Text -- Romans 12:8 (NET)

12:8 if it is exhortation, he must exhort; if it is contributing, he must do so with sincerity; if it is leadership, he must do so with diligence; if it is showing mercy, he must do so with cheerfulness.

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Vincent: Rom 12:8

Exhortation

Aimed at the heart and will. See on consolation , Luk 6:24. Compare 1Co 14:3; Act 4:36, where Rev. gives son of exhortation .

Vincent: Rom 12:8

He that giveth ( ὁ μεταδιδοὺς )

Earthly possessions. The preposition μετά indicates sharing with . He that imparteth . Compare Eph 4:28; Luk 3:11.

Vincent: Rom 12:8

Simplicity ( ἁπλότητι )

See on single , Mat 6:22, and compare Jam 1:5, where it is said that God gives ἁπλῶς simply . See note there. In 2Co 8:2; 2Co 9:11, 2Co 9:13, the A.V. gives liberality ; and in Jam 1:5, liberally . Rev. accepts this in the last-named passage, but gives singleness in margin. In all the others liberality is, at best, very doubtful. The sense is unusual, and the rendering simplicity or singleness is defensible in all the passages.

Vincent: Rom 12:8

He that ruleth ( ὁ προΐ́στάμενος )

Lit., he that is placed in front . The reference is to any position involving superintendence. No special ecclesiastical office is meant. Compare Tit 3:8, to maintain good works; the idea of presiding over running into that of carrying on or practicing . See note there. Compare also προστάτις succorer , Rom 16:2, and see note.

Vincent: Rom 12:8

With diligence ( ἐν σπουδῇ )

See on Jud 1:3. In Mar 6:25; Luk 1:39, it is rendered haste . In 2Co 7:11, carefulness (Rev., earnest care ). In 2Co 7:12, care (Rev., earnest care ). In 2Co 8:8, forwardness (Rev., earnestness ). In 2Co 8:16, earnest care .

Vincent: Rom 12:8

With cheerfulness ( ἐν ἱλαρότητι )

Only here in the New Testament. It reappears in the Latin hilaritas ; English, hilarity , exhilarate . " The joyful eagerness, the amiable grace, the affability going the length of gayety, which make the visitor a sunbeam penetrating into the sick-chamber, and to the heart of the afflicted."

Wesley: Rom 12:8

That hath the care of a flock.

Wesley: Rom 12:8

In any instance.

Wesley: Rom 12:8

Rejoicing that he hath such an opportunity.

JFB: Rom 12:6-8

Here, let it be observed, all the gifts of believers alike are viewed as communications of mere grace.

JFB: Rom 12:6-8

We have the gift of

JFB: Rom 12:6-8

That is, of inspired teaching (as in Act 15:32). Anyone speaking with divine authority--whether with reference to the past, the present, or the future--was termed a prophet (Exo 7:1).

JFB: Rom 12:6-8

Rather, "of our faith." Many Romish expositors and some Protestant (as CALVIN and BENGEL, and, though, hesitatingly, BEZA and HODGE), render this "the analogy of faith," understanding by it "the general tenor" or "rule of faith," divinely delivered to men for their guidance. But this is against the context, whose object is to show that, as all the gifts of believers are according to their respective capacity for them, they are not to be puffed up on account of them, but to use them purely for their proper ends.

JFB: Rom 12:8

Since all preaching, whether by apostles, prophets, or teachers, was followed up by exhortation (Act 11:23; Act 14:22; Act 15:32, &c.), many think that no specific class is here in view. But if liberty was given to others to exercise themselves occasionally in exhorting the brethren, generally, or small parties of the less instructed, the reference may be to them.

JFB: Rom 12:8

In the exercise of private benevolence probably, rather than in the discharge of diaconal duty.

JFB: Rom 12:8

So the word probably means. But as simplicity seems enjoined in the next clause but one of this same verse, perhaps the meaning here is, "with liberality," as the same word is rendered in 2Co 8:2; 2Co 9:11.

JFB: Rom 12:8

Whether in the Church or his own household. See 1Ti 3:4-5, where the same word is applied to both.

JFB: Rom 12:8

With earnest purpose.

JFB: Rom 12:8

Not only without grudging either trouble or pecuniary relief, but feeling it to be "more blessed to give than to receive," and to help than be helped.

Clarke: Rom 12:8

Or he that exhorteth - Ὁ παρακαλων, The person who admonished and reprehended the unruly or disorderly; and who supported the weak and comforted the penitents, and those who were under heaviness through manifold temptations

Clarke: Rom 12:8

He that giveth - He who distributeth the alms of the Church, with simplicity - being influenced by no partiality, but dividing to each according to the necessity of his case

Clarke: Rom 12:8

He that ruleth - Ὁ προΐσταμενος, He that presides over a particular business; but as the verb προΐσταμαι also signifies to defend or patronize, it is probably used here to signify receiving and providing for strangers, and especially the persecuted who were obliged to leave their own homes, and were destitute, afflicted, and tormented. It might also imply the persons whose business it was to receive and entertain the apostolical teachers who traveled from place to place, establishing and confirming the Churches. In this sense the word προστατις is applied to Phoebe, Rom 16:2 : She hath been a Succorer of many, and of myself also. The apostle directs that this office should be executed with diligence, that such destitute persons should have their necessities as promptly and as amply supplied as possible

Clarke: Rom 12:8

He that showeth mercy - Let the person who is called to perform any act of compassion or mercy to the wretched do it, not grudgingly nor of necessity, but from a spirit of pure benevolence and sympathy. The poor are often both wicked and worthless: and, if those who are called to minister to them as stewards, overseers, etc., do not take care, they will get their hearts hardened with the frequent proofs they will have of deception, lying, idleness, etc. And on this account it is that so many of those who have been called to minister to the poor in parishes, workhouses, and religious societies, when they come to relinquish their employment find that many of their moral feelings have been considerably blunted; and perhaps the only reward they get for their services is the character of being hard-hearted. If whatever is done in this way be not done unto the Lord, it can never be done with cheerfulness.

Calvin: Rom 12:8

8.Or he who gives, let him do so in simplicity, etc From the former clauses we have clearly seen, that he teaches us here the legitimate use of God’s gifts. By the μεταδιδούντοις, the givers, of whom he speaks here, he did not understand those who gave of their own property, but the deacons, who presided in dispensing the public charities of the Church; and by the ἐλούντοις, those who showed mercy, he meant the widows, and other ministers, who were appointed to take care of the sick, according to the custom of the ancient Church: for there were two different offices, — to provide necessaries for the poor, and to attend to their condition. But to the first he recommends simplicity, so that without fraud or respect of persons they were faithfully to administer what was entrusted to them. He required the services of the other party to be rendered with cheerfulness, lest by their peevishness (which often happens) they marred the favor conferred by them. For as nothing gives more solace to the sick or to any one otherwise distressed, than to see men cheerful and prompt in assisting them; so to observe sadness in the countenance of those by whom assistance is given, makes them to feel themselves despised.

Though he rightly calls those προϊστάμενους presidents, to whom was committed the government of the Church, (and they were the elders, who presided over and ruled others and exercised discipline;) yet what he says of these may be extended universally to all kinds of governors: for no small solicitude is required from those who provide for the safety of all, and no small diligence is needful for them who ought to watch day and night for the wellbeing of the whole community. Yet the state of things at that time proves that Paul does not speak of all kinds of rulers, for there were then no pious magistrates; but of the elders who were the correctors of morals.

TSK: Rom 12:8

exhorteth : Act 13:15, Act 15:32, Act 20:2; 1Co 14:3; 1Th 2:3; 1Ti 4:13; Heb 10:25, Heb 13:22

giveth : or, imparteth, Rom 12:13; Deu 15:8-11, Deu 15:14; Job 31:16-20; Psa 112:9; Pro 22:9; Ecc 11:1, Ecc 11:2, Ecc 11:6; Isa 32:5, Isa 32:8, Isa 58:7-11; Mat 6:2-4, Mat 25:40; Luk 21:1-4; Act 2:44-46, Act 4:33-35; Act 11:28-30; 2Co 8:1-9, 2Co 8:12; 1Th 2:8; 1Pe 4:9-11

with simplicity : or, liberally, 2Co 1:12, 2Co 8:2, 2Co 11:3; Eph 6:5; Col 3:22

ruleth : Rom 13:6; Gen 18:19; Psa 101:1-8; Act 13:12, Act 20:28; 1Co 12:28; 1Th 5:12-14; 1Ti 3:4, 1Ti 3:5, 1Ti 5:17; Heb 13:7, Heb 13:17, Heb 13:24; 1Pe 5:2, 1Pe 5:3

with diligence : Ecc 9:10, shewth, Deu 16:11, Deu 16:14, Deu 16:15; Psa 37:21; Isa 64:5; 2Co 9:7

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: Rom 12:8

He that exhorteth - This word properly denotes one who urges to the practical duties of religion, in distinction from one who teaches its doctrines. One who presents the warnings and the promises of God to excite men to the discharge of their duty. It is clear that there were persons who were recognised as engaging especially in this duty, and who were known by this appellation, as distinguished from prophets and teachers. How long this was continued, there is no means of ascertaining; but it cannot be doubted that it may still be expedient, in many times and places, to have persons designated to this work. In most churches this duty is now blended with the other functions of the ministry.

He that giveth - Margin, "imparteth."The word denotes the person whose function it was to distribute; and probably designates him who distributed the alms of the church, or him who was the deacon of the congregation. The connection requires that this meaning should be given to the passage: and the word rendered "giveth"may denote one who imparts or distributes that which has been committed to him for that purpose, as well as one who gives out of his private property. As the apostle is speaking here of offices in the church, the former is evidently what is intended. It was deemed an important matter among the early Christians to impart liberally of their substance to support the poor, and provide for the needy: Act 2:44-47; Act 4:34-37; Act 5:1-11; Gal 2:10; Rom 15:26; 2Co 8:8; 2Co 9:2, 2Co 9:12. Hence, it became necessary to appoint persons over these contributions, who should be especially charged with the management of them, and who would see that they were properly distributed; Act 6:1-6. These were the persons who were denominated deacons; Phi 1:1; 1Ti 3:8, 1Ti 3:12.

With simplicity - see Mat 6:22, "If thine eye be single,"etc.; Luk 11:34. The word "simplicity" ἁπλοτής haplotēs is used in a similar sense to denote singleness, honesty of aim, purity, integrity, without any mixture of a base, selfish, or sinister end. It requires the bestowment of a favor without seeking any personal or selfish ends; without partiality; but actuated only by the desire to bestow them in the best possible manner to promote the object for which they were given; 2Co 8:2; 2Co 9:11, 2Co 9:13; 2Co 1:12; Eph 6:5; Col 3:22. It is plain that when property was intrusted to them, there would be danger that they might be tempted to employ it for selfish and sinister ends, to promote their influence and prosperity; and hence, the apostle exhorted them to do it with a single aim to the object for which it was given. Well did he know that there was nothing more tempting than the possession of wealth, though given to be appropriated to others. And this exhortation is applicable not only to the deacons of the churches, but to all who in this day of Christian benevolence are intrusted with money to advance the kingdom of the Lord Jesus Christ.

He that ruleth - This word properly designates one who is set over others, or who presides or rules, or one who attends with diligence and care to a thing. In 1Th 5:12, it is used in relation to ministers in general: "And we beseech you, brethren, to know them which labor among you, and are over you in the Lord;"1Ti 3:4-5, 1Ti 3:12, it is applied to the head of a family, or one who diligently and faithfully performs the duty of a father: "One that ruleth well his own house;"1Ti 5:17, it is applied to "elders"in the church: "Let the elders that rule well, etc."It is not used elsewhere except in Tit 3:8, Tit 3:14, in a different sense, where it is translated "to maintain good works."The prevailing sense of the word, therefore, is to rule, to preside over, or to have the management of. But to what class of persons reference is had here, and what was precisely their duty, has been made a matter of controversy, and it is not easy to determine. Whether this refers to a permanent office in the church, or to an occasional presiding in their assemblies convened for business, etc. is not settled by the use of the word. It has the idea of ruling, as in a family, or of presiding, as in a deliberate assembly; and either of these ideas would convey all that is implied in the original word; compare 1Co 12:28.

With diligence - This word properly means haste Mar 6:25; Luk 1:39; but it also denotes industry, attention, care; 2Co 7:11, "What carefulness it wrought in you;"2Co 7:12, "That our care for you in the sight of God, etc.;"2Co 8:7-8, (Greek) Heb 6:11. It means here that they should be attentive to the duties of their vocation, and engage with ardor in what was committed to them to do.

He that showeth mercy - It is probable, says Calvin, that this refers to those who had the care of the sick and infirm, the aged and the needy; not so much to provide for them by charity, as to attend on them in their affliction, and to take care of them. To the deacons was committed the duty of distributing alms, but to others that of personal attendance. This can hardly be called an office, in the technical sense; and yet it is not improbable that they were designated to this by the church, and requested to perform it. There were no hospitals and no almshouses. Christians felt it was their duty to show personal attention to the infirm and the sick; and so important was their function, that it was deemed worthy of notice in a general direction to the church.

With cheerfulness - The direction given to those who distributed alms was to do it with simplicity, with an honest aim to meet the purpose for which it was intrusted to them. The direction here varies according to the duty to be performed. It is to be done with cheerfulness, pleasantness, joy; with a kind, benign, and happy temper. The importance of this direction to those in this situation is apparent. Nothing tends so much to enhance the value of personal attendance on the sick and afflicted, as a kind and cheerful temper. If any where a mild, amiable, cheerful, and patient disposition is needed, it is near a sick bed, and when administering to the wants of those who are in affliction. And whenever we may be called to such a service, we should remember that this is indispensable. If moroseness, or impatience, or fretfulness is discovered in us, it will pain those whom we seek to benefit, embitter their feelings, and render our services of comparatively little value. The needy and infirm, the feeble and the aged, have enough to bear without the impatience and harshness of professed friends. It may be added that the example of the Lord Jesus Christ is the brightest which the world has furnished of this temper. Though constantly encompassed by the infirm and the afflicted, yet he was always kind, and gentle, and mild, and has left before us exactly what the apostie meant when he said, "he that showeth mercy with cheerfulness."The example of the good Samaritan is also another instance of what is intended by this direction; compare 2Co 9:7. This direction is particularly applicable to a physician.

We have here an account of the establishment, the order, and the duties of the different members of the Christian church. The amount of it all is, that we should discharge with fidelity the duties which belong to us in the sphere of life in which we are placed; and not despise the rank which God has assigned us; not to think of ourselves more highly than we ought; but to act well our part, according to the station where we are placed, and the talents with which we are endowed. If this were done, it would put an end to discontent, ambition, and strife, and would produce the blessings of universal peace and order.

Poole: Rom 12:8

Exhortation: see the notes on the foregoing verse.

He that giveth, let him do it with simplicity i.e. he that hath the office of collecting and distributing the church alms, (which was the deacons’ work or charge, Act 6:1 , &c.), let him discharge it with simplicity, or with singleness of heart; ( so the word is rendered, Eph 6:5 ); let him do it faithfully and impartially, and without favour or affection.

He that ruleth or he that is a president, and set over others. There is great difference amongst expositors, who is meant by this ruler. It is not meant of state rulers, (of them he treats in the next chapter), but of church rulers. Some understand, all church officers in general. Others think, such are meant as were not properly pastors and teachers, put together with them had the oversight of the church, to rule the same; to regulate misdemeanors, to pacify differences, to administer discipline in admonition and censures: these they call seniors or elders, or the censors of manners; and are the same the apostle calls governments, or governors, 1Co 12:28 ; see 1Ti 5:17 .

He that showeth mercy, with cheerfulness: some understand this generally of all Christians, that they should be charitable, and that with cheerfulness. But the apostle is yet speaking of the special offices of the church. It cannot be meant of deacons, forasmuch as he had spoken of them before in this very verse. Such therefore may be intended, as had the care assigned them of the sick and impotent, of prisoners and strangers, &c.; see 1Ti 5:10 ; the same, it may be, that he calleth helps in 1Co 12:28 . This charge he directeth them to discharge with cheerfulness; without being weary of that troublesome work, or being sour and froward to those they had to do with.

Gill: Rom 12:8

Or he that exhorteth, on exhortation,.... This is the other branch of prophesying or preaching, and which is more practical, and lies in giving a word of exhortation to the saints, as their particular cases call for; for as prophets were teachers, Act 13:1; so also exhorters, Act 15:32; and one considerable branch of the ministry, and which is more principally the pastor's work, as well as to teach, is to exhort all sorts of persons, young and old, rich and poor, high and low, bond and free, under his care, with all longsuffering and doctrine. The words will bear to be read, "he that comforteth, on consolation"; and so the Syriac version renders them, ואית דמביאנא הו בבויאה, "and another who is a comforter, in his consolation". Though all the ministers of the Gospel are to speak comfortably to the saints, by preaching the doctrines of free justification by Christ's righteousness, and remission of sins by his blood, by bringing the good news of salvation by him, and by opening the exceeding great and precious promises of the Gospel; yet some have a greater talent this way than others; some are "Boanergeses", sons of thunder, Mar 3:17, and others "Barnabases", sons of consolation, Act 4:36; and each should attend to that with all diligence and humility, he is best qualified for.

