more pleasant than this conformity? what more to be longed for than this charity? By it it comes to pass that you are not content, 0 my soul, to rest on human teaching, but you boldly approach the Word, and cling closely to Him, hang lovingly on His lips, and consult Him on everything. You are as bold in your longings will allow. Surely this is a holy and spiritual wedding contract. Contract, do I say?—nay, it is an embrace; for where the same will to have or not have is, where one spirit is made out of two, there there must have been an embrace. Nor need we fear that the disparity of the persons can make this union of wills imperfect, for love knows no fear. Love is self-sufficient: wherever he comes he draws to himself and makes prisoners all the other affections. Therefore she loves what he loves, and knows nought else. There is a bride and there is a bridegroom. What other relation or connection do you seek between them that are wedded than that of loving and being loved?"

If you say that the soul is so far inferior to God in its nature and love as to make it impossible for friendship to exist between them, and much less betrothal and marriage union, all of which can only be between equals, then S. Bernard replies: " It is true that there is not the same copious flow in the soul that Loves as in Love Himself, in the soul as in the Word, and in the bride as in the Bridegroom, in the creature as in the Creator, ably more than there is the same in him that is athirst and the spring that quenches his thirst. But what of that? Are we therefore to lose and see destroyed utterly the devotion of her that is about to wed, the desire of the longing soul—the eagerness of the lover, the confidence of one that boldly draws near—just because a dwarf cannot run on equal terms with a giant, because sweetness cannot rival honey, gentleness cannot compare with a lamb, whiteness with the lily, brightness with the sun, charity with Him who is charity? No, for though the creature's love is less because it is itself less, yet if it loves with all its might, it withholds nothing, and its love is entire. Therefore have I said, 'So to love is to be wedded already,' unless any one doubt that the soul is first loved and more loved by the Word. But truly He prevents and surpasses the soul in love. Happy the soul that has merited to be prevented with the blessings of goodness."

Fifthly, it follows that this espousal is most perfectly brought about by virginity and vows of chastity and religion.  S. Augustine ( Tract. 9 in Johan.) says: " They who vow to God virginity, although they may hold a higher position of honour and dignity in the Church, yet are they not without nuptials; for they belong to those nuptials in which the whole Church is united to Christ as her Bridegroom." And the reason is, that as a bride gives her heart and all her goods to her husband, so does a virgin, or a religious, consecrate herself and all that she has to Christ. Hence religion is called and is a state of perfection, or of perfect charity. Moreover, as a bride in contracting matrimony says. "I take thee for mine," so does a religious say: "I vow to God poverty, chastity, obedience," and by these she is bound to Christ as a wife to her husband. Hence Tertullian ( de Veland. Virgin. c. 16) says: " Thou hast been wedded to Christ, thou hast committed to Him thy body; thou hast betrothed to Him the bloom of thy life; walk, therefore, according to the will,of thy Spouse." For this reason S. Jerome ( Ep. 27) dared to call the mother of a virgin consecrated to God, "God's mother-in-law," and for this he was found fault with hypercritically by Ruffinus. A ring used to be given to virgins, in token that by it they were betrothed to Christ. "He gave me a ring," says S. Agnes (Ambrose, Serm. 90), "as an earnest of my betrothal to His faith." For this virgins were given veils, even as those who are married to husbands, and that solemnly, by priests, on appointed days alone, as Gelasius says ( ad Episc. Lucaniæ, c. 14), and Optatus Milevit. ( lib. 6). He says: " Spiritual wedlock is of this kind. In will and profession they had already come to be betrothed to their spouse; and to show that they had abjured all secular nuptials, they had cut off their hair for their spiritual Bridegroom, and had already celebrated their heavenly nuptials." Ambrose ( ad Virg. Lapsam ) says: " She who has betrothed herself to Christ, and received the sacred veil, is already wedded, is already united to an immortal husband; and if she now wishes to marry under the common law, she commits adultery, and is made the handmaiden of death." S. Cyprian too ( Ep. 62) calls such lapsed virgins adulteresses. From all this it is evident, whatever Marloratus may say, that the Church applies this passage of the Apostle to virgins, and reads it as the Epistle in the Mass of Holy Virgins.

Let these virgins ponder this, and recognise their dignity, so as to religiously keep these nuptials pure, and give themselves wholly to their one Bridegroom, Christ.  S. Jerome says to Eustochius: " Hear, 0 daughter, and consider, and incline thine ear; forget also thine own people and thy father's house, and then shall the King take pleasure in thy beauty. It is not enough for thee to leave thy land, unless thou also forget thy own peop1e and thy father's house, and, despising the flesh, yield thyself to the embraces of thy spouse. You will say perhaps: 'I have come from the house of my shame; I have forgotten the house of my father; I am born again in Christ. What reward for this am I to receive?' It tells you: 'So shall the King have pleasure in thy beauty.' This then is a great sacrament: there-fore shall a man leave his father and mother, and shall cling to his wife, and they twain shall be not one flesh but one spirit. Thy Spouse is not haughty; He has married an Ethiopian woman. As soon as you desire to hear the wisdom of the true Solomon and come to Him, He will tell you all that He knows; He will as a King lead you into His chamber, and thy colour being wondrously changed, the words will apply to you, 'Who is this that cometh up all white?' . . . The bride of Christ is, like the Ark of the Covenant, covered within and without with gold, the guardian of the law of the Lord. As in it there was nothing save the tables of the law, so in thee let there be no other thought. Over this mercy-seat, as upon the cherubim, the Lord wills to sit. The Lord wishes to set you free from earthly cares, that leaving the bricks and straw of Egypt, you may follow Moses in the wilderness and enter the Promised Land. Whenever in your virgin breast there rages anxiety about earthly business, immediately the veil of the temple is rent in twain, your Bridegroom rises in wrath and says: 'Your house is left unto you desolate' . . . Do thou once for all cast aside every burden of the world, sit at the feet of thy Lord, and say: 'I have found Him in whom my soul delighteth; I have held Him fast; I will not let Him go.' He will answer: 'My dove, any undefiled, is but one.' Let the secret places of thy chamber ever keep thee, let thy Spouse ever play with thee within. When thou prayest thou speakest to thy Spouse. When thou readest He speaks to thee; and when sleep oppresses thee, He will come behind the wall; and when thou art awakened thou wilt say: 'I am sick with love,' and in return thou wilt hear Him say: 'A garden enclosed is My sister, My spouse.'"

That I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ. There is something strange in such a marriage. "In the world," says Theophylact after Chrysostom, "brides do not remain virgins after marriage. But Christ's brides, as before marriage they were not virgins, so after marriage they become virgins most pure in faith, whole, and uncorrupt in life. So is the whole Church a virgin." " The virginity of the flesh," says S. Augustine ( in Senten. 79), " is an undefiled body; the virginity of the soul is uncorrupted faith."

S. Paul converted to Christ at Iconium that most illustrious virgin Thecla: he drew her from marriage and espoused her to Christ.  S. Gregory of Nyssa is our authority for this. He says ( Hom. 4 in Cantic.): " Such myrrh did Paul once pour from his mouth, mingled with the pure lily of chastity, into the ears of a holy virgin. That virgin was Thecla, who, as the drops fell from the lily into her soul, to her salvation put to death the outward man and quenched the heat of lust within." S. Epiphanius too ( Hæres. 78) says: " Thecla fell in with S. Paul, and was by him set free from wedlock, though she had a husband at once surpassingly handsome, rich, nobly-born, and famous." S. Augustine ( contra Faustum, lib . xxx. c. 4) says: " This Saint in her lifetime despised all earthly things, that she might gain possession of things heavenly, and, though bound in wedlock, she was kindled by the eloquence of S. Paul with love of life-long virginity." Through this Thecla overcame fire, lions, bulls, and serpents, and when thrown for her virginity into the midst of flames, she, like asbestos, remained unharmed. So did S. Paul arm the harlot Poppæa and virgins against the blandishments of Nero, to despise his embraces and dedicate themselves to Christ. For this he was condemned by Nero to the sword, and obtained the martyr's and virgin's crown, and therefore from his neck there flowed, when his head was cut off, a stream of white milk instead of red blood.

Ver. 3. — But I fear lest by any means . . . your minds should be corrupted from the simplicity that is in Christ. Beware of the false apostles, who are panders of Satan, adulterers of the genuine doctrine of Christ, and therefore of the Church and of your souls.

Ver. 4.— For if he that cometh preacheth another Jesus. Christ is here put for Christianity and its perfection. If the false apostles should preach any other doctrine concerning Christ than that which I have preached, as though my preaching were insufficient for salvation and Christian perfection, then, &c. He speaks a few words further on of the same thing as another Gospel. But, in Gal. i. 8, he orders that any one who should preach another Gospel was not only not to be tolerated, but was even not to be listened to, and was to be anathematised. Hence by the phrase here another Gospel, he means a clear and more spiritual explanation of the Gospel.

Or if ye receive another Spirit. If you should receive other gifts of the Holy Spirit from the false apostles besides those that you received from me, you might well suffer them. He is censuring the pride of the false apostles, who boasted that they had more to give than S. Paul (Theophylact). Where, he asks, is that other Spirit, or those other gifts of which they boast? They do not appear. I call you then to witness that you have received from them nothing but empty words.

Ver. 5. — For I suppose I was not a whit behind the very chiefest Apostles. Beza says: "If Paul was in no way inferior to the chiefest Apostles, therefore Peter was not his superior in power and authority, and consequently he is not the Prince of the Apostles and of the Church." I answer that Paul yielded to none in any of the things just mentioned, such as in preaching Christ, in the gifts of the Spirit, in the genuineness of his Gospel, in the labours he bore, and in apostolical gifts in general. The question of power and primacy, therefore has no place here. Were he here to claim it for himself, it would be a sign of the most foolish ambition. Moreover, although by the phrase the very chiefest Apostles, Chrysostom, Theophylact, Œcumenius, understand Peter, James, and John, and this interpretation seems more simple and true, yet very many later writers understand it to refer to the false apostles, who boasted of their greatness. In this case S. Paul is speaking ironically.

Ver. 6. — Rude in speech. Unskilled in the polished and rhetorical eloquence of the Greeks, such as we find in Isocrates, Demosthenes, Lucian. Hence we find in S. Paul so many sudden transitions, ellipses, and solecisms (Chrysostom and Theophylact). S. Jerome ( Ep. 151 ad Algas. qu. 10) says: " I have frequently said and I repeat it now, that when S. Paul spoke of himself as being 'rude in speech yet not in knowledge,' he was not merely using the language of humility, but was speaking from a consciousness of the truth. For in his writings there are many profound passages unexplained in words, dealing, with truths evident enough to himself, but incapable of being conveyed to others." He says the same in his epistle to Hedibia, where he adds that for this reason Paul kept Titus by him, who was a Greek scholar, just as S. Peter had S. Mark. Cf. 1Co 2:1-4, notes. On the other hand, S. Augustine ( de Doct. Christ. lib. iv. c. 7) thinks that Paul calls himself here rude in speech, not as giving his own opinion but that of his detractors.  S. Augustine there dwells at length on the eloquence of the Apostle, and shows that he has his own lively and nervous style, and an orderly arrangement of his materials. This is true. The Apostle's rhetoric was not mere wordiness, but was earnest, persuasive, manly, Divine, and therefore he was "rude," not so much in rhetoric as in grammatical niceties. It was evident to all that the Apostle by his eloquence stirred the hearts of all who heard him, smote them with the fear of God, and with wonderful skill almost drove them to faith, godliness, and mercy, and wheresoever he wished to lead them.

S. Augustine ( Senten. No . 266) says beautifully: " It is an evident token of a good disposition when the truth contained in the words of controversialists is loved, and not the mere words themselves. For what is the use of a golden key if it cannot accomplish our desire and open the door, or why should we think less of a key because it is of wood? All that we want is to have that opened which was shut. "

Ver. 7. — Have I committed an offence? Do you find fault with that very thing which is a cause of glory to me and an instance of large-heartedness, that I humiliated myself to the manual labour of tent-making to support myself and not be a burden to you? (Anselm). This is the language of sarcasm. He charges the Corinthians to their face with ingratitude, in that while he might have claimed from them the means to support himself, he did not do so, but, while preaching and working at Corinth, preferred to be supported by poorer churches. In spite of this, however, as he says, the Corinthians undervalued the kindness of S. Paul, and lent an ear more readily to his rivals, the false apostles, who drained their purses.

Ver. 8. — I robbed other churches. He uses a strong expression, in order to make a strong impression on them. You see my continence and charity. I have, as it were, despoiled other churches that were poor, in order to spare you and to enrich you, that you might not think, as rich merchants like you Corinthians are apt to think, that I was seeking yours instead of you, and also that I might shut the mouths of the false apostles. Acknowledge me, then, as your true and genuine Apostle.

Ver. 9.— I was chargeable to no man.— TheGreek word for chargeable is derived from a word denoting torpor and inactivity, which are apt to be burdensome to others. The ray-fish called torpedo derived its Greek name from the same word.  S. Paul says that he did not by his inactivity depend on another for support, but he worked hard with his hands without neglecting his duty of preaching. He gave himself to the work of teaching warning, and advising, just as diligently as if he were under no necessity of supporting himself.

Ver. 10 . — As the truth of Christ is in me. I speak in the truth of Christ; I call His truth to witness; I swear to you in truth and holiness by Christ ("under the testimony of Christ," Ambrose) that I wilt take nothing from you for my support (Theophylact).

No man shall stop me of this boasting. Or, this boasting shall not be stopped in me. This liberty and liberality of mine shall not be stopped, nor therefore my boasting of it. It is a metaphor, taken from springs and rivers, which no barriers can stop.

Secondly, it is better to suppose that S. Paul, following a Hebrew usage, employs the simple verb denoting to seal up for the compound verb unseal (σφραγίζω for α̉νασφραγίζω ). "I have determined," he then would say, "to receive nothing from you; and I have so confirmed that determination by the strong seal of my oath, that I shall not open this seal, or break my purpose, whatever need or necessity may lay upon me."

Ver. 12. — Which desire occasion. Of finding fault with me for not bringing anything peculiar to myself more than others.

That wherein they glory they may be found even as we. They boast that in their preaching they are equal to me, when they are inferior; for I preach freely, they for the sake of gain. Cf., ver. 21 (Anselm, Chrysostom, Theophylact).

Ver. 13. — Transforming themselves into the Apostles of Christ. From this it appears that these detractors of Paul were not believers who were impelled by mere vanity or by envy of Paul, but were heretics; for, in ver. 15, he calls them false apostles and ministers of Satan.

Secondly, he censures their hypocrisy in that, in order that they might impose on the Christians, they took to themselves the appearance and name of the Apostles of Christ, as though they were of Christ, and preachers of the Christian faith. The Calvinists of the present day are of the same kind, for they deform and profane everything sacred—our rites, sacraments, churches, monasteries, sanctuaries, altars, all true worship, religion, and godliness-and yet wish to be looked upon and spoken of as reformers.

Ver. 14 . — For Satan himself is transformed into an angel of light. He says of light, because good angels, being blessed, are wont, when they show themselves to men, to appear full of light and glory. Secondly, of light refers to the light of truth, righteousness, and godliness. Satan assumes these virtues, promises them to those men before whose eyes he appears in visible form, or into whose imagination he insinuates himself and his counsels, when really he is an angel of darkness, inasmuch as he suggests nothing but what is sinful, erroneous, and false. To unmask him and recognise his wiles there is nothing better, as the Fathers, and holy men, and experience itself teach, than to disclose your thoughts and suggestions to some prudent, pious, and learned man, preferably your Superior or Confessor, and to follow his advice. But Satan hates the light, and therefore dissuades and prevents his followers from doing this. From neglecting this counsel many, even hermits, have been by him most terribly deceived. In the lives of the Fathers there are extant many sad instances of this, e.g., in the case of that monk whom the devil persuaded to throw himself headlong into a well, by declaring that he would find that God, for his merits, would most gloriously deliver him. S. Epiphanius, Irenæus, and Augustine tell us the dreadful and abominable delusions instilled by the devil into such heretics as the Ophites, the Artotyritæ, and the Circumcelliones.

Under the form of a good angel the devil attempted to deceive the hermit S. Abraham, as S. Ephrem records in his Life. While he was singing psalms at midnight, a light like that of the sun suddenly shone in his cell, and a voice was heard saying: "Blessed art thou, Abraham: none is like thee in fulfilling all my will." But the humility of the Saint recognised the fraud of the devil, and exclaimed: "Thy darkness perish with thee, thou full of all fraud and falsehood; for I am a sinful man; but the name of my Lord, Jesus Christ whom I have loved and do love, is a wall to me, and in it I rebuke thee, thou unclean dog." And then the devil vanished from his sight as smoke.

Similarly, the devil appeared in splendour, with horses of fire and a chariot of fire, near the column on which was S. Symeon Stylites, and said to him: "The Lord hath sent me, His angel, to carry thee off as I carried Elijah. Ascend, therefore, with me into the chariot, and let us go into heaven. The holy angels, the Apostles, martyrs, and prophets, and Mary the Mother of the Lord long to see thee." When S. Symeon was lifting his right foot to get into the chariot he made the sign of the Cross, on which the devil disappeared. This is recorded by Antony, his disciple, in his Life.

Another, on hearing from the devil, "I am Christ," shut his eyes and said: "I would not see Christ in this life but in the next." Hence the Fathers used to warn people, saying: "Even if an angel really appear to you, do not readily receive him, but humble yourself and say: 'I am not worthy, while I live in my sins, to see an angel.'"

S. John, who foretold to the Emperor Theodosius his victory over the tyrants, saw devils like an army and chariots of fire, saying to him: "In all things, 0 man, you have borne yourself well. Now worship me, and I will take you up like Elias." John answered: "God is my Lord and King: Him I ever worship; thou art not my King." Then the devil vanished. Palladius gives this ( Lausiac. c 46).

The devil appeared to Pachomius in the form of Christ, saying: "Pachomius, I am Christ, and I come to thee, my faithful friend." Pachomius knew by Divine inspiration the fraud, and thought within himself: "The coming of Christ gives tranquillity; but I am now fiercely assailed by conflicting thoughts." Then, making the sign of the Cross, and breathing on him, he said: "Depart from me, 0 devil, for accursed art thou with thy vision and treacherous wiles; there is no place for you among the servants of God." Then, leaving a horrible stench, he departed, saying: "I should have gained thee, had not the surpassing power of Christ hindered me. Nevertheless, so far as I can, I will not cease to trouble thee." Cf. Dionysius, in Vita Pachomii.

The monk Valens was frequently deceived by the devil under the form of an angel. From this Valens became swollen with pride, because of his intimacy with angels. At length the devil appeared to him, feigning that he was Christ, accompanied by a thousand angels holding lights and a fiery wheel. One of them said to him: "Christ has loved thy free and confident life, and has come to see thee; come out, therefore, and worship Him." Then he went out and worshipped the devil as Christ. This so unhinged his mind that he went into the church and said: "I have no need of communion. I have seen Christ to-day." The Fathers, therefore, bound him and threw him into fetters. Cf. Palladius, c. 31.

Ver. 16 . — If otherwise, yet as a fool receive me. If I can obtain from you nothing else, then receive me as a fool, only that I may have license to glory somewhat. As Cato says: "Neither praise nor blame thyself; leave this to fools, whom empty glory vexes." Notice how S. Paul hesitates, and paves the way for self-praise, to show how unwillingly he was driven to it (Chrysostom).

Ver. 17. — That which I speak. The praises of myself, that I propose to utter directly.

I speak it not after the Lord. If regarded by itself. But it will be after God if charity and necessity be taken into account, the necessity, that is, of preventing you from despising me, and glorifying the false apostles.

In this confidence of boasting. In this substance (Latin version). In this subject-matter of boasting, i.e., my works, of which I am now going to speak.

Ver. 18. — Seeing that many glory after the flesh. In things merely outward and carnal, as, e.g., in birth, riches, wisdom, circumcision, having Hebrew parents—of all which these false apostles boast. Hence I too will glory in them (Chrysostom). Cf. x. 2, note

Ver. 19 . — For ye suffer fools gladly, seeing ye yourselves are wise. Irony. You have foolishly suffered the boastings of these vain-glorious false apostles; I hope that you will suffer me to glory wisely and usefully among them that are wise. Theophylact, however, and Anselm think that this is said seriously, in the way of exaggerated rebuke. Since you are wise in Christ, you ought to have exploded the folly of the false apostles. Why, then, do you gladly suffer them?

Ver. 20. — For ye suffer if a man bring you into bondage. This is aimed at the insatiable arrogance, avarice, and tyranny of the false apostles. You suffer false apostles, who imperiously treat you as slaves, who devour you by extorting from you your goods, who are exalted by their self-praise, who smite you in the face, not with the palms of their hands, but with insults. Hence he adds: "I speak as concerning reproach." These words, therefore, contain a sharp rebuke. These men squander your money, take away your freedom and honour, load you with taunts, as though you were slaves; but 1 have borne myself humbly, have lived at my own expense, have wished to put upon you the easy yoke of Christ. Yet you prefer them to me, as though, when compared with these, your imperious lords, nay, tyrants, I was not sufficiently well-born, or powerful, or eloquent. S. Bernard ( de Consid. lib. i. c. 3) says: " When you may be free there is no virtue in the patience which lets you become a slave. Do not conceal the slavery into which you are being daily led, while you know it not. It is the mark of a dull and heavy heart not to feel its own continual trouble. Trouble gives to the hearing understanding, provided it be not excessive. If it is, it gives not understanding, but carelessness."

Let superiors and prelates console themselves by the example of S. Paul, when they duly do their duty, and are despised by those under them, and see others preferred before them. It has ever been the custom of the world, and ever will be till the end, as Salmeron notices here, to obstinately resist the servants of God, to murmur, and, meeting rebuke, on the least occasion, to complain of even moderate severity; to spurn all discipline; to submit servilely to impostors, libertines, and false apostles; to entrust everything to them; to bear patiently whatever burden they may choose to impose. The Israelites, e.g., despised the holy and gentle Samuel, and preferred to bear the yoke of a self-willed and tyrannical king (1 Sam. viii.).