He that giveth, let him do it with simplicity. Here begins the subdivision of the deacon's office into its several branches, "giving", "ruling", and "showing mercy": by "giving" is meant, not giving of his own, or performing: acts of charity, which is common to all the members of the church, who ought liberally to contribute to the relief of the poor; but imparting or distributing the church's money to proper objects, which is to be done "with simplicity"; with all faithfulness and integrity, without fraud or embezzling the church's stock, with impartiality, and without respect of persons, and liberally and bountifully, as the word here used signifies; see 2Co 8:2;

he that ruleth, with diligence; deacons are the "helps, governments", mentioned in 1Co 12:28, who are assisting to the pastor in the government of the church; their business is, to observe the conversations of the members of the church, and to warn them that are unruly and walk disorderly, to compose differences, and prepare matters to lay before the church; a deacon is προισταμενος, "one that goes before"; and leads on others by way of example in his conduct and conversation; or as the Syriac renders it, דקאם ברישא, "that stands at the head" of affairs in the church; in the management of which he ought to use all study, thoughtfulness, care and diligence:

he that sheweth mercy, with cheerfulness; which is not to be understood of showing compassion to miserable objects in common, or of giving alms to necessitous persons, and which ought to be done according to the Jewish ^l canons, בסבר פנים יפות, "with a cheerful countenance"; and is what is highly pleasing to God, who "loves a cheerful giver": but of a branch of the deacon's office, whose work, among other things, is to visit the sick and distressed, and communicate to them as their wants require; all which should be done, not in a morose and frowning manner, but with a pleasant look and cheerful countenance, which makes the visit and the gift more welcome, acceptable, and useful.

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

Geneva Bible: Rom 12:8

Or he that ^{( n )} exhorteth, on exhortation: he that ^{( o )} giveth, [let him do it] with simplicity; he that ^{( p )} ruleth, with diligence; he that ^{( q )} sheweth mercy, with cheerfulness.

^{( n )} Who in other passages is called the "pastor".

^{( o )} That is, the alms, that he distributes them faithfully, and without any favouritism.

^{( p )} The elders of the church.

^{( q )} Those that are occupied with the care of the poor must do it with cheerfulness, lest they add sorrow upon sorrow.

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: Rom 12:1-21

1 God's mercies must move us to please God.

3 No man must think too well of himself;

6 but everyone attend on that calling wherein he is placed.

9 Love, and many other duties are required of us.

19 Revenge is especially forbidden.

Maclaren: Rom 12:6-8

Grace And Graces

Having then gifts, differing according to the grace that is given to us, whether prophecy, let us prophesy according to the proportion of faith; 7. Or ministry, let us wait on our ministering; or he that teacheth, on teaching; 8. Or he that exhorteth, on exhortation; he that giveth, let him do it with simplicity; he that ruleth, with diligence; he that showeth mercy, with cheerfulness.'--Romans 12:6-8.

THE Apostle here proceeds to build upon the great thought of the unity of believers in the one body a series of practical exhortations. In the first words of our text, he, with characteristic delicacy, identifies himself with the Roman Christians as a recipient, like them, of' the grace that is given to us,' and as, therefore, subject to the same precepts which he commends to them. He does not stand isolated by the grace that is given to him; nor does he look down as from the height of his apostleship on the multitude below, saying to them,--Go. As one of themselves he stands amongst them, and with brotherly exhortation says,-Come. If that had been the spirit in which all Christian teachers had besought men, their exhortations would less frequently have been breath spent in vain.

We may note

I. The Grace That Gives The Gifts.

The connection between these two is more emphatically suggested by the original Greek, in which the word for' gifts' is a derivative of that for' grace.' The relation between these two can scarcely be verbally reproduced in English; but it may be, though imperfectly, suggested by reading graces' instead of gifts.' The gifts are represented as being the direct product of, and cognate with, the grace bestowed. As we have had already occasion to remark, they are in Paul's language a designation of natural capacities strengthened by the access of the life of the Spirit of Christ. As a candle plunged in a vase of oxygen leaps up into more brilliant flame, so all the faculties of the human soul are made a hundred times themselves when the quickening power of the life of Christ enters into them.

It is to be observed that the Apostle here assumes that every Christian possesses, in some form, that grace which gives graces. To him a believing soul without Christ-given gifts is a monstrosity. No one is without some graces, and therefore no one is without some duties. No one who considers the multitude of professing Christians who hamper all our churches to-day, and reflects on the modern need to urge on the multitude of idlers forms of Christian activity, will fail to recognise signs of terribly weakened vitality. The humility, which in response to all invitations to work for Christ pleads unfitness is, if true, more tragical than it at first seems, for it is a confession that the man who alleges it has no real hold of the Christ in whom he professes to trust. If a Christian man is fit for no Christian work, it is time that he gravely ask himself whether he has any Christian life. Having gifts' is the basis of all the Apostle's exhortations. It is to him inconceivable that any Christian should not possess, and be conscious of possessing, some endowment from the life of Christ which will fit him for, and bind him to, a course of active service.

The universality of this possession is affirmed, if we note that, according to the Greek, it was given' at a special time in the experience of each of these Roman Christians. The rendering was given' might be more accurately exchanged for has been given,' and that expression is best taken as referring to a definite moment in the history of each believer namely, his conversion. When we yield ourselves to God,' as Paul exhorts us to do in the beginning of this chapter, as the commencement of all true life of conformity to His will, Christ yields Himself to us. The possession of these gifts of grace is no prerogative of officials; and, indeed, in all the exhortations which follow there is no reference to officials, though of course such were in existence in the Roman Church. They had their special functions and special qualifications for these. But what Paul is dealing with now is the grace that is inseparable from individual surrender to Christ, and has been bestowed upon all who are His. To limit the gifts to officials, and to suppose that the universal gifts in any degree militate against the recognition of officials in the Church, are equally mistakes, and confound essentially different subjects.

II. The Graces That Flow From The Grace.

The Apostle's catalogue of these is not exhaustive, nor logically arranged; but yet a certain loose order may be noted, which may be profitable for us to trace. They are in number seven--the sacred number; and are capable of being divided, as so many of the series of sevens are, into two portions, one containing four and the other three. The former include more public works, to each of which a man might be specially devoted as his life work for and in the Church. Three are more private, and may be conceived to have a wider relation to the world. There are some difficulties of construction and rendering in the list, which need not concern us here; and we may substantially follow the Authorised Version.

The first group of four seems to fall into two pairs, the first of which, prophecy' and ministry,' seem to be bracketed together by reason of the difference between them. Prophecy is a very high form of special inspiration, and implies a direct reception of special revelation, but not necessarily of future events. The prophet is usually coupled in Paul's writings with the apostle, and was obviously amongst those to whom was given one of the highest forms of the gifts of Christ. It is very beautiful to note that by natural contrast the Apostle at once passes to one of the forms of service which a vulgar estimate would regard as remotest from the special revelation of the prophet, and is confined to lowly service. Side by side with the exalted gift of prophecy Paul puts the lowly gift of ministry. Very significant is the juxtaposition of these two extremes. It teaches us that the lowliest office is as truly allotted by Jesus as the most sacred, and that His highest gifts find an adequate field for manifestation in him who is servant of all. Ministry to be rightly discharged needs spiritual character. The original seven were men full of faith and of the Holy Ghost,' though all they had to do was to hand their pittances to poor widows. It may be difficult to decide for what reason other than the emphasising of this contrast the Apostle links together ministry and prophecy, and so breaks a natural sequence which would have connected the second pair of graces with the first member of the first pair. We should have expected that here, as elsewhere, prophet,' teacher,' exhorter,' would have been closely connected, and there seems no reason why they should not have been so, except that which we have suggested, namely, the wish to bring together the highest and the lowest forms of service.

The second pair seem to be linked together by likeness. The teacher' probably had for his function, primarily, the narration of the facts of the Gospel, and the setting forth in a form addressed chiefly to the understanding the truths thereby revealed; whilst the exhorter' rather addressed himself to the will, presenting the same truth, but in forms more intended to influence the emotions. The word here rendered exhort' is found in Paul's writings as bearing special meanings, such as consoling, stimulating, encouraging, rebuking and others. Of course these two forms of service would often be associated, and each would he imperfect when alone; but it would appear that in the early Church there were persons in whom the one or the other of these two elements was so preponderant that their office was thereby designated. Each received a special gift from the one Source. The man who could only say to his brother, Be of good cheer,' was as much the recipient of the Spirit as the man who could connect and elaborate a systematic presentation of the truths of the Gospel.

These four graces are followed by a group of three, which may be regarded as being more private, as not pointing to permanent offices so much as to individual acts. They are giving,' ruling,' showing pity,' concerning which we need only note that the second of these can hardly be the ecclesiastical office, and that it stands between two which are closely related, as if it were of the same kind. The gifts of money, or of direction, or of pity, are one in kind. The right use of wealth comes from She gift of God's grace; so does the right use of any sway which any of us have over any of our brethren; and so does the glow of compassion, the exercise of the natural human sympathy which belongs to all, and is deepened and made tenderer and intenser by the gift of the Spirit. It would be a very different Church, and a very different world, if Christians, who were not conscious of possessing gifts which made them fit to be either prophets, or teachers, or exhorters, and were scarcely endowed even for any special form of ministry, felt that a gift from their hands, or a wave of pity from their hearts, was a true token of the movement of God's Spirit on their spirits. The fruit of the Spirit is to be found in the wide fields of everyday life, and the vine bears many clusters for the thirsty lips of wearied men who may little know what gives them their bloom and sweetness, It would be better for both giver and receiver if Christian beneficence were more clearly recognised as one of the manifestations of spiritual life.

III. The Exercise Of The Graces.

There are some difficulties in reference to the grammatical construction of the words of our text, into which it is not necessary that we should enter here. We may substantially follow the Authorised and Revised Versions in supplying verbs in the various clauses, so as to make of the text a series of exhortations. The first of these is to prophesy according to the proportion of faith ; a commandment which is best explained by remembering that in the preceding verse the measure of faith' has been stated as being the measure of the gifts. The prophet then is to exercise his gifts in proportion to his faith. He is to speak his convictions fully and openly, and to let his utterances be shaped by the indwelling life. This exhortation may well sink into the heart of preachers in this day. It is but the echo of Jeremiah's strong words: He that hath my word, let him speak my word faithfully. What is the chaff to the wheat? saith the Lord. Is not my word like as fire, saith the Lord, and like a hammer that breaketh the rock in pieces?' The ancient prophet's woo falls with double weight on those who use their words as a veil to obscure their real beliefs, and who prophesy, not according to the proportion of faith,' but according to the expectations of the hearers, whose faith is as vague as theirs.

In the original, the next three exhortations are alike in grammatical construction, which is represented in the Authorised Version by the supplement let us wait on,' and in the Revised Version by let us give ourselves to'; we might with advantage substitute for either the still more simple form be in,' after the example of Paul's exhortation to Timothy be in these things'; that is, as our Version has it, give thyself wholly to them.' The various gifts are each represented as a sphere within which its possessor is to move, for the opportunities for the exercise of which he is carefully to watch, and within the limits of which he is humbly to keep. That general law applies equally to ministry, and teaching and exhorting. We are to seek to discern our spheres; we are to be occupied with, if not absorbed in, them. At the least we are diligently to use the gift which we discover ourselves to possess, and thus filling our several spheres, we are to keep within them, recognising that each is sacred as the manifestation of God's will for each of us. The divergence of forms is unimportant, and it matters nothing whether the Giver of all' grants less or more. The main thing is that each be faithful in the administration of what he has received, and not seek to imitate his brother who is diversely endowed, or to monopolise for himself another's gifts. To insist that our brethren's gifts should be like ours, and to try to make ours like theirs, are equally sins against the great truth, of which the Church as a whole is the example, that there are' diversities of operations but the same Spirit.'

The remaining three exhortations are in like manner thrown together by a similarity of construction in which the personality of the doer is put in the foreground, and the emphasis of the commandment is rested on the manner in which the grace is exercised. The reason for that may be that in these three especially the manner will show the grace. Giving' is to be with simplicity.' There are to be no sidelong looks to self-interest; no flinging of a gift from a height, as a bone might be flung to a dog; no seeking for gratitude; no ostentation in the gift. Any taint of such mixed motives as these infuses poison into our gifts, and makes them taste bitter to the receiver, and recoil in hurt upon ourselves. To give with simplicity' is to give as God gives.

Diligence' is the characteristic prescribed for the man that rules. We have already pointed out that this exhortation includes a much wider area than that of any ecclesiastical officials. It points to another kind of rule, and the natural gifts needed for any kind of rule are diligence and zeal. Slackly-held reins make stumbling steeds; and any man on whose shoulders is laid the weight of government is bound to feel it as a weight. The history of many a nation, and of many a family, teaches that where the rule is slothful all evils grow apace; and it is that natural energy and earnestness, deepened and hallowed by the Christian life, which here is enjoined as the true Christian way of discharging the function of ruling, which, in some form or another, devolves on almost all of us.

He that showeth mercy with cheerfulness.' The glow of natural human sympathy is heightened so as to become a gift,' and the way in which it is exercised is defined as being with cheerfulness.' That injunction is but partially understood if it is taken to mean no more than that sympathy is not to be rendered grudgingly, or as by necessity. No sympathy is indeed possible on such terms; unless the heart is in it, it is nought.

And that it should thus flow forth spontaneously wherever sorrow and desolation evoke it, there must be a continual repression of self, and a heart disengaged from the entanglements of its own circumstances, and at leisure to make a brother's burden its very own. But the exhortation may, perhaps, rather mean that the truest sympathy carries a bright face into darkness, and comes like sunshine in a shady place.

MHCC: Rom 12:3-8

Pride is a sin in us by nature; we need to be cautioned and armed against it. All the saints make up one body in Christ, who is the Head of the body, and the common Centre of their unity. In the spiritual body, some are fitted for and called to one sort of work; others for another sort of work. We are to do all the good we can, one to another, and for the common benefit. If we duly thought about the powers we have, and how far we fail properly to improve them, it would humble us. But as we must not be proud of our talents, so we must take heed lest, under a pretence of humility and self-denial, we are slothful in laying out ourselves for the good of others. We must not say, I am nothing, therefore I will sit still, and do nothing; but, I am nothing in myself, and therefore I will lay out myself to the utmost, in the strength of the grace of Christ. Whatever our gifts or situations may be, let us try to employ ourselves humbly, diligently, cheerfully, and in simplicity; not seeking our own credit or profit, but the good of many, for this world and that which is to come.

Matthew Henry: Rom 12:1-21

We may observe here, according to the scheme mentioned in the contents, the apostle's exhortations,

I. Concerning our duty to God, We see what is godliness.

1. It is to surrender ourselves to God, and so to lay a good foundation. We must first give our own selves unto the Lord, 2Co 8:5. This is here pressed as the spring of all duty and obedience, Rom 12:1, Rom 12:2. Man consists of body and soul, Gen 2:7; Ecc 12:7.

(1.) The body must be presented to him, Rom 12:1. The body is for the Lord, and the Lord for the body, 1Co 6:13, 1Co 6:14. The exhortation is here introduced very pathetically: I beseech you, brethren. Though he was a great apostle, yet he calls the meanest Christians brethren, a term of affection and concern. He uses entreaty; this is the gospel way: As though God did beseech you by us, 2Co 5:20. Though he might with authority command, yet for love's sake he rather beseeches, Phm 1:8, Phm 1:9. The poor useth entreaty, Pro 18:23. This is to insinuate the exhortation, that it might come with the more pleasing power. Many are sooner wrought upon if they be accosted kindly, are more easily led than driven. Now observe,

[1.] The duty pressed - to present our bodies a living sacrifice, alluding to the sacrifices under the law, which were presented or set before God at the altar, ready to be offered to him. Your bodies - your whole selves; so expressed because under the law the bodies of beasts were offered in sacrifice, 1Co 6:20. Our bodies and spirits are intended. The offering was sacrificed by the priest, but presented by the offerer, who transferred to God all his right, title, and interest in it, by laying his hand on the head of it. Sacrifice is here taken for whatsoever is by God's own appointment dedicated to himself; see 1Pe 2:5. We are temple, priest, and sacrifice, as Christ was in his peculiar sacrificing. There were sacrifices of atonement and sacrifices of acknowledgment. Christ, who was once offered to bear the sins of many, is the only sacrifice of atonement; but our persons and performances, tendered to God through Christ our priest, are as sacrifices of acknowledgment to the honour of God. Presenting them denotes a voluntary act, done by virtue of that absolute despotic power which the will has over the body and all the members of it. It must be a free-will offering. Your bodies; not your beasts. Those legal offerings, as they had their power from Christ, so they had their period in Christ. The presenting of the body to God implies not only the avoiding of the sins that are committed with or against the body, but the using of the body as a servant of the soul in the service of God. It is to glorify God with our bodies (1Co 6:20), to engage our bodies in the duties of immediate worship, and in a diligent attendance to our particular callings, and be willing to suffer for God with our bodies, when we are called to it. It is to yield the members of our bodies as instruments of righteousness, Rom 6:13. Though bodily exercise alone profits little, yet in its place it is a proof and product of the dedication of our souls to God. First, Present them a living sacrifice; not killed, as the sacrifices under the law. A Christian makes his body a sacrifice to God, though he does not give it to be burned. A body sincerely devoted to God is a living sacrifice. A living sacrifice, by way of allusion - that which was dead of itself might not be eaten, much less sacrificed, Deu 14:21; and by ways of opposition - "The sacrifice was to be slain, but you may be sacrificed, and yet live on"- an unbloody sacrifice. The barbarous heathen sacrificed their children to their idol-gods, not living, but slain sacrifices: but God will have mercy, and not such sacrifice, though life is forfeited to him. A living sacrifice, that is, inspired with the spiritual life of the soul. It is Christ living in the soul by faith that makes the body a living sacrifice, Gal 2:20. Holy love kindles the sacrifices, puts life into the duties; see Rom 6:13. Alive, that is, to God, Rom 6:11. Secondly, They must be holy. There is a relative holiness in every sacrifice, as dedicated to God. But, besides this, there must be that real holiness which consists in an entire rectitude of heart and life, by which we are conformed in both to the nature and will of God: even our bodies must not be made the instruments of sin and uncleanness, but set apart for God, and put to holy uses, as the vessels of the tabernacle were holy, being devoted to God's service. It is the soul that is the proper subject of holiness; but a sanctified soul communicates a holiness to the body it actuates and animates. That is holy which is according to the will of God; when the bodily actions are no, the body is holy. They are the temples of the Holy Ghost, 1Co 6:19. Possess the body in sanctification, 1Th 4:4, 1Th 4:5.