Ver. 21.— I speak as concerning reproach. This belongs to the preceding. The "smiting on the face" spoken of is here explained to be mental, not physical—consisting in the ignominy and revilings cast, as it were, in their faces by the false apostles. This "smiting" is no less wrong than if they had been beaten like slaves. Others, however, interpret these words to mean: "I say this to your shame." This, however, would require πρὸς instead of κατὰ.

As though we had been weak. Refer this to the words, ye suffer. You suffer these bold and imperious false apostles; me you do not, but rather despise me as weak and timid, as though I could not have acted more imperiously than I have done, I could, indeed, have done so, but I would not, through humility, modesty, and abounding charity (Chrysostom).

Whereinsoever any is bold. If any one ventures to boast foolishly, I too can do the same.

Ver. 22. — Are they Hebrews? so am I. The word Hebrew is derived either (1.) from a Hebrew word denoting "across the stream," in allusion to their descent from Abraham, who crossed the Euphrates from Chaldæa to dwell in Palestine. Hebrews in this sense would mean (to coin a word) transamnine, as we speak of transmarine or transalpine. Abraham, after crossing the Euphrates, is the first to be called Hebrew (Gen. xiv. 13). The LXX and Aquila render the word here "crosser;" S. Augustine (qu. 29 in Gen.) renders it "transfluvial." So Chrysostom, Origen, Theodoret understand the word. (2.) Or the Jews were called Hebrews as being descended from Heber, Abraham's forefather, the only man who with his family, after the confusion of tongues at Babel, retained the primeval Hebrew tongue, together with true faith, religion, and piety. (Cf. Gen 10:21, and Gen 11:1, et seq.) Those, then, are wrong who suppose that Hebræi is derived from Abrahæi. S. Augustine, it is true, at one time held this opinion ( de Consens. Evang. lib. 1. c. 14), but in his Retractations (lib. ii. c. 14) he gave it up. The meaning of the Apostle, at all events, is this: These false apostles glory in their birth—in their being, as Hebrews, descendants of Heber, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; in their possession of the holy religion of their ancestors, and the primeval tongue. But I also am a Hebrew and descendant of Abraham—like him in stock, tongue, faith, and religion.

Ver. 23. — Are they ministers of Christ? The Latin version takes this in the indicative, and supposes S. Paul to concede, for the sake of argument, that the false apostles were ministers of Christ. Be it so, but I am much more truly such than they.

In labours more abundant. Let prelates and doctors take notice from this, that they should base their influence, as S. Paul did, not on external show, but on labours and mode of life. The Fourth Council of Carthage (c. 5) says: " Let a bishop have a sordid dress, a scanty table, and poor living, and let him seek to have his high office revered through his faith and the merits of his life."

S. Bernard, quoting this passage in his work, De Consideratione, addressed to Pope Eugenius, says, (lib. ii. c. 6): " How excellent a ministry is this! What king holds a more glorious office? If you must needs glory, the life of the Saints is put before your eyes, the glorying of the Apostles is set forth. Seems that to you a little matter? Would that one would give to me to be like the Saints in their glorying! The Apostle exclaims God forbid that I should glory, save in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ.' Recognise thy heritage in the cross of Christ, in abundant labours. Happy the man who would say: "I have laboured more than they all.' This is glorying indeed, but there is nothing in it empty, slothful, or effeminate. If labour terrifies, the reward beckons us onward. Though he laboured more than all, yet he did not elaborate the whole work, and yet there is room. Go into the field of the Lord, and notice carefully how the ancient curse holds sway in an abundant crop of thorns and thistles. Go forth, I say, into the world; for the field is the world, and it has been entrusted to you. Go into it, not as a lord but as a steward, who will one day be called on to give an account."

In stripes above measure. More than can be told or believed.

In deaths oft. In dangers of death, when my companions, or others, were wounded or slain, as, e.g., by robbers, or in popular out-breaks. Cf. 2Co 1:10, and 1Co 15:31.

Ver. 24. — Forty stripes save one. The Lord had ordered, in Deut. xxv. 3, that the number of stripes should not exceed forty. The Jews, to make sure of obedience to this precept, used to inflict on criminals one less.

Ver. 25.— I have been in the deep. The Greek word for the deep may refer to a well or a prison, as well as the sea. Hence (1.) some think, says Theophylact, that that well is meant in which Paul is said to have lain concealed after escaping from the attack made on him by the people of Lystra (Acts xiv. 18). (2.) Baronius ( Annals, A.D. 58), following Bede and Theodoret, thinks that the Cyzicenum, that deep and loathsome dungeon, like the Barathrum at Athens and the Tullianum at Rome, into which Paul was thrown, is here meant. (3.) It is better to understand the deep to be the sea, and to be an explanation of the hardships of his shipwreck: " A night and a day I have been in the deep." In other words, he says: I was tossed about by so violent a tempest that I seemed to be days and nights in the depths of the sea (Maldonatus Not. Manusc.). Or it may be that he means to say that after his shipwreck he spent a day and a night tossed by the waves, not in a boat or on a raft, but swimming in the deep, i.e., on the open sea (Theophylact, Ambrose, S. Thomas). Haymo says that this latter explanation of S. Paul's rescue alive from the belly of the deep, like another Jonah, is the tradition of the Fathers.

Of these scourgings and this shipwreck there is no record in the Acts of the Apostles. The shipwreck at Melita, narrated in Acts xxvii., happened long after this, when Paul was sent a prisoner to Rome. Only one scourging is mentioned, that in Acts xvi., and only one stoning, that in Acts xiv.  S. Luke, it is evident, therefore, is silent on many details of S. Paul's life.

Ver. 26.— In perils by my own countrymen. Through the plots that the Jews often entered into against him (Anselm).

In painfulness. Ærumna (Latin version), which, says Cicero, is laborious toil, as, e.g., when one that is tired out is forced, for the sake of rest, to undertake fresh toils.

The things in which the Apostle glories are those that not only many Christians now-a-days but many clergy would be ashamed of, as S. Bernard laments when commenting on the words, "Lo, we have left all." Whither have we drifted? Where has the apostolic Spirit gone? Whither are fled the humility, labours, sufferings, and zeal of the primitive Church? The Apostles, the princes of the Church, Christ's lieutenants, do not rejoice in their palaces, their carriages, their silken robes, in an attending crowd of noblemen, domestics, soldiers, horses, and hounds; in banquets and dinners; in fat benefices, in an effeminate, luxurious, and sumptuous life; but they exult and glory in hunger, thirst, painfulness, and weariness; cold and nakedness; in continual journeying to barbarous nations; in persecution, preaching, scourgings, beatings, stonings, death, martyrdom, fatigues by day and night; they are made all things to all men; they scorn no one; they are fathers of the poor and the afflicted; those that are barbarous, ignorant, and poor they teach: they preach to them the Gospel, comfort them, give them alms. This was the calling of the Apostles; this was the high dignity of the princes of the Church, of which Paul here boasts; this was the spirit of the early Christians, both clergy and people. Nor has this spirit, God be thanked, died out in this age. Our age has had, and still has its Borroméo, Pius, Xavier, Menesius, Gaspar, Hosius, and others like minded.

Be not ashamed then, 0 Bishop, or prior, or doctor, or pastor, to imitate these men—to visit the poor after their example, to enter hospitals and prisons, to bear the confessions of peasants, to give counsel to the unhappy, to instruct the simple and ignorant, to be made all things to all men, to zealously seek the salvation of all. In these works do not shrink from toil, fatigue, and sorrow, even unto death; in this cause be pleased and delighted to suffer scoffs and even blows. So Christ did and suffered, so did S. Paul, so did the Apostles in general. In this consisted their virtue, holiness, and apostleship. In that last day of the world, when the Chief Shepherd and great Doctor shall sit as judge, to examine the deeds of each one and to pass on each one sentence of an eternity of bliss or an eternity of woe, He will not ask you how many benefices, what wealth, or servants, or knowledge you had, but how you used them—how many by them you converted, how many poor you fed or gave drink to, how many you visited in prison, how far you spread His Gospel and extended His glory; what labours, dangers, ridicule, and persecutions you bore for Him; what hunger, and thirst, and weariness. These things God has done; and, while we have time, let us think on these things, let us do these things, that we may stir up in ourselves and in all men the spirit of the primitive Church and of the Apostles, that we may follow Christ our Leader, and the Apostles His princes, and so by our zeal and burning charity, set on fire a world now growing old and stiffening with cold. Then shall we in due time hear with the Apostles: "Verily I say unto you, that ye who have followed Me, in the regeneration, when the Son of Man shall sit on the throne of His glory, then shall ye also sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel."

Listen to what S. Chrysostom has to say of these sufferings and victories, and the courage of S. Paul ( Hom. 25, 26): " Paul, as a champion athlete, against the world contends in every kind of contest, and conquers in all. This was his apostolic character, and by these contests he spread the Gospel. Just as a flame of inextinguishable fire, if it falls into the ocean and is swallowed by the waves, emerges again as bright as ever—so too S. Paul, though pressed on all sides, was not oppressed; not knowing how to yield. Suffering but left him the more glorious victor and martyr a thousand times over."

S. Chrysostom ( Hom. 2) says again: " Paul, through the abundance of his devotion, somehow did not feel the sufferings that he underwent in the cause of virtue; nay, he thought virtue itself its own reward. Daily he rose higher and more ardent; in every attack he rejoiced and gained the victory; when suffering under blows and injuries he counted it triumph. He sought death before life, poverty before riches; he longed for toil more than others rest; he counted cities, nations, provinces, and power as of as little account as the sand. He regarded nothing bitter and nothing sweet, as men commonly regard things. He looked on tyrants as moths; on death, tortures, a thousand sufferings as mere child's play, provided that he might endure something for Christ. He was as adamant, nay, harder and stronger than adamant. Like a bird he flew over the whole world to teach it, and, as though hampered by no body, he despised all sufferings and dangers. So thoroughly did he despise all earthly things that heaven might seem already his."

Ver. 28.— Beside those things that are without, that which cometh upon me daily. The weight of business that daily presses upon me. The Greek word here used denotes, says Budæus, to collect a band, to call together a meeting, as, e.g., when the mob assembles and makes an attack on the aristocracy and the magistrates. So the Apostle here uses the word to denote those manifold cares which, as it were, formed a band and rushed upon him from every side, and almost overwhelmed him, and this not once only but continuously. Chrysostom, Theophylact, and Ephrem understand it to mean that factious conspiracies, seditions, tumults, popular outbreaks, and plots were being always set in motion against him. This is, indeed, the literal meaning of the Greek; but S. Paul has already mentioned those troubles in ver. 26. The former meaning is, therefore, the better. Then next clause, "the care of all the churches," is explanatory of this. Anselm and Theophylact say beautifully: " Everywhere Paul teaches, but he also suffers greatly. He endures his own sufferings, and at the same time bears the sufferings of others. He bears the infirmities of individuals, and at the same time is anxious about the salvation of all. "

S. Chrysostom here ( Hom. 18) teaches us beautifully, by his example, that nothing is sweeter than this anxiety, thought, labour, and grief of a good pastor for the Church. " A mother too," he says, " in the in midst of deep grief for her child has pleasure; in the midst of anxiety she has joy. Though her anxiety be a source of bitterness, yet her devotion gives her great happiness." Let great men, and those that are ministers of Christ, desire to be ever in motion as the heart is, or like the heavens, and, as Suetonius says of Vespasian, to die standing. Pacatus says, in his Panegyric of Theodosius: " Divine things delight in continual motion, and at the same time eternity feeds itself on movement, and your nature delights too in what we men call labour. As the heavens revolve with unfailing rotation, and the waves of the sea are ever in motion, and the sun never stands still, so are you, 0 Emperor, always engaged in matters of business that seem to return in a regular cycle."

Ver. 29. — Who is weak and I am not weak? Who is weak, or grieves, or is afflicted, and I am not with him weak, grieved, or afflicted? Who is offended and I am not on fire, both with grief, because the evil that my neighbour suffers when he is scandalised is mine, and with zeal also, to remedy his trouble and remove the cause of offence?

S. Gregory ( Hom. 12 in Ezek 4: 3), on the words, "Take thou unto thee an iron pan," thinks that by the pan is meant the mind of Ezekiel, who, on seeing the overthrow of Jerusalem, was, as it were, roasted in a pan with compassion. Of this God puts him in mind by ordering him to place a pan between himself and the city. Such, too, was S. Paul when he said: "Who is offended and I burn not?" " Paul had set on fire his heart," says S. Gregory, " with zeal for souls, and so had made it a pan in which, from love of virtue, he flamed against vice."

Ver. 30 . — Of the things which concern mine infirmities. I will glory of the afflictions, blows, persecutions, and sufferings that I have borne for Christ. Through them I seem weak, i.e., despicable, mean, and worthless (Chrysostom). Observe that Paul glories not in his miracles but his infirmities, because in them there shines forth the effectual power of God's grace, and also because in these he surpassed the false apostles, and thirdly, because they are the tokens of real virtue and of an Apostle.

Ver. 32 . — The governor under Aretas the king. This satrap of King Aretas was, says Theophylact, the father-in-law of Herod. Josephus says that Herod Antipas, who put to death John the Baptist, married the daughter of Aretas.

Ver. 33 . — And through a window in a basket was I let down. This escape of S. Paul from Damascus happened in the year 39 (Act 9:25), when, as Josephus says, Aretas, King of Arabia and of the country near Damascus, waged war against Herod, because Herod had repudiated his wife, the daughter of Aretas, for the purpose of marrying Herodias. In this war Herod was worsted, and slain by Aretas. This brought on Aretas the vengeance of Tiberius Cæsar, who sent Vitellius, governor of Syria, to take or slay Aretas (Josephus, Ant. lib. x. c. 7). Using the opportunity, the Jews, enraged with S. Paul, seem to have accused him before the prefect of Aretas of disturbing the people under a pretext of preaching the Gospel, and so drawing them away from heathenism, and consequently from Aretas. They wished to show that this would end in his betraying Damascus to the Jews and to Vitellius. Hence the prefect sought to take Paul, but he, being warned, escaped by being let down by the wall in a basket. Cf. Baronius ( Annals, vol. i. p. 304).

Commentary -- Other

Critics Ask: 2Co 11:5

2 CORINTHIANS 11:5 —Was Paul the greatest or the least of apostles?

PROBLEM: Here Paul claimed, “I am not at all inferior to the most eminent apostles” ( 2 Cor. 11:5 ). And elsewhere he would have us believe that he is “the least of the apostles” ( 1 Cor. 15:9 ). But it would seem that both cannot be true.

SOLUTION: Paul is speaking in different contexts. In one passage, he is speaking with respect to his ability, training, and zeal. However, unlike the other apostles, Paul had persecuted the church of Christ before his conversion and, therefore, considered himself unworthy even to be an apostle (cf. Gal. 1:13 ; Acts 9:1 ). So with respect to his preconversion antagonism to C hrist he rightly considered himself “the least of the apostles.”   

Evidence: 2Co 11:3

Notice that Paul believed the Genesis account of the Fall. See 2Pe 3:6 footnote.

When the serpent deceived Eve, he cast doubt on God’s Word, causing her to mistrust God Himself ( Gen 3:1-5 ). God said, " You shall surely die," but Eve chose to believe that God was deceitful. To partake of the fruit was an act of rebellion against the God who had not only given Adam and Eve life but had lavished His goodness upon them.

We must remember that Satan is the father of lies ( Joh 8:44 ), and he usually uses enough of the truth to make the lie believable. Here Paul cautions believers to reject any message that differs from the true gospel as revealed in the Word of God. See Eph 4:18 and Luk 4:1-13 footnotes.

Introduction / Outline

Robertson: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

Second Corinthians

From Macedonia a.d. 54 Or 55

By Way of Introduction

The Pauline authorship is admitted by all real scholars, though there is doubt by some as to the unity of the Epistle. J.H. Kennedy ( The Second and Third Letters of St. Paul to the Corinthians , 1900) has presented the arguments in a plausible, but not wholly convincing, manner for the plea that chapters 2 Corinthians 10-13 really represent a separate and earlier letter, the one referred to in 2Co_2:3, which was later tacked on to chapters 1-9 as part of the same Epistle. This theory does explain the difference in tone between chapters 1 to 7 and 10 to 13, but that fact is sufficiently clear from the stubborn minority against Paul in Corinth reported by Titus after the majority had been won to Paul by First Corinthians and by Titus (2Co_2:1-11). There are in fact three obvious divisions in the Epistle. Chapters 1 to 7 deal with the report of Titus about the victory in Corinth and Paul’s wonderful digression on the glory of the ministry in 2 Corinthians 2:12-6:10; chapters 8 and 2Co_9:1-15 discuss the collection for the poor saints in Jerusalem already mentioned in 1Co_16:1. and which Titus is to press to completion on his return to Corinth; chapters 10 to 13 deal sharply with the Judaizing minority who still oppose Paul’s leadership. These three subjects are in no sense inconsistent with each other. The letter is a unity. Nowhere do we gain so clear an insight into Paul’s own struggles and hopes as a preacher. It is a handbook for the modern minister of inestimable value. One can hear Paul’s heart throb through these chapters. The syntax is often broken by anacolutha. The sentences are sometimes disconnected. Grammatical agreements are overlooked. But there is power here, the grip of a great soul holding on to the highest ideals in the midst of manifold opposition and discouragements. Christ is Master of Paul at every turn.

The date of the Epistle is clearly after I Corinthians, for Paul has left Ephesus and is now in Macedonia (2Co_2:13), probably at Philippi, where he met Titus, though he had hoped to meet him at Troas on his return from Corinth. At a guess one may say that Paul wrote in the autumn of a.d. 54 or 55 of the same year in the spring of which he had written I Corinthians, and before he went on to Corinth himself where he wrote Romans (Act_20:1-3; Rom_16:1).

The occasion for writing is the return of Titus from Corinth with mixed news of the Pauline majority and the minority in opposition. So Titus is sent back with this Epistle to finish the task while Paul waits awhile for matters to clear up (2Co_13:1-10).

It is not certain whether the letter mentioned in 2Co_2:3 is our I Corinthians or a lost letter like the one alluded to in 1Co_5:9. If it is a lost one, we know of four Corinthian Epistles (the one in 1Co_5:9, our I Corinthians, the one in 2Co_2:3, our II Corinthians), assuming the unity of II Corinthians. Few things in Paul’s ministry gave him more concern than the troubles in Corinth. The modern city pastor finds little in his work that Paul has not faced and mastered. There is consolation and courage for the preacher in the conduct and counsels of this greatest of all preachers.

JFB: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

THE following reasons seem to have induced Paul to write this Second Epistle to the Corinthians: (1) That he might explain the reasons for his having deferred to pay them his promised visit, by taking Corinth as his way to Macedonia (1Co 4:19; 2Co 1:15-16; compare 1Co 16:5); and so that he might set forth to them his apostolic walk in general (2Co 1:12, 2Co 1:24; 2Co 6:3-13; 2Co 7:2). (2) That he might commend their obedience in reference to the directions in his First Epistle, and at the same time direct them now to forgive the offender, as having been punished sufficiently (2Co 2:1-11; 2Co 7:6-16). (3) That he might urge them to collect for the poor saints at Jerusalem (2Co 8:1-9, 2Co 8:15). (4) That he might maintain his apostolic authority and reprove gainsayers.

The external testimonies for its genuineness are IRENÆUS [Against Heresies, 3,7,1]; ATHENAGORAS [Of the Resurrection of the Dead]; CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA [Miscellanies, 3, p. 94; 4, p. 101]; TERTULLIAN [On Modesty, 13].

The TIME OF WRITING was after Pentecost, A.D. 57, when Paul left Ephesus for Troas. Having stayed in the latter place for some time preaching the Gospel with effect (2Co 2:12), he went on to Macedonia, being eager to meet Titus there, having been disappointed in his not coming to Troas, as had been agreed on between them. Having heard from him the tidings he so much desired of the good effect produced on the Corinthians by his First Epistle, and after having tested the liberality of the Macedonian churches (2Co 8:1), he wrote this Second Epistle, and then went on to Greece, where he abode for three months; and then, after travelling by land, reached Philippi on his return at Passover or Easter, A.D. 58 (Act 20:1-6). So that this Epistle must have been written about autumn, A.D. 57.

Macedonia was THE PLACE from which it was written (2Co 9:2, where the present tense, "I boast," or "am boasting," implies his presence then in Macedonia). In Asia (Lydian Asia) he had undergone some great peril of his life (2Co 1:8-9), whether the reference be [PALEY] to the tumult at Ephesus (Acts 19:23-41), or, as ALFORD thinks, to a dangerous illness in which he despaired of life. Thence he passed by Troas to Philippi, the first city which would meet him in entering Macedonia. The importance of the Philippian Church would induce him to stay there some time; as also his desire to collect contributions from the Macedonian churches for the poor saints at Jerusalem. His anxiety of mind is recorded (2Co 7:5) as occurring when he came into Macedonia, and therefore must have been at Philippi, which was the first city of Macedonia in coming from Troas; and here, too, from 2Co 7:6, compared with 2Co 7:5, must have been the scene of his receiving the comforting tidings from Titus. "Macedonia" is used for Philippi in 2Co 11:9, as is proved by comparison with Phi 4:15-16. So it is probably used here (2Co 7:5). ALFORD argues from 2Co 8:1, where he speaks of the "grace bestowed on the churches (plural) of Macedonia," that Paul must have visited other churches in Macedonia, besides Philippi, when he wrote, for example, Thessalonica, Berea, &c., and that Philippi, the first on his route, is less likely to have been the scene of his writing than the last on his route, whichever it was, perhaps Thessalonica. But Philippi, as being the chief town of the province, was probably the place to which all the collections of the churches were sent. Ancient tradition, too (as appears from the subscription to this Epistle), favors the view that Philippi was the place from which this Epistle was sent by the hands of Titus who received, besides, a charge to prosecute at Corinth the collection which he had begun at his first visit (2Co 8:6).