[2.] The arguments to enforce this, which are three: - First, Consider the mercies of God: I beseech you by the mercies of God. An affectionate obtestation, and which should melt us into a compliance: dia tōn oiktirmōn tou Theou . This is an argument most sweetly cogent. There is the mercy that is in God and the mercy that is from God-mercy in the spring and mercy in the streams: both are included here; but especially gospel-mercies (mentioned ch. 11), the transferring of what the Jews forfeited and lost by their unbelief unto us Gentiles (Eph 3:4-6): the sure mercies of David, Isa 55:3. God is a merciful God, therefore let us present our bodies to him; he will be sure to use them kindly, and knows how to consider the frames of them, for he is of infinite compassion. We receive from him every day the fruits of his mercy, particularly mercy to our bodies: he made them, he maintains them, he bought them, he has put a great dignity upon them. It is of the Lord's mercies that we are not consumed, that our souls are held in life; and the greatest mercy of all is that Christ hath made not his body only, but his soul, an offering for sin, that he gave himself for us and gives himself to us. Now surely we cannot but be studying what we shall render to the Lord for all this. And what shall we render? Let us render ourselves as an acknowledgment of all these favours - all we are, all we have, all we can do; and, after all, it is but very poor returns for very rich receivings: and yet, because it is what we have, Secondly, It is acceptable to God. The great end we should all labour after is to be accepted of the Lord (2Co 5:9), to have him well-pleased with our persons and performances. Now these living sacrifices are acceptable to God; while the sacrifices of the wicked, though fat and costly, are an abomination to the Lord. It is God's great condescension that he will vouchsafe to accept of any thing in us; and we can desire no more to make us happy; and, if the presenting of ourselves will but please him, we may easily conclude that we cannot bestow ourselves better. Thirdly, It is our reasonable service. There is an act of reason in it; for it is the soul that presents the body. Blind devotion, that has ignorance for the mother and nurse of it, is fit to be paid only to those dunghill-gods that have eyes and see not. Our God must be served in the spirit and with the understanding. There is all the reason in the world for it, and no good reason can possibly be produced against it. Come now, and let us reason together, Isa 1:18. God does not impose upon us any thing hard or unreasonable, but that which is altogether agreeable to the principles of right reason. Tēn logikēn latreian humōn - your service according to the word; so it may be read. The word of God does not leave out the body in holy worship. That service only is acceptable to God which is according to the written word. It must be gospel worship, spiritual worship. That is a reasonable service which we are able and ready to give a reason for, in which we understand ourselves. God deals with us as with rational creatures, and will have us so to deal with him. Thus must the body be presented to God.

(2.) The mind must be renewed for him. This is pressed (Rom 12:2): " Be you transformed by the renewing of your mind; see to it that there be a saving change wrought in you, and that it be carried on."Conversion and sanctification are the renewing of the mind, a change not of the substance, but of the qualities of the soul. It is the same with making a new heart and a new spirit - new dispositions and inclinations, new sympathies and antipathies; the understanding enlightened, the conscience softened, the thoughts rectified; the will bowed to the will of God, and the affections made spiritual and heavenly: so that the man is not what he was - old things are passed away, all things are become new; he acts from new principles, by new rules, with new designs. The mind is the acting ruling part of us; so that the renewing of the mind is the renewing of the whole man, for out of it are the issues of life, Pro 4:23. The progress of sanctification, dying to sin more and more and living to righteousness more and more, is the carrying on of this renewing work, till it be perfected in glory. This is called the transforming of us; it is like putting on a new shape and figure. Mateamorphousthe - Be you metamorphosed. The transfiguration of Christ is expressed by this word (Mat 17:2), when he put on a heavenly glory, which made his face to shine like the sun; and the same word is used 2Co 3:18, where we are said to be changed into the same image from glory to glory. This transformation is here pressed as a duty; not that we can work such a change ourselves: we could as soon make a new world as make a new heart by any power of our own; it is God's work, Eze 11:19; Eze 36:26, Eze 36:27. But be you transformed, that is, "use the means which God hath appointed and ordained for it."It is God that turns us, and then we are turned; but we must frame our doings to turn, Hos 5:4. "Lay your souls under the changing transforming influences of the blessed Spirit; seek unto God for grace in the use of all the means of grace."Though the new man be created of God, yet we must put it on (Eph 4:24), and be pressing forward towards perfection. Now in this verse we may further observe,

[1.] What is the great enemy to this renewing, which we must avoid; and that is, conformity to this world: Be not conformed to this world. All the disciples and followers of the Lord Jesus must be nonconformists to this world. Mē suschēmatizesthe - Do not fashion yourselves according to the world. We must not conform to the things of the world; they are mutable, and the fashion of them is passing away. Do not conform either to the lusts of the flesh or the lusts of the eye. We must not conform to the men of the world, of that world which lies in wickedness, not walk according to the course of this world (Eph 2:2); that is, we must not follow a multitude to do evil, Exo 23:2. If sinners entice us, we must not consent to them, but in our places witness against them. Nay, even in things indifferent, and which are not in themselves sinful, we must so far not conform to the custom and way of the world as not to act by the world's dictates as our chief rule, nor to aim at the world's favours as our highest end. True Christianity consists much in a sober singularity. Yet we must take heed of the extreme of affected rudeness and moroseness, which some run into. In civil things, the light of nature and the custom of nations are intended for our guidance; and the rule of the gospel in those cases is a rule of direction, not a rule of contrariety.

[2.] What is the great effect of this renewing, which we must labour after: That you may prove what is that good, and acceptable, and perfect will of God. by the will of God here we are to understand his revealed will concerning our duty, what the Lord our God requires of us. This is the will of God in general, even our sanctification, that will which we pray may be done by us as it is done by the angels; especially his will as it is revealed in the New Testament, where he hath in these last days spoken to us by his Son. First, The will of God is good, and acceptable, and perfect; three excellent properties of a law. It is good (Mic 6:8); it is exactly consonant to the eternal reason of good and evil. It is good in itself. It is good for us. Some think the evangelical law is here called good, in distinction from the ceremonial law, which consisted of statutes that were not good, Eze 20:25. It is acceptable, it is pleasing to God; that and that only is so which is prescribed by him. The only way to attain his favour as the end is to conform to his will as the rule. It is perfect, to which nothing can be added. The revealed will of God is a sufficient rule of faith and practice, containing all things which tend to the perfection of the man of God, to furnish us thoroughly to every good work, 2Ti 3:16, 2Ti 3:17. Secondly, That it concerns Christians to prove what is that will of God which is good, and acceptable, and perfect; that is, to know it with judgment and approbation, to know it experimentally, to know the excellency of the will of God by the experience of a conformity to it. It is to approve things that are excellent (Phi 1:10); it is dokimazein (the same word that is used here) to try things that differ, in doubtful cases readily to apprehend what the will of God is and to close in with it. It is to be of quick understanding in the fear of the Lord, Isa 11:3. Thirdly, That those are best able to prove what is the good, and acceptable, and perfect will of God, who are transformed by the renewing of their mind. A living principle of grace is in the soul, as far as it prevails, an unbiassed unprejudiced judgment concerning the things of God. It disposes the soul to receive and entertain the revelations of the divine will. The promise is (Joh 7:17), If any man will do his will, he shall know of the doctrine. A good wit can dispute and distinguish about the will of God; while an honest, humble heart, that has spiritual senses exercised, and is delivered into the mould of the word, loves it, and practises it, and has the relish and savour of it. Thus to be godly is to surrender ourselves to God.

2. When this is done, to serve him in all manner of gospel obedience. Some hints of this we have here (Rom 12:11, Rom 12:12), Serving the Lord. Wherefore do we present ourselves to him, but that we may serve him? Act 27:23, Whose I am; and then it follows, whom I serve. To be religious is to serve God. How? (1.) We must make a business of it, and not be slothful in that business. Not slothful in business. There is the business of the world, that of our particular calling, in which we must not be slothful, 1Th 4:11. But this seems to be meant of the business of serving the Lord, our Father's business, Luk 2:49. Those that would approve themselves Christians indeed must make religion their business - must choose it, and learn it, and give themselves to it; they must love it, and employ themselves in it, and abide by it, as their great and main business. And, having made it our business, we must not be slothful in it: not desire our own ease, and consult that, when it comes in competition with our duty. We must not drive on slowly in religion. Slothful servants will be reckoned with us wicked servants. (2.) We must be fervent in spirit, serving the Lord. God must be served with the spirit (Rom 1:9; Joh 4:24), under the influences of the Holy Spirit. Whatever we do in religion it is pleasing to God no further than it is done with our spirits wrought upon by the Spirit of God. And there must be fervency in the spirit - a holy zeal, and warmth, and ardency of affection in all we do, as those that love God not only with the heart and soul, but with all our hearts, and with all our souls. This is the holy fire that kindles the sacrifice, and carries it up to heaven, an offering of a sweet-smelling savour. - Serving the Lord. Tō kairō douleuntes (so some copies read it), serving the time, that is, improving your opportunities and making the best of them, complying with the present seasons of grace. (3.) Rejoicing in hope. God is worshipped and honoured by our hope and trust in him, especially when we rejoice in that hope, take a complacency in that confidence, which argues a great assurance of the reality and a great esteem of the excellency of the good hoped for. (4.) Patient in tribulation. Thus also God is served, not only by working for him when he calls us to work, but by sitting still quietly when he calls us to suffer. Patience for God's sake, and with an eye to his will and glory, is true piety. Observe, Those that rejoice in hope are likely to be patient in tribulation. It is a believing prospect of the joy set before us that bears up the spirit under all outward pressure. (5.) Continuing instant in prayer. Prayer is a friend to hope and patience, and we do in it serve the Lord. Proskarterountes . It signifies both fervency and perseverance in prayer. We should not be cold in the duty, nor soon weary of it, Luk 18:1; 1Th 5:17; Eph 6:18; Col 4:2. This is our duty which immediately respects God.

II. Concerning our duty which respects ourselves; this is sobriety.

1. A sober opinion of ourselves, Rom 12:3. It is ushered in with a solemn preface: I say, through the grace given unto me: the grace f wisdom, by which he understood the necessity and excellency of this duty; the grace of apostleship, by which he had authority to press and enjoin it. "I say it, who am commissioned to say it, in God's name. I say it, and it is not for you to gainsay it."It is said to every one of us, one as well as another. Pride is a sin that is bred in the bone of all of us, and we have therefore each of us need to be cautioned and armed against it. - Not to think of himself more highly than he ought to think. We must take heed of having too great an opinion of ourselves, or putting too high a valuation upon our own judgments, abilities, persons, performances. We must not be self-conceited, nor esteem too much our own wisdom and other attainments, not think ourselves to be something, Gal 6:3. There is a high thought of ourselves which we may and must have to think ourselves too good to be the slaves of sin and drudges to this world. But, on the other hand, we should think soberly, that is, we must have a low and modest opinion of ourselves and our own abilities, our gifts and graces, according to what we have received from God, and not otherwise. We must not be confident and hot in matters of doubtful disputation; not stretch ourselves beyond our line; not judge and censure those that differ from us; not desire to make a fair show in the flesh. These and the like are the fruits of a sober opinion of ourselves. The words will bear yet another sense agreeable enough. Of himself is not in the original; therefore it may be read, That no man be wise above what he ought to be wise, but be wise unto sobriety. We must not exercise ourselves in things too high for us (Psa 131:1, Psa 131:2), not intrude into those things which we have not seen (Col 2:18), those secret things which belong not to us (Deu 29:29), not covet to be wise above what is written. There is a knowledge that puffs up, which reaches after forbidden fruit. We must take heed of this, and labour after that knowledge which tends to sobriety, to the rectifying of the heart and the reforming of the life. Some understand it of the sobriety which keeps us in our own place and station, from intruding into the gifts and offices of others. See an instance of this sober modest care in the exercise of the greatest spiritual gifts, 2Co 10:13-15. To this head refers also that exhortation (Rom 12:16), Be not wise in your own conceits. It is good to be wise, but it is bad to think ourselves so; for there is more hope of a fool than of him that is wise in his own eyes. It was an excellent thing for Moses to have his face shine and not know it. Now the reasons why we must have such a sober opinion of ourselves, our own abilities and attainments, are these: -

(1.) Because whatever we have that is good, God hath dealt it to us; every good and perfect gift comes from above, Jam 1:17. What have we that we have not received? And, if we have received it, why then do we boast? 1Co 4:7. The best and most useful man in the world is no more, no better, than what the free grace of God makes him every day. When we are thinking of ourselves, we must remember to think not how we attained, as though our might and the power of our hand had gotten us these gifts; but think how kind God hath been to us, for it is he that gives us power to do any thing that is good, and in him is all our sufficiency.

(2.) Because God deals out his gifts in a certain measure: According to the measure of faith. Observe, The measure of spiritual gifts he calls the measure of faith, for this is the radical grace. What we have and do that is good is so far right and acceptable as it is founded in faith, and flows from faith, and no further. Now faith, and other spiritual gifts with it, are dealt by measure, according as Infinite Wisdom sees meet for us. Christ had the Spirit given him without measure, Joh 3:34. But the saints have it by measure; see Eph 4:7. Christ, who had gifts without measure, was meek and lowly; and shall we, that are stinted, be proud and self-conceited?

(3.) Because God has dealt out gifts to others as well as to us: Dealt to every man. Had we the monopoly of the Spirit, or a patent to be sole proprietors of spiritual gifts, there might be some pretence for this conceitedness of ourselves; but others have their share as well as we. God is a common Father, and Christ a common root, to all the saints, who all drive virtue from him; and therefore it ill becomes us to lift up ourselves, and to despise others, as if we only were the people in favour with heaven, and wisdom should die with us. This reasoning he illustrates by a comparison taken from the members of the natural body (as 1Co 12:12; Eph 4:16): As we have many members in one body, etc., Rom 12:4, Rom 12:5. Here observe, [1.] All the saints make up one body in Christ, who is the head of the body, and the common centre of their unity. Believers lie not in the world as a confused disorderly heap, but are organized and knit together, as they are united to one common head, and actuated and animated by one common Spirit. [2.] Particular believers are members of this body, constituent parts, which speak them less than the whole, and in relation to the whole, deriving life and spirits from the head. Some members in the body are bigger and more useful than others, and each receives spirits from the head according to its proportion. if the little finger should receive as much nourishment as the leg, how unseemly and prejudicial would it be! We must remember that we are not the whole; we think above what is meet if we think so; we are but parts and members. [3.] All the members have not the same office (Rom 12:4), but each hath its respective place and work assigned it. The office of the eye is to see, the office of the hand is to work, etc. So in the mystical body, some are qualified for, and called to, one sort of work; others are, in like manner, fitted for, and called to, another sort of work. Magistrates, ministers, people, in a Christian commonwealth, have their several offices, and must not intrude one upon another, nor clash in the discharge of their several offices. [4.] Each member hath its place and office, for the good and benefit of the whole, and of every other member. We are not only members of Christ, but we are members one of another, Rom 12:5. We stand in relation one to another; we are engaged to do all the good we can one to another, and to act in conjunction for the common benefit. See this illustrated at large, 1Co 12:14, etc. Therefore we must not be puffed up with a conceit of our own attainments, because, whatever we have, as we received it, so we received it not for ourselves, but for the good of others.

2. A sober use of the gifts that God hath given us. As we must not on the one hand be proud of our talents, so on the other hand we must not bury them. Take heed lest, under a pretence of humility and self-denial, we be slothful in laying out ourselves for the good of others. We must not say, "I am nothing, therefore I will sit still, and do nothing;"but, "I am nothing in myself, and therefore I will lay out myself to the utmost in the strength of the grace of Christ."He specifies the ecclesiastical offices appointed in particular churches, in the discharge of which each must study to do his own duty, for the preserving of order and the promotion of edification in the church, each knowing his place and fulfilling it. Having then gifts. The following induction of particulars supplies the sense of this general. Having gifts, let us use them. Authority and ability for the ministerial work are the gift of God. - Gifts differing. The immediate design is different, though the ultimate tendency of all is the same. According to the grace, Charismata kata tēn charin . The free grace of God is the spring and original of all the gifts that are given to men. It is grace that appoints the office, qualifies and inclines the person, works both to will and to do. There were in the primitive church extraordinary gifts of tongues, of discerning, of healing; but he speaks here of those that are ordinary. Compare 1Co 12:4; 1Ti 4:14; 1Pe 4:10. Seven particular gifts he specifies (Rom 12:6-8), which seem to be meant of so many distinct offices, used by the prudential constitution of many of the primitive churches, especially the larger. There are two general ones here expressed by prophesying and ministering, the former the work of the bishops, the latter the work of the deacons, which were the only two standing officers, Phi 1:1. But the particular work belonging to each of these might be, and it should seem was, divided and allotted by common consent and agreement, that it might be done the more effectually, because that which is every body's work is nobody's work, and he despatches his business best that is vir unius negotii - a man of one business. Thus David sorted the Levites (1Ch 23:4, 1Ch 23:5), and in this wisdom is profitable to direct. The five latter will therefore be reduced to the two former.

(1.) Prophecy. Whether prophecy, let us prophesy according to the proportion of faith. It is not meant of the extraordinary gifts of foretelling things to come, but the ordinary office of preaching the word: so prophesying is taken, 1Co 14:1-3, etc.; 1Co 11:4; 1Th 5:20. The work of the Old Testament prophets was not only to foretel future things, but to warn the people concerning sin and duty, and to be their remembrancers concerning that which they knew before. And thus gospel preachers are prophets, and do indeed, as far as the revelation of the word goes, foretel things to come. Preaching refers to the eternal condition of the children of men, points directly at a future state. Now those that preach the word must do it according to the proportion of faith - kata tēn analogian tēs pisteōs , that is, [1.] As to the manner of our prophesying, it must be according to the proportion of the grace of faith. He had spoken (Rom 12:3) of the measure of faith dealt to every man. Let him that preaches set all the faith he hath on work, to impress the truths he preaches upon his own heart in the first place. As people cannot hear well, so ministers cannot preach well, without faith. First believe and then speak, Psa 116:10; 2Co 4:13. And we must remember the proportion of faith - that, though all men have not faith, yet a great many have besides ourselves; and therefore we must allow others to have a share of knowledge and ability to instruct, as well as we, even those that in less things differ from us. " Hast thou faith? Have it to thyself; and do not make it a ruling rule to others, remembering that thou hast but thy proportion."[2.] As to the matter of our prophesying, it must be according to the proportion of the doctrine of faith, as it is revealed in the holy scriptures of the Old and New Testament. By this rule of faith the Bereans tried Paul's preaching, Act 17:11. Compare Act 26:22; Gal 1:9. There are some staple-truths, as I may call them, some prima axiomata - first axioms, plainly and uniformly taught in the scripture, which are the touchstone of preaching, by which (though we must not despise prophesying) we must prove all things, and then hold fast that which is good, 1Th 5:20, 1Th 5:21. Truths that are more dark must be examined by those that are more clear; and then entertained when they are found to agree and comport with the analogy of faith; for it is certain one truth can never contradict another. See here what ought to be the great care of preachers - to preach sound doctrine, according to the form of wholesome words, Tit 2:8; 2Ti 1:13. It is not so necessary that the prophesying be according to the proportion of art, the rules of logic and rhetoric; but it is necessary that it be according to the proportion of faith: for it is the word of faith that we preach. Now there are two particular works which he that prophesieth hath to mind-teaching and exhorting, proper enough to be done by the same person at the same time, and when he does the one let him mind that, when he does the other let him do that too as well as he can. If, by agreement between the ministers of a congregation, this work be divided, either constantly or interchangeably, so that one teaches and the other exhorts (that is, in our modern dialect, one expounds and the other preaches), let each do his work according to the proportion of faith. First, let him that teacheth wait on teaching. Teaching is the bare explaining and proving of gospel truths, without practical application, as in the expounding of the scripture. Pastors and teachers are the same office (Eph 4:11), but the particular work is somewhat different. Now he that has a faculty of teaching, and has undertaken that province, let him stick to it. It is a good gift, let him use it, and give his mind to it. He that teacheth, let him be in his teaching; so some supply it, Ho didaskōn , en tē didaskalia . Let him be frequent and constant, and diligent in it; let him abide in that which is his proper work, and be in it as his element. See 1Ti 4:15, 1Ti 4:16, where it is explained by two words, en toutois isthi , and epimene autois , be in these things and continue in them. Secondly, Let him that exhorteth wait on exhortation. Let him give himself to that. This is the work of the pastor, as the former of the teacher; to apply gospel truths and rules more closely to the case and condition of the people, and to press upon them that which is more practical. Many that are very accurate in teaching may yet be very cold and unskilful in exhorting; and on the contrary. The one requires a clearer head, the other a warmer heart. Now where these gifts are evidently separated (that the one excels in the one and the other in the other) it conduces to edification to divide the work accordingly; and, whatsoever the work is that we undertake, let us mind it. To wait on our work is to bestow the best of our time and thoughts upon it, to lay hold of all opportunities for it, and to study not only to do it, but to do it well.

(2.) Ministry. If a man hath diakonian - the office of a deacon, or assistant to the pastor and teacher, let him use that office well - a churchwarden (suppose), an elder, or an overseer of the poor; and perhaps there were more put into these offices, and there was more solemnity in them, and a greater stress of care and business lay upon them in the primitive churches, than we are now well aware of. It includes all those offices which concern the ta exō of the church, the outward business of the house of God. See Neh 11:16. Serving tables, Act 6:2. Now let him on whom this care of ministering is devolved attend to it with faithfulness and diligence; particularly, [1.] He that giveth, let him do it with simplicity. Those church-officers that were the stewards of the church's alms, collected money, and distributed it according as the necessities of the poor were. Let them do it en aplotēti - liberally and faithfully; not converting what they receive to their own use, nor distributing it with any sinister design, or with respect of person: not froward and peevish with the poor, nor seeking pretences to put them by; but with all sincerity and integrity, having no other intention in it than to glorify God and do good. Some understand it in general of all almsgiving: He that hath wherewithal, let him give, and give plentifully and liberally; so the word is translated, 2Co 8:2; 2Co 9:13. God loves a cheerful bountiful giver. [2.] He that ruleth with diligence. It should seem, he means those that were assistants to the pastors in exercising church-discipline, as their eyes, and hands, and mouth, in the government of the church, or those ministers that in the congregation did chiefly undertake and apply themselves to this ruling work; for we find those ruling that laboured in the word and doctrine, 1Ti 5:17. Now such must do it with diligence. The word denotes both care and industry to discover what is amiss, to reduce those that go astray, to reprove and admonish those that have fallen, to keep the church pure. Those must take a great deal of pains that will approve themselves faithful in the discharge of this trust, and not let slip any opportunity that may facilitate and advance that work. [3.] He that showeth mercy with cheerfulness. Some think it is meant in general of all that in any thing show mercy: Let them be willing to do it, and take a pleasure in it; God loves a cheerful giver. But it seems to be meant of some particular church-officers, whose work it was to take care of the sick and strangers; and those were generally widows that were in this matter servants to the church-deaconesses (1Ti 5:9, 1Ti 5:10), though others, it is likely, might be employed. Now this must be done with cheerfulness. A pleasing countenance in acts of mercy is a great relief and comfort to the miserable; when they see it is not done grudgingly and unwillingly, but with pleasant looks and gentle words, and all possible indications of readiness and alacrity. Those that have to do with such as are sick and sore, and commonly cross and peevish, have need to put on not only patience, but cheerfulness, to make the work the more easy and pleasant to them, and the more acceptable to God.

III. Concerning that part of our duty which respects our brethren, of which we have many instances, in brief exhortations. Now all our duty towards one another is summer up in one word, and that a sweet work, love. In that is laid the foundation of all our mutual duty; and therefore the apostle mentions this first, which is the livery of Christ's disciples, and the great law of our religion: Let love be without dissimulation; not in compliment and pretence, but in reality; not in word and tongue only, 1Jo 3:18. The right love is love unfeigned; not as the kisses of an enemy, which are deceitful. We should be glad of an opportunity to prove the sincerity of our love, 2Co 8:8. More particularly, there is a love owing to our friends, and to our enemies. He specifies both.

1. To our friends. He that hath friends must show himself friendly. There is a mutual love that Christians owe, and must pay.

(1.) An affectionate love (Rom 12:10): Be kindly affectioned one to another, with brotherly love, philostorgoi - it signifies not only love, but a readiness and inclination to love, the most genuine and free affection, kindness flowing out as from a spring. It properly denotes the love of parents to their children, which, as it is the most tender, so it is the most natural, of any, unforced, unconstrained; such must our love be to one another, and such it will be where there is a new nature and the law of love is written in the heart. This kind affection puts us on to express ourselves both in word and action with the greatest courtesy and obligingness that may be. - One to another. This may recommend the grace of love to us, that, as it is made our duty to love others, so it is as much their duty to love us. And what can be sweeter on this side heaven than to love and be beloved? He that thus watereth shall be watered also himself.

(2.) A respectful love: In honour preferring one another. Instead of contending for superiority, let us be forward to give to others the pre-eminence. This is explained, Phi 2:3, Let each esteem other better than themselves. And there is this good reason for it, because, if we know our own hearts, we know more evil by ourselves than we do by any one else in the world. We should be forward to take notice of the gifts, and graces, and performances of our brethren, and value them accordingly, be more forward to praise another, and more pleased to hear another praised, than ourselves; tē timē proēgoumenoi - going before, or leading one another in honour; so some read it: not in taking honour, but in giving honour. "Strive which of you shall be most forward to pay respect to those to whom it is due, and to perform all Christian offices of love (which are all included in the word honour) to your brethren, as there is occasion. Let all your contention be which shall be most humble, and useful, and condescending."So the sense is the same with Tit 3:14, Let them learn, proistasthai - to go before in good works. For though we must prefer others (as our translation reads it), and put on others, as more capable and deserving than ourselves, yet we must not make that an excuse for our lying by and doing nothing, nor under a pretence of honouring others, and their serviceableness and performances, indulge ourselves in ease and slothfulness. Therefore he immediately adds (Rom 12:11), Not slothful in business.

(3.) A liberal love (Rom 12:13): Distributing to the necessities of saints. It is but a mock love which rests in the verbal expressions of kindness and respect, while the wants of our brethren call for real supplies, and it is in the power of our hands to furnish them. [1.] It is no strange thing for saints in this world to want necessaries for the support of their natural live. In those primitive times prevailing persecutions must needs reduce many of the suffering saints to great extremities; and still the poor, even the poor saints, we have always with us. Surely the things of this world are not the best things; if they were, the saints, who are the favourites of heaven, would not be put off with so little of them. [2.] It is the duty of those who have wherewithal to distribute, or (as it might better be read) to communicate to those necessities. It is not enough to draw out the soul, but we must draw out the purse, to the hungry. See Jam 2:15, Jam 2:16; 1Jo 3:17. Communicating - koinōnountes . It intimates that our poor brethren have a kind of interest in that which God hath given us; and that our reliving them should come from a sense and fellow-feeling of their wants, as though we suffered with them. The charitable benevolence of the Philippians to Paul is called their communicating with his affliction, Phi 4:14. We must be ready, as we have ability and opportunity, to relieve any that are in want; but we are in a special manner bound to communicate to the saints. There is a common love owing to our fellow-creatures, but a special love owing to our fellow-christians (Gal 6:10), Especially to those who are of the household of faith. Communicating, tais mneiais - to the memories of the saints; so some of the ancients read it, instead of tais chreiais . There is a debt owing to the memory of those who through faith and patience inherit the promises - to value it, to vindicate it, to embalm it. Let the memory of the just be blessed; so some read Pro 10:7. He mentions another branch of this bountiful love: Given to hospitality. Those who have houses of their own should be ready to entertain those who go about doing good, or who, for fear of persecution, are forced to wander for shelter. They had not then so much of the convenience of common inns as we have; or the wandering Christians durst not frequent them; or they had not wherewithal to bear the charges, and therefore it was a special kindness to bid them welcome on free-cost. Nor is it yet an antiquated superseded duty; as there is occasion, we must welcome strangers, for we know not the heart of a stranger. I was a stranger, and you took me in, is mentioned as one instance of the mercifulness of those that shall obtain mercy: tēn philoxenian diōkontes - following or pursuing hospitality. It intimates, not only that we must take opportunity, but that we must seek opportunity, thus to show mercy. As Abraham, who sat at the tent-door (Gen 18:1), and Lot, who sat in the gate of Sodom (Gen 19:1), expecting travellers, whom they might meet and prevent with a kind invitation, and so they entertained angels unawares, Heb 13:2.

(4.) A sympathizing love (Rom 12:15): Rejoice with those that do rejoice, and weep with those that weep. Where there is a mutual love between the members of the mystical body, there will be such a fellow-feeling. See 1Co 12:26. True love will interest us in the sorrows and joys of one another, and teach us to make them our own. Observe the common mixture in this world, some rejoicing, and others weeping (as the people, Ezr 3:12, Ezr 3:13), for the trial, as of other graces, so of brotherly love and Christian sympathy. Not that we must participate in the sinful mirths or mournings of any, but only in just and reasonable joys and sorrows: not envying those that prosper, but rejoicing with them; truly glad that others have the success and comfort which we have not; not despising those that are in trouble, but concerned for them, and ready to help them, as being ourselves in the body. This is to do as God does, who not only has pleasure in the prosperity of his servants (Psa 35:27), but is likewise afflicted in all their afflictions, Isa 63:9.

(5.) A united love: " Be of the same mind one towards another (Rom 12:16), that is, labour, as much as you can, to agree in apprehension; and, wherein you come short of this, yet agree in affection; endeavour to be all one, not affecting to clash, and contradict, and thwart one another; but keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace, Phi 2:2; Phi 3:15, Phi 3:16; 1Co 1:10; to auto eis allēlous phronountes - wishing the same good to others that you do to yourselves;"so some understand it. This is to love our brethren as ourselves, desiring their welfare as our own.

(6.) A condescending love: Mind not high things, but condescend to men of low estate, Rom 12:16. True love cannot be without lowliness, Eph 4:1, Eph 4:2; Phi 2:3. When our Lord Jesus washed his disciples' feet, to teach us brotherly love (Joh 13:5; Joh 13:34), it was designed especially to intimate to us that to love one another aright is to be willing to stoop to the meanest offices of kindness for the good of one another. Love is a condescending grace: Non bene conveniunt - majestas et amor - Majesty and love do but ill assort with each other. Observe how it is pressed here. [1.] Mind not high things. We must not be ambitious of honour and preferment, nor look upon worldly pomp and dignity with any inordinate value or desire but rather with a holy contempt. When David's advancements were high, his spirit was humble (Psa 131:1): I do not exercise myself in great matters. The Romans, living in the imperial city, which reigned over the kings of the earth (Rev 17:18), and was at that time in the meridian of its splendour, were perhaps ready to take occasion thence to think the better of themselves. Even the holy seed were tainted with this leaven. Roman Christians, as some citizens do upon the country; and therefore the apostle so often cautions them against high-mindedness; compare Rom 11:20. They lived near the court, and conversed daily with the gaiety and grandeur of it: "Well,"saith he, "do not mind it, be not in love with it."[2.] Condescend to men of low estate - Tois tapeinois sunapagomenoi . First, It may be meant of mean things, to which we must condescend. If our condition in the world be poor and low, our enjoyments coarse and scanty, our employments despicable and contemptible, yet we must bring our minds to it, and acquiesce in it. So the margin: Be contented with mean things. Be reconciled to the place which God in his providence hath put us in, whatever it be. We must account nothing below us but sin: stoop to mean habitations, mean fare, mean clothing, mean accommodations when they are our lot, and not grudge. Nay, we must be carried with a kind of impetus, by the force of the new nature (so the word sunapagomai properly signifies, and it is very significant), towards mean things, when God appoints us to them; as the old corrupt nature is carried out towards high things. We must accommodate ourselves to mean things. We should make a low condition and mean circumstances more the centre of our desires than a high condition. Secondly, It may be meant of mean persons; so we read it (I think both are to be included) Condescend to men of low estate. We must associate with, and accommodate ourselves to, those that are poor and mean in the world, if they be such as fear God. David, though a king upon the throne, was a companion for all such, Psa 119:63. We need not be ashamed to converse with the lowly, while the great God overlooks heaven and earth to look at such. True love values grace in rags as well as in scarlet. A jewel is a jewel, though it lie in the dirt. The contrary to this condescension is reproved, Jam 2:1-4. Condescend; that is, suit yourselves to them, stoop to them for their good; as Paul, 1Co 9:19, etc. Some think the original word is a metaphor taken from travellers, when those that are stronger and swifter of foot stay for those that are weak and slow, make a halt, and take them with them; thus must Christians be tender towards their fellow travellers. As a means to promote this, he adds, Be not wise in your own conceits; to the same purport with Rom 12:3. We shall never find in our hearts to condescend to others while we find there so great a conceit of ourselves: and therefore this must needs be mortified. Mē ginesthe phronimoi par' heautois - " Be not wise by yourselves, be not confident of the sufficiency of your own wisdom, so as to despise others, or think you have no need of them (Pro 3:7), nor be shy of communicating what you have to others. We are members one of another, depend upon one another, are obliged to one another; and therefore, Be not wise by yourselves, remembering it is the merchandise of wisdom that we profess; now merchandise consists in commerce, receiving and returning."

(7.) A love that engages us, as much as lies in us, to live peaceably with all men, Rom 12:18. Even those with whom we cannot live intimately and familiarly, by reason of distance in degree or profession, yet we must with such live peaceably; that is, we must be harmless and inoffensive, not giving others occasion to quarrel with us; and we must be gall-less and unrevengeful, not taking occasion to quarrel with them. Thus must we labour to preserve the peace, that it be not broken, and to piece it again when it is broken. The wisdom from above is pure and peaceable. Observe how the exhortation is limited. It is not expressed so as to oblige us to impossibilities: If it be possible, as much as lies in you. Thus Heb 12:14, Follow peace. Eph 4:3, Endeavouring to keep. Study the things that make for peace. - If it be possible. It is not possible to preserve the peace when we cannot do it without offending God and wounding conscience: Id possumus quod jure possumus - That is possible which is possible without incurring blame. The wisdom that is from above is first pure and then peaceable, Jam 3:17. Peace without purity is the peace of the devil's palace. - As much as lieth in you. There must be two words to the bargain of peace. We can but speak for ourselves. We may be unavoidably striven with; as Jeremiah, who was a man of contention (Jer 15:10), and this we cannot help; our care must be that nothing be wanting on our parts to preserve the peace, Psa 120:7. I am for peace, though, when I speak, they are for war.

2. To our enemies. Since men became enemies to God, they have been found very apt to be enemies one to another. Let but the centre of love be once forsaken, and the lines will either clash and interfere, or be at an uncomfortable distance. And, of all men, those that embrace religion have reason to expect to meet with enemies in a world whose smiles seldom concur with Christ's. Now Christianity teaches us how to behave towards our enemies; and in this instruction it quite differs from all other rules and methods, which generally aim at victory and dominion; but this at inward peace and satisfaction. Whoever are our enemies, that wish us ill and seek to do us ill, our rule is to do them no hurt, but all the good we can.