The STYLE is most varied, and passes rapidly from one phase of feeling to another; now joyous and consolatory, again severe and full of reproof; at one time gentle and affectionate, at another, sternly rebuking opponents and upholding his dignity as an apostle. This variety of style accords with the warm and earnest character of the apostle, which nowhere is manifested more beautifully than in this Epistle. His bodily frailty, and the chronic malady under which he suffered, and which is often alluded to (2Co 4:7; 2Co 5:1-4; 2Co 12:7-9; compare Note, see on 2Co 1:8), must have been especially trying to one of his ardent temperament. But besides this, was the more pressing anxiety of the "care of all the churches." At Corinth, as elsewhere, Judaizing emissaries wished to bind legal fetters of letter and form (compare 2Co. 3:3-18) on the freedom and catholicity of the Church. On the other hand, there were free thinkers who defended their immorality of practice by infidel theories (1Co 15:12, 1Co 15:32-36). These were the "fightings without," and "fears within" (2Co 7:5-6) which agitated the apostle's mind until Titus brought him comforting tidings from Corinth. Even then, while the majority at Corinth had testified their repentance, and, as Paul had desired, excommunicated the incestuous person, and contributed for the poor Christians of Judea, there was still a minority who, more contemptuously than ever, resisted the apostle. These accused him of crafty and mercenary motives, as if he had personal gain in view in the collection being made; and this, notwithstanding his scrupulous care to be above the possibility of reasonable suspicion, by having others besides himself to take charge of the money. This insinuation was palpably inconsistent with their other charge, that he could be no true apostle, as he did not claim maintenance from the churches which he founded. Another accusation they brought of cowardly weakness; that he was always threatening severe measures without daring to execute them (2Co 10:8-16; 2Co 13:2); and that he was vacillating in his teaching and practice, circumcising Timothy, and yet withholding circumcision from Titus; a Jew among the Jews, and a Greek among the Greeks. That most of these opponents were of the Judaizing party in the Church, appears from 2Co 11:22. They seem to have been headed by an emissary from Judea ("he that cometh," 2Co 11:4), who had brought "letters of commendation" (2Co 3:1) from members of the Church at Jerusalem, and who boasted of his purity of Hebrew descent, and his close connection with Christ Himself (2Co 11:13, 2Co 11:23). His partisans contrasted his high pretensions with the timid humility of Paul (1Co 2:3); and his rhetoric with the apostle's plain and unadorned style (2Co 11:6; 2Co 10:10, 2Co 10:13). It was this state of things at Corinth, reported by Titus, that caused Paul to send him back forthwith thither with this Second Epistle, which is addressed, not to Corinth only (1Co 1:2), but to all the churches also in Achaia (2Co 1:1), which had in some degree been affected by the same causes as affected the Corinthian Church. The widely different tone in different parts of the Epistle is due to the diversity which existed at Corinth between the penitent majority and the refractory minority. The former he addresses with the warmest affection; the latter with menace and warning. Two deputies, chosen by the churches to take charge of the contribution to be collected at Corinth, accompanied Titus (2Co 8:18-19, 2Co 8:22).

JFB: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

• THE HEADING; PAUL'S CONSOLATIONS IN RECENT TRIALS IN ASIA; HIS SINCERITY TOWARDS THE CORINTHIANS; EXPLANATION OF HIS NOT HAVING VISITED THEM AS HE HAD PURPOSED. (2Co. 1:1-24)
• REASON WHY HE HAD NOT VISITED THEM ON HIS WAY TO MACEDONIA; THE INCESTUOUS PERSON OUGHT NOW TO BE FORGIVEN; HIS ANXIETY TO HEAR TIDINGS OF THEIR STATE FROM TITUS, AND HIS JOY WHEN AT LAST THE GOOD NEWS REACHES HIM. (2Co. 2:1-17)
• THE SOLE COMMENDATION HE NEEDS TO PROVE GOD'S SANCTION OF HIS MINISTRY HE HAS IN HIS CORINTHIAN CONVERTS: HIS MINISTRY EXCELS THE MOSAIC, AS THE GOSPEL OF LIFE AND LIBERTY EXCELS THE LAW OF CONDEMNATION. (2Co. 3:1-18) Are we beginning again to recommend ourselves (2Co 5:12) (as some of them might say he had done in his first Epistle; or, a reproof to "some" who had begun doing so)!
• HIS PREACHING IS OPEN AND SINCERE, THOUGH TO MANY THE GOSPEL IS HIDDEN. (2Co. 4:1-18)
• THE HOPE (2Co 4:17-18) OF ETERNAL GLORY IN THE RESURRECTION BODY. (2Co. 5:1-21)
• HIS APOSTOLIC MINISTRY IS APPROVED BY FAITHFULNESS IN EXHORTATION, IN SUFFERINGS, IN EXHIBITION OF THE FRUITS OF THE HOLY GHOST: HIS LARGENESS OF HEART TO THEM CALLS FOR ENLARGEMENT OF THEIR HEART TO HIM. EXHORTATIONS TO SEPARATION FROM POLLUTION. (2Co. 6:1-18)
• SELF-PURIFICATION THEIR DUTY RESULTING FROM THE FOREGOING. HIS LOVE TO THEM, AND JOY AT THE GOOD EFFECTS ON THEM OF HIS FORMER EPISTLE, AS REPORTED BY TITUS. (2Co. 7:1-16)
• THE COLLECTION FOR THE SAINTS; THE READINESS OF THE MACEDONIANS A PATTERN TO THE CORINTHIANS; CHRIST THE HIGHEST PATTERN; EACH IS TO GIVE WILLINGLY AFTER HIS ABILITY; TITUS AND TWO OTHERS ARE THE AGENTS ACCREDITED TO COMPLETE THE COLLECTION. (2Co. 8:1-24)
• REASONS FOR HIS SENDING TITUS. THE GREATER THEIR BOUNTIFULNESS, THE MORE SHALL BE THE RETURN OF BLESSING TO THEM, AND THANKSGIVING TO GOD. (2Co 9:1-15)
• HE VINDICATES HIS APOSTOLIC AUTHORITY AGAINST THOSE WHO DEPRECIATED HIM FOR HIS PERSONAL APPEARANCE. HE WILL MAKE HIS POWER FELT WHEN HE COMES. HE BOASTS NOT, AS THEY, BEYOND HIS MEASURE. (2Co. 10:1-18)
• THROUGH JEALOUSY OVER THE CORINTHIANS, WHO MADE MORE ACCOUNT OF THE FALSE APOSTLES THAN OF HIM, HE IS OBLIGED TO COMMEND HIMSELF AS IN MANY RESPECTS SUPERIOR. (2Co. 11:1-33)
• REVELATIONS IN WHICH HE MIGHT GLORY: BUT HE RATHER GLORIES IN INFIRMITIES, AS CALLING FORTH CHRIST'S POWER: SIGNS OF HIS APOSTLESHIP: HIS DISINTERESTEDNESS: NOT THAT HE IS EXCUSING HIMSELF TO THEM; BUT HE DOES ALL FOR THEIR GOOD, LEST HE SHOULD FIND THEM NOT SUCH AS HE DESIRED, AND SO SHOULD HAVE TO BE SEVERE AT HIS COMING. (2Co. 12:1-21) He proceeds to illustrate the "glorying in infirmities" (2Co 11:30). He gave one instance which might expose him to ridicule (2Co 11:33); he now gives another, but this one connected with a glorious revelation of which it was the sequel: but he dwells not on the glory done to himself, but on the infirmity which followed it, as displaying Christ's power. The oldest manuscripts read, "I MUST NEEDS boast (or glory) though it be not expedient; for I will come." The "for" gives a proof that it is "not expedient to boast": I will take the case of revelations, in which if anywhere boasting might be thought harmless. "Visions" refers to things seen: "revelations," to things heard (compare 1Sa 9:15) or revealed in any way. In "visions" their signification was not always vouchsafed; in "revelations" there was always an unveiling of truths before hidden (Dan 2:19, Dan 2:31). All parts of Scripture alike are matter of inspiration; but not all of revelation. There are degrees of revelation; but not of inspiration.
• HE THREATENS A SEVERE PROOF OF HIS APOSTOLIC AUTHORITY, BUT PREFERS THEY WOULD SPARE HIM THE NECESSITY FOR IT. (2Co 13:1-14)

TSK: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

The most remarkable circumstance in this Epistle, observes Mr. Scott, is the confidence of the Apostle in the goodness of his cause, and in the power of God to bear him out in it. Opposed as he then was by a powerful and sagacious party, whose authority, reputation, and interest were deeply concerned, and who were ready to seize on every thing that could discredit him, it is wonderful to hear him so firmly insist upon his apostolical authority, and so unreservedly appeal to the miraculous power which he has exercised and conferred at Corinth. So far from shrinking from the contest, as afraid of some discovery being made, unfavourable to him and the common cause, he, with great modesty and meekness indeed, but with equal boldness and decision, expressly declares that his opposers and despisers were the ministers of Satan, and menaces them with miraculous judgments, when as many of their deluded hearers had been brought to repentance and re-established in the faith, as proper means could in a reasonable time effect. It is inconceivable that a stronger internal testimony, not only of integrity, but of divine inspiration, can exist. Had there been anything of imposture among the Christians, it was next to impossible but such a conduct must have occasioned a disclosure of it. Of the effects produced by this latter epistle we have no circumstantial account; for the journey which St. Paul took to Corinth, after he had written it, is mentioned by St. Luke only in a few words (Act 20:2, Act 20:3). We know, however, that St. Paul was there after he had written this Epistle; that the contributions for the poor brethren at Jerusalem were brought to him from different parts to that city (Rom 15:26); and that, after remaining there several months, he sent salutations from some of the principal members of that church, by whom he must have been greatly respected, to the church of Rome (Rom 16:22, Rom 16:23). From this time we hear no more of the false teacher and his party; and when Clement of Rome wrote his epistle to the Corinthians, St. Paul was considered by them as a divine apostle, to whose authority he might appeal without fear of contradiction. The false teacher, therefore, must either have been silenced by St. Paul, by virtue of his apostolical powers, and by an act of severity which he had threatened (2Co 13:2, 2Co 13:3); or this adversary of the apostle had, at that time, voluntarily quitted the place. Whichever was the cause, the effect produced must operate as a confirmation of our faith, and as a proof of St. Paul’s divine mission.

TSK: 2 Corinthians 11 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

2Co 11:1, Out of his jealousy over the Corinthians, who seemed to make more account of the false apostles than of him, he enters into a forced commendation of himself, 2Co 11:5, of his equality with the chief apostles, 2Co 11:7, of his preaching the gospel to them freely, and without any charge to them; 2Co 11:13, shewing that he was not inferior to those deceitful workers in any legal prerogative; 2Co 11:23, and in the service of Christ, and in all kinds of sufferings for his ministry, far superior.

Poole: 2 Corinthians 11 (Chapter Introduction)

CORINTHIANS CHAPTER 11

MHCC: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

The second epistle to the Corinthians probably was written about a year after the first. Its contents are closely connected with those of the former epistle. The manner in which the letter St. Paul formerly wrote had been received, is particularly noticed; this was such as to fill his heart with gratitude to God, who enabled him fully to discharge his duty towards them. Many had shown marks of repentance, and amended their conduct, but others still followed their false teachers; and as the apostle delayed his visit, from his unwillingness to treat them with severity, they charged him with levity and change of conduct. Also, with pride, vain-glory, and severity, and they spake of him with contempt. In this epistle we find the same ardent affection towards the disciples at Corinth, as in the former, the same zeal for the honour of the gospel, and the same boldness in giving Christian reproof. The first six chapters are chiefly practical: the rest have more reference to the state of the Corinthian church, but they contain many rules of general application.

MHCC: 2 Corinthians 11 (Chapter Introduction)

(2Co 11:1-14) The apostle gives the reasons for speaking in his own commendation.

(2Co 11:5-15) Shows that he had freely preached the gospel.

(2Co 11:16-21) Explains what he was going to add in defence of his own character.

(2Co 11:22-33) He gives an account of his labours, cares, sufferings, dangers, and deliverances.

Matthew Henry: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians

In his former epistle the apostle had signified his intentions of coming to Corinth, as he passed through Macedonia (1Co 16:5), but, being providentially hindered for some time, he writes this second epistle to them about a year after the former; and there seem to be these two urgent occasions: - 1. The case of the incestuous person, who lay under censure, required that with all speed he should be restored and received again into communion. This therefore he gives directions about (ch. 2), and afterwards (ch. 7) he declares the satisfaction he had upon the intelligence he received of their good behaviour in that affair. 2. There was a contribution now making for the poor saints at Jerusalem, in which he exhorts the Corinthians to join (ch. 8, 2Co 9:1-15).

There are divers other things very observable in this epistle; for example, I. The account the apostle gives of his labours and success in preaching the gospel in several places, ch. 2. II. The comparison he makes between the Old and New Testament dispensation, ch. 3. III. The manifold sufferings that he and his fellow-labourers met with, and the motives and encouragements for their diligence and patience, ch. 4, 5. IV. The caution he gives the Corinthians against mingling with unbelievers, ch. 6. V. The way and manner in which he justifies himself and his apostleship from the opprobrious insinuations and accusations of false teachers, who endeavoured to ruin his reputation at Corinth, ch. 10-12, and throughout the whole epistle.

Matthew Henry: 2 Corinthians 11 (Chapter Introduction)

In this chapter the apostle goes on with his discourse, in opposition to the false apostles, who were very industrious to lessen his interest and reputation among the Corinthians, and had prevailed too much by their insinuations. I. He apologizes for going about to commend himself, and gives the reason for what he did (2Co 11:1-4). II. He mentions, in his own necessary vindication, his equality with the other apostles, and with the false apostles in this particular of preaching the gospel to the Corinthians freely, without wages (2Co 11:5-15). III. He makes another preface to what he was about further to say in his own justification (2Co 11:16-21). And, IV. He gives a large account of his qualifications, labours, and sufferings, in which he exceeded the false apostles (2Co 11:22 to the end).

Barclay: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO THE LETTERS TO THE CORINTHIANS

The Greatness Of Corinth

A glance at the map will show that Corinth was made for greatness. The southern part of Greece is very nearly an island. On the west the Corinthian Gulf deeply indents the land and on the east the Saronic Gulf. All that is left to join the two parts of Greece together is a little isthmus only four miles across. On that narrow neck of land Corinth stands. Such a position made it inevitable that it should be one of the greatest trading and commercial centres of the ancient world. All traffic from Athens and the north of Greece to Sparta and the Peloponnese had to be routed through Corinth, because it stood on the little neck of land that connected the two.

Not only did the north to south traffic of Greece pass through Corinth of necessity, by far the greater part of the east to west traffic of the Mediterranean passed through her from choice. The extreme southern tip of Greece was known as Cape Malea (now called Cape Matapan). It was dangerous, and to round Cape Malea had much the same sound as to round Cape Horn had in later times. The Greeks had two sayings which showed what they thought of it--"Let him who sails round Malea forget his home," and, "Let him who sails round Malea first make his will."

The consequence was that mariners followed one of two courses. They sailed up the Saronic Gulf, and, if their ships were small enough, dragged them out of the water, set them on rollers, hauled them across the isthmus, and re-launched them on the other side. The isthmus was actually called the Diolkos, the place of dragging across. The idea is the same as that which is contained in the Scottish place name Tarbert, which means a place where the land is so narrow that a boat can be dragged from loch to loch. If that course was not possible because the ship was too large, the cargo was disembarked, carried by porters across the isthmus, and re-embarked on another ship at the other side. This four mile journey across the isthmus, where the Corinth Canal now runs, saved a journey of two hundred and two miles round Cape Malea, the most dangerous cape in the Mediterranean.

It is easy to see how great a commercial city Corinth must have been. The north to south traffic of Greece had no alternative but to pass through her; by far the greater part of the east to west trade of the Mediterranean world chose to pass through her. Round Corinth there clustered three other towns, Lechaeum at the west end of the isthmus, Cenchrea at the east end and Schoenus just a short distance away. Farrar writes, "Objects of luxury soon found their way to the markets which were visited by every nation in the civilized world--Arabian balsam, Phoenician dates, Libyan ivory, Babylonian carpets, Cilician goatsair, Lycaonian wool, Phrygian slaves."

Corinth, as Farrar calls her, was the Vanity Fair of the ancient world. Men called her The Bridge of Greece; one called her The Lounge of Greece. It has been said that if a man stands long enough in Piccadilly Circus he will in the end meet everyone in the country. Corinth was the Piccadilly Circus of the Mediterranean. To add to the concourse which came to it, Corinth was the place where the Isthmian Games were held, which were second only to the Olympics. Corinth was a rich and populous city with one of the greatest commercial trades in the ancient world.

The Wickedness Of Corinth

There was another side to Corinth. She had a reputation for commercial prosperity, but she was also a byword for evil living. The very word korinthiazesthai, to live like a Corinthian, had become a part of the Greek language, and meant to live with drunken and immoral debauchery. The word actually penetrated to the English language, and, in Regency times, a Corinthian was one of the wealthy young bucks who lived in reckless and riotous living. Aelian, the late Greek writer, tells us that if ever a Corinthian was shown upon the stage in a Greek play he was shown drunk. The very name Corinth was synonymous with debauchery and there was one source of evil in the city which was known all over the civilized world. Above the isthmus towered the hill of the Acropolis, and on it stood the great temple of Aphrodite, the goddess of love. To that temple there were attached one thousand priestesses who were sacred prostitutes, and in the evenings they descended from the Acropolis and plied their trade upon the streets of Corinth, until it became a Greek proverb, "It is not every man who can afford a journey to Corinth." In addition to these cruder sins, there flourished far more recondite vices, which had come in with the traders and the sailors from the ends of the earth, until Corinth became not only a synonym for wealth and luxury, drunkenness and debauchery, but also for filth.

The History Of Corinth

The history of Corinth falls into two parts. She was a very ancient city. Thucydides, the Greek historian, claims that it was in Corinth that the first triremes, the Greek battleships, were built. Legend has it that it was in Corinth that the Argo was built, the ship in which Jason sailed the seas, searching for the golden fleece. But in 146 B.C. disaster befell her. The Romans were engaged in conquering the world. When they sought to reduce Greece, Corinth was the leader of the opposition. But the Greeks could not stand against the disciplined Romans, and in 146 B.C. Lucius Mummius, the Roman general, captured Corinth and left her a desolate heap of ruins.

But any place with the geographical situation of Corinth could not remain a devastation. Almost exactly one hundred years later, in 46 B.C. Julius Caesar rebuilt her and she arose from her ruins. Now she became a Roman colony. More, she became a capital city, the metropolis of the Roman province of Achaea, which included practically all Greece.

In those days, which were the days of Paul, her population was very mixed. (i) There were the Roman veterans whom Julius Caesar had settled there. When a Roman soldier had served his time, he was granted the citizenship and was then sent out to some newly-founded city and given a grant of land so that he might become a settler there. These Roman colonies were planted all over the world, and always the backbone of them was the contingent of veteran regular soldiers whose faithful service had won them the citizenship. (ii) When Corinth was rebuilt the merchants came back, for her situation still gave her commercial supremacy. (iii) There were many Jews among the population. The rebuilt city offered them commercial opportunities which they were not slow to take. (iv) There was a sprinkling of Phoenicians and Phrygians and people from the east, with their exotic customs and their hysterical ways. Farrar speaks of "this mongrel and heterogeneous population of Greek adventurers and Roman bourgeois, with a tainting infusion of Phoenicians; this mass of Jews, ex-soldiers, philosophers, merchants, sailors, freedmen, slaves, trades-people, hucksters and agents of every form of vice." He characterizes her as a colony "without aristocracy, without traditions and without well-established citizens."

Remember the background of Corinth, remember its name for wealth and luxury, for drunkenness and immorality and vice, and then read 1Co_6:9-10 .

Are you not aware that the unrighteous will not inherit the

Kingdom of God? Make no mistake--neither fornicators, nor

idolaters, nor adulterers, nor sensualists, nor homosexuals, nor

thieves, nor rapacious men, nor drunkards, nor slanderers, nor

robbers shall inherit the Kingdom of God--and such were some of

you.

In this hotbed of vice, in the most unlikely place in all the Greek world, some of Paulgreatest work was done, and some of the mightiest triumphs of Christianity were won.

Paul In Corinth

Paul stayed longer in Corinth than in any other city, with the single exception of Ephesus. He had left Macedonia with his life in peril and had crossed over to Athens. There he had had little success and had gone on to Corinth, and he remained there for eighteen months. We realize how little we really know of his work when we see that the whole story of that eighteen months is compressed by Luke into 17 verses (Act_18:1-17 ).

When Paul arrived in Corinth he took up residence with Aquila and Prisca. He preached in the synagogue with great success. With the arrival of Timothy and Silas from Macedonia, he redoubled his efforts, but the Jews were so stubbornly hostile that he had to leave the synagogue. He took up his residence with one Justus who lived next door to the synagogue. His most notable convert was Crispus, who was actually the ruler of the synagogue, and amongst the general public he had good success.

In the year A.D. 52 there came to Corinth as its new governor a Roman called Gallio. He was famous for his charm and gentleness. The Jews tried to take advantage of his newness and good nature and brought Paul to trial before him on a charge of teaching contrary to their law. But Gallio, with impartial Roman justice, refused to have anything to do with the case or to take any action. So Paul completed his work in Corinth and moved on to Syria.

The Correspondence With Corinth

It was when he was in Ephesus in the year A.D. 55 that Paul, learning that things were not all well in Corinth, wrote to the church there. There is every possibility that the Corinthian correspondence as we have it is out of order. We must remember that it was not until A.D. 90 or thereby that Paulcorrespondence was collected. In many churches it must have existed only on scraps of papyrus and the putting it together would be a problem: and it seems that, when the Corinthian letters were collected, they were not all discovered and were not arranged in the right order. Let us see if we can reconstruct what happened.

(i) There was a letter which preceded 1 Corinthians. In 1Co_5:9 Paul writes, "I wrote you a letter not to associate with immoral men." This obviously refers to some previous letter. Some scholars believe that letter is lost without trace. Others think it is contained in 2Co_6:14-18 and 2Co_7:1 . Certainly that passage suits what Paul said he wrote about. It occurs rather awkwardly in its context, and, if we take it out and read straight on from 2Co_6:13 to 2Co_7:2 , we get excellent sense and connection. Scholars call this letter The Previous Letter. (In the original letters there were no chapter or verse divisions. The chapters were not divided up until the thirteenth century and the verses not till the sixteenth, and because of that the arranging of the collection of letters would be much more difficult).

(ii) News came to Paul from various sources of trouble at Corinth. (a) News came from those who were of the household of Chloe (1Co_1:11 ). They brought news of the contentions with which the church was torn. (b) News came with the visit of Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus to Ephesus. (1Co_16:17 ). By personal contact they were able to fill up the gaps in Paulinformation. (c) News came in a letter in which the Corinthian Church had asked Paul guidance on various problems. In 1Co_7:1 Paul begins, "Concerning the matters about which you wrote..." In answer to all this information Paul wrote 1 Corinthians and despatched it to Corinth apparently by the hand of Timothy (1Co_4:17 ).

(iii) The result of the letter was that things became worse than ever, and, although we have no direct record of it, we can deduce that Paul paid a personal visit to Corinth. In 2Co_12:14 he writes, "The third time I am ready to come to you." In 2Co_13:1-2 , he says again that he is coming to them for the third time. Now, if there was a third time, there must have been a second time. We have the record of only one visit, whose story is told in Act_18:1-17 . We have no record at all of the second, but Corinth was only two or three daysailing from Ephesus.

(iv) The visit did no good at all. Matters were only exacerbated and the result was an exceedingly severe letter. We learn about that letter from certain passages in 2 Corinthians. In 2Co_2:4 Paul writes, "I wrote to you out of much affliction and anguish of heart and with many tears." In 2Co_7:8 he writes, "For even if I made you sorry with my letter, I do not regret it though I did regret it; for I see that that letter has grieved you, though only for a while." It was a letter which was the product of anguish of mind, a letter so severe that Paul was almost sorry that he ever sent it.

Scholars call this The Severe Letter. Have we got it? It obviously cannot be I Corinthians, because it is not a tear-stained and anguished letter. When Paul wrote it, it is clear enough that things were under control. Now if we read through 2 Corinthians we find an odd circumstance. In 2Cor 1-9 everything is made up, there is complete reconciliation and all are friends again; but at 2Cor 10 comes the strangest break. 2Cor 10-13 are the most heartbroken cry Paul ever wrote. They show that he has been hurt and insulted as he never was before or afterwards by any church. His appearance, his speech, his apostleship, his honesty have all been under attack.

Most scholars believe that 2Cor 10-13 are the severe letter, and that they have become misplaced when Paulletters were put together. If we want the real chronological course of Paulcorrespondence with Corinth, we really ought to read 2Cor 10-13 before 2Cor 1-9. We do know that this letter was sent off with Titus. (2Co_2:13 ; 2Co_7:13 ).

(v) Paul was worried about this letter. He could not wait until Titus came back with an answer, so he set out to meet him (2Co_2:13 ; 2Co_7:5 , 2Co_7:13 ). Somewhere in Macedonia he met him and learned that all was well, and, probably at Philippi, he sat down and wrote 2Cor 1-9, the letter of reconciliation.

Stalker has said that the letters of Paul take the roof off the early churches and let us see what went on inside. Of none of them is that truer than the letters to Corinth. Here we see what "the care of all the churches" must have meant to Paul. Here we see the heart-breaks and the joys. Here we see Paul, the shepherd of his flock, bearing the sorrows and the problems of his people on his heart.

The Corinthian Correspondence

Before we read the letters in detail let us set down the progress of the Corinthian correspondence in tabular form.

(i) The Previous Letter, which may be contained in 2Co_6:14-18 and 2Co_7:1 .

(ii) The arrival of Chloepeople, of Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus, and of the letter to Paul from the Corinthian Church.

(iii) 1 Corinthians is written in reply and is despatched with Timothy.

(iv) The situation grows worse and Paul pays a personal visit to Corinth, which is so complete a failure that it almost breaks his heart.

(v) The consequence is The Severe Letter, which is almost certainly contained in 2Cor 10-13, and which was despatched with Titus.

(vi) Unable to wait for an answer, Paul sets out to meet Titus. He meets him in Macedonia, learns that all is well and, probably from Philippi, writes 2Cor 1-9, The Letter of Reconciliation.

The first four chapters of 1 Corinthians deal with the divided state of the Church of God at Corinth. Instead of being a unity in Christ it was split into sects and parties, who had attached themselves to the names of various leaders and teachers. It is Paulteaching that these divisions had emerged because the Corinthians thought too much about human wisdom and knowledge and too little about the sheer grace of God. In fact, for all their so-called wisdom, they are really in a state of immaturity. They think that they are wise men, but really they are no better than babies.

FURTHER READING

2 Corinthians

F. F. Bruce, 1 and 2 Corinthians (NCB; E)

J. Hering, The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians (translated by A. W. Heathcote and P. J. Allcock)

A. Plummer, 2 Corinthians (ICC; G)

R. V. G. Tasker, The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians (TC; E)

Abbreviations

ICC: International Critical Commentary

MC: Moffatt Commentary

NCB: New Century Bible

TC: Tyndale Commentary

E: English Text

G: Greek Text

Barclay: 2 Corinthians 11 (Chapter Introduction)

The Peril Of Seduction (2Co_11:1-6)

Masquerading As Christians (2Co_11:7-15)

The Credentials Of An Apostle (2Co_11:16-33)

Constable: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Historical background

First Corinthians did not dispel the problems in the church at Corinth completely. While it resolved some of these, opposition to the Apostle Paul persisted and Paul's critics continued to speak out against him in the church. One man in particular seems to have been the ringleader of the opposition (10:7). He had rallied the support of a significant minority. The issue was Paul's apostolic authority. His critics were claiming authority equal with Paul's. This was in effect a claim to apostolic authority on their part or a denial of the full apostolic authority of Paul.

News of continuing problems in Corinth reached Paul in Ephesus during his prolonged stay there during his third missionary journey. He then made a brief visit to Corinth. However his efforts to resolve the conflicts fell through (2:1; 12:14; 13:1-2). Paul apparently suffered insult and lost face during that visit (2:5-8; 7:12). Consequently this was a painful visit for Paul. He then returned to Ephesus.

Paul's next step in dealing with the situation in Corinth was to send a severe letter from Ephesus by the hand of Titus and another unnamed brother (2:3-4; 7:8-12; 12:18). He apparently directed this letter, now lost, at the party opposed to him and particularly its leader. Some commentators believe that 2 Corinthians 10-13 contains part of this letter, but the evidence for this is not convincing.¹

Paul evidently intended to receive Titus' report concerning the effects of this severe letter in Ephesus. However, persecution there made it expedient for Paul to leave that city earlier than he had anticipated (Acts 20:1). He found an open door for the gospel to the north in Troas. Eager to meet Titus who was taking the land route from Corinth back to Ephesus Paul moved west into Macedonia (2:12-13). There Titus met him and gave him an encouraging report (7:6-16). Most of the church had responded to Paul's directives and the church had disciplined the troublemakers (2:5-11). Unfortunately some in the congregation still refused to acknowledge Paul's authority over them (10:1-13:10).

Paul rejoiced at the repentance of the majority. However his concern for the unrepentant minority and his desire to pick up the money the Corinthians had begun to collect for their poorer brethren in Jerusalem led him to write 2 Corinthians. Along with these primary motives Paul also felt compelled to refute the charge of fickleness leveled at him by his critics. He had changed his travel plans and had not come to see them as he had said he would.

The whole situation provided him an opportunity to clarify the nature of Christian ministry.

Paul wrote the Second Epistle to the Corinthians from Macedonia, perhaps Philippi, Thessalonica, or Berea, probably in the fall or winter of 56 A.D. A date a year earlier or later is possible.

Some commentators believe Paul wrote 1 Corinthians after his painful visit and after he wrote the severe letter.² I believe it is more probable that he wrote 1 Corinthians before these two events.³ It is very difficult to reconstruct the details of Paul's activities since the data available to us is incomplete.

Paul's Corinthian Contacts
Paul's founding visit	His "former letter"	The Corin-thians' letter to him	First Corin-thians	Paul's "painful visit"	His "severe letter"	Second Corin-thians	Paul's antici-pated visit

"2 Corinthians is very different from the letters between which it was written, 1 Corinthians and Romans. Whereas each of those letters is, in its own way, systematic and orderly, 2 Corinthians is, on the face of it, uneven and digressive. It is no surprise, therefore, that many scholars have suggested that 2 Corinthians is really a collection of letters put together later as a single letter."⁴

"Second Corinthians presents many inspiring texts and passages to the reader and teacher of God's Word. A quick survey reveals approximately eighty individual verses lending themselves to extended meditation and exposition, apart from the sixty or so constituent paragraphs of the letter. This letter is a rich lode for the edification of God's people."⁵

Message⁶

The subject of 2 Corinthians is ministry, the church's work of service in the world. This is the central concept Paul dealt with in this epistle. What did he say about ministry?

He spoke of ministry in two ways. There is ministry per se (philosophy of ministry), and there is ministry to the world (practice of ministry).

Let's consider first what Paul revealed about the ministry of the church per se. This is the way Paul spoke of ministry most often in 2 Corinthians. In 1 Corinthians there is more emphasis on the practice of ministry than on the philosophy of ministry.

Paul had a lot to say about the authority of the church's ministry. Jesus Christ is the church's authority. He is the One who assigns each believer particular ministry within the body of Christ (cf. 1 Cor. 12:11, 18, 28; Eph. 4:11-13). The Corinthian church was having a major problem because some in its company were failing to accept Paul's appointment by Christ as an apostle and their own appointment as non-apostles. This was a practical repudiation of Jesus Christ's authority in the church. We must bow to the authority of Christ in the church by recognizing and responding appropriately to those He has appointed to various roles in the body. We identify these people by their gifts (divinely given abilities) and by their offices (divinely given positions).

Paul also had a lot to say in this epistle about the resources of the church's ministry. He emphasized three primarily.

One important resource is the encouragement of God. Paul spoke of this in the first part of the epistle especially. We read "comfort" in our texts, but the Greek word paraklesis means comfort through encouragement. The same Greek root describes the Holy Spirit as our Paraclete in John 14-16. Paul both taught and demonstrated in this letter that God's encouraging comfort always exceeds our discouragement and distress in ministry. The secret to finding it sufficient is taking God's view of how our ministry is really proceeding. This viewpoint Paul revealed, too.

A second resource is divine revelation. Paul did not preach himself or a message that he had concocted. He preached what God had revealed. Thus, revelation constituted both Paul's public message and his personal encouragement. We, too, have received the same message to communicate as ambassadors of Christ. It is a message of reconciliation, and it is the source of our encouragement.

A third resource is the prayers of the saints. Paul called for and counted on the prayers of God's people to bring God's power into play through him as he ministered (1:11). He realized that his own prayers would not move God to work as well as the concerted prayers of many of God's children (cf. James 4:2). Lack of prayer is often a sign of confidence in self rather than confidence in God.

In addition to the authority and resources of our ministry, Paul also had a lot to say in this epistle about experience in ministry. Three features mark experience in ministry.

First, one thing that marks ministry is tribulation. Paul spoke extensively in 2 Corinthians about the afflictions he experienced during his ministry. Furthermore he revealed that these are part of ministry, anyone's ministry who is carrying it out as God has directed. Some people do not welcome the gospel. To them it is a death scent. We should expect to experience tribulation in ministry. We have all experienced this in witnessing to some extent.

Second, another thing that should mark our ministry is hope. God has revealed the end of our ministry. We will all stand before Jesus Christ and receive a reward one day (5:10). This hope is a certainty. The Christian who loses sight of his or her hope is going to drift and suffer discouragement rather than press toward the mark. The end of our ministry is constantly in view in this epistle.

Third, a mark of Christian ministry is triumph. Paul revealed and illustrated by his own attitude that no matter how response to our ministry may appear to us our ministry is always triumphant. The reason for this is that God is at work through His ministers. One of the problems Paul's critics in Corinth had and that we have is that they were evaluating ministry superficially rather than realistically. We need to evaluate ministry on the basis of what God has revealed is happening, not what appears to be happening.

Paul not only revealed much about ministry per se in 2 Corinthians, he also revealed a lot about the ministry of the church to the world. Three emphases predominate.

First, Paul revealed what the message of the church is: the Word of God. Ours is a ministry of the Word. By "the Word" Paul meant the revelation God has given us. In his day it consisted of the Old Testament Scriptures plus the revelations that he and the other New Testament prophets had received that were for all Christians. Paul contrasted his message and ours with the message of Moses and exulted in its superiority. God has removed the veil and we can now see His glory clearly revealed in the face of Jesus Christ.

Second, Paul revealed the church's equipment to carry on its ministry to the world. We are ready to minister only when we separate from the world's sins and conform to God's will. Paul contrasts with his critics in this letter in all these respects. As these characteristics mark us we, too, will be ready to minister.

Third, Paul revealed the exercise of the church's ministry to the world. In exercising its ministry the church does three things according to this epistle.

1. It exercises discipline to restore the erring to effective ministry. Paul's great concern in this epistle was the restoration of the rebellious critics in the Corinthian church to unity and usefulness.

2. The church also is to give no occasion of stumbling to others. Paul's concern was that the behavior of the Corinthian Christians would be an encouragement to other believers and a base from which the gospel could proceed even farther into unevangelized regions beyond.

3. Third, the church exercises the grace of giving. It seeks to facilitate the principle of equality that God has demonstrated throughout history, namely that those who have should share with those who have not. This applies not only to the gospel message but to the physical necessities of life (chs. 8-9).

From these emphases the message of the book emerges. The church needs to submit to revealed authority, to draw upon supernatural resources and equipment, and to experience triumph through tribulation as it executes its mission. As it does so it will effectively carry out its ministry of proclaiming the message of reconciliation to the world.

Constable: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

Outline

I. Introduction 1:1-11

A. Salutation 1:1-2

B. Thanksgiving for comfort in affliction 1:3-11

1. Thanksgiving for comfort 1:3-7

2. Thanksgiving for deliverance 1:8-11

II. Answers to insinuations about the sincerity of Paul's commitment to the Corinthians and to the ministry 1:12-7:16

A. Defense of his conduct with regard to his promised visit and the offender 1:12-2:17

1. The postponement of the intended visit 1:12-2:4

2. The treatment of the offender and the result of the severe letter 2:5-17

B. Exposition of Paul's view of the ministry 3:1-6:10

1. The superiority of Christian ministry to Mosaic ministry 3:1-11

2. The great boldness of the new ministers 3:12-4:6

3. The sufferings and supports of a minister of the gospel 4:7-5:10

4. The life of a minister of Christ 5:11-6:10

C. Appeal for restoration of the Corinthians' confidence in him 6:11-7:16

1. An appeal for large-heartedness and consistency 6:11-7:4

2. The encouraging response of the Corinthians so far 7:5-16

III. Instructions concerning the collection for the poor saints in Judea 8:1-9:15

A. The example of the Macedonians 8:1-7

B. The supreme motive for giving 8:8-15

C. The delegates of the churches 8:16-24

D. The anticipated visit of Paul 9:1-5

E. The benefits of generous giving 9:6-15

IV. Appeals concerning Paul's apostolic authority 10:1-13:10

A. Replies to charges made against Paul 10:1-18

1. Reply to the charge of cowardice 10:1-6

2. Reply to the charge of weakness 10:7-11

3. Reply to the charge of intrusion 10:12-18

B. Claims made by Paul 11:1-12:18

1. Paul's reasons for making these claims 11:1-6

2. Freedom to minister without charge 11:7-15

3. Paul's service and sufferings 11:16-33

4. Special revelations Paul received 12:1-10

5. Paul's supernatural miracles and paternal love 12:11-18

C. Exhortations in view of Paul's approaching visit 12:19-13:10

1. Paul's concerns 12:19-21

2. Paul's warnings 13:1-10

V. Conclusion 13:11-14

A. The exhortation 13:11-12

B. The salutation 13:13

C. The benediction 13:14

Constable: 2 Corinthians

2 Corinthians

Bibliography

Alford, Henry. The Greek Testament. 4 vols. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, n. d.

Balge, Richard D. "Exegesis of 2 Corinthians 9:1-7." Wisconsin Lutheran Quarterly 85:3 (Summer 1988):220-29.

Barclay, William. The Letters to the Corinthians. 2nd ed. The Daily Study Bible. Edinburgh: Saint Andrew Press, 1962.

Barnett, Paul. The Second Epistle to the Corinthians. The New International Commentary on the New Testament series. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1997.

Barrett, C. K. A Commentary on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. Harper New Testament Commentaries series. New York: Harper & Row, 1973.

Batey, Richard. "Paul's Interaction with the Corinthians." Journal of Biblical Literature 84 (1965):139-46.

Baxter, J. Sidlow. Explore the Book. 6 vols. London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1965.

Broomall, Wick. "The Second Epistle to the Corinthians." In Wycliffe Bible Commentary, pp. 1261-82. Edited by Charles F. Pfeiffer and Everett F. Harrison. Chicago: Moody Press, 1962.

Brown, Perry C. "What Is the Meaning of Examine Yourselves' in 2 Corinthians 13:5?" Bibliotheca Sacra 154:614 (April-June 1997):175-88.

Bruce, F. F., ed. 1 and 2 Corinthians. New Century Bible series. London: Marshall, Morgan and Scott, Oliphants, 1971.

_____. Commentary on The Book of Acts. New International Commentary on the New Testament series. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1984.

Chafer, Lewis Sperry. Systematic Theology. 8 vols. Dallas: Dallas Seminary Press, 1948.

Chitwood, Arlen L. Judgment Seat of Christ. Norman, OK. The Lamp Broadcast, Inc., 1986.

Constable, Thomas L. "Analysis of Bible Books--New Testament." Paper submitted for course 686 Analysis of Bible Books--New Testament. Dallas Theological Seminary, January 1968.

Dahms, John V. "Dying with Christ." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 36:1 (March 1993):15-23.

Dalton, William J. "Is the Old Covenant Abrogated (2 Cor. 3:14)?" Australian Biblical Review 35 (1987):88-94.

Darby, John Nelson. Synopsis of the Books of the Bible. 5 vols. Revised ed. New York: Loizeaux Brothers Publishers, 1942.

Decker, Rodney J. "The Church's Relationship to the New Covenant." Bibliotheca Sacra 152:607 (July-September 1995):290-305; 608 (October-December 1995):431-56.

Dictionary of the Apostolic Church. Edited by James Hastings. 1915 ed. S. v. "Corinthians, Epistles to the," by G. H. Clayton.

Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by James Hastings. 1910 ed. S. v. "Corinthians, Second Epistle to the," by A. Robertson.

Dillow, Joseph C. The Reign of the Servant Kings. Miami Springs, Fl.: Schoettle Publishing Co., 1992.

Doty, W. G. Letters in Primitive Christianity. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1973.

Flanagan, James L. "The Relief Offering for the Saints in Jerusalem." Luther Rice Theological Journal 3 (Spring 1985):17-27.

Forbes, Christopher. "Comparison, Self-Praise and Irony: Paul's Boasting and the Conventions of Hellenistic Rhetoric." New Testament Studies 32:1 (January 1986):1-30.

Fung, Ronald Y. K. "The Nature of the Ministry according to Paul." Evangelical Quarterly 54 (1982):129-46.

Furnish, Victor Paul. II Corinthians. Anchor Bible series. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1984.

Gaebelein, Arno C. The Annotated Bible. 4 vols. Reprint ed. Chicago: Moody Press, and New York: Loizeaux Brothers, Inc., 1970.

Gaventa, Beverly R. "Apostle and Church in 2 Corinthians." In Pauline Theology. Vol. II: 1 & 2 Corinthians, pp. 182-99. Edited by David M. Hay. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993.

Gleason, Randall C. "Paul's Covenantal Contrasts in 2 Corinthians 3:1-11." Bibliotheca Sacra 154:613 (January-March 1997):61-79.

A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament. By C. H. Wilke. Revised by C. L. Wilibald Grimm. Translated, revised and enlarged by Joseph Henry Thayer, 1889.

Guthrie, Donald. New Testament Introduction. 3 vols. 2nd ed. London: Tyndale Press, 1966.

Harris, Gregory H. "Satan's Work as a Deceiver." Bibliotheca Sacra 156:622 (April-June 1999):190-202.

Harris, Murray J. "2 Corinthians." In Romans-Galatians. Vol. 10 of Expositor's Bible Commentary. 12 vols. Edited by Frank E. Gaebelein and J. D. Douglas. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

Hay, David M. "The Shaping of Theology in 2 Corinthians: Convictions, Doubts, Warrants." In Pauline Theology. Vol. II: 1 & 2 Corinthians, pp. 135-55. Edited by David M. Hay. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993.

Hodge, Charles. An Exposition of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. Thornapple Commentaries series. Robert Carter & Brothers, 1859; reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1980.

Hodges, Zane C. Absolutely Free! A Biblical Reply to Lordship Salvation. Dallas: Redencion Viva, and Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, Academie Books, 1989.

_____. Grace in Eclipse. Dallas: Redencion Viva, 1985.

Hoyt, Samuel L. "The Judgment Seat of Christ and Unconfessed Sins." Bibliotheca Sacra 137:545 (January-March 1980):32-40.

_____. "The Negative Aspects of the Christian's Judgment." Bibliotheca Sacra 137:546 (April-June 1980):125-32.

Hughes, Philip Edgcumbe. Paul's Second Epistle to the Corinthians. The New International Commentary on the New Testament series. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1962.

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Edited by James Orr. 1957 ed. S. v. "Corinthians, Second Epistle to the," by R. Dykes Shaw.