(1.) To do them no hurt (Rom 12:17): Recompense to no man evil for evil, for that is a brutish recompence, and befitting only those animals which are not conscious either of any being above them or of any state before them. Or, if mankind were made (as some dream) in a state of war, such recompences as these were agreeable enough; but we have not so learned God, who does so much for his enemies (Mat 5:45), much less have we so learned Christ, who died for us when we were enemies (Rom 5:8, Rom 5:10), so loved that world which hated him without a cause. - " To no man; neither to Jew nor Greek; not to one that has been thy friend, for by recompensing evil for evil thou wilt certainly lose him; not to one that has been thine enemy, for by not recompensing evil for evil thou mayest perhaps gain him."To the same purport, Rom 12:19, Dearly beloved, avenge not yourselves. And why must this be ushered in with such an affectionate compellation, rather than any other of the exhortations of this chapter? Surely because this is intended for the composing of angry spirits, that are hot in the resentment of a provocation. He addresses himself to such in this endearing language, to mollify and qualify them. Any thing that breathes love sweetens the blood, lays the storm, and cools the intemperate heat. Would you pacify a brother offended? Call him dearly beloved. Such a soft word, fitly spoken, may be effectual to turn away wrath. Avenge not yourselves; that is, when any body has done you any ill turn, do not desire nor endeavour to bring the like mischief or inconvenience upon him. it is not forbidden to the magistrate to do justice to those that are wronged, by punishing the wrong-doer; nor to make and execute just and wholesome laws against malefactors; but it forbids private revenge, which flows from anger and ill-will; and this is fitly forbidden, for it is presumed that we are incompetent judges in our own case. Nay, if persons wronged in seeking the defence of the law, and magistrates in granting it, act from any particular personal pique or quarrel, and not from a concern that public peace and order be maintained and right done, even such proceedings, though seemingly regular, will fall under this prohibited self-revenging. See how strict the law of Christ is in this matter, Mat 5:38-40. It is forbidden not only to take it into our own hands to avenge ourselves, but to desire and thirst after event that judgment in our case which the law affords, for the satisfying of a revengeful humour. This is a hard lesson to corrupt nature; and therefore he subjoins, [1.] A remedy against it: Rather give place unto wrath. Not to our own wrath; to give place to this is to give place to the devil, Eph 4:26, Eph 4:27. We must resist, and stifle, and smother, and suppress this; but, First, To the wrath of our enemy. "Give place to it, that is, be of a yielding temper; do not answer wrath with wrath, but with love rather. Yielding pacifies great offences, Ecc 10:4. Receive affronts and injuries, as a stone is received into a heap of wool, which gives way to it, and so it does not rebound back, nor go any further."So it explains that of our Saviour (Mat 5:39), Whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also. Instead of meditating how to revenge one wrong, prepare to receive another. When men's passions are up, and the stream is strong, let it have its course, lest by an unseasonable opposition it be made to rage and swell the more. When others are angry, let us be calm; this is a remedy against revenge, and seems to be the genuine sense. But, Secondly, Many apply it to the wrath of God: "Give place to this, make room for him to take the throne of judgment, and let him alone to deal with thine adversary."[2.] A reason against it: For it is written, Vengeance is mine. We find it written, Deu 32:35. God is the sovereign King, the righteous Judge, and to him it belongs to administer justice; for, being a God of infinite knowledge, by him actions are weighed in unerring balances; and, being a God of infinite purity, he hates sin and cannot endure to look upon iniquity. Some of this power he hath trusted in the hands of the civil magistrates (Gen 9:6; Rom 13:4); their legal punishments therefore are to be looked upon as a branch of God's revengings. This is a good reason why we should not avenge ourselves; for, if vengeance be God's, then, First, We may not do it. We step into the throne of God if we do and take his work out of his hand. Secondly, We need not do it. For God will, if we meekly leave the matter with him; he will avenge us as far as there is reason or justice for it, and further we cannot desire it. See Psa 38:14, Psa 38:15, I heard not, for thou wilt hear; and if God hears what need is there for me to hear?

(2.) We must not only not to hurt to our enemies, but our religion goes higher, and teaches us to do them all the good we can. It is a command peculiar to Christianity, and which does highly commend it: Love your enemies, Mat 5:44. We are here taught to show that love to them both in word and deed.

[1.] In word: Bless those who persecute you, Rom 12:14. It has been the common lot of God's people to be persecuted, either with a powerful hand or with a spiteful tongue. Now we are here taught to bless those that so persecute us. Bless them; that is, First, "Speak well of them. If there be any thing in them that is commendable and praiseworthy, take notice of it, and mention it to their honour." Secondly, "Speak respectfully to them, according as their place is, not rendering railing for railing, and bitterness for bitterness."And, Thirdly, We must wish well to them, and desire their good, so far from seeking any revenge. Nay, Fourthly, We must offer up that desire to God, by prayer for them. If it be not in the power of our hand to do any thing else for them, yet we can testify our good-will by praying for them, for which our master hath gi

Barclay: Rom 12:3-8

One of Paul's favourite thoughts is of the Christian Church as a body (compare 1Co 12:12-27). The members of the body neither argue with each other nor envy each other nor dispute about their relative importance. Each part of the body carries out its own function, however prominent or however humbly unseen that function may be. It was Paul's conviction that the Christian Church should be like that. Each member has a task to do; and it is only when each contributes the help of his own task that the body of the Church functions as it ought.

Beneath this passage lie very important rules for life.

(i) First of all, it urges us to know ourselves. One of the first basic commandments of the Greek wise men was: "Man, know thyself." We do not get very far in this world until we know what we can and what we cannot do. An honest assessment of our own capabilities, without conceit and without false modesty, is one of the first essentials of a useful life.

(ii) Second, it urges us to accept ourselves and to use the gift God has given us. We are not to envy someone else's gift and regret that some other gift has not been given to us. We are to accept ourselves as we are, and use the gift we have. The result may be that we have to accept the fact that service for us means some humble sphere and some almost unseen part.

It was one of the great basic beliefs of the Stoics that there was a spark of God in every living creature. The Sceptics laughed at this doctrine. "God in worms?" demanded the Sceptic. "God in dungbeetles?" Whereat the Stoic replied: "Why not? Cannot an earthworm serve God? Do you suppose that it is only a general who is a good soldier? Cannot the lowest private or camp attendant fight his best and give his life for the cause? Happy are you if you are serving God, and carrying out the great purpose as truly as an earthworm."

The efficiency of the life of the universe depends on the humblest creatures. Paul is here saying that a man must accept himself; and, even if he finds that the contribution he has to offer will be unseen, without praise and without prominence, he must make it, certain that it is essential and that without it the world and the Church can never be what they are meant to be.

(iii) Third, Paul is really saving that whatever gift a man has comes from God. He calls gifts charismata (5486). In the New Testament a charisma (5486) is something given to a man by God which the man himself could not have acquired or attained.

In point of fact, life is like that. A man might practise for a lifetime and yet never play the violin like Yehudi Menuhin. He has more than practice; he has the something plus, the charisma which is a gift of God. A man might toil for a lifetime and still be handless in the use of tools and wood and metals; another can fashion wood and mould metal with a special skill, and tools become part of himself; he has the something plus, the charisma (5486) which is a gift of God. One man might practise speaking for ever and a day, and still never acquire that magic something which moves an audience or a congregation; another steps on to a platform or climbs into a pulpit, and the audience are in the hollow of his hand; he has that something plus, that charisma (5486) which is a gift of God. A man might toil for a lifetime and never acquire the gift of putting his thoughts on paper in a vivid and intelligible way; another without effort sees his thoughts grow on the sheet of paper in front of him; the second man has the something plus, the charisma (5486), which is the gift of God.

Every man has his own charisma (5486). It may be for writing sermons, building houses, sowing seeds, fashioning wood, manipulating figures, playing the piano, singing songs, teaching children, playing football or golf. It is a something plus given him by God.

(iv) Fourth, whatever gift a man has, he must use it and the motive of use must be, not his personal prestige, but the conviction that it is at one and the same time his duty and his privilege to make his own contribution to the common good.

Let us look now at the gifts Paul singles out here for special mention.

(i) There is the gift of prophecy. It is only rarely that prophecy in the New Testament has to do with foretelling the future; it usually has to do with forthtelling the word of God. The prophet is the man who can announce the Christian message with the authority of one who knows. To announce Christ to others a man must first know him himself. "What this parish needs," said Carlyle's father, "is a man who knows Christ other than at second-hand."

(ii) There is the gift of practical service (diakonia, 1248). It is surely significant that practical service came to Paul's mind so high on the list. It may be that a man will never have the privilege of standing forth in public and proclaiming Christ; but there is no man who cannot every day show the love of Christ in deeds of service to his fellow men.

(iii) There is teaching. The message of Christ needs not only to be proclaimed; it needs also to be explained. It may well be that one of the great failures of the Church at this present time is just in this realm. Exhortation and invitation without a background of teaching are empty things.

(iv) There is exhortation. Exhortation should have one dominating note, and that should be encouragement. There is a naval regulation which says that no officer shall speak discouragingly to any other officer about any undertaking in which he may be engaged. There is a kind of exhortation which is daunting. Real exhortation aims not so much at dangling a man over the flames of hell as spurring him on to the joy of life in Christ.

(v) There is sharing. Sharing is to be carried out with simple kindliness. The word that Paul uses is haplotes (572), and it is difficult to translate, because it has in it the meaning both of simplicity and of generosity. One great commentary quotes a passage from The Testament of Issachar which perfectly illustrates its meaning. "And my father blessed me, seeing that I walked in simplicity (haplotes, 572). And I was not inquisitive in my actions, nor wicked and envious towards my neighbour. I did not speak evil of anyone or attack a man's life, but I walked with a single eye (literally, with haplotes, 572, of my eyes). To every poor and every afflicted man I provided the good things of earth in simplicity (haplotes, 572) of heart. The simple (haplous, 572) man does not desire gold, doth not ravish his neighbour, doth not care for all kinds of dainty meats, doth not wish for diversity of clothing, doth not promise himself length of days, but receiveth only the will of God. He walketh in uprightness of life and beholdeth all things in simplicity (haplotes, 572)." There is a giving which pries into the circumstances of another as it gives, which gives a moral lecture along with the gift, which gives not so much to relieve the need of the other as to pander to its own vanity and self-satisfaction, which gives with a grim sense of duty instead of a radiant sense of joy, which gives always with some ulterior motive and never for the sheer joy of giving. Christian sharing is with haplotes (572), the simple kindliness which delights in the sheer pleasure of giving for giving's sake.

(vi) There is being called to occupy a leading place. Paul says that if we are so called we must do it with zeal. One of the most difficult problems of the Church today is the getting of leaders in all departments of its work. There are fewer and fewer people with a sense of service and of responsibility, willing to give up their leisure and their pleasure to undertake leadership. In many cases unfitness and unworthiness is pleaded when the real reason is disinclination and laziness. If such leadership is taken up, Paul says that it is to be taken up with zeal. There are two ways in which an elder may deliver a communion card--through the letter-box or at the fireside. There are two ways in which a teacher may prepare a lesson--with heart and mind or in the most perfunctory way. A man may dully and drably go through some task in the Church, or he may do it with the joy and thrill of zeal. The Church today needs leaders with zeal in their hearts.

(vii) There is the time when mercy has to be shown. It has to be shown with gracious kindliness, Paul says. It is possible to forgive in such a way that the very forgiveness is an insult. It is possible to forgive and at the same time to demonstrate an attitude of criticism and contempt. If ever we have to forgive a sinner, we must remember that we are fellow sinners. "There but for the grace of God, go I," said George Whitefield as he saw the criminal walk to the gallows. There is a way of forgiving a man which pushes him further into the gutter; and there is a way of forgiving him which lifts him out of the mire. Real forgiveness is always based on love and never on superiority.

Constable: Rom 12:1--15:14

VI. THE PRACTICE OF GOD'S RIGHTEOUSNESS 12:1--15:13

In contrasting chapters 1-11 with chapters 12-16 of Romans, perhaps the most important distinction is that the first part deals primarily with God's actions for humanity, and the last part deals with people's actions in response to God's. This is an oversimplification of the book, but the distinction is a valid one. God's provision contrasts with man's responsibility to behave in a manner consistent with what God has done, is doing, and will do for him (cf. Phil. 2:12-13). The first part is more information for belief whereas the last part is more exhortation for action. The first part stresses right relations with God and the last part right relations with other people.

"Doctrine must always precede exhortation since in doctrine the saint is shown his exalted position which makes the exhortation to a holy life, a reasonable one, and in doctrine, the saint is informed as to the resources of grace he possesses with which to obey the exhortations."³⁴⁸

Essentially this exhortation, which is both positive and negative, deals with behavior within the spheres of life where the believer lives. These areas are his or her relationship to God, to other members of the body of Christ, and to the civil state. There is a general correspondence here with the instruction that God gave the Israelites through Moses for life in Israel. Paul dealt with the same areas of life: moral, religious and civil life. The differences with the Mosaic Code are as striking as the similarities. Romans does not contain all the Law of Christ (Gal. 6:2). Each of the other New Testament books makes its unique contribution to our understanding of God's will for Christians.

"One of the most striking features of Rom. 12:1-15:13 is the way in which its various themes resemble teaching that Paul gives elsewhere [cf. 12:1-2 and Eph. 4:17-24; 12:3-8 and 1 Cor. 12 and Eph. 4:11-17; 12:9-21 and 1 Thess. 4:9-12 and 1 Cor. 13; 13:8-10 and Gal. 5:13-15; 13:11-14 and 1 Thess. 5:1-11; 14:1-15:13 and 1 Cor. 8-10]."³⁴⁹

In 14:1-15:13, Paul gave special attention to the problem of knowing how to live in Christian freedom. This section of Romans deals with Christian conduct when God does not specify exactly what we should do in every situation (cf. 1 Cor. 8). In such cases some Christians will do one thing and others another, both within God's will. How to handle these situations is the focus of this section. Chapters 12-13 give directions for Christian conduct generally, and 14:1-15:13 deals with a specific problem that the Roman Christians faced.

Constable: Rom 12:3-21

B. Conduct within the church 12:3-21

Every Christian has the same duty toward God, namely dedication (vv. 1-2). Nevertheless the will of God for one Christian will differ from His will for another concerning life and ministry within the body of Christ (vv. 3-21).

Constable: Rom 12:3-8

1. The diversity of gifts 12:3-8

12:3 Paul began this pericope with a reminder of his apostolic authority. He probably did so because what he was about to say required personal application that would affect the conduct of his readers. The Romans had not met Paul personally so he urged them to receive his teaching humbly. A humble attitude was also important as they evaluated and exercised the individual abilities that God had given each of them (cf. 1 Pet. 4:10). Paul had had experiences with Christians, who were proud because of their spiritual gifts, in Corinth where he wrote this epistle (cf. 1 Cor. 12:14-31; 13:4; 4:12, 20).

The main point of this entire paragraph (vv. 3-8) is that Christians should not think more highly of ourselves than we should but use sober judgment in evaluating ourselves.

The faith in view in this verse and in verse 6 seems to refer to one's ability to view and use his or her gifts as abilities that God has given. It also involves trusting in God to work through us to bring blessing to others. Such a view of oneself in relation to his or her gifts is sound judgment because it is consistent with reality.³⁶¹ Spiritual gifts do not reflect the worth of the person who has them. For example, a person who has gifts that enable him or her to minister effectively to large crowds of people should not conclude that he or she is a superior Christian.

12:4-5 It is important that we remember that we are part of a larger organism. We are not just a group of individuals each doing our own thing. Paul had previously used the body to illustrate the church in 1 Corinthians 12. What he said here recapped the main idea that he expounded more fully there. The body of Christ is a unified organism, and its members are diverse personally and in their functions.

"Your right hand has never yet had a fight with the left: on the contrary, each constantly helps the other!"³⁶²

All the members belong to one another; there is mutuality in the church. As members of one another, we cannot work independently effectively. Each member profits from the contribution of every other member too. This realization should help us to avoid becoming proud.

12:6 The gifts that we have are abilities that God gives us by His grace (cf. 1 Cor. 12:6; Eph. 4:7; 1 Pet. 4:10). They are capacities for His service.

"Spiritual gifts are tools to build with, not toys to play with or weapons to fight with."³⁶³

The list that follows is not exhaustive but only illustrative (cf. 1 Cor. 12:27-28). Paul's point here was that it is important that we use our gifts and that we use them in the proper way. All the gifts need using according to the proportion (Gr. analogia) of the faith that God has given us. The faith in view, as in verse 3, is probably the amount of faith God has given us, not what we believe, namely Christian teaching.

Probably Paul meant prophecy in the sense of communicating revealed truth (cf. 1 Cor. 14:3, 31) rather than as predicting or proclaiming new revelation. All the other gifts listed here serve the whole church throughout its history so probably Paul viewed prophecy this way too.

12:7-8 All the gifts Paul mentioned in verse 6-8 need exercising within the body of Christ for its members' mutual benefit (cf. v. 5). Obviously other gifts have other purposes. However, Paul was stressing here the need to recognize that the members of the body contribute to the common welfare. In each case he spoke of the way we use these gifts.

"Service" or "serving" (v. 7, Gr. diakonia) probably refers to ministering to the material needs of other believers. Teaching involves explaining what God has revealed (cf. 1 Cor. 14:6). It differs from prophesying in that prophesying (from propheteuo, lit. to speak forth) evidently included communicating any word from God, inspired or uninspired (1 Cor. 12:28; Eph. 4:11).³⁶⁴

"Exhorts" or "encouraging" translates the Greek word parakalesis, sometimes rendered "comfort." All three words are good translations. The context provides the clue to the main idea whenever the word appears. Here exhortation is perhaps best. Whereas teaching appeals to the mind, exhortation appeals to the will.³⁶⁵ "Giving" is capable of broad application within the body. We should practice giving with singleness of heart and free of mixed motives (cf. Acts 5). The idea is not so much giving lavishly as giving single-mindedly.

Leaders experience temptation simply to enjoy the benefits of their positions rather than really providing leadership. Showing mercy relates to ministering to the sick and specially needy. A cheerful rather than a grudging attitude is an important part of such ministry.

College: Rom 12:1-21

12:1-15:13 - PART FIVE

LIVING THE SANCTIFIED LIFE

There is definitely a break between ch. 11 and ch. 12, as Paul now begins a new section with an obviously different tone. Chapters 1-11 are usually labeled "doctrinal," and this new section is called "practical." It is the "application of doctrine to practice," says Moule (45). It is as if Paul were saying, "Because these things are true, this is the kind of person you should be" (Morris, 431).