Ironside, Harry A. Addresses on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. New York: Loizeaux Brothers, Publishers, n.d.

Kent, Homer A., Jr. A Heart Opened Wide. New Testament Studies series. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1982.

Kinnebrew, Jim. "The Gospel of Affluence." Mid-America Theological Journal 9:2 (Fall 1985):49-65.

Kraftchick, Steven J. "Death in Us, Life in You." In Pauline Theology. Vol. II: 1 & 2 Corinthians, pp. 156-81. Edited by David M. Hay. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993.

Lange, John Peter, ed. A Commentary on the Holy Scriptures. 12 vols. Reprint ed., Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1960. Vol. 10: Romans and Corinthians, by J. P. Lange, F. R. Fay, and Christian Friedrich Kling. Translated by J. F. Hurst, Daniel W. Poor, and Conway P. Wing.

Lenski, Richard C. H. The Interpretation of St. Paul's First and Second Epistles to the Corinthians. Reprint ed., Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1961.

Lieu, Judith M. "Grace to You and Peace': The Apostolic Greeting." Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 68:1 (Autumn 1985):161-78.

Lindars, Barnabas. "The Sound of the Trumpet: Paul and Eschatology." Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 67:2 (Spring 1985):766-82.

Lowery, David K. "2 Corinthians." In Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament pp. 551-86. Edited by John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck. Wheaton: Scripture Press Publications, Victor Books, 1983.

_____. "A Theology of Paul's Missionary Epistles." In A Biblical Theology of the New Testament, pp. 243-97. Edited by Roy B. Zuck. Chicago: Moody Press, 1994.

MacArthur, John F., Jr. Faith Works: The Gospel According to the Apostles. Dallas: Word Publishing, 1993.

_____. The Gospel According to Jesus. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, Academie Books, 1988.

Machen, J. Greshem. The Origin of Paul's Religion. New York: Macmillan, 1921.

Martin, Ralph P. 2 Corinthians. Word Biblical Commentary series. Waco: Word Books, 1986.

_____. "The Setting of 2 Corinthians." Tyndale Bulletin 37 (1986):3-19.

Mason, Clarence E., Jr., "The Day of Our Lord Jesus Christ." Bibliotheca Sacra 125:500 (October-December 1968):352-59.

McCaughey, J. D. "The Glory of God in the Face of Jesus Christ." Australian Biblical Review 35 (1987):95-98.

Morgan, G. Campbell. The Corinthian Letters of Paul. New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1946.

_____. Living Messages of the Books of the Bible. 2 vols. New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1912.

Moulton, James Hope. A Grammar of the Greek New Testament. 4 vols. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1908-76. Vol. 3 (1963): Syntax, by Nigel Turner.

Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome. "Being at Home in the Body We Are in Exile from the Lord' (2 Cor. 5:6b)." Revue Biblique 93:2 (April 1986):214-21.

_____. "Paul and Macedonia: The Connection Between 2 Corinthians 2.13 and 2.14." Journal for the Study of the New Testament 25 (October 1985):99- 103.

O'Neill, John. "The Absence of the In Christ' Theology in 2 Corinthians 5." Australian Biblical Review 35 (1987):99-106.

Phillips, J. B. The New Testament in Modern English. New York: Macmillan, 1958.

Plummer, Alfred. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians. Reprint ed. The International Critical Commentary series. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1966.

Pyne, Robert A. "Antinomianism and Dispensationalism." Bibliotheca Sacra 153:610 (April-June 1996):141-54.

Robertson, Archibald Thomas. Word Pictures in the New Testament. 6 vols. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1931.

Ryrie, Charles C. "The End of the Law." Bibliotheca Sacra 124:495 (July-September 1967):243-44.

Sarles, Ken L. "A Theological Evaluation of the Prosperity Gospel." Bibliotheca Sacra 143:572 (October-December 1986):329-52.

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church. 8 vols. 1858; 3rd rev. ed., Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1966.

Tasker, R. V. G. The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians. The Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. London: Tyndale Press, 1964.

Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Edited by Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich. Translated and edited by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. 1964-74. S. v. "apostolos," by Karl Heinrich Rengstorf, 1 (1964):407-47.

Thompson, James W. "Ministry in the New Testament." Restoration Quarterly 27:3 (Third Quarter 1984):143-56.

Thorsell, Paul R. "The Spirit in the Present Age: Preliminary Fulfillment of the Predicted New Covenant According to Paul." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 41:3 (September 1998):397-413.

van Unnik, W. C. "The Christian's Freedom of Speech in the New Testament." Bulletin of the John Rylands Library of the University of Manchester 44 (1961-62):466-88.

_____. "With Unveiled Face,' and Exegesis of 2 Corinthians iii 12-18." Novum Testamentum 6:2-3 (1963):153-69.

Wall, Joe L. Going for the Gold. Chicago: Moody Press, 1991.

Walvoord, John F. "The Church in Heaven." Bibliotheca Sacra 123:490 (April-June 1966):99-103.

_____, ed. Lewis Sperry Chafer's Systematic Theology. 2 vols. Abridged ed. Wheaton: Scripture Press Publications, Victor Books, 1988.

Ware, Bruce A. "The New Covenant and the People(s) of God." In Dispensationalism, Israel and the Church: The Search for Definition, pp. 68-97. Edited by Craig A. Blaising and Darrell L. Bock. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992.

Webb, William J. "What Is the Unequal Yoke (hetepozygountes) in 2 Corinthians 6:14?" Bibliotheca Sacra 149:594 (April-June 1992):162-79.

_____. "Who Are the Unbelievers (apistoi) in 2 Corinthians 6:14?" Bibliotheca Sacra 149:593 (January-March 1992):27-44.

Wenham, John. "The Identification of Luke." Evangelical Quarterly 63:1 (1991):3-44.

Whiteley, D. E. H. The Theology of St. Paul. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1964.

Wiersbe, Warren W. Be Encouraged. BE Books. Wheaton: Scripture Press Publications, Victor Books, 1985.

Wilkin, Bob. "Test Yourselves to See If You Are in the Faith: Assurance Based on Our Works? 2 Corinthians 13:5." Grace Evangelical Society News 4:10 (October 1990):2.

Woodcock, Eldon. "The Seal of the Holy Spirit." Bibliotheca Sacra 155:618 (April-June 1998):139-63.

Wright, N. T. "On Becoming the Righteousness of God." In Pauline Theology. Vol. II: 1 & 2 Corinthians, pp. 200-208. Edited by David M. Hay. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993.

Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

THE SECOND

EPISTLE OF ST. PAUL, THE APOSTLE,

TO THE CORINTHIANS.

INTRODUCTION.

The subject and design of this second Epistle to the Corinthians, is much the same as of the former. He comforts and congratulates with those who were now reformed by his admonitions. He blames the faulty with apostolical liberty; and being forced to justify himself and his proceedings against the upstart false teachers, he gives an ample account of his sufferings, and also of the favours and graces, which God had bestowed upon him. This Epistle was written not long after the first, (an. 57. [in the year 57.]) some months before that to the Romans, from some place in Macedonia, perhaps from Philippi, as marked at the end of divers Greek copies, though it is observed, that those subscriptions are not much to be relied upon. (Witham) --- In this Epistle St. Paul comforts those who are now reformed by his admonitions to them in the former, and absolves the incestuous man on doing penance, whom he had before excommunicated for his crime. Hence he treats of true penance, and of the dignity of the ministers of the New Testament. He cautions the faithful against false teachers, and the society of infidels. He gives an account of his sufferings, and also of the favours and graces which God hath bestowed on him. (Challoner) --- St. Paul, not being able to come to the Corinthians as soon as he had promised, writes this Epistle to inform them, that it was not through inconstancy, but on account of several weighty reasons, which had hitherto hindered him. Several other reasons, likewise, compelled him to write. For during his absence, several false teachers of the Jews had come amongst them, teaching them that it was necessary to observe the law of Moses, in order to be saved. St. Paul, therefore, first excuses himself, by saying, that the afflictions and troubles he had met with, had hindered him from coming to them. He next orders the fornicator to be restored to favour; after which, he extols his apostleship, forming a comparison between the law of Christ, and of Moses, wherein he blames the false teachers. He then subjoins an exhortation to a pious and holy life, with liberality in their alms, after the example of the Macedonians. As the false teachers had been very industrious in establishing their own reputation, by detracting from that of St. Paul, he enumerates his own sufferings, and the favours he had received from God, shewing that he had much more reason to glory than they; and concludes by exhorting them to correct those faults with which they still remained infected. (Estius) --- This letter may be justly appreciated as a perfect masterpiece of that animated and solid eloquence, which all interpreters so much admire in St. Paul. (Bible de Vence)

====================

Gill: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 2 CORINTHIANS

This epistle, according to the subscription at the end of it, was written from Philippi of Macedonia; and though the subscriptions annexed to the epistles are not always to be depended on, yet it seems very likely that this was written from thence; for the apostle not finding Titus at Troas, as he expected, went into Macedonia, where he met with him, and had an account from him of the success of his first epistle; of the state and condition of the church, and of the temper and disposition of mind in which the members of it were, and which gave him great satisfaction; upon which he immediately wrote this second epistle, and sent it by the same person to them; see 2Co 2:12, 2Co 7:5. It is very probable it might be written the year after the former; and so it is placed by Dr. Lightfoot in the year 56, as the former is in the year 55; though some place this in the year 60, and the other in 59. The occasion of this epistle was partly to excuse his not coming to them according to promise, and to vindicate himself from the charge of unfaithfulness, levity, and inconstancy on that account; and partly, since what he had wrote about the incestuous person, had had a good effect both upon him and them, to direct them to take off the censure that had been laid upon him, and restore him to their communion, and comfort him; likewise to stir them up to finish the collection for the poor saints they had begun; as also to defend himself against the calumnies of the false teachers, who were very industrious to sink his character and credit in this church; which he does by observing the doctrines of the Gospel he preached, which were far more glorious than, and abundantly preferable to, the ministration of the law of Moses, which those men desired to be teachers of; as likewise the success of his ministry in every place; the many sufferings he had underwent for the sake of Christ, and his Gospel; the high favours and privileges he had received of the Lord, as well as the signs, wonders, and miracles done by him in proof of his apostleship; and in which are interspersed many things useful and instructive.

Gill: 2 Corinthians 11 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO 2 CORINTHIANS 11

In this chapter, the apostle continues his discourse concerning the false teachers; blames the Corinthians for their connivance at them, and subjection to them; gives a true and ample description of them; compares himself with them, and by various instances shows, that he was greatly superior to them: and whereas self commendation was necessary, and could not be avoided in this argument, and this might look like folly, and by some be deemed such, he entreats the Corinthians that they would bear with him in it, as well as in his reproofs and admonitions to them, 2Co 11:1 and assigns his godly jealousy over them, as the reason why he entered into this subject, and proceeded in such a way of reasoning on it; and the rather this might be bore with in him, since he had such a concern in espousing them to Christ; his end in which was, to present them a chaste virgin to him, 2Co 11:2 and what this jealousy was he explains, lest their minds should be corrupted by the false teachers, and they should forsake the pure and simple Gospel of Christ; which he exemplifies in the instance of Eve being deceived by the serpent, 2Co 11:3 and proceeds to blame them for preferring these false teachers to the faithful ministers of the word; seeing, put them in the best light they could, it was but the same Jesus they preached, and not another and a better Saviour; and it was but the same spirit of faith they received through their ministry, and not another and a better; and the same Gospel they brought, and did not come with better news, or more joyful tidings; had this been the case, there would have been some reason for extolling one above another, 2Co 11:4 for which there was not the least foundation, especially with respect to the Apostle Paul, who was not inferior to the chief of the true apostles of Christ, and therefore could not be at all behind these men, 2Co 11:5 and seeing it might be objected to him that he was rude in speech, when these were men of great eloquence, he allows it; but then affirms he was not so in knowledge, in which he exceeded them; for the truth of which, lie appeals to the Corinthians themselves, 2Co 11:6 and he suggests, that it was very ungrateful in them, that inasmuch as he humbled himself when among them, by working with his own hands, that they might be exalted, that they should despise him on that account, and prefer these avaricious men before him, 2Co 11:7 when that he might be able to preach the Gospel freely, he took of other churches, 2Co 11:8 and particularly was supplied by the Macedonian brethren, and so was not at all chargeable and burdensome to them, and he was determined ever to remain so, 2Co 11:9 and which he confirms by an oath, that no man should ever be able to prevail upon him to take anything of the churches in the region of Achaia, in which Corinth was, 2Co 11:10 and whereas it might be insinuated that such a resolution showed that he had no true affection for them, this he denies, and appeals to the omniscient God for the truth of his love to them, 2Co 11:11 but the true reason why he had so determined, was to prevent the false teachers having any opportunity to reproach him, and exalt themselves, 2Co 11:12 and this leads him on to a description of them, by their ambition and arrogance, in assuming a title that did not belong to them; by their crafty, cunning, and deceitful manner of working, and by their hypocrisy in mimicking the apostles of Christ, 2Co 11:13 nor need this seem strange to any, when Satan himself has been transformed into an angel of light, 2Co 11:14 and whom, the apostle suggests, these men imitated; whose ministers they were, though they looked like ministers of righteousness, and on whom the apostle denounces severe punishment, 2Co 11:15 and as he saw himself under a necessity of boasting, in order to stop the mouths of these men, to vindicate himself, and prevent mischief being done by them, he renews his entreaty in 2Co 11:1 that the Corinthians would not reckon him as a fool; or if they did, that they would bear with his folly, and suffer him to boast of himself a little, 2Co 11:16 and that the Christian religion, and the Gospel of Christ, might not come under any reproach and blame, for his conduct in this particular, he observes, that what he was about to say on this head of boasting, was not by any order or direction from the Lord, but of himself, and might have the appearance of folly in it, 2Co 11:17 and the rather he might be indulged in it, seeing many, even the false teachers, had gloried in a carnal way, and of outward things, and which made it necessary that he should glory also, 2Co 11:18 and which foolish boasting in them, even many of the Corinthians had bore with, and that with a great deal of pleasure; and therefore might suffer him, a single man, to boast a little of himself unto them, whom he ironically calls wise, 2Co 11:19 of which he gives instances, by being brought into bondage, devoured, pillaged, insulted, and abused, by the false teachers, 2Co 11:20 nor had they abused and reproached them only, but the apostle also, as weak and contemptible; but then he would not bear it, but would boldly engage and enter the lists with them, though this might be by some reckoned foolish boasting, 2Co 11:21 and then follows the comparison between him and them, by which it appears that he was upon an equal foot with them, on account of nation, descent, and parentage, 2Co 11:22 that he was superior to them as a minister of the Gospel, as was manifest by his more abundant labours in it, and by his sufferings for it, the dangers he was exposed unto on account of it, and the many hardships he endured in the ministration of it, of which he gives a variety of particulars, 2Co 11:23 to which he adds, besides these things, and all other outward ones, that the daily care of all the churches of Christ was upon him, 2Co 11:28 and such was his sympathy with all sorts of Christians, even the weak and offended brethren, that he was affected with them, bore their infirmities, and sought to reconcile and make them easy, which greatly increased the weight of business that was upon him, 2Co 11:29 and seeing there was a necessity of glorying, he chose to glory in his infirmities and sufferings, and on which he had mostly enlarged, 2Co 11:30 and for the glory of divine Providence, and to express his thankfulness for the mercy, he relates a particular instance of deliverance from imminent danger; for the truth of which he appeals to the God and Father of Christ, the eternally blessed One, 2Co 11:31 the danger he escaped, the manner and means of the escape, and the place where, are particularly mentioned, 2Co 11:32.

College: 2 Corinthians (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION

Studying 2 Corinthians plunges the modern reader back to the real, tumultuous world of early Christianity. The simple ideals of sharing and goodwill described in Acts 2:42-47 seem to have little place among the diverse converts from this boomtown of Corinth where Paul chooses to anchor his Greek mission. Rather, this microcosm of the early church bickers and accuses, revels in disorder and confusion, reeks of unrenounced pagan practices, and uncritically pursues self-promotion and even disloyalty to Paul, its founder.

When we speak of restoring the NT church, the Corinthian church is not what we have in mind. But maybe this is where we should really start: a real community of believers struggling to understand and implement their Christian faith against the helter-skelter backdrop of values and principles they desired to leave behind. As we understand what Paul teaches this troubled church, we will learn badly needed principles to help bring to maturity our own, real churches which inherit the same struggle.

Second Corinthians stands in stark contrast to Paul's other NT writings in a number of ways. Other letters, like 1 Corinthians, Romans, Galatians, and Colossians are carefully ordered, easily outlined, logical, controlled, as Paul confidently responds to carefully gauged concerns. Methodically, he establishes crucial, theological principles as the basis for practical, behavioral appeals.

By contrast, 2 Corinthians is chaotic and disjointed. Digressions lead the reader far afield before returning to the point. So uneven is 2 Corinthians, that many scholars suggest it is a composite of four or five writings, even a number of conservative scholars admitting two. Intensity, emotion, defensiveness, and second-guessing rather than controlled reasoning bind this epistle together. We see Paul at his weakest, basest, most human. Yet seeing him work through the truth of the gospel in the midst of exasperating difficulties is enlightening.

To a certain extent, it is healthy for our lofty ideals of this giant to be punctured and brought down to reality, even as the Corinthian church does so for our view of the early church. Paul's relationship with the Corinthians at this historical juncture is ugly, and readers deserve to be warned about how disconcerting seeing this can be.

These features of 2 Corinthians make studying and understanding the text much more dependent than usual on grasping the historical circumstances behind and leading up to its writing. Without a clear grasp of the historic story, hopeless confusion will engulf efforts to interpret the text at a number of points.

So, study of 2 Corinthians must begin by seeking to understand the Corinth of Paul's day and Paul's relationship to the local church there before preceding to a reliable interpretation of the text.

THE CITY OF CORINTH

Fortunately, Corinth is a NT city we know a great deal about. It has been heavily excavated and was minutely described by classical writers like Strabo and Dio Chrysostom.

The city that Paul entered in A.D. 50 had been resurrected from the ashes of the old city burned to the ground by the Romans in 146 B.C. Having laid in ruins for 100 years, two years before his death in 44 B.C., Julius Caesar decreed that Corinth (and also Carthage) should be rebuilt. Although located just 60 miles from Athens on the narrow isthmus strategically joining the Greek mainland to the Peloponnesus, the new Corinth was built and organized as a Roman city. Its colonists were gleaned from freedmen, former slaves originating from Syria, Egypt, Judea, Greece, and from retiring Roman soldiers.

The city's layout and its buildings were Roman, as was its governmental organization and law. Its official language was Latin, although Greek was the common language for business and conversation. The people prized Roman articles, importing them in great quantities. In addition to the four magistrates elected each year and its city council, it was administrated by a proconsul appointed annually by the Roman senate.

Corinth's dominance over the five-mile wide isthmus insured economic vitality. Ships traveling between Italy and Asia Minor were happy to pay the fee to cross the isthmus rather than sail the extra 200 miles south around treacherous Cape Malae. Besides, Corinth had even constructed a grooved pavement, called the Diolkos, between the ports on either side of the isthmus on which smaller ships could be hauled in wheeled vehicles. For a larger ship, the goods were loaded on transport carts and reloaded onto another ship waiting at the other harbor.

Julius Caesar dreamed of increasing Corinth's stock by constructing a canal across the isthmus. Not until Nero, A.D. 67., was such a project begun. Actual completion, however was not achieved until modern times, in 1893.

With the two ports, Laechaeum, on the Corinthian Gulf, and Cenchraea, on the Saronic Gulf, Corinth thrived as a center for trade. The major land route between the Greek mainland and the Peloponnesus also went through it. Besides shipbuilding and repair, it hosted bronze, tile, and pottery factories, as well as the necessary warehousing for transportable goods. Corinth's market areas boasted hundreds of stalls filled with craftsmen plying their trade, locals selling merchandise and food, as well as visitors from throughout the empire hawking imported items. They even had places which sold drinks cooled by underground water systems. Paul himself, we know, took up a leather-working stall in this area for eighteen months (Acts 18:1-3).

New Corinth was an eclectic, international city from its inception. In Paul's day, it was a bustling, wide open, boomtown, with over 80,000 inhabitants, and growing every day. It had already outstripped Athens politically, replacing it as the capital of Achaia.

Corinth's prestige was further enhanced by its hosting of the Isthmian Games, second only in significance to the Olympics. Held every two years in Corinth since A.D. 3, these games drew thousands of tourists and lots of business. The city's most prestigious political official was the one responsible for administering the games, occupying a prominent year-round governmental office. The games were dedicated to the Greek sea god, Poseidon, and featured oratory, music, and drama, as well as athletic contests. A dramatic theater as well as a 20,000 seat stadium were used for these events.

Corinth's eclecticism revealed itself in an array of religious choices established by its multicultural inhabitants. Egyptians promoted the cults of Isis and Osiris. Isis was worshiped as a god for sailors because the myth tells of her enduring search on the seas for her betrayed and lost husband Osiris. Osiris is a god of afterlife, who after his death was resurrected to become head of the underworld.

Greeks and Romans honored Poseidon, god of the sea; Athena, goddess of war, the sea, cities and the arts; Aphrodite, goddess of love and fertility; Apollo, god of prophecy; Asklepios, god of healing; and emperors beginning with Julius Caesar. Prominent temples and statues are dedicated to all of these. Apollos often features prominently in colonized cities as an ode of good fortune. His famous Delphic oracle is only some 30 miles from Corinth. The much publicized report that Old Corinth's temple to Aphrodite housed over 1,000 sacred prostitutes is regarded as Athenian slander and is not so certain to still be functioning this way in Paul's day, although this does not mean to imply that Corinth was any more sexually pristine than any other seaport.

One of the busiest religious centers in Paul's day was the Asklepium. Comparable to a modern-day health club, people came here to bathe in its fountain, sleep (healing in their dreams), excercise, read, and dine (on sacrificial meat, cf. 1 Cor 8:10; 10:21). Replicas of body parts found in excavations were offered to the Asklepios by thankful beneficiaries of his healing.