We must be careful not to press this distinction too far, however. This is partly a matter of terminology. The word "doctrine" simply means "teaching"; thus even teaching about how to live, i.e., the so-called "practical" teaching, is still doctrine . For the sake of terminology we may distinguish theological doctrine (what is true or false) from ethical doctrine (what is right or wrong), but it is all doctrine.

Whatever terminology we use, the main point is that we cannot really separate these two categories. All doctrine is practical in the sense that it has implications as to how we ought to live; there is nothing more practical than sound theology. Also, all practical or ethical teaching is ultimately grounded in some theological truth such as the nature of God or the nature of man or the nature of salvation. As Moo puts it, the transition from ch. 11 to ch. 12 is not a transition from theology to practice, "but from a focus more on the 'indicative' side of the gospel to a focus more on the 'imperative' side of the gospel." And in the Christian life itself these are not two successive stages in our experience, but are two sides of one coin (745).

Here in the case of Romans, the specific theological foundation for ethical living is the doctrine of salvation: "In view of all that God has accomplished for His people in Christ, how should His people live?" (Bruce, 225). Specifically, Romans is intended to expound the fact that salvation is by grace rather than by works of law (see JC, 1:52-54). In this exposition Paul makes it clear that grace is not simply justification by faith in the blood of Christ, but also regeneration and sanctification by the power of the Holy Spirit. I.e., grace is a double cure (see JC, 1:248, 370). In chs. 6-8 the second part of this double cure (regeneration and sanctification) is set forth in a forceful way. The material here in Part Five is directly related to that.

The exact nature of this relationship seems to be something like this. In chs. 6-8 Paul sets forth the reality of the new life in Christ (ch. 6) and the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (ch. 8) in general theological terms. I.e., he tells us what God did for us when he saved us by grace. But now in chs. 12-15 he describes the character of this sanctified life in specific terms. He has already said (1:5) that the goal of his preaching is to bring about the "obedience that comes from faith"; now he tells us exactly what that obedience should be. In 6:4 he tells us that in our baptism we were raised up from spiritual death so that we "may live a new life"; now he tells us in precise terms what the content of this new life should be.

The material in this section is divided into two main parts. The first (12:1-13:14) is a catalogue of virtues that does not seem to be in any particular order. The important point is that these virtues have the character of law. They are rules for Christian living, laws to live by. They are nonnegotiable absolutes, not matters of opinion. This corrects any possible misunderstanding of 6:14-15, that we are "not under law but under grace." In that passage Paul means that we are not under law as a way of salvation , but he does not mean that law no longer applies to Christians in any sense. We are still under law - the moral law - as a way of life (see JC, 1:409-410). We may think of this present section as a good (but not necessarily complete) synopsis of God's moral law, the law that applies equally to all people in all times.

The second main part is 14:1-15:13, the presupposition for which is that not everything in our Christian lives is regulated by law. There are many areas where there is no "Thus saith the Lord" and we are free to make our own decisions for daily living. The subject of this section is how Christians should handle these "matters of opinion," and how we must respect each other's freedom to decide on these matters according to our own consciences. The main point is that we must learn to live in unity and peace without being judgmental and without causing others to stumble.

Many commentators believe that this second part was directed against specific problems that existed in the Roman congregation and which had been reported to Paul (SH, 351; Fitzmyer, 638; Moo, 746-747). It is likely that these disagreements over matters of Christian liberty reflected differences between the Jewish and Gentile Christians in Rome (15:8-12), but were probably not limited to these.

I. A CATALOGUE OF VIRTUES (12:1-13:14)

As stated above, the instructions in this section have the essence of law . As Achtemeier says, this shows that "grace is not another form of total permissiveness," as if under grace anything goes. "Grace is thus the opposite of permissiveness"; it "brings with itself specific structures" (194). This should never be confused with legalism, however. As Morris points out, legalism says, "Do these things and live." Grace, on the other hand, says, "Live, and you will do these things" (431).

A. GRACE DEMANDS A TRANSFORMED LIFE (12:1-2)

This transitional passage asserts in a general way that the theology and the experience of grace as set forth in chs. 1-11 must necessarily bring about profound changes in every aspect of a believer's life. The very contemplation of the mercies of God, says Paul, compels us to offer up our bodies as living sacrifices to God (v. 1). How is this accomplished? By refusing to conform our lives to the prevailing anti-Christian cultures of this age, and allowing ourselves to be transformed instead according to the standard of God's preceptive will (v. 2a). And how can this be done? Only by the renewing of the mind through initial regeneration by the Holy Spirit and continuing instruction from the written Word of God. As a result of this renewing we can discern which moral choices are in conformity with the will of God, i.e., the way of life that is truly good, truly pleasing to God, and truly fulfilling.

Three underlying themes are presupposed by the language of this brief passage. First, the language of worship, especially OT ritual worship, is prominent. This is seen especially in the expressions "offer," "sacrifices," and "act of worship," and to a lesser extent in the descriptions of the sacrifices in v. 1. Second, the theme of anthropological dualism is seen in the references to "bodies" (v. 1) and "mind" (v. 2), and to an extent in "spiritual" in v. 1. Paul's teaching in chs 6-8 is definitely in the background here (see JC, 1:372-374).

Third, contrary to the concept of sovereign or monergistic grace (as in Calvinism), the language of this passage reflects a synergistic concept of salvation, i.e., the basic and efficacious grace-works of God are joined with the human acts of submission and surrender in order to bring about the transformed life. The power of divine grace is presupposed throughout, but the reality of human responsibility is highlighted by the exhortations and imperatives that are the main content of the passage. As Dunn says, the text "deliberately indicates the balance necessary between personal commitment and divine enabling" (2:707).

12:1 Therefore, I urge you, brothers, in view of God's mercy, to offer your bodies as living sacrifices, holy and pleasing to God - this is your spiritual act of worship. The word "therefore" links what follows not just to the immediately preceding verses, but to the entire message of the epistle thus far, which is summarized as "God's mercy." The word translated "mercy" is oijktirmov" ( oiktirmos , "pity, mercy, compassion"); it is used only here in Romans. The more common word for mercy is e[leo" ( eleos ); this word and its cognates are used in Romans only in 9:15-18 and 11:30-32. However, all the blessings of the grace of Jesus Christ described throughout chapters 1-11 are rightly included in "the mercies of God" (NASB).

The word translated "urge" has a number of meanings. The main question is whether Paul is using it in the sense of an authoritative command or a personal plea. It is certainly a plea on a personal level (they are "brothers"), one that is explicitly grounded in the mercies of God rather than in Paul's apostolic authority. I urge you, he says, "in view of" (diav , dia ) God's mercies. When you truly understand and contemplate all that God has done to save you through Christ, how can you do less than offer your bodies as living sacrifices? You need no other motive than this.

Some would exclude the note of authority altogether, and limit Paul's appeal to that of a personal plea. Others, however, interpret "I urge you" as an authoritative exhortation. Cranfield says it is an "authoritative summons" that includes "the note of authority" (2:597). See Moo, 748-749.

This is probably a false choice. Stott rightly remarks that "I urge you" is a "mixture of entreaty and authority" (320). The key is to distinguish obligation (why we ought to do something) from motivation (why we actually do something). As an inspired apostle, Paul always speaks with apostolic authority unless he specifically suspends it (Phlm 8-10). Thus the authority of the writer imparts authority to what is written, and we who read are under obligation to obey. The main emphasis, though, is on motivation. By appealing to the mercies of God Paul wants to ensure that we offer our bodies as living sacrifices not just because he says we should, but because we are inwardly convicted that this is the only "appropriate and expected response to God's mercy as we have experienced it" (Moo, 749). As Stott says, "There is no greater incentive to holy living than a contemplation of the mercies of God" (321).

Exactly what does Paul exhort us to do? Literally, "to offer your bodies as a sacrifice." The language here would have immediately reminded Paul's first readers of the common practice of offering up animals as sacrifices or burnt offerings to God in acts of worship. Ritual offerings were made in certain pagan religions, and of course were a central part of the Mosaic Law. The word "offer" (parivsthmi , paristçmi ) is found also in 6:13,16,19, but it is not used there in the sense of offering up a sacrifice to God (see JC, 1:403). It does have this technical sense here, however (Cranfield, 2:598; Dunn, 2:709; Moo, 751). The word "sacrifice" (qusiva , thysia ) is the common word for the animal or thing being offered up in such a ritual.

As Christians, says Paul, we must offer up our bodies (swvmata , sômata ) as sacrifices to God. At issue here is whether he really means bodies, or whether this is just shorthand for the entire self. Many take the latter approach, especially those who deny the reality of anthropological dualism. Here the NEB reads, "Offer your very selves." The TEV has "Offer yourselves." Moo says it means "the entire person, with special emphasis on that person's interaction with the world" (751). So also Cranfield, 2:589-590; Dunn, 2:709; Hendriksen, 2:401.

While it is true that we should offer our entire selves to God, this is not the point here. Paul knows how to say "offer yourselves" and to distinguish this from "offer your bodies." This is the very language he uses in 6:13. After he says "offer yourselves" (parasthvsate eJautouv" , parastçsate heautous ), in a separate exhortation he urges us to offer the members of our bodies to God (JC, 1:402-404). Here in 12:1 he means exactly what he says: offer your bodies . (So also Godet, 425; Lard, 380; Murray, 2:110-111; and Stott, 322.)

This exhortation shows the importance of the body in itself as an authentic part of our human nature, and shows how important it is to use the body to the glory of God. It also recalls especially the teaching of chs. 6-8, that in this present stage of our redemption only our souls/spirits have been renewed; the redemption of the body awaits the day of resurrection. In the meantime, our unredeemed bodies remain the seat of sin and the source of many temptations; thus they must be constantly and consciously offered up to God as part of the process of sanctification. This is how we fulfill the commands of 6:12-13. See Lard, 380; Murray, 2:110-111; and especially MacArthur, 142-144.

The nature of this bodily sacrifice is described with a string of three adjectives: "living," "holy," and "pleasing to God." In what sense is our sacrifice a "living" one? Some think this refers to the new life received in regeneration (6:4). But if "bodies" literally means bodies , this cannot be, because the body as yet does not participate in this new life (8:10-11). It is better to take "living" as a deliberate contrast with OT sacrifices, in which the animals were killed in a one-time act. Under the New Covenant we no longer offer such sacrifices, but instead offer up our bodies with all their vital energies in continuing, day-after-day worship (MP, 487; Moo, 751).

We offer our bodies also as holy sacrifices. "Holy" basically means "set apart in consecration to God." In this sense every true sacrifice is holy (Moo, 751), and so must we set our bodies apart from the world in daily service to God. Such separation from the world is not so much physical as it is ethical, i.e., refusing to use our bodies for participation in the defilements of sin (Murray, 2:112). This is the ethical equivalent of the OT requirement that sacrifices be without physical defects (e.g., Lev 1:3; 3:1,6).

Finally, the sacrifice of our bodies is described as "pleasing to God." It is pleasing to him just because it is living and holy. Such a sacrifice is a delight to God's heart. This is equivalent to the way the OT sacrifices provided "an aroma pleasing to the Lord" (e.g., Lev 1:9,13,17; 2:2,9,12; see Gen 8:21). Christ's sacrifice was likewise "a fragrant offering" (Eph 5:2), as are our acts of service to God (Phil 4:18).

The offering of our bodies as living, holy, and God-pleasing sacrifices is a "spiritual act of worship." The interpretation of the key words in this phrase - logikov" ( logikos ) and latreiva ( latreia ) - is disputed. The issue regarding latreia is whether it means "service" to God of a general nature, as distinct from acts of worship as such, or whether it actually means "worship." The KJV and the ASV translate it "service"; this is often preferred by those who would make distinctions between formal worship settings and Christian service in our everyday lives.

Whether or not this distinction between service and worship is valid, we cannot limit this word to the former concept only. Latreia and its cognate verb, latreuvw (latreuô ), often are used for ritual worship, as in 9:4. The imagery of ritual sacrifice in 12:1 leads us to interpret latreia here in that sense also; the NIV's "worship" is correct. The point is that all Christian living is worship offered up to God. Public, corporate worship is special and must not be neglected, but that is not the only part of the Christian life that may be called "worship." Christians must do everything "for the glory of God" (1 Cor 10:31), and whatever is done for his glory is an act of worship. Thus Cranfield is correct: "The true worship which God desires embraces the whole of the Christian's life from day to day" (2:601; see Moo, 754; McGuiggan, 348-357).

The other key word in this phrase, the adjective logikos , can be interpreted several ways. The NIV and the NASB render it "spiritual," which seems to be its meaning in its only other NT use, 1 Pet 2:2. Some think Paul is describing the Christian's worship as "spiritual" in contrast with the external forms of worship prescribed in the OT (Bruce, 226; Barrett, 231). Such a contrast seems unlikely, since the Christian is sacrificing something external also, i.e., his body, and also since acceptable OT worship involved the spirit. If Paul is using logikos in the sense of "spiritual," his point is that even the way we use our physical bodies is a spiritual matter.

A second possibility is that logikos should be interpreted as "rational" in the sense of involving the mind, the reason, the intellect. The Greeks used this word to distinguish human beings from animals, and to distinguish reason-based worship from superstition (Dunn, 2:711-712; Moo, 752). Some see such a connotation here. I.e., offering our bodies as living, holy, and God-pleasing sacrifices is worship that is "worthy of thinking beings" (Jerusalem Bible; see Morris, 484; Murray, 2:112; Fitzmyer, 640). This is not too different from the previous view.

A third interpretation is that logikos means "reasonable" in the sense that offering our bodies as sacrifices to God is the only reasonable, logical thing to do once we understand the depths of his mercies toward us in the work of Christ (Cranfield, 2:604-605; Lard, 380; MP, 485, 488; see the KJV, "reasonable service"). The word "therefore" at the beginning of the verse is consistent with this approach.

Any one of these views is possible in view of other biblical teaching, and is appropriate to the present context. I favor the first two views combined, because together they emphasize the internal nature of true worship, even when externals (e.g., the body) are involved. As the NEB puts it, this is "the worship offered by mind and heart." Jesus spoke of it as "worship in spirit and in truth" (John 4:24), i.e., worship that comes from the heart ("spiritual") and is consistent with reason ("rational").

12:2 Do not conform any longer to the pattern of this world, but be transformed . . . . How shall we go about offering our bodies as living sacrifices? This is explained in the two general exhortations in v. 2 (which in the best texts are present passive imperatives). We offer our bodies by refusing to be conformed to this world, and instead allowing ourselves to be transformed by the renewing of our minds.

In English these two verbs share a common root, "form," in the sense of "to form, to shape." The Greek words come from different roots, however. "Conform" comes from sch'ma (schçma ), and "transform" from morfhv (morphç ). Some scholars (e.g., Trench, Synonyms , 261-267) make a sharp distinction between these two words, declaring that the former refers only to superficial or surface qualities, while the latter refers to the inner essence of a thing. Thus "conform" would imply only a superficial change, while "transform" would refer to a deep and abiding change from within. Paul is then read thus: "Be not outwardly conformed but be inwardly transformed" (Lenski, 749). I.e., "the demands of the world require no more than an outward, superficial conformity to its ways and customs," while "the Christ-life . . . demands that complete and fundamental inner change which fulfills and accomplishes regeneration" (MP, 488-489). See Hendriksen (2:405, n. 338) for a defense of this view. See also MacArthur, 2:149-150.

The biggest problem with this view is the idea that conformity to this world is only a shallow, external problem. In reality, as Barrett says, "conformity to this age is no superficial matter" (232-233). Thus the "large consensus" (Dunn, 2:712) is that schçma and morphç are more or less synonyms, and that we should not read any significant distinction into the two verbs here in 12:2a (Cranfield, 2:605-607; Stott, 323; Moo, 756). The true contrast in this verse is not between two kinds of change, but between two totally different models according to which one may shape his life. These two competing models are "the pattern of this world" and "God's will" (12:2b). Paul emphatically commands us not to shape our lives according to the anti-Christian cultures of this world, but instead to continue allowing ourselves to be recreated according to God's will, a process which began in the act of regeneration (6:1-11) and which continues through the truth of his Word and the power of his Spirit.

The form of these verbs is as important as their meaning. They are present tense, which means that these are not one-time acts but are part of the ongoing process of progressive sanctification (see "living sacrifices," 12:1). They are also passive in form, which means that the change in view is not something we do or can do for ourselves; it is something that is done to us. Thus the transformation (and the renewing) can be accomplished by God alone. Finally, the verbs are imperative , which means that we have the responsibility of desiring the change and consenting to it and yielding ourselves up to the power of the Holy Spirit within us. Cranfield brings out all these nuances with the translation, "Continue to let yourselves be transformed" (2:607).

The negative command is literally, "Do not let yourselves be conformed to this age." The term translated "world" in the NIV is aijwvn (aiôn ), which is better translated "age." The NT uses this term not just in the sense of a period of history, but as a period of history as marked by a certain ethical or spiritual character, or the world as understood in terms of a certain worldview or value system. In this sense, two "ages" can coexist, as they do now. "This age," the age to which we must not be conformed, is the world as fallen, the world as it has existed under the power of Satan, sin, and death since the Fall and as it will continue to exist until the Second Coming. Paul calls it "this present evil age" (Gal 1:4), since it is controlled by Satan, "the god of this age" (2 Cor 4:4; see 1 Cor 2:8). The new age or the "age to come" in one sense has already begun, being inaugurated through the death and resurrection of Christ; it will come in its fullness when Christ returns. (See Matt 12:32; Mark 10:30; Luke 18:30; 20:34-35; Eph 1:21; Heb 6:5.)

We are thus commanded not to be influenced by the false, anti-Christian religions and worldviews that are always springing up and embodying the spirit of "this age." We are admonished not to buy into the relativistic and sin-justifying value systems that exert constant pressure upon us. "Resist this process of being continually moulded and fashioned according to the pattern of this present age with its conventions and its standards of values" (Cranfield, 2:608). "Do not let yourselves be shaped by what everyone else does" (Achtemeier, 195). "Don't let the world around you squeeze you into its own mould" (Phillips translation). This means that we must consciously avoid, for example, "the use of dirty or offensive language, the singing of scurrilous songs, the reading of filthy books, the wearing of tempting attire, engaging in questionable pastimes, associating, on intimate terms, with worldly companions" (Hendriksen, 2:404).