Though not a god, Sisyphus, was considered one of the founding kings of ancient Corinth. Noted for his craftiness, in Greek mythology he was banished to Hades with the everlasting task of pushing a rock up a hill only to have it slip back down. For the Corinthian in Paul's day, he stands for successful cunning in business, but behind the temporary luster, perhaps, he signifies the emptiness of life's ambitions that lurked in the background of people's thoughts.

Judaism came with the early Jewish colonists and seems to have thrived. A dynamic synagogue certainly was functioning when Paul arrived, according to Acts 18:4-17. Also, a building inscription reading "Synagogue of the Hebrews" has been found by archaeologists along the Lechaeum road. Although the inscription is somewhat later than Paul's day, its location in the city center suggests the prominence of Judaism from the early days of New Corinth. Significant increases to the Jewish population likely occurred in A.D. 19 and in the late 40s when Tiberius and then Claudius expelled Jews from Rome. According to Acts 18:2, the latter purge is what brought Aquila and Priscilla and their tentmaking business to Corinth for the eighteen months Paul evangelized there. As Acts 18:8,17 indicate, the Jewish community probably had a certain amount of freedom to manage its own affairs and to appoint its own officials.

Due to Roman influence, Corinthians banded together into self-governing clubs and societies of 10 to 15 people which met in homes around the city. These clubs were delineated by individual trades or professions. Something like small unions, they provided vital social interaction and shared meals but even underwrote members' burial expenses from their kitty of dues. Although each had its sponsoring god, they were not religious in nature.

Most likely, the Corinthian church of Paul's day took on the pattern of these clubs as they met in various homes throughout the city. This helps explain the household factions decried in 1 Cor 1:10-12 and even the food-related problems of 1 Corinthians 8 and 11:17-34.

Corinth in the time of Paul was a city of wealth and prosperity. The families who had come a generation or two previously had worked hard. They had carved out successful lives by their own sweat and ingenuity. Like American immigrants, they were proud of their accomplishments, which they demonstrated in their proliferation of self-commending inscriptions around the city. But like the grandchildren of immigrants today, the Corinthians of Paul's day were noted for their superficial materialism and moral perversity. Such traits are epitomized by the fact that before the century was over, Corinth would become the first Greek city in the Roman Empire to hold bloodthirsty gladiatorial shows.

PAUL AND THE CORINTHIANS

Paul's rocky, seven-year relationship with the Corinthians begins in the fall of A.D. 50 as he enters Corinth on what becomes the last stop of his second missionary journey. Already on the road for a year, he had established churches in Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, and Athens, despite opposition from Gentiles, Jews, and intellectuals (Acts 16-17). As Acts 18 describes, he enters the din of Corinth alone but is quickly befriended by Aquila and Priscilla, who were probably already Christians when they came to Corinth from Rome. For eighteen months the three of them lived, worked, and spread the gospel together there, eventually joined by Silas and Timothy.

At first, Paul shared the gospel and fielded questions in the Jewish synagogue. It wasn't too long, however, before stiff opposition to his presence arose, and he was ejected. However, he took with him many new Christians from among the God-fearing Gentiles who attended the synagogue, as well as Jews including the head of the synagogue, Crispus. Boldly, they set up shop for the first church right next door in the home of Titius Justus. Presumably, they continued to meet there and in other homes around the city for the next eighteen months, since God had instructed Paul to remain in Corinth despite the risks of conflict.

Sparks did fly, and at one point the Jews pressed charges against Paul for breaking Jewish law before Gallio, the Roman proconsul. Quite rightly, Gallio rebuffed the Jewish accusations as being outside any Roman concern. Although this may seem like a relatively minor incident in the life of Paul, the mention of Gallio in Acts 18:14 emerges as the single most important event enabling us to date Paul's life with accuracy. The reason for this is that archaeologists have discovered a datable inscription about a boundary dispute from Emperor Claudius to Gallio which places Gallio's one-year term between A.D. 51 and 52. Anchored by Paul's encounter with Gallio being A.D. 51, the rest of Paul's life can be dated backward and forward from time periods provided in the Acts and his letters.

Upon leaving Corinth, Paul sailed to Syria, probably Antioch, before quickly setting out over land to revisit the previously established churches in Asia Minor and then settling in Ephesus for three years. While in Ephesus, he sent the Corinthians three letters and slipped across the Aegean Sea in a vessel for a brief, surprise visit.

The first letter, commonly known as the "previous letter," is mentioned in 1 Cor 5:9-11. Given the wild immorality of Corinth, it is not surprising that Paul emphasized separation from such people in this letter. However, it has never been found, although a few scholars believe 2 Cor 6:14-7:1 may have originally been part of it.

Next, Paul received a letter from the Corinthians asking various specific questions about Christian life and practice. He is also informed verbally from members of Chloe's household (1 Cor 1:11) about the factionalism that is hurting the church's witness. He responded with the letter we know of as 1 Corinthians. During this period, Timothy was dispatched to Corinth for a brief time (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10) as Paul's personal ambassador, perhaps to give further voice to Paul's teaching in 1 Corinthians or to other issues Paul anticipated. We have no indication as to how long Timothy stayed.

Paul's brief trip to Corinth in A.D. 54 and the letter on its heels upon his return are chief events which underlie Paul's writing of 2 Corinthians in A.D. 56. We don't know why Paul went. Maybe Timothy reported that Paul's personal presence was needed. Possibly, conservative agitators had followed Paul to Corinth as they previously had to Galatia and were stirring up trouble, causing the Corinthians to second-guess Paul's credibility (2 Cor 11:13). What we do know is that this trip, usually described as "the painful visit" (2 Cor 2:1), was a complete disaster. Paul left angry and humiliated. Apparently, he confronted the ringleader of the trouble (perhaps someone in the church who had been influenced by the outsiders) face to face but when the man insulted him, no one in the church came to Paul's defense.

Speculation regarding the accusations hurled at Paul include the illegitimacy of his authority over the Corinthians and his misuse of funds collected for the Jerusalem offering (1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 7:2; 8:11). This was not a theological issue so much as one of personal integrity. Paul speaks of his being hurt emotionally most by the fact that the church did not side with him (2 Cor 2:5-11).

Upon his return, Paul wrote a third letter to the Corinthians, "the severe letter" (2 Cor 2:4; 7:8). Although not existing today, as described in 2 Cor 2:4-11 and 7:5-13, it was undoubtedly the most emotional and strident of any of Paul's letters. Apparently, he unleashed his anger and disappointment, scolding the church for not supporting him and demanding that the majority of the church take charge and discipline the offender as well as apologize to him. The letter is so harsh that Paul seems genuinely afraid ("fears within" - 2 Cor 7:5) that it will drive the church farther away from him and from Christ. But he sees no choice; this situation can't be left like it is.

Titus received the formidable task of delivering this explosive letter into the charged atmosphere of the Corinthian church and carrying out its demands. Paul's anxieties over Titus's success seem to overwhelm him as he waits for news. Apparently, the arrangements with Titus were that they would meet in Troas after a set period of time, maybe as long as six months. Second Corinthians 2:12 tells us that Paul went by land up to Troas, probably in A.D. 55 but was crushed to find Titus was not there. Remaining for some time evangelizing, maybe a month or so, he crossed over to Macedonia, probably Philippi, desperate to find Titus there. Finally, Titus arrived with the great news that the Corinthians - or most of them - were back in the fold. Genuinely remorseful over their hurtful behavior toward Paul, they had, indeed, dealt with the offender and expressed their renewed devotion to him (2 Cor 7:7,11,12).

The letter we call 2 Corinthians historically comes as Paul's fourth letter to Corinth. Buoyed by Titus's positive report, Paul writes this highly emotional letter, sending it back with Titus (2 Cor 7:17), probably A.D. 56. The letter interacts over and over with the events of the Painful Visit and the Severe Letter. Paul gushes with joy over the Corinthians' response (2 Cor 7:7,13-16), even recommending that they lift the punishment on the person who offended him (2 Cor 2:7). However, the tone of the letter is extremely defensive as Paul squirms under pressure from the Corinthians (most likely as advised by Titus) to toot his own horn regarding his own apostolic credentials. Out of his love for them, but against his own convictions against boasting, he is willing to explain the superiority of his apostleship in terms the Corinthians seem to require. These terms - such as providing letters of recommendation (2 Cor 3:1) and lists of accomplishments (2 Cor 6:3-13; 11:16-12:10) - Paul regards as superficial and unnecessary (2 Cor 3:2-3; 10:7) and probably reflect the influence of the conservative agitators upon the Corinthians. Paul seems to know he must respond, however uncomfortable it is for him, in order to block any further inroads from these outsiders and thus reinforce his renewed relationship with the Corinthians.

Titus brought 2 Corinthians to Corinth armed with Paul's commendation within the letter to spur the church to complete its collection of the offering for the Jerusalem Christians (1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 8:10-24). Paul followed a few months later (2 Cor 12:14; Acts 20:3) and remained in Corinth three months. During this period, he wrote Romans, but we know nothing of his interaction with the Corinthian church. Presumably, he finalized the Corinthian offering, but he must have worked diligently to solidify this troubled church and contend personally with the outside agitators and their remaining pockets of influence. At any rate, once the various representatives from the Greek and Asian churches arrived in Corinth with their offerings (Acts 20:1-6), he tried to set sail with them to Syria but, discovering treachery from the Jewish community in Corinth, he and the others traveled first to Troas, and, then, set sail from there.

We have no certainty of further communication or visitation between Paul and the Corinthian church after this. Possibly, following release from his first Roman imprisonment, he returned to Corinth and other churches in Greece and Asia Minor, as the Pastoral epistles suggest (1 Tim. 1:3; 2 Tim. 4:20).

THE UNITY OF 2 CORINTHIANS

One may rightly comment that the literary unity of 2 Corinthians "cannot just be presupposed." Analyses which question whether various sections of 2 Corinthians are original to it have come long and hard during the past two centuries of critical scholarship. Second Corinthian's sharp shifts in content and uneven tone make it the most susceptible of all the NT books to patchwork theories despite the fact that none of the Greek manuscripts (dating back to the third century) give the slightest hint that 2 Corinthians was ever anything different than what we read today. Although the ebb and flow of research has sidelined many conjectures, questions still remain regarding some parts of 2 Corinthians. As many as nine sections of 2 Corinthians have been scrutinized. However, just five will be discussed here.

First, 2 Cor 2:14-7:4 has been noted as at one time existing separately from 2 Corinthians. Even a casual reader is jolted at the jump between the travelogue commentary in 2:12-13 and the military parade description of the gospel in 2:13-17 which opens a five-chapter philosophy of apostolic ministry. It is all the more noticeable when, beginning at 7:5, the travelogue picks up again and continues on until 7:16. However, upon closer perusal, scholars are increasingly reluctant to name this as part of a separate letter. Despite the abruptness between 2:13 and 2:14, the theme of human weakness and divine power in 2:12-17 connects to 1:8-10, and the theme of divine ownership connects 1:22 and 2:14. Despite the change of subject between 7:4 and 7:5, the verbal links supplied by "encouragement" (7:4,13), "joy" (7:4,7) and "troubles" (7:4,5) supply sturdy connections. Besides, the efforts to postulate yet another letter between 1 and 2 Corinthians or to connect this to the Severe Letter are unwarranted. More recent efforts to anaylze 2 Corinthians 1-7 through the eyes of Roman rhetoric as well as chiastic structure loudly confirm separation of 2:14-7:4 as ill-conceived. Certainly, it is a digression but not without purpose and point to the context as a whole.

Second, perhaps less obvious to the casual reader because it is such a short section is 2 Cor 6:14-7:1. Here, again, though, the careful reader observes an interruption between 6:13 ("Open wide your hearts also") and 7:2 ("Make room for us in your hearts"). Scholarly analysis of these six verses suggests that not only are they out of place, they don't sound like Paul, using six words he never uses elsewhere in his writings nor used by anyone else in the NT ( hapax legomenae ). Is this a snippet of something someone else said or wrote that Paul has adapted into his material, or is it something Paul wrote or spoke at another time and place that he decides to use here?

Despite some of the unusual language, Pauline themes do appear here: the church as the temple of God, the polarization of righteousness and unrighteousness as well as between light and dark. Also, plenty of characteristic Pauline language occurs: "living God" (2 Cor 3:3; 1 Thess 1:9), "unbeliever" (twelve other occurrences in 1 and 2 Cor), and "holiness" (Rom 1:4; 1 Thess 3:13). Although conclusions vary, many today incline toward this section being from Paul.

Eyeing the language of separation from unrighteousness, some have been tempted to conclude that 6:14-7:1 is part of the "previous" letter mentioned in 1 Cor 5:9. However, the point is explicitly different. Paul emphasizes that in the previous letter he urged separation from the immorality of believers not dissociation from unbelievers as emphasized in 6:14-7:1.

Most likely, then, Paul himself has inserted this pre-formed, self-contained unit of material from previous teaching, either oral or written, perhaps influenced by others. Interesting comparisons to Qumran materials as well as writings of Philo have been made. The placement exactly here in 2 Corinthians is so awkward as to be unlikely to come from anyone other than Paul. However, two points should be kept in mind. One is that Paul dictated this letter as he did all his letters. This fact enhances the potential for distraction, interruption, and loose digressions such as this. A second point is that although the section's relationship to the immediately previous verses is not obvious, as one backs up to 6:1 and reads of Paul's concern about receiving "God's grace in vain" or to 5:19 to see Paul's emphasis on people "no longer living for themselves but for him who died for them," Paul's emphasis on separation and holiness in 6:14-7:1 fits well.

Probably inconceivable to the casual reader is the suggestion that 2 Corinthians 8 and 2 Corinthians 9 both were not originally part of 2 Corinthians. Arguments regarding 2 Corinthians 8 - repetition of information about Titus (7:13-15; 8:16-17), presumption of knowledge about the two brothers coming with him (8:18,22), or even evidence that 2 Corinthians 8 as well as 2 Corinthians 9 are formal business letters - do not convince many. Arguments regarding 2 Corinthians 9, first proposed by Semler 200 years ago, that 2 Corinthians 9 was originally a letter sent to Christians outside Corinth, are more formidable, and give scholars more pause.

What pulls them up short is the language Paul uses to refer to the collection ("service") in 9:1, which, in Greek, reads like a first mention of the collection. In addition to that, the regional reference to Achaia in 9:2 and the repetition of information from chapter 8 in chapter 9 regarding the collection give added support to the idea of chapter 9 being originally independent.

On the other side of the question is the fact that Paul's reference to the collection in 9:1 is modified by ( men gar , "and for") which suggests a resumption of a previous subject perhaps after a brief pause in dictation. The repetition of details regarding the collection is probably emphatic, and the regional reference to Achaia seems unlikely to exclude Corinth. Tipping the scale against an independent chapter 9, as noted by Furnish, are two references in chapter 9 which presume information from chapter 8: the mention of the brothers (9:3; 8:18) and the emphasis on their completing the collection (9:4-5; 8:7-15).

Admittedly, this is a close call. However, the evidence does not demand that chapters 8 and 9 are two separate letters about the collection, one to Corinth, and one to Achaia. Rather, these are interdependent chapters in 2 Corinthians, chapter 8 dealing with the details of the collection project and chapter 9 emphasizing motivation for the project, as noted by Danker.

Fourth, without a doubt the most serious challenge to the unity of 2 Corinthians comes from chapters 10-13. As long ago as 1870, Hausrath broadcast his belief that in these chapters, he had discovered the missing "severe" letter to the Corinthians. No doubt, in chapters 10-13 Paul erupts into harsh tones of anger and disappointment which seem to undercut completely the exuberance and joy which he builds up to by chapters 7, 8, and 9.

But Hausrath looked closer and pointed to evidence that chapters 10-13 were written previous to chapters 1-9. Particularly he saw passages in chapters 1-9 written in the past tense which appear to allude to passages from chapters 10-13 written in future tenses, such as 1:23 which says that Paul "did not return" to them in order to spare them, corresponding to 13:2 in which Paul asserts that he "will not return" in order to spare them or when Paul says in 2:3-4 that he "wrote" them out of great distress and in 13:10 when he says "I write" so that I may not have to be harsh. Hausrath also contends that Paul's reference to Rome (west of Corinth) as "regions beyond you" in 2 Cor 10:16 makes much better sense if he is in Ephesus (east of Corinth), where he wrote the Severe Letter, rather than Macedonia (north of Corinth), where he wrote 2 Corinthians.

Criticism against Hausrath's identification of 2 Cor 10-13 with the "severe" letter has withered its persuasiveness among scholars. Primarily, chapters 10-13 do not contain something we know specifically was in the Severe Letter: Paul's demand that an individual who offended him be punished (2:5-6; 7:12). Also, chapters 10-13 promise a visit (12:14; 13:1), but the Severe Letter was sent in place of a Painful Visit (1:23; 2:1). Regarding "regions beyond you," the language need not be taken so literally and the Macedonian region should be recognized as much more culturally distinct from Achaia than it looks like on a map.

More appealing to scholars of all stripes, including many conservatives, is to view 2 Cor 10-13 as a separate, fifth letter, written after Titus returns with new, bad news after delivering 2 Corinthians 1-9. This position still takes into account Hausrath's future tense passages. It helps make sense of 2 Cor 12:18 which refers to Titus's visit in the past tense when it was in the planning stage in 2 Corinthians 7-9. Also, it explains the increased strident tones of chapters 10-13 as Paul's response to new, outside influences claiming some kind of rival apostolic authority to Paul's (11:13; 12:11) rather than to internal problems which seem to be his concern in chapters 1-9.

This way of viewing chapters 10-13 is attractive but is not demanded by the evidence. As Witherington points out, the past (aorist) tenses describing Titus's visit in 12:17-18 need not be real. Especially as Paul reaches the end of the book, they could well be epistolary (spoken from the standpoint of the audience reading the letter). The mention of the unnamed brother traveling with Titus does correspond with 2 Cor 8:18,22. Reading 12:17-18 this way opens up the very real possibility that Paul could have received new information about problems in Corinth before sending 2 Corinthians but after writing chapters 1-9. This could explain the gulf between chapters 10-13 as well as an entirely separate letter.

Other ways which account for the change of tone in chapter 10-13 have to do with how one reads the letter. Perhaps chapters 1-9 are directed to the majority of the church which has fallen into line with Paul after the Painful Visit, the Severe Letter, and Titus's hard work while chapters 10-13 are to the minority who are still under the sway of outside opposition to Paul. After all, 2 Cor 2:6 does speak of "the majority" which imposed discipline upon the offender named in the Severe Letter.

Perhaps, as a growing group of scholars are showing, Paul's heightened criticism of the Corinthians in chapters 10-13 concludes a calculated rhetorical plan employing counterattack ( synkrisis ) or strong emotional appeal ( peroratio ) to win his defense against the charges being leveled at him by the Corinthians. One must admit that Paul never relaxes from a defensive posture in 2 Corinthians from the beginning to the end. While Paul's harsh tones in chapters 10-13 following the lead up in chapters 7, 8, and 9 may seem abrupt, his concerns from early in the letter haven't really changed, just his emotionalism. The issue of his character raised in chapter 1 and of the legitimacy of his apostleship raised in chapter 3 remain the object of his defense in chapters 10-13.

The correspondence of these issues is enough to suggest that even though outside influence of "false apostles" (11:13) is not named earlier, they influence the minority of the Corinthian church and provide the ammunition against Paul observed in the earlier chapters. Who else would have brandished "letters of recommendation" (3:1)? Their earliest influences could even be in the background of Paul's problems associated with the Painful Visit.

As evident from 2 Cor 7:8-13, the offending individual merely became the pretext for the whole church failing to rally behind Paul until after the Severe Letter. Although Paul can be ecstatic that most of the church has recommitted themselves to him and to the gospel by the time he writes 2 Corinthians, nevertheless, pockets of opposition likely remain under the growing influence of the outside agitators. With chapters 10-13 Paul intends to level a decisive blow against this opposition not only to bring the remainder of the church back to the true gospel but also to shore up any lingering doubts from those who have pledged their loyalty.

Paul's transition to chapter 10 indeed is rocky but, as Danker points out, no more so than Phil 3 or Rom 9. In this commentary, therefore, we will treat 2 Corinthians as a unity and will treat chapters 10-13 as primarily aimed at responding to a vocal minority of the church who remain mesmerized by the outsiders' criticisms of Paul.

PAUL'S OPPONENTS

Second Corinthians resounds with the echo of outside voices filling the Corinthians' heads with notions geared to sever their relationship with Paul. Since Paul originally brought the gospel to Corinth and made it possible for people there to be reconciled with God through Christ and begin a vibrant church meeting in homes throughout the city, others have come to Corinth presenting themselves as superior in authority to the apostle Paul himself. Presuming the opponents in 2 Cor 10-13 and 1-9 are the same, they supposedly have letters of authentication from Jerusalem (3:1-3), Paul blasts them as "false apostles" (11:13) and sarcastically as "super apostles" in 12:11. Nevertheless, they have influenced and confused the Corinthians enough to force Paul to write 2 Corinthians and fill it with self-commendation regarding his integrity and his "superior" apostolic credentials over theirs. He does this because he feels he must in order to win the Corinthians back, but he finds doing so personally disturbing and repugnant.

Whereas Paul finds it difficult to boast about himself, self-commendation seems to be the chief characteristic of these outsiders. Clues from 2 Corinthians indicate that they were proud of their Jewish heritage (11:22), their "Christian" service (11:23), their oratorical skill (11:6), their self-confidence (1:15-17), and their charismatic experiences (12:12). They preached a different gospel than Paul's (11:4). They also accepted money from the Corinthians, unlike Paul who refused it (12:16). They may have viewed Paul's effort to collect money from the Corinthians for the Jerusalem Christians as cutting off their own purse strings and threatening their prosperity in Corinth.

Their heated, personalized efforts to undercut Paul sound like Paul's opposition in Galatians, commonly called Judaizers (Gal 4:17). However, no mention of the law or circumcision in 2 Corinthians clouds this identification and requires that, if these are the same people, they have changed their tune considerably since Galatians. The fact that they tout letters of recommendation - where else but from Jerusalem - makes it difficult to lay aside the picture of a band of renegade, conservative Jewish Christians who first followed Paul to Galatia and now to Corinth with the expressed purpose of replacing Paul's gospel and his authority to represent true Christianity (Gal 1:6-7).

It is going too far to say that their credentials were currently legitimate or that they were actual apostles since Acts 15:24 reports that a faction of Jewish Christians had gone out falsely representing the church to new, Gentile congregations. It is possible, though, that they do have apostolic credentials - perhaps even knew Jesus before his crucifixion - but now are misusing these credentials to subvert Paul's successful mission to Gentiles in Galatia and now also in Corinth and other churches as well.

The picture of these Corinthian opponents as ultraconservative Jewish Christians clashes with a considerable amount of the evidence which points to their Greek or even gnostic origins. Their connection to revelations and wonders, rhetorical skills, "worldly" wisdom, and just their overall egotistical posture must be reckoned with. Undermining at least the gnostic element is the positive use of "knowledge" in 2 Corinthians. Nevertheless, a typical result when these ingredients are combined emerges with a conclusion that they were "Hellenistic Jews who were propagating . . . a 'spiritual gnosticism.'"

However, it seems inconceivable that ultraconservative Jewish Christians coming out of Jerusalem could be pushing a gospel so infiltrated with Greek ideas as to be outside the bounds of Paul's own radicalized message which had stripped unnecessary Jewish elements. Could these Jewish agitators be so clever as to be able to manipulate the Corinthians against Paul by successfully incorporating elements from Greek culture into their opposition to Paul which they themselves don't believe? It doesn't seem likely, but then no identification satisfactorily combines the paradoxical elements of these opponents as currently gleaned from the information we have from 2 Corinthians and the first century. As one commentator astutely points out, any final resolution is also hampered considerably by the fact that 2 Corinthians provides no information about the doctrine or theology of these opponents. Most current discussion recognizes the limitations involved in this discussion and offers no more than conjectures as has been done here.

It's best, then, to keep in mind the characteristics of Paul's opponents available from reading 2 Corinthians without any adamant historical identification until better information becomes available. They were Jewish. They were Greek. They considered themselves Christians. They hated Paul. They hurt Paul, and he feared what more they could do. It was up to him to marshal all the strength and the skills he had to prevent them from doing any further damage. They had backed him into a corner, and he responds with ferocity and emotion in 2 Corinthians, compelled out of his deep love for the Corinthians and his commitment to true, saving Christianity and humble, self-sacrificing leadership.

RELEVANCE

Christians treat 2 Corinthians like the ugly twin sister of 1 Corinthians. First Corinthian's poignant theology about challenging issues attracts everyone's constant attention. Meanwhile, 2 Corinthians sits in the corner waiting for someone to ask it to dance. Yet, once we make some effort to get to know 2 Corinthians, we will be pleasantly surprised.

Today, as in the days of the early church, various outside forces threaten to sever people's loyalty to Christ and cut away at the fabric of the church. It might be a cult like Mormons or Jehovah's Witnesses. It might be cultural forces like the challenges of postmodernism or the mind-set of the so-called Generation X which questions absolutes like God and salvation in Christ alone. It might just be an obstinate person who envies the authority of the minister, elders, or deacons and questions their integrity and decision-making at every turn and who draws around him or her an anti-faction.

If you are someone who cares deeply about your local church and would do almost anything to maintain its success and its integrity as a body of Christian believers, then 2 Corinthians will speak to your heart and nourish your soul. You will relate to Paul's agony over this church , feel his compassion, and be engulfed by his intense emotion in this letter. You will take in the principles of genuine church leadership and apply them to your life responsibly to enable you to enrich the quality of your local church.

The comments which follow are intended to help you both to understand 2 Corinthians in its own historical context and to apply its key principles to your own personal context in the church today.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aalen, S. "Glory." NIDNTT , 2:44-52.

Alexander, L.C.A. "Chronology of Paul." Dictionary of Paul and His Letters , pp. 115-123. Edited by Gerald Hawthorne, Ralph Martin, and Daniel Reid. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1993.

Andrews, Scott. "Too Weak Not to Lead: The Form and Function of 2 Cor __2Cor 11__11:23b-33." NTS 41 (1995): 263-276.

Bahr, Gordon. "The Subscription in the Pauline Letters." JBL 87 (1968): 27-41.

Baird, William. "Letters of Recommendation: A Study of 2 Cor 3:1-3." JBL 80 (1961): 166-172.

Baker, William R. "Did the Glory of Moses' Face Fade? A Re-examination of Katargew in 2 Corinthians 3:7-18." Forthcoming in BBR 10 (2000).

Barnett, Paul. The Second Epistle to the Corinthians . NICNT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997.

Barrett, C.K. A Commentary on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians . Harper's New Testament Commentaries. New York: Harper & Row, 1973.

________________ . "Paul's Opponents in 2 Corinthians." NTS 17 (1971): 233-254.

________________ . The Second Epistle to the Corinthians . New York: Harper, 1973.

________________ . The Signs of an Apostle . London: Epworth, 1970.

Bartchy, S. Scott. First-Century Slavery and 1 Corinthians 7:21 . SBL Dissertation Series, no. 11. Missoula, Montana: Society of Biblical Teaching, 1973.

Bates, W.A. "The Integrity of II Corinthians." NTS 12 (1965): 56-69.

Batey, Richard. "Paul's Interaction with the Corinthians." JBL 84 (1965): 139-146.

Beale, G.K. "The Old Testament Background of Reconciliation in 2 Corinthians 5-7 and its Bearing on the Literary Problem of 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1." NTS 35 (1989): 550-581.

Beasley-Murray, George R. Baptism in the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1962.

Becher, O. "Faith." NIDNTT , 1: 588-592.

Beck, B.E. "Reflections on 2 Corinthians 5:11-6:2." Epworth Review (1994): 85-92.

Belleville, Linda L. 2 Corinthians . The IVP New Testament Commentary Series. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1996.

________________ . "A Letter of Apologetic Self-Commendation: 2 Cor 1:8-7:16." NovT 31 (1989): 142-163.

________________ . "Imitate Me as I Imitate Christ." In Patterns of Discipleship in the New Testament . Edited by Richard Longenecker. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996.

________________ . "Paul's Polemic and Theology of the Spirit in 2 Corinthians." CBQ 58 (1996): 281-304.

________________ . Reflections of Glory: Paul's Polemical Use of the Moses-Doxa Tradition in 2 Corinthians 3:1-18. JSNT Supplemental Series, no. 52, Sheffield: JSOT, 1991.

Best, Ernest. Second Corinthians . Interpretation Commentary. Louisville: John Knox, 1987.

Betz, Hans Dieter. "2 Cor 6:14-7:1: An Anti-Pauline Fragment?" JBL (1973): 88-108.

________________ . 2 Corinthians 8 and 9: A Commentary on Two Administrative Letters of the Apostle Paul. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985.

Beyreuther, E. "Like, Equal." NIDNTT , 2:497-500.

Beyreuther, E., and G. Finkenrith. "Joy." NIDNTT , 2:352-361.

Bieringer, B. "Der 2. Korintherbrief in den neuesten Kommentaren." Ephemerides Theologicale Lovanienses 67 (1991): 107-130.

Bientenhard, H., and J.A. Motyer. "Amen." NIDNTT , 1:97-101.

Bientenhard, H., and C. Brown. "Satan." NIDNTT , 3:468-473.

Blomberg, Craig. Interpreting the Parables . Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1990.

________________ . Neither Poverty nor Riches . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999.

________________ . "The Structure of 2 Corinthians 1-7." Criswell Theological Revue 4 (1989): 3-20.

Breytenbach, Cilliars. "Paul's Proclamation and God's 'Thriambos' (Notes on 2 Cor 2:14-16b)." Neot 24 (1990): 257-271.

Brown, C. "Satan." NIDNTT , 3:468-473.

Bruce, F.F. Commentary on Galatians . NIGTC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. 1982.

________________ . "Paul and Jerusalem in Paul's Apostolic Strategy." TynBul 19 (1968): 3-25.

Buchanan, George Walter. "Paul and the Jews (II Corinthians 3:4-4:6 and Romans 11:7-10)." In When Jews and Christians Meet , pp. 141-161. Edited by Jacob I. Petuchowski. Albany, NY: State University of New York, 1958.

Bultmann, Rudolph. "DIKAIOSYNE THEOU." JBL 83 (1964): 12-16.

Burton, Ernest DeWitt. The Epistle to the Galatians . ICC. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1921.

Campbell, J.Y. "'KOINWNIA' and its Cognates in the New Testament." JTS 49 (1948).

Cartledge, M.J. "A Model of Hermeneutical Method - An Exegetical Missiological Reflection upon Suffering in 2 Corinthians 4:7-15." Evangelical Review of Theology 17 (1993): 472-483.

Cassidy, Ronald. "Paul's Attitude to Death in II Corinthians 5:1-10." EvQ 43 (1971): 210-217.

Chevallier. "L'argumentation de Paul dans II Corinthiens 10 à 13." Revue d'Histoire et de Philosophie Religieuses 70 (1990): 3-15.

Collins, J.N. "The Mediatorial Aspect of Paul's Role as Diakonus ." AusBR 40 (1992): 34-44.

Conzelmann, Hans. "Paul's Doctrine of Justification: Theology of Anthropology?" In Theology of the Liberating Word , pp. 108-123. Edited by F. Herzog. Nashville: Abingdon, 1972.

Cook, Michael J. "The Tie that Binds: An Exposition of II Corinthians 3:12-4:6 and Romans 11:7-10." In When Jews and Christians Meet , pp. 121-135. Edited by Jacob I. Petuchowski. Albany, NY: State University of New York, 1988.

Cooper, John W. Body, Soul, and Life Everlasting: Biblical Anthropology and the Monism-Dualism Debate . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989.

Cottrell, Jack. Romans . The College Press NIV Commentary. 2 vols. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1996, 1998.

Craig, W.L. "Paul's Dilemma in 2 Corinthians 5:1-10: A 'Catch-22'?" NTS 34 (1988): 145-147.

Cranfield, C.E.B. "Minister and Congregation in the Light of II Corinthians 4:5-7." Int 19 (1965): 163-167.

________________ . "The Grace of Our Lord Jesus Christ. 2 Corinthians 8:1-9." Communio Viatorum 32 (1989): 105-109.

Dahl, Nils. "A Fragment and Its Context: 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1." In Studies in Paul , pp. 62-69. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1977.

Danker, Frederick W. "Consolation in 2 Cor 5:1-10." Concordia Theological Monthly 39 (1968): 552-556.

________________ . II Corinthians . Augsburg Commentary on the New Testament. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1989.

De Lorenz, L., ed. The Diakonia of the Spirit (2 Cor 4:7-7:4). Monographic Series of "Benedicta." Biblical Ecumenical Studies, no. 10. Rome: St. Paul's Abbey, 1989.

De Silva, D.A. "Measuring Penultimate against Ultimate Reality: An Investigation of the Integrity and Argumentation of 2 Corinthians." JSNT 52 (1903): 41-70.

________________ . "Meeting the Exigency of a Complex Rhetorical Situation: Paul's Strategy in 2 Corinthians 1 through 7." AUSS 34 (1996): 5-22.

________________ . "Recasting the Moment of Decision: 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1 in its Literary Context." AUSS 31 (1993): 3-16.

Deirsmann. Bible Studies . Translated by A. Grieve. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1903.

Derrett, J.D.M. "Nai (2 Cor 1:19-20)." Filologia Nestestamentaria 4 (1991): 205-209.

Diessmann, Adolf. Bible Studies . Translated by A. Grieve. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1903.

Dinkler, Erich. "Die Taufterminologie in 2 Kor 1:21f." Neotestamentica et Patristica , pp. 173-191. NovTSupp 6 (Leiden, 1962).

Duff, P.B. "Apostolic Suffering and the Language of Processions in 2 Corinthians 4:7-10." BTB 21 (1991): 158-165.

________________ . "2 Corinthians 1-7: Sidestepping the Division Hypothesis Dilemma." BTB 24 (1994): 16-26.

________________ . "Metaphor, Motif, and Meaning: The Rhetorical Strategy Behind the Image 'Led in Triumph' in 2 Corinthians 2:14." CBQ 53 (1991): 79-92.

________________ . "The Mind of the Redactor: 2 Cor 6:14-7:1 in Its Secondary Context." NovT 35 (1993): 160-180.

Dumbrell, William J. "Paul's Use of Exodus 34 in 2 Corinthians 3." In The God Who Is Rich in Mercy , pp. 179-194. Fest. D.B. Knox. Edited by Peter T. O'Brian and David G. Peterson. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1986.

Egan, R.B. "Lexical Evidence in Two Pauline Passages." NovT 19 (1977): 34-62.

Ellingworth, Paul. "Grammar, Meaning, and Verse Divisions in 2 Cor 11:16-29." BT 43 (1992): 245-246.

Ellis, E.E. "Christ Crucified." In Reconciliation and Hope: New Testament Essays on Atonement and Eschatology . Fest. Leon Morris. Edited by R. Banks. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans (1974): 69-75.

________________ . "Paul and His Co-Workers." NTS 17 (1970): 437-452.

________________ . "II Cor V.1-10 in Pauline Eschatology." NTS 6 (1960): 211-224.

Engels, Donald. Roman Corinth: An Alternative Model for the Classical City . Chicago: University of Chicago, 1990.

Erickson, R.J. "Flesh." DPL , pp. 303-305.

Erlemann, K. "Der Geist als ajrrabwn (2 Kor 5,5) in Kontext der Paulinschen Eschatologie." ZNW 83 (1992): 202-223.

Esser, H.H. "Grace." NIDNTT , 2:115-123.

________________ . "Mercy." NIDNTT , 2:593-298.

Everts, J.M. "Hope." DPL , pp. 414-417.

Fee, Gordon. "II Corinthians VI.14-VII.1 and Food Offered to Idols." NTS 23 (1977): 140-161.

________________ . "CARIS in II Corinthians I.15: Apostle's Parousia and Paul-Corinth Chronology." NTS 24 (1978): 533-538.

Filbeck, David. "Problems in Translating First Person Plural Pronouns in 2 Corinthians." BT 45 (1994): 401-410.

Fitzgerald, John T. Cracks in an Earthen Vessel: An Examination of the Catalogues of Hardships in the Corinthian Correspondence. SBL Dissertation Series, no. 99. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.

________________ . "Paul, the Ancient Epistolary Theorists, and 2 Corinthians 10-13." In Greeks, Romans, and Christians , pp. 190-200. Edited by D. Balch. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1990.

Fitzmyer, Joseph A. "Glory Reflected on the Face of Christ (2 Cor 3:7-4:6) and a Palestinian Jewish Motif." TS 42 (1981): 630-644.

________________ . "Qumran and the Interpolated Paragraph in 2 Cor 6:14-7:1." CBQ 23 (1961): 271-278.

Forbes, C. "Comparison, Self-Praise and Irony: Paul's Boasting and the Conventions of Hellenistic Rhetoric." NTS 32 (1986): 1-30.

Fredrickson, D. "Free Speech in Pauline Political Theology." WW 12 (1992): 345-351.

________________ . "Pentecost: Paul the Pastor in 2 Corinthians." WW 11 (1991): 208-214.

Fridrichsen, A. The Apostle and His Message . Uppsala: Lundequistska, 1947.

Furnish, Victor Paul. "Paul and the Corinthians." Int 52 (July, 1998): 229-245.

________________ . II Corinthians . Anchor Bible. New York: Doubleday, 1984.

Gallas, S. "Fünfmal vierzig weniger einen . . ." Die an Paulus Vollzogenen Synagogal Strafen Nach 2 Kor 11,24. ZNW 81 (1991): 178-191.

Georgi, D. The Opponents of Paul in Second Corinthians . Translated by N. Attridge. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1986.

Gill, David W.J. "In Search of the Social Elite in the Corinthian Church." TynBul 44 (1993): 323-337.

Gillman, John. "A Thematic Comparison: 1 Cor 15:50-57 and 2 Cor 5:1-5." JBL 107 (1988): 439-454.

Glasson, T.F. "2 Corinthians V.1-10 Versus Platonism." SJT 43 (1990): 145-155.

Gleason, Randall. "Paul's Covenantal Contrasts in 2 Cor 3:1-11." BSac 154 (1997): 61-79.

Gräbe, P.J. "The All-Surpassing Power of God through the Holy Spirit in the Midst of our Broken Earthly Existence: Perspectives on Paul's Use of DUNAMIS in 2 Corinthians." Neot 28 (1994): 147-156.

Grech, Prosper. "2 Corinthians 3,17 and the Pauline Doctrine of Conversion to the Holy Spirit." CBQ 17 (1955): 420-437.

Greenlee, J. Harold. Introduction to New Testament Textual Criticism . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964.

Guhrt, J. "Time." NIDNTT , 3:831.

Gundry, Robert. A Survey of the New Testament . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994.

Gundry-Volf, J.M. "Conscience." DPL , 153-156.

Haarbeck, H., and H.G. Link. "lupevw." NIDNTT , 2:419-421.

Hafemann, S.J. "The Glory and Veil of Moses in 2 Cor 3:7-14: An Example of Paul's Contextual Exegesis of the OT - A Proposal." HBT 14 (1992): 31-49.

________________ . Paul, Moses, and the History of Israel . Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1996.

________________ . "Paul's Use of the Old Testament in 2 Corinthians." Int 52 (July, 1998): 246-257.

________________ . "Self-Commendation and Apostolic Legitimacy in 2 Corinthians: A Pauline Dialectic?" NTS 36 (1990): 66-88.

________________ . Suffering and Ministry in the Spirit: Paul's Defense of His Ministry in 2 Corinthians 2:14-3:3. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990. 21-95.

Hagge, H. "Die beiden überlieferen sendschreibendes Apostels Paulus an die Gemeinde zu Korinth." Jahrbucher für protestantische Theologie 2 (1876): 481-531.

Hahn, H.C., and Colin Brown. "Conscience." NIDNTT , 1:348-353.

________________ . "Openness, Frankness, Boldness." NIDNTT , 2:734-737.

Harder, G. "upovstasi"." NIDNTT , 1:710-713.

Harris, Murray J. "2 Corinthians 5:1-10: Watershed in Paul's Eschatology!" TynBul 22 (1971): 32-57.

________________ . "2 Corinthians." In Expositor's Bible Commentary, Vol. 10. Edited by Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976.

Harvey, A.E. Renewal through Suffering . Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1996.

Hausrath, Adolf. Der Vier-Capitalbrief des Paulus an die Korinther. Heidelberg: Bassermann, 1870.

Hayes, J.W. "Roman Pottery from the South Stoa at Corinth." Hesperia 42 (1973): 465-476.

Heckel, V. "Der Dorn im Fleisch. Die Krankheit des Paulus in 2 Kor 12,7 und Gal 4,13f 2:238." ZNW (1993): 65-92.

Heiny, Stephen. "2 Corinthians 2:14-4:6: The Motive for Metaphor." In SBL 1987 Sermon Papers , 1-21. Edited by Kent Harold Richards. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987.

Hemer, Colin. "A Note on 2 Corinthians 1:9." TynBul 23 (1972): 103-107.

________________ . "Alexandrian Troas." TynBul 26 (1975): 82-94.

Hengel, Martin. The Son of God . Translated by John Bowden. London: SCM Press, 1976.

Hennecke, Edgar, ed. New Testament Apocrypha . 2 vols. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1963-1964.

Hess, K. "Serve." NIDNTT , 3:544-549.

Hickling, C.J.A. "The Sequence of Thought in II Corinthians, Chapter Three." NTS 21 (1975): 380-395.

Hock, Ronald F. "The Workshop as a Social Setting for Paul's Missionary Preaching." CBQ 41 (1979): 438-450.

________________ . "Paul's Tentmaking and the Problem of his Social Class." JBL 97 (1978): 555-564.

Hodgson, Robert. "Paul the Apostle and First Century Tribulation Lists." ZNW 74 (1983): 59-80.

Hoffman, E. "Hope, Expectation." NIDNTT , 2:238-244.

Howe, E.M. "Interpretations of Paul in the Acts of Paul and Thecla." Pauline Studies . Fest. F.F. Bruce. Edited by D.A. Hagner and M.J. Aawis. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980.

Hubbard, Moyer. "Was Paul Out of His Mind? Re-reading 2 Corinthians 5.13." JSNT 70 (1998): 39-64.

Hughes, Philip E. Paul's Second Epistle to the Corinthians . NICNT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1962.

Hurd, John. The Origin of I Corinthians . New York: Seabury, 1965.

Joubert, S.J. "Behind the Mask of Rhetoric: 2 Corinthians 8 and the Intra-textual Relation Between Paul and the Corinthians." Neot 26 (1992): 101-112.

Judge. E.A. "The Conflict of Educational Aims in NT Thought." Journal of Christian Education 9 (1966): 32-45.

________________ . "Paul's Boasting in Relation to Contemporary Professional Practice." AusBR 16 (1968): 37-50.

________________ . "The Social Identity of the First Christians: A Question of Method in Religious History." JRH 11 (1980): 214.

Käsemann, Ernst. "'The Righteousness of God' in Paul." In New Testament Questions of Today , pp. 168-193. Translated by W.J. Montague. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1969.

Kee, Doyle. "Who Were the 'Super-Apostles' of 2 Corinthians 10-13?" ResQ 23 (1980): 65-76.

Kerr, Alastair. "ajrrabw'n." JTS 39 (1988): 92-97.

Keyes, C.W. "The Greek Letter of Introduction." AJP 56 (1935): 28-44.

Kim, C.H. Forum and Structure of Greek Letters of Recommendation . Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series, no. 4. Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1972.

Kim, Seyoon. The Origin of Paul's Gospel . Tübingen: Muhr, 1981. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982.