The positive command, "Let yourselves be transformed," thus means by implication to shape your lives according to the biblical worldview, to orient your lives around the age to come, and to "set your hearts on things above, where Christ is seated at the right hand of God. Set your minds on things above, not on earthly things" (Col 3:1-2). "Live as those whose lives are governed by the principles and hopes of a holy eternity in prospect" (Moule, 206).

The means for accomplishing this ongoing transformation is by the renewing of your mind. This renewing has its beginning in the Spirit's work of regeneration that takes place in the moment of Christian baptism (6:3-5; Titus 3:5); and it continues as the ongoing process of sanctification, which is described in Col 3:10 as the renewing of the image of God in which we were originally created.

This is specifically a renewing of the mind . The "mind" is "the faculty by which the soul perceives and discerns the good and the true" (Godet, 427); it is "the seat of intellectual and moral judgment" (Fitzmyer, 641), the powers of our moral consciousness. Thus the renewing of the mind is the renewing of our ability to think correctly, especially about spiritual and moral matters.

But the mind is not just our formal intellectual and logical powers. It includes the inclinations and contents of our thought-life as well. It is our "inner disposition" (Hendriksen, 2:406); it includes our "inner thoughts, drives, and desires" (McGuiggan, 358). It involves the adoption of the Bible's comprehensive worldview, which usually requires a complete paradigm shift or reprogramming for most converts. As Moo says, "Christians are to adjust their way of thinking about everything in accordance with the 'newness' of their life in the Spirit" (756). It means to exchange the mind of the flesh for the mind of the Spirit (8:5-8).

Such a radical renewing is not something we can do by our natural powers; it can be accomplished only by the instrumentality of the Word of God and the Holy Spirit (Stott, 324). The Spirit renews our ability to think straight; this is part of his regenerating and sanctifying work (see chs. 7, 8). Then the Word of God, the Bible, renews the content of our minds (see Col 3:10, 16). "The transformed and renewed mind is the mind saturated with and controlled by the Word of God" (MacArthur, 2:151). The bottom line is that "the believer, whose life is that of the new age, does not think like an unbeliever" (Morris, 435).

What is the result of this renewing of the mind? Then you will be able to test and approve what God's will is - his good, pleasing and perfect will. "Test and approve" translates one Greek word, dokimavzw (dokimazô . It has several connotations: "put to the test, examine"; "prove by testing"; "accept as proved, approve" (AG, 201). The object of the verb is "God's will." The circumstance Paul is describing seems to be this. Like everyone else, Christians are confronted with a myriad of conflicting choices with regard to how to act and to live. But because they have been transformed by the renewing of their minds, they are able to subject all the options to the test of God's Word and are able to discern and distinguish the will of God from the false and demonic choices. The best translation is actually "discern," i.e., "so you can discern what conforms to God's will" (Achtemeier, 195). As MacArthur says, "When a believer's mind is transformed, his thinking ability, moral reasoning, and spiritual understanding are able to properly assess everything, and to accept only what conforms to the will of God" (2:151-152). See Cranfield, 2:609.

Moule says this renewing of the mind instills within us a "holy instinct" by which we "can discern, in conflicting cases, the will of God from the will of self or of the world" (207). Does this mean that we no longer will need the written Word of God? Not at all. The written Word is the very means by which this "holy instinct" is renewed and reprogrammed. As 2:15 indicates, the "requirements of the law" are written on the hearts of all human beings, by virtue of our being created in God's image. Sin corrupted this innate knowledge, but part of Christian salvation is the renewing of the image (JC, 1:201-203). This includes in part "being renewed in knowledge" (Col 3:10), i.e., knowledge of God's law and God's will.

Thus a mind that has been truly renewed can discern God's will in making moral decisions just because it has been saturated with the teachings of his Word. Moo is probably right, that Paul is talking about "Christians whose minds are so thoroughly renewed that we know from within, almost instinctively, what we are to do to please God in any given situation" (758). But such an instinct is thoroughly dependent upon the written Word. Paul himself shows that this is the case in the very next section of Romans. Immediately after making this remark about being able to discern the will of God because of the renewing of our minds, the Apostle proceeds to give us several chapters of moral instruction telling us in detail what the will of God consists of (12:3-15:13). Studying and digesting this material contributes to the renewing of our minds.

The will of God of which Paul speaks is his preceptive will, his commandments, as distinct from his purposive and permissive wills (see GRu, ch. 8). This preceptive will of God is declared to be equivalent to three things. First, the will of God is the same as what is called "the good." This means primarily "good" in the sense of morally right (Cranfield, 2:610), since God himself is absolute goodness and since God's will is the verbalization of his good nature. Second, the will of God is defined as that which is acceptable or pleasing, i.e., pleasing to God . The phrase "to God" does not appear here, but it is used in v. 1 with this same word and is no doubt to be understood here. Third, the will of God is identified with "the perfect," i.e., with what is "ethically adequate and complete" (Denney, 688). It is all that we need to lead a life that is holy and fulfilled. The same word (tevleion , teleion ) is used in Matt 5:48.

The last part of v. 2, whether it expresses purpose or result, shows that a transformation that renews the mind is a necessary prerequisite for being able to discern God's will. An unsaved person cannot trust his "moral instinct." As Cranfield says, it is an illusion to think "that conscience, as such and apart from its renewal by the Spirit and instruction by the discipline of the gospel, is a thoroughly reliable guide to moral conduct" (2:609). I.e., 2:15 is true in principle, but only in a transformed and renewed Christian can this inward inscription of the law even begin to be a trustworthy moral guide.

B. USING THE GIFTS OF GRACE FOR UNSELFISH SERVICE (12:3-8)

Paul now begins to instruct us as to the specific nature of the transformed life. He tells us first of all that it is characterized by humble, unselfish service to our fellow believers. As in 1 Cor 12, he makes this point by using the metaphor of the human body.

Also as in 1 Cor 12, Paul teaches here that the functions performed by the various parts of the body are in accord with the different gifts or abilities bestowed upon us by God. Based on 1 Cor 12:1-11, we usually refer to these as spiritual gifts or gifts of the Spirit. In Rom 12 Paul calls them gifts of grace rather than gifts of the Spirit, but the point is the same. Other listings of such gifts are found in 1 Cor 12:8-10,28-30; Eph 4:11; and 1 Pet 4:10-11. Some gifts appear in more than one list; others appear in only one. No list is exhaustive in itself, and probably all taken together are not exhaustive.

In these verses Paul exhorts us to evaluate our gifts honestly and humbly (v. 3), to dedicate them to the good of the body as a whole (vv. 4-5), and to activate and use them conscientiously (vv. 6-8).

12:3 For by the grace given me I say to every one of you: . . . The spirit of this preface is "mildly imperative" (MP, 490), similar to "I urge" in v. 1. Moo calls it an "authoritative request" (760). The note of authority is found in the words "by the grace given me." Here the word "grace" refers not to salvation from sin but to the gift of Paul's apostleship (see 1:5; JC, 1:77-78). Thus the meaning is "I say to you in my capacity as an Apostle."

The exhortation is directed to the entire church, "to every one of you." The implication for the subject of spiritual gifts is that every Christian has a gift or a special ability of some kind that can be used to build up the body as a whole. See 1 Pet 4:10.

Identifying one's gift calls for honest and impartial self-examination: Do not think of yourself more highly than you ought, but rather think of yourself with sober judgment, . . . In v. 2 Paul has just indicated that the Christian's life is transformed by the renewing of his mind ; here he gives one example of how the renewed mind must think. The key word is "think" (fronevw , phroneô ); it appears four times in this short statement, twice as such and twice in compound forms. It means "to set one's mind on, to have a specific opinion about or attitude toward" something (see 8:5; JC, 1:465). Though the words "of yourself" do not appear in the Greek text, it is generally agreed that this is the point. Paul is talking about how a person must view himself , "a man's estimation of himself" (Cranfield, 2:613).

The first (negative) side of this command is an exhortation to humility, an exhortation not to have too exalted an opinion of oneself, "not to over-think." The context shows that this applies especially to the subject of spiritual gifts. The Christian "is not to overvalue his abilities, his gifts, or his worth but make an accurate estimate of himself" (MacArthur, 2:158).

The second (positive) part of the command is an exhortation to be sober-minded and to think clearly (swfronevw , sôphroneô ), i.e., to examine oneself as honestly and objectively as possible with a view to assessing the gift with which one has been endowed by God. Such "sober judgment" not only excludes an exaggerated opinion of oneself, but also warns us not to under estimate the abilities God has given us. Sometimes a false modesty may be just as detrimental to the church as pride.

One's judgment is accurate when it is in accordance with the measure of faith God has given you. The NIV is not very precise here. Instead of "given," Paul actually says "divided, distributed, apportioned, allotted" (merivzw , merizô ). Instead of allotted to "you," he says "allotted to each." The NASB is better: "as God has allotted to each a measure of faith." The main point is that a person's sober estimate of himself must correspond with the "measure of faith" distributed to him by God.

The expression "measure of faith" is notoriously difficult. The word for "measure" (mevtron , metron ) can mean either an instrument or a standard by which something is measured, or it can mean the amount or quantity measured out in a particular situation. "Faith" could refer to the subjective faith by which a person is initially saved (Moule, 208; Cranfield, 2:615; Moo, 761), or the subjective faith by which a person lives the Christian life (Murray, 2:119; MacArthur, 2:161-162). Or "faith" could refer to objective faith, the doctrine or object in which we believe, especially Jesus Christ (Fitzmyer, 646). Or "faith" may be the special miracle-working faith which is one of the gifts of the Spirit (1 Cor 12:9; 13:2; Lard, 382-383; MP, 492).

One major view is that "the measure of faith" refers to saving faith as the standard by which each person must soberly evaluate himself (Cranfield, 2:615; Moo, 761). This standard forces every Christian "to concentrate his attention on those things in which he is on precisely the same level as his fellow-Christians" (Cranfield). "On this view God has not given a different measure to each Christian but has given to each Christian the same measure" (Moo). This interpretation is unacceptable for several reasons. First, it involves the Calvinist view of irresistible grace, which regards saving faith as an unconditional gift from God. Second and more to the point, the verb merizô ("has given," NIV) "is more naturally taken as apportioning of different measures," as in 1 Cor 7:17 and 2 Cor 10:13 (Dunn, 2:721). Finally and decisively, this view goes against the whole point of the passage, which is the variety (not the sameness) of what God has given to each Christian (see vv. 4, 6). We must honestly evaluate our own unique role in the body of Christ, as it corresponds to the personalized "measure of faith" given to each of us. There is no coherent way to explain how the saving faith held in common by all Christians could function as the standard by which our individual gifts might be measured.

The point is that God has distributed to each Christian a particular gift. Some identify this gift with the faith itself. This could not be the miracle-working faith of 1 Cor 12:9, since that was given not to all but only to some (Cranfield, 2:614). But it could be a faith analogous to it but not necessarily connected with miracles, a faith which equips each Christian to function in his own unique way in the body of Christ. This is Bruce's view, that this faith is "the spiritual power given to each Christian for the discharge of his special responsibility" (227-228). This special kind of faith would then be the measure against which each Christian should evaluate himself.

This view is possible, but in my opinion, the specific gift God has distributed to each Christian is not the faith as such, but rather the "measure" itself. In this case metron does not have the sense of the standard by which we measure ourselves, but the sense of "quantity" or "limited amount." I.e., God has given to each Christian a measured ability that is appropriate to or that corresponds to his own faith . This, I believe, is the meaning of this difficult clause. As Murray points out (2:119), faith is involved not only in becoming a Christian but also in the day-by-day living of the Christian life (see 14:23; Phil 4:13). "In the church there is distribution of gift [sic] and each member possesses his own measure for which there is the corresponding faith by which and within the limits of which the gift is to be exercised" (Murray, 2:119). See also MacArthur, 2:161-162.

The main points of this verse are 1) each Christian has a gift; 2) these gifts are not all the same; 3) each one's gift has been given to him by God (1 Cor 4:7); and 4) one's gift is therefore no basis for feelings of superiority over others.

12:4-5 Just as each of us has one body with many members, and these members do not all have the same function, so in Christ we who are many form one body, and each member belongs to all the others. The analogy between the church and the body is also found in 1 Cor 10:17; 12:12-31; Eph 1:23; 4:4,11-16; 5:23-30; Col 1:18,24; 2:19; 3:15. Sometimes the point is the relation between the body as such and its head, Jesus Christ; sometimes it is the interrelations among the various members of the body. The latter is the point here. Like the human body, the one church has many members with different yet interdependent functions. I.e., there is variety in unity .

The unity of the "one body" is "in Christ." No matter how many members a local congregation may have, whether 50 or 5,000, and no matter how many Christians exist worldwide in the invisible church, we are all one body because we have the same Savior and Lord, Jesus Christ.

At the same time we are not an army of identical clones. Like the members of the human body, the members of the church do not all have the same "function" (pravxi" , praxis , "activity, task, function"). As Bruce says, "Diversity, not uniformity, is the mark of God's handiwork," both in nature and in grace (227).

Rather than separating us from one another, though, the variety of gifts only brings us closer together when we see how much we depend on one another. "Each member belongs to all the others," says Paul (v. 5). "Christians, like the various members of a single body, although they differ from one another and have various functions, are all necessary to each other and equally under an obligation to serve one another, because they all belong together in a single whole" (Cranfield, 2:618). No matter how humble my gift may be (1 Cor 12:22-24), every other member of the body depends on it; and no matter how honorable my gift may be, I am dependent upon and blessed by even the humblest contribution of every other member.

12:6 The terseness of the material in vv. 6-8 makes interpretation difficult. Verse 6 begins with a participle ("having"). Some take this as dependent on "each member" in v. 5, with vv. 6b-8 being simply a descriptive listing of the different gifts (Dunn, 2:725, 728). The better and more common view (as in the NIV) is that the essence of vv. 6-8 is not descriptive but imperative, and that "having" in v. 6a begins a new sentence and is dependent on the imperative verbs in the clauses that follow. The problem is that the seven units comprising vv. 6b-8 are not really clauses and contain no verbs at all. These must be supplied.

The NASB supplies a whole imperative clause in the middle of v. 6, "let each exercise them accordingly," and intends for this to govern the seven units that follow, which it translates quite literally, e.g., "if service, in his serving" (v. 7a). In terms of the NASB's supplied imperative the thought would then be, "If your gift is serving, then involve yourself in the work of serving."

The NIV takes a different approach, but the result is the same. Each of the seven units in vv. 6b-8 is converted into an exhortation. The imperative "let him" is added in each case, and the prepositional phrase that ends each unit is converted into a verb. Thus "if serving - in the serving" becomes "If it is serving, let him serve." Both the NASB and the NIV are acceptable; both convey the "underlying hortatory sense" of these verses (Moo, 764; see Murray, 2:121; Cranfield, 2:618).

The beginning of v. 6 emphasizes the variety of spiritual gifts: We have different gifts, according to the grace given us. On the word for gifts (carivsmata , charismata ; singular, cavrisma , charisma ), see 1:11 (JC, 1:93-94). This does not refer to the gift of salvation as such, but to the gifts that endow the recipient with the right and the ability to render special service to the church. Likewise "grace" (cavri" , charis ) here does not refer to saving grace, but is used in the more general sense of "a gift that brings joy or gladness" (see 1:5; JC, 1:77-78). In this sense charis is frequently used for the charismata ; see v. 3, where Paul uses it for the gift of his own apostolic calling. See also 1 Pet 4:10, where "grace in its various forms" ("manifold grace," NASB) refers to the variety of spiritual gifts bestowed upon the church, or what Paul here calls "different gifts."

What follows is a series of (implied) exhortations urging conscientiousness in the exercise of the gifts discerned through the "sober judgment" mentioned in v. 3. In effect Paul is telling us: "Whatever your gift, be satisfied with it and use it diligently." The seven gifts which are named should be considered as a representative list, not an exhaustive one.

The first gift is prophecy: If a man's gift is prophesying, let him use it in proportion to his faith (lit., "if prophecy - according to the proportion of the faith"). The gift of prophecy was very important in the early church, being regarded as second only to the apostleship itself (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 2:20; 3:5). It is named in other lists in 1 Cor 12:10,28 and Eph 4:11. Paul stresses its preeminence in relation to other gifts, especially speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:1,39).

Some equate prophecy in the NT with the ordinary proclamation of the Word. MacArthur calls it "the gift of preaching, of proclaiming the Word of God" (2:170). Lenski says the prophets were not inspired messengers, but simply "expositors of the Word and the will of God" (760). This view is quite unacceptable, however, in view of the lofty place given to this gift as noted above. The NT prophets performed the same function as the OT prophets, namely, they received revelation from God and spoke their revealed messages to God's people under divine inspiration.

Thus the gift of prophecy was a miraculous spiritual gift in the same category as speaking in tongues. What a prophet proclaimed was "inspired speech, words given as from 'without' (by the Spirit) and not consciously formulated by the mind" (Dunn, 2:727). An apostle's personal authority was more general and abiding than that of a prophet, but the inspired words of a prophet were just as true and authoritative as the inspired words of an apostle. It is true that a prophet's words had to be weighed and tested (1 Cor 14:29; 1 Thess 5:20-21; see Stott, 327), but even an apostle's authority had to be substantiated by miraculous signs (2 Cor 12:12).

The implied exhortation is that if one does have the gift of prophecy, he must "use it in proportion to his faith." The Greek text does not say " his faith," but simply "the faith," with the definite article. This leads some to conclude that Paul is not talking about subjective faith (contra the NIV), but objective faith, i.e., "the faith" in the sense of the content of established biblical and gospel truth (see Jude 3). I.e., a prophet's message must be in a right relation to, or in true agreement with, established truth. (So Lenski, 761-762; Fitzmyer, 647-648; Stott, 327.)

This view is possible, but the very nature of prophecy makes it unlikely. I.e., if prophecy is the proclamation of revealed and inspired truth - which it is, then a prophetic message may in fact be adding completely new material to the existing canon and thus will not be measurable by that canon. I conclude, then, that Paul is referring to a prophet's subjective faith, in the sense explained above in v. 3b. I.e., one who has the gift of prophecy should allow himself to be used by God to the full extent of his faith in the power of God working through him. Thus Paul's exhortation has to do not with the content of the prophecy (over which the prophet has no control anyway), but with the spirit of complete submission with which a prophet must exercise his gift. Understood thus, this same exhortation may be applied to every other spiritual gift as well; and I believe this is Paul's intention, in view of the brevity of the six exhortations that follow.

12:7 If it is serving, let him serve . . . . (lit., "if serving - in the serving"). I.e., if your spiritual gift is serving, then apply yourself to the task of serving to the full extent of your faith in the power of God which is working through you. If God in his wisdom has assessed your faith and assigned to you the gift of serving, then devote yourself to it with all your heart.

The word for "serving" is diakoniva ( diakonia ), which is the term for general service or ministry, as in 1 Cor 12:5; and it is similar to the term from which we get our word "deacon," as in 1 Tim 3:8. Some take it in the general sense here (Moule, 209; Morris, 441); see 1 Pet 4:10-11, where the verb form of the word is used inclusively. Many others take it in the more narrow sense of "deacon," not necessarily as the formal name of an office but as representing a specific function. A main reason for the latter view is that (unlike 1 Pet 4:10-11) the word is part of a longer list of specific gifts and therefore seems to be distinguished from them rather than to include them (see SH, 357; Moo, 766).

What specific function is in view? Some speculate that it refers to the ministry of the Word (Acts 6:4), a ministry of spiritual service, since it is listed between prophecy and teaching (Lenski, 762-763; see Murray, 2:123-124). Others, rightly concluding that the order of the list is not decisive, see it as referring to the ministry of meeting the material needs of the less fortunate in the congregation (Acts 6:1), "a ministry of mercy to the poor and infirm" (Murray, 2:124), or "church benevolence" (Hendriksen, 2:412). So also SH, 357; Moo, 766. I agree with the latter view. Diakonia here is probably similar to the "helps" listed in 1 Cor 12:28 ("those able to help others," NIV). In some ways it may be similar to the office of deacon as this is understood by many today (Lard, 385; MP, 494; Murray, 2:124; Hendriksen, 2:410; Cranfield, 2:622; Moo, 766).

[I]f it is teaching, let him teach . . . . (lit., "if one who teaches - in the teaching"). I.e., if you have been given the ability to teach, then apply yourself fully to the task of teaching. This gift is also listed in 1 Cor 12:28-29 and Eph 4:11.

"Teaching" is best understood by comparing it with the gifts of prophecy and encouragement or exhortation (v. 8). Whereas prophecy is the gift of speaking messages directly inspired by God, teaching is the insightful exposition of the meaning and application of such inspired material, including OT Scripture and New Covenant revelation (Moule, 209; Cranfield, 2:623; Dunn, 2:729). A person with the gift of teaching thus is someone "divinely gifted with special ability to interpret and present God's truth understandably" (MacArthur, 2:172). As such the work of a teacher is directed toward the mind or the understanding, as compared with the work of an encourager (exhorter), which is directed mainly toward the feelings, the conscience, and the will (Murray, 2:125; see Godet, 432).

12:8 This leads us directly to the next gift: if it is encouraging, let him encourage . . . . The word is parakalevw (parakaleô ), translated "I urge" in v. 1, and better translated here as "exhorting" (see the NASB). Literally it reads, "If one who exhorts - in the exhortation." I.e., if you have been given the ability to exhort, then apply yourself fully to that task.

The main work of an exhorter is to encourage and persuade Christians to act upon the knowledge received through prophecy and teaching, or as Cranfield says, "to help Christians to live out their obedience to the gospel" (2:624-625). One with the gift of exhorting knows how to touch the heart; he is able to deliver "a stirring appeal to men to do their duty" (Lard, 386).

[I]f it is contributing to the needs of others, let him give generously . . . . (lit., "the one who shares - in simplicity"). In the Greek the word "if" is omitted here and in the next two items, but the thought is no doubt to be carried over from the preceding ones. Also, the prepositional phrase that forms the second part of each of these three last items does not simply repeat the action of the first part. By now, this part of the exhortation is to be understood. A prepositional phrase is still added, but it describes the manner in which the gift is to be used. Thus when this terse exhortation is fleshed out in view of carry-over elements from vv. 6-7, it has this sense: "If you have been given the gift of sharing, then apply yourself fully to this task to the full extent of your faith in the power of God at work within you; and do so with simplicity of motive."

The NIV interprets the single word, "sharing," to mean "contributing to the needs of others." This is no doubt Paul's point. Morris rightly says it refers to "those who had the gift of coming to the assistance of the poor" (442). Some have taken this to refer to the ability to administer the benevolent funds of the church in general (Calvin, 462-463), but most rightly see it as private benevolence, or the use of one's own funds to meet the needs of others. The essence of the gift includes the ability to earn significant amounts of money (or the simple possession of wealth), plus a "God-given inclination to give" (Cranfield, 2:625).

That it refers to private benevolence is supported by the fact that church benevolence has already been covered in the "serving" in v. 7 (Murray, 2:125; Hendriksen, 2:412), and by the sense of the qualifying phrase at the end ("in simplicity"; see Dunn, 2:730; Moo, 768).

The noun in this final phrase is aJplovth" (haplotçs ), the basic meaning of which is "simplicity [KJV], singleness, single-mindedness." When applied to actions it connotes pure motivation and thus sincerity (Eph 6:5; Col 3:22). But this noun also came to mean "generosity" or "liberality" in reference to giving. Either connotation is appropriate here. To give with simplicity means to give with the simple, unselfish purpose of wanting to help others, "and not with mixed motives, with the thought of ostentation or reward" (SH, 357), i.e., not with an ulterior motive. The connotation of generosity naturally goes with the gift of giving, though, and this is how most translations render it.

[I]f it is leadership, let him govern diligently . . . . (lit., "the one who leads - with diligence"). The verb translated "leadership" literally means "to stand before or in front of." This can mean "to stand before people for the purpose of protecting, aiding, or helping them," or "to stand before people for the purpose of leading, governing, or presiding over them." Here some retain the concept of leader but still take it mainly in the former sense, as referring to one who administers or directs the benevolent work of the church (Godet, 433; Cranfield, 2:626; Dunn, 2:731); see the RSV, "he who gives aid." This conclusion is based largely on the placement of this gift in the list, i.e., between two other forms of aid-giving. Also, it is near the bottom of the list; the theory is that if it refers to leadership, it should be nearer the top of the list.

I disagree with this reasoning; other than beginning with the gift of prophecy, the list does not seem to be ranked or arranged in any particular order. Also, those who administer the benevolent work of the church have already been named ("serving," v. 7). Thus the NIV correctly gives it the connotation of leadership and governing (so also the NASB and NRSV). Some see this as referring to leaders of all kinds (SH, 358), or "anyone who is placed at the head of others" (Lenski, 765). Indeed, the term may be used for one who manages his household (1 Tim 3:4,5,12), but here it probably refers to those who are leaders in the church (as in 1 Thess 5:12 and 1 Tim 5:17), specifically the elders. It is probably the same as "gifts of administration" in 1 Cor 12:28.

The elders are exhorted to "govern diligently," i.e., with eagerness, earnestness, zeal, and devotion. That is to say, elders must not approach their work with idleness and indifference (DeWelt, 200), because the very salvation of those under their care is at stake (Acts 20:28; Heb 13:17).

This brings us to the final gift: if it is showing mercy, let him do it cheerfully (lit., "the one who shows mercy - with cheerfulness"). Paul has already named the gift of serving (general church benevolence) and the gift of sharing (private benevolence). But there are many acts of mercy that do not involve the giving of money or material goods, and these are probably what Paul refers to here. These include such things as visiting the sick at home or in hospitals, visiting and helping shut-ins, comforting the dying and the bereaved, visiting and corresponding with prisoners, and sending cards to or telephoning any of these.

Such acts of mercy do not emphasize the giving of money but rather the giving of one's heart in genuine love, caring, and sympathy. Money may be given anonymously and without personal involvement, but the gift of showing mercy is exercised through interpersonal, one-on-one, intimate contacts with people in need (see Murray, 2:127). Thus such a gift may be manifested in any Christian, rich or poor; and in many ways it is more vital than the giving of material goods. The one who has this gift is "divinely endowed with special sensitivity to suffering and sorrow," which includes the ability to notice when others are in misery and distress, and the desire to alleviate such distress (MacArthur, 2:177).

To show mercy "cheerfully" means to do so not from a sense of begrudging duty but from the desire of a joyful heart. This is necessary not just for the sake of the one showing mercy, but also for the purpose of unburdening the spirit of those being ministered to. As Godet says, a cheerful spirit makes the mercy-giver "a sunbeam penetrating into the sick-chamber and to the heart of the afflicted" (433).

C. MISCELLANEOUS MORAL TEACHING (12:9-16)

In this paragraph Paul continues to instruct us about the content of the sanctified life, with a slight change of direction. Whereas in the previous paragraph the exhortations about spiritual gifts apply individually only to those who have the particular gift in view, here the exhortations are general and apply equally to all Christians. This is not an exhaustive handbook on ethics, though, but rather a list of some of the more basic characteristics of the transformed life.

Though this teaching has a decidedly Christian flavor, for the most part it is not something newly revealed to and through Paul. Included are "maxims of traditional Jewish wisdom" rooted in the OT, and echoes of the teaching of Jesus as it was already being circulated among the churches (Dunn, 2:738, 745). Especially reflected here are the exceptionally high moral standards established by Jesus, representing a pattern of behavior regarded as foolish by the carnal mind and attainable only by the regeneration and renewing of the Holy Spirit.

As in the previous section, the moral maxims in this paragraph are set forth in a terse, no-nonsense style. As Moo says, "Paul fires off a volley of short, sharp injunctions with little elaboration" (771). These injunctions are mostly brief participial phrases, with a few infinitives and imperatives mixed in. It is generally agreed that they are all prescriptive and not just descriptive. I.e., they are "the equivalent of imperatives" (Fitzmyer, 653); they have the force of commandments. They are, as Bruce says, "the law of Christ" (228).

Some place vv. 9-21 under a common heading, e.g., "Love as the Norm for Social Relationships" (Dunn, 2:736); "Love and Its Manifestations," (Moo, 769). I think it is better to take vv. 17-21 as a separate unit, though, since it is a longer elaboration of a single theme and seems to be a preparation for 13:1-7. Also, some divide the material between verses 13 and 14, declaring that vv. 9-13 are about a Christian's relationships with his fellow believers, while vv. 14ff. are about his relationships with the unbelieving world (e.g., Cranfield, 2:629; Dunn, 2:738, 755). In my opinion such a division is forced. For example, v. 12 is more about our inner spiritual life than our relations with others, and vv. 15-16 are surely about our relations with other Christians.

There does not appear to be any logical order to this series of admonitions. They are a miscellany of mandates, a potpourri of prescriptions summing up the essence of the sanctified life.

A final introductory question is whether the first declaration, "Love must be sincere" (v. 9a), is intended to be a heading over the entire section, or whether it is just the first exhortation in the list. Many interpreters take it as a heading, and see what follows as an elaboration of what it means to love one another (e.g., Dunn, 2:738-739, 752; Moo, 774-775; Spicq, Lexicon , 1:135). "Each staccato imperative [in vv. 9b-16] adds a fresh ingredient to the apostle's recipe for love," says Stott (330).

There is an important truth here, since every command is always in a sense just a facet of the general commandments to love God and one's neighbor (Matt 22:36-40; Rom 13:8-10). I question the idea that the love command is the intended general heading for this paragraph, however. Actually it is not a command, and not even a full statement. It is a phrase which reads literally, "Love sincere." If it were meant to be a heading, we would expect the words to be reversed: "[This is] sincere love: . . . ." As it stands, it has the force of a commandment about the character of love, i.e., "[Let your] love [be] sincere." I agree with the judgment that love may be the "ruling thought" of the paragraph, "but the Apostle does not allow himself to be confined and pours forth directions as to the moral and spiritual life which crowd into his mind" (SH, 360).

12:9 Love must be sincere. Whether it be a heading or not, it is appropriate for this injunction to appear first, given the supreme importance of the virtue of love. Jesus singled it out as the essence of God's law (Matt 22:36-40) and as the central demand of the New Covenant (John 13:34-35); thus it "quickly became enshrined as the foundational and characteristic ethical norm of Christianity" (Moo, 775).

This applies primarily, of course, to the kind of love called ajgavph (agapç ), which is the subject here. The Greeks knew several kinds of love, including a form of agapç (see Lewis, Loves ; GRe, 327-328, 336-345); but the noun agapç was first used with "theological density" by the LXX (Spicq, Lexicon , 1:18), and was taken over and given a uniquely Christian meaning by Jesus and the NT writers (Dunn, 2:739; Moo, 775). This Christian meaning is drawn from the nature of God himself as displayed in his work of salvation through Jesus Christ, i.e., his selfless and sacrificial concern for the happiness and well-being of others (8:39; John 3:16; 1 John 4:10).

This is the essence of the agapç enjoined upon us as Christians. It differs from the other forms of love in that it does not depend upon some uncontrollable inner emotion or desire or need for fulfillment within the one who loves, but rather is a deliberately willed attitude of concern and good will based on the needs of the one who is loved.

The point of Paul's injunction is not that Christians should love one another, since this commandment should be something engrained on every Christian's mind from the beginning of his renewed life. Rather, the point is that the love we profess must be sincere ; it must be from the heart and not be an external mask only.

The word for "sincere" is ajnupovkrito" ( anypokritos ), which means "unhypocritical, unfeigned, genuine, not counterfeit, without pretense or sham." Literally it means "without a mask." In the world of Greek drama "the hypokritçs was the 'play-actor' who projects an image and hides his true identity behind a mask" (Dunn, 2:740). Metaphorically and morally, a hypokritçs (a hypocrite) is anyone who pretends to be something he is not. Christians are commanded to be without hypocrisy not only in love (see also 2 Cor 6:6; 1 Pet 1:22) but also in faith (1 Tim 1:5; 2 Tim 1:5) and wisdom (Jas 3:17).

Murray notes that there is no vice worse than hypocrisy, just as there is no virtue surpassing love; thus hypocritical love is the ultimate moral contradiction (2:128).

Hate what is evil; cling to what is good. (See Amos 5:15, "Hate evil, love good.") Here good and evil are general terms, representing everything that is morally wicked and ungodly, and everything that is morally good and holy.

The verbs are very forceful. The word for hate "expresses a strong feeling of horror" (SH, 360), and implies loathing, abhorrence, and disgust. It means that Christians cannot just passively ignore evil, but must actively and aggressively oppose it and speak out against it (DeWelt, 200-201), and flee from it (1 Tim 6:11; 2 Tim 2:22). The hatred of sin, especially one's own, is the starting point for repentance.

The verb for "cling to" is likewise strong. In the active voice it means to join or glue two things together. Here in the middle voice it means "attach yourself closely" to everything that is good. The Christian must cleave to what is good and never let go of it; this begins by becoming united together with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:17).

The message here is clear: there can be no neutrality in the moral realm. We cannot hide behind some alleged moral or cultural relativism. Good and evil objectively exist in God's own nature and in God's law. Christians must take a clear and unequivocal stand against the evil and for the good.

12:10 Be devoted to one another in brotherly love. Here Paul moves from the general love (agapç ) Christians must have for all people, to the more intimate love we must also have toward one another. He uses words compounded from two other Greek words for love, filiva ( philia ) and storghv (storgç ). The former is used for the affectionate love between friends; the latter, the tender affection among family members.

"Be devoted" (filovstorgo" , philostorgos ) is a combination of both these terms, but has the nuance of storgç . It is a kind of instinctive affection, like that which parents and children feel toward one another. It is "an attachment sealed by nature and blood ties," and especially represents "the mother's innate love, benevolence, and devotion toward her children" (Spicq, Lexicon , 3:462-463). It implies that the relationships among Christians should involve intimacy, understanding, and acceptance.

The other word is filadelfiva ( philadelphia ). It is a combination of filiva ( philia ) and ajdelfov" ( adelphos , "brother") and literally means "brotherly love." As members of God's family and spiritual siblings of Jesus Christ (1:13; 8:12-17; 2 Cor 6:18), Christians truly have a sibling relationship with one another. Thus we are exhorted to develop the close and affectionate relationship that should exist among brothers and sisters.

The use of both of these words together does two things. First, it magnifies the importance of understanding the church as a family. In most cases the local congregation is like the immediate family, and the church universal is the extended family. Second, it intensifies the need to consciously seek to develop toward one another the tender affection and devotion appropriate among brothers and sisters.

Honor one another above yourselves. "Honor one another" is straightforward; it means to treat one another with genuine respect. This includes the general respect due to all Christians as members of the King's own household, and the specific respect and appreciation due to those who have made special contributions to the work of the kingdom. The same applies on a different level even to those outside the church (13:7b).

"Above yourselves" is not so easy. This is a rendering of the verb prohgevomai (proçgeomai ), which literally means "to go before, to lead the way." Some thus take it to mean "set an example" (Lard, 389-390; MP, 498), or "show the way to one another" (Dunn, 2:741). I.e., in the matter of giving honor to others, each should try to set an example for all.

Others take this word to mean "to surpass, to outdo, to take the lead." I.e., "when it comes to bestowing honor, we are to take the lead" (McGuiggan, 368); we should try to "outdo one another in showing honor" (RSV; NRSV; Fitzmyer, 654; Moo, 777-778). "The thought can well be," says Murray, "that instead of looking and waiting for praise from others we should be foremost in according them honour" (2:129-130).

A third interpretation, reflected in the NIV, is that this verb can be translated