Kistemaker, Simon J. II Corinthians . New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1997.

Klassen, William. "The Sacred Kiss in the NT: An Example of Social Boundary Lines." NTS 39 (1993): 122-135.

Koester, Helmut. "upostasi"." TDNT 8: 572-589.

Kramer, Werner. "Christ, Lord, Son of God." In Studies in Biblical Theology , no. 50. Translated by B. Hardy. London: SCM Press, 1966.

Kruse, Colin. "The Offender and the Offence in 2 Corinthians 2:5 and 7:12." EvQ 60 (1998): 129-139.

________________ . "The Relationship Between the Opposition to Paul Reflected in 2 Corinthians 1-7 and 10-13." EvQ 61 (1989): 195-202.

________________ . 2 Corinthians . Tyndale New Testament Commentaries, 2nd ser . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987.

Kurz, William. "2 Corinthians" Implied Readers and Canonical Implications." JSNT 62 (1996): 443-63.

Lambrecht, Jan. "'Reconcile Yourselves . . .': A Reading of 2 Cor 5.11-21." In The Diakonia of the Spirit. Edited by Lorenzo Lonenzi. Monograph Series of Benediction, vol. 10. Rome: St. Paul's Abbey, 1989.

________________ . Second Corinthians . Sacra Pagina. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1999.

________________ . "Strength in Weakness: A Reply to Scott B. Andrews' Exegesis of 2 Cor 11:23b-33." NTS 43 (1997): 285-290.

Lampe, G.W.H. "Church Discipline and the Interpretation of the Epistles to the Corinthians." In Church History and Interpretation , pp. 337-361. Edited by W.R. Farmer. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1967.

Leary, T.J. "A Thorn in the Flesh - 2 Corinthians 12:7." JTS 43 (1992): 520-522.

Leivestad, Ragnar. "The Meekness and Gentleness of Christ: II Cor X.1." NTS 13 (1966): 156-164.

Lewis, J.P., ed. Interpreting 2 Corinthians 5:14-21. An Exercise in Hermeneutic Studies in the Bible and Early Christianity 17 . Lewiston, NY: Mellen, 1989.

Lincoln, Andrew. "Paul the Visionary: The Setting and Significance of the Rapture to Paradise in II Corinthians XII.1-10." NTS 25 (1979): 204-220.

Lofthouse, W. F. "'I' and 'We' in the Pauline Epistles." BT 6 (1955): 72-80.

Lorenzi, Lorenzo, ed. The Diakonia of the Spirit . Monograph Series of Benedictina, vol. 10. Rome: St. Paul's Abbey, 1989.

Loubser, J.A. "A New Look at Paradox and Irony in 2 Corinthans 10-13." Neot 26 (1992): 507-521.

Manson, T.W. "2 Cor 2:14-17: Suggestions Toward an Exegesis." In Studia Pauline . Fest. de Zwann. Haarlem: Bohm, 1953.

Marmorstein, A. The Old Rabbinic Doctrine of God. New York: KTAV, 1968.

Marshal, Peter. "A Metaphor of Shame: QRIABEUEIN in 2 Cor 2:14." NovT 25 (1983): 302-317.

________________ . "Invective: Paul and His Enemies in Corinth." In Perspectives on Languages and Test: Essays and Poems in Honor of Francis Anderson , pp. 358-373. Edited by Edgar W. Conrad and Edward G. Newry. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1987.

Marshall, I.H. "The Meaning of Reconciliation." In Unity and Diversity in New Testament Theology . Fest. George E. Ladd. Edited by R. A. Guelich. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978.

Martin, Ralph P. 2 Corinthians . Word Biblical Commentary. Waco, TX: Word, 1986.

________________ . "The Opponents of Paul in 2 Corinthians: An Old Issue Revisited." In Tradition and Interpretation in the New Testament . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987.

Maxfield, Valerie. The Military Decoration of the Roman Army . Los Angeles: University of California , 1981.

McCant, Jerry. "Paul's Thorn of Rejected Apostleship." NTS 34 (1988): 550-572.

Metzger, Bruce, ed. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament . New York: United Bible Societies, 1971.

Morray-Jones, C.R.A. "Paradise Revisited (2 Cor 12:1-12): The Jewish Mystical Background of Paul's Apostolate. Part 1: The Jewish Sources." HTR 86 (2, 1993): 177-217.

________________ . "Paradise Revisited (2 Cor 12:1-12): The Jewish Mystical Background of Paul's Apostolate. Part 2: Paul's Heavenly Ascent and Its Significance." HTR 86 (3, 1993): 265-292.

Morris, Leon. The Apostolic Preaching of the Cross . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1955.

________________ . The Epistle to the Romans . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988.

Moule, C.F.D. "St. Paul and Dualism: The Pauline Conception of Resurrection." NTS 13 (1965): 106-123.

Mullins, Terence. "Formulas in New Testament Epistles." JBL 91 (1972): 380-390.

Mundel, W. "uJpakouw." NIDNTT , 2:179-180.

Murphy-O'Conner, Jerome "Another Jesus (2 Cor 11:4)." RB 97 (1990): 238-251.

________________ . "'Being at Home in the Body We Are in Exile from the Lord' (2 Cor 5:6b)." RB 93 (1986): 214-221.

________________ . "The Corinth that Paul Saw." BA (Sept, 1984): 147-159.

________________ . "The Date of 2 Corinthians 10-13." RB 39 (1991): 31-43.

________________ . "Faith and Resurrection in 2 Cor 4:13-14." RB 95 (1988): 543-550.

________________ . "Paul and Gallio." JBL 112 (1993): 315-317.

________________ . Paul's Corinth: Texts and Archaeology. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1983.

________________ . "Philo and 2 Cor 6:14-7:1." RB 95 (1988): 55-69.

________________ . "PNEUMATIKOI and Judaizers in 2 Cor 2:14-4:6." AusBR 34 (1986): 42-58.

________________ . "Relating 2 Corinthians 6.14-7.1 to its Context." NTS 33 (1987): 272-275.

________________ . The Theology of the Second Letter to the Corinthians . New Testament Theology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Nickle, Keith. The Collection . Studies in Biblical Theology, no. 48. London: SCM Press, 1966.

Newmann, Matthias. "Ministry, Weakness, and Spirit in II Corinthians." Clergy Review 59 (1974): 647-660.

O'Collins, Gerald. "Power Made Perfect in Weakness: 2 Cor 12:9-10." CBQ 33 (1971): 528-537.

Olley, John. "A Precursor of the NRSV? 'Sons and Daughters' in 2 Cor 6.18." NTS 44 (1998): 204-212.

Olson, Stanley. "Epistolary Uses of Expressions of Self-Confidence." JBL 104 (1984): 585-597.

Osborne, Robert. "St. Paul's Silent Years." JBL 84 (1963): 59-65.

Osei-Bonsu. "Does 2 Cor 5.1-10 Teach the Reception of the Resurrection in Body at the Moment of Death?" JSNT 28 (1986): 81-101.

Oster, R.E. "Use, Misuse, and Neglect of Archaeological Evidence in Some Modern Works on 1 Corinthians." ZNW 83 (1992): 52-73.

Packer, J.I. "Abolish, Nullify, Reject." NIDNTT , 1:73-74.

Pate, C.M. Adam Christology as the Exegetical and Theological Substructure of 2 Corinthians 4:7-5:21. University Press of America, 1991.

Patte, Daniel. "A Structural Exegesis of 2 Corinthians 2:14-7:4 with Special Attention on 2:14-3:6 and 6:11-7:4." In SBL 1987 Seminar Papers , pp. 23-45. Edited by Kent Harold Richards. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987.

Perriman, A.C. "Between Troas and Macedonia: 2 Cor 2:13-14." ExpTim 101 (1989): 39-41.

________________ . "Paul and the Parousia: 1 Corinthians 15.50-57 and 2 Corinthians 5:1-5." NTS 35 (1989): 512-521.

Peterson, Brian. "Conquest, Control, and the Cross: Paul's Self-Portrayal in 2 Corinthians 10-13." Int 52 (1998): 258-270.

Pierre, C.A. Conscience in the New Testament . SBJ 15. London: SCM, 1958.

Plummer, Alfred. A Critical & Exegetical Commentary on the Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians . ICC, 1st ser. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1915.

Quast, Kevin. Reading the Corinthian Correspondence: An Introduction . New York: Paulist, 1994.

Rensberger, David. "2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1 - A Fresh Examination." Studia Biblical Et Theologica 8 (1978): 25-49.

Roetzel, C.J. "'As Dying, and Behold We Live.' Death and Resurrection in Paul's Theology." Int 46 (1992): 5-18.

Schippers, R. "qliyi"." NIDNTT , 2:807-809.

________________ . "Seal." NIDNTT , 3:497-500.

Schlier, Heinrich. "ajmhn." TDNT , 1:335-338.

Schmithals, Walther. Gnosticism in Corinth: An Investigation of the Letters to the Corinthians . Translated by J.E. Steely. Nashville: Abingdon, 1971.

Scott, James M. 2 Corinthians . New International Biblical Commentary. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998.

________________ . "The Triumph of God in 2 Cor 2.14: Additional Evidence of Merkabah Mysticism in Paul." NTS 42 (1996): 260-281.

________________ . "Use of Scripture in 2 Corinthians 6:16c-18 and Paul's Restoration Theology." JSNT 561 (1994): 73-99.

Segal, Alan. "Paul and Ecstasy." In SBL 1986 Seminar Papers , pp. 555-580. Altanta: Scholars Press, 1986.

Semler, Johann. Paraphrasis II epistolae ad Corinthios . Halle, 1776.

Singer, S. Authorised Daily Prayer Book. London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1925.

Spencer, Aida Besançon, and William David Spencer. 2 Corinthians . Bible Study Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989.

Stählin, Gustav. "filew." TDNT , 9:113-171.

Stephenson, A.M.G. "A Defense of the Integrity of 2 Corinthians." In The Authorship and Intergirty of the New Testament , pp. 82-97. SPCK Theological Collections , 4. London: SPCK, 1965.

Stowers, S.K. "' Peri men gar ' and the Integrity of 2 Cor 8 and 9." NovT 32 (1990): 340-348.

Stuhlmacher, Peter. Gerechtigkeit Gottes bei Paulus . FRLANT 87. Goettingen: Vandenhoock and Ruprecht, 1966.

Sumney, Jerry L. Identifying Paul's Opponents: The Question of Method in 2 Corinthians . JSNTSupp , no. 40. Sheffield: JSOT, 1990.

Tasker, R.V.G. The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians . Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1958.

Taylor, Justin. "The Ethnarch of King Aretus at Damascus: A Note on 2 Cor 11, 32-33." RB 99 (1992): 719-728.

Taylor, N.H. "The Composition and Chronology of Second Corinthians." JSNT 48 (1991): 67-87.

Thacker, Anthony. "Paul's Thorn in the Flesh." Epworth Revue 18 (1991): 67-69.

Theissen, G. "The Unity of the Church." Theology Digest 42 (1995): 117-126.

Thiselton, Anthony. "Flesh." NIDNTT , 3:671-682.

Thrall, Margaret. A Critical & Exegetical Commentary on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians . ICC, 2nd ser. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1994.

________________ . "2 Corinthians 1:12: aJgiovqhti or aJplovqhti." In Studies in New Testament Language and Text. NovTSupp 44. Edited by J.K. Elliott. Leiden: Brill (1976): 366-372.

________________ . "The Offender and the Offense: A Problem of Detection in 2 Corinthians." In Scripture: Meaning and Method , pp. 65-78. Edited by B. Thompson. Hull: Hull University Press, 1987.

________________ . "The Pauline Use of SUNEIDHSIS." NTS 14 (1967): 118-125.

________________ . "The Problem of II Cor VI.14-VII.1 in Some Recent Discussions." NTS 24 (1977): 132-148.

________________ . "Salvation Proclaimed in V. 2 Corinthians 5:18-21: Reconciliation with God." ExpTim 93 (1982): 226-230.

________________ . "A Second Thanksgiving Period in 2 Corinthians." JSNT 16 (1982): 101-124.

________________ . "Super-Apostles, Servants of Christ, and Servants of Satan." JSNT 6 (1980): 42-57.

Thurston, Bonnie Bowman. "2 Corinthians 2:14-16a: Christ's Incense." ResQ 29 (1987): 65-70.

Trocmé, E. "Le rempart de Damas: un faux pas de Paul?" Revue d'Histoire et de Philosophie Religieuses. Strasbourg, 69 (1989): 475-479.

Unnik, W.C. Van. "'With Unveiled Face' An Exegesis of 2 Corinthians III.12-15." NovT 2 (1963): 153-169.

________________ . "Tarsus or Jerusalem." Sparsa Collecta . NovTSupp 29 (1953): 259-327.

Vassiliades, P. "The Collection Revisited." Deltion Biblicokon Meleton 21 (1992): 42-48.

Ward, Roy Bower. "The Opponents of Paul." ResQ 10 (1967): 185-195.

Watson, Francis. "2 Cor x-xiii and Paul's Painful Letter to the Corinthians." JTS 35 (1984): 324-346.

Webb, W.J. Returning Home: New Covenant and Second Exodus as the Context for 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1. JSNT Supplement Series 85. Sheffield, UK: JSOT Press, 1993.

________________ . "Unequally Yoked Together with Unbelievers. Part 1 (of 2): Who are the Unbelievers (ajpistoi) in 2 Corinthians 6:14?" BSac 149 (1992): 27-44.

________________ . "What is the Unequal Yoke in 2 Corinthians 6:14?" BSac 149 (1992): 162-179.

Weiss, Johannes. Earliest Christianity . 2 vols. Translated by F.C. Grant. New York: Harper, 1959.

Wenham, David. The Parables of Jesus . Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1989.

Wenham, John. "Being 'Found' on the Last Day: New Light on 2 Peter 3.10 and 2 Cor 5.3." NTS 33 (1987): 477-429.

White, John L. "Introductory Formulae in the Body of Pauline Letters." JBL 96 (1971): 91-97.

Williamson, Lamar. "Led in Triumph." Int 22 (1968): 317-322.

Windisch, Hans. "Kaphleuw." TDNT , 3:603-605.

Wiseman, James, R. "Corinth and Rome I: 228 B.C.-A.D. 267." ANRW II, 7/1, 438-548.

________________ . The Land of the Ancient Corinthians . Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, no. 50. Göteborg: Astrom, 1978.

Witherington, Ben III. Conflict and Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995.

Wong, Kasper. "'Lord' in 2 Corinthians 10:17." Louvain Studies 17 (1992): 243-253.

Wood, John. "Death at Work in Paul." EvQ 54 (1982): 151-155.

Woods, L. "Opposition to a Man and His Message: Paul's 'Thorn in the Flesh' (2 Cor 12:7)." AusBR 39 (1991): 44-53.

Wright, N.T. "On Becoming the Righteousness of God." In Pauline Theology 2:200-208. Edited by M. Hay. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993.

Young, Brad. "The Ascension Motif of 2 Corinthians 12 in Jewish, Christian, and Gnostic Texts." Grace Theological Journal 9 (1988): 73-103.

Young, Francis, and David Ford. Meaning and Truth in 2 Corinthians . Edited by D. Balch. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1990.

Zeilinger, F. "Die Echtheit von 2 Cor 6:14-7:1." JBL 112 (1993): 71-80.

Zorn, Walter D. "The Messianic Use of Habakkuk 2:4a in Romans." Stone-Campbell Journal 1 (Fall, 1998): 213-231.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

ABBREVIATIONS

1 Clem 1 Clement

1QH The Thanksgiving Hymns (Dead Sea Scroll)

1QM The War Scroll (Dead Sea Scroll)

1QS Rule of the Community (Dead Sea Scroll)

2 Clem 2 Clement

AJP American Journal of Philology

ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der römishen Welt, ed. Temporini and Haase

AusBR Australian Biblical Review

AUSS Andrews University Seminary Studies

BA Biblical Archaeologist

BBR Bulletin for Biblical Research

BSac Bibliotheca Sacra

BT Bible Translator

BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CD The Damascus Document (Dead Sea Scroll)

DPL Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, ed. Hawthorne, Martin, and Reid

Ebr. De Ebrietate (Philo)

EvQ Evangelical Quarterly

ExpTim Expository Times

HBT Horizons in Biblical Theology

Heres Qui Rerum Divinarum Heres sit (Philo)

HTR Harvard Theological Review

ICC International Critical Commentary

Int Interpretation

JB Jerusalem Bible

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JRH Journal of Religious History

JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament

JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JTS Journal of Theological Studies

LB Living Bible

NAB New American Bible

NASB New American Standard Bible

NEB New English Bible

Neot Neotestamentica

NICNT New International Commentary on the New Testament

NIDNTT New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, ed. Brown

NIV New International Version

NLT New Living Translation

NovT Novum Testamentum

NovTSupp Novum Testamentum Supplements

NRSV New Revised Standard Version

NTS New Testament Studies

RB Revue Biblique

ResQ Restoration Quarterly

RSV Revised Standard Version

SCJ Stone-Campbell Journal

SJT Scottish Journal of Theology

Spec.Leg. Philo, De Specialibus Legibus

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, ed. Kittel and Friedrich

TEV Today's English Version

T.Jos Testament of Joseph

T.Levi Testament of Levi

T.Naph Testament of Naphtali

TS Theological Studies

TynBul Tyndale Bulletin

WW Word and World

ZNW Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenshaft

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

College: 2 Corinthians (Outline)

OUTLINE

I. OPENING - 1:1-2

II. THANKSGIVING - 1:3-11

A. GOD COMFORTS - 1:3-7

B. GOD DELIVERS - 1:8-11

III. DEFENSE OF INTEGRITY - 1:12-2:13

A. CLARITY SOUGHT - 1:12-14

B. SECOND TRAVEL ITINERARY EXPLAINED - 1:15-17

C. CANDOR DEMANDED - 1:18-22

D. THIRD TRAVEL ITINERARY DEFENDED - 1:23-2:4

E. THE OFFENDER FORGIVEN - 2:5-11

F. ACTUAL TRAVEL DESCRIBED - 2:12-13

IV. DEFENSE OF APOSTOLIC MINISTRY IN PRINCIPLE - 2:14-7:4

A. SUFFICIENT FOR MINISTRY - 2:14-3:6

1. The Aroma of Christ Spread - 2:14-17

2. A Living Letter of Recommendation Sent - 3:1-3

3. A Personal Reference Provided - 3:4-6

B. SUPERIOR TO THE OLD COVENANT - 3:7-18

1. Glory Unsurpassed 3:7-11

2. Glory Unobstructed 3:12-18

C. TENACIOUS DESPITE SHORTCOMINGS - 4:1-5:10

1. Christ Preached Plainly - 4:1-6

2. Hardships Overcome because of Jesus' Death - 4:7-12

3. Increasing Multitudes Brought to Life - 4:13-15

4. Driven by Unseen, Eternal Reward - 4:16-18

5. Confident in Eternal Home - 5:1-10

a) Permanent Home Guaranteed - 5:1-5

b) Pleasing the Lord Prioritizes Life - 5:6-10

D. PREACHING RECONCILIATION THROUGH CHRIST - 5:11-6:2

1. Motivated by Christ's Love - 5:11-15

2. Christ's Message of Reconciliation Delivered - 5:16-6:2

E. HARDSHIPS IN MINISTRY - 6:3-10

F. AN APPEAL FOR OPENNESS AND RECONCILIATION - 6:11-7:4

1. Paul's Heart Opened - 6:11-13

2. Holiness Demanded - 6:14-7:1

3. Paul's Trust Expressed - 7:2-4

V. ENCOURAGING NEWS: RELATIONSHIP FULLY RESTORED - 7:5-16

A. TITUS REPORTS LOVE FOR PAUL - 7:5-7

B. TRUE REPENTANCE DEMONSTRATES INNOCENCE - 7:8-13a

C. TITUS EXPRESSED DEEP AFFECTION - 7:13b-16

VI. PREPARATION FOR THE COLLECTION - 8:1-9:15

A. INCENTIVES TOWARD GENEROSITY - 8:1-15

1. Excel Like the Macedonians - 8:1-7

2. Give Like Christ - 8:8-9

3. Complete Your Offering - 8:10-12

4. Achieve Equity - 8:13-15

B. TITUS PLUS TWO OTHERS SENT TO CORINTH TO HELP - 8:16-9:5

1. Criticism to Be Thwarted - 8:16-21

2. Measure Up to Expectations - 8:22-24

3. Follow Through on What Was Begun - 9:1-5

C. MORE INCENTIVE TO BE GENEROUS - 9:6-15

1. God Will Be Generous - 9:6-11

2. God Will Be Praised - 9:12-15

VII. FINAL DEFENSE OF MINISTRY - 10:1-13:10

A. LAUNCH OF A MASSIVE COUNTERATTACK - 10:1-18

1. Powerful Weapons Employed - 10:1-6

2. Forceful Personal Presence Warned - 10:7-10

3. God's Expansion of the Gospel Boasted - 10:12-18

B. COMPARISON TO FALSE APOSTLES MADE - 11:1-15

1. True Message of Jesus Preached - 11:1-6

2. No Money Accepted - 11:7-12

3. The False Apostles Serve Satan - 11:13-15

C. BOASTING AS A "FOOL" - 11:16-33

1. Rationale Provided - 11:16-21a

2. Ancestry and Hardships Listed - 11:21b-29

3. Weakness Boasted - 11:30-33

D. MORE BOASTING - 12:1-10

1. A Vision Divulged - 12:1-6

2. An Irremovable Thorn Remains - 12:7-10

E. "BOASTING" RETROSPECTIVE - 12:11-13

F. PREPARATION FOR THE THIRD VISIT - 12:14-13:10

1. No Exploitation Tactics Employed - 12:14-18

2. More Trouble Feared - 12:19-21

3. Harsh Treatment for Sinners Warned - 13:1-4

4. Faith-testing Evidences Paul's Strength - 13:5-10

VIII. CLOSING REMARKS - 13:11-14

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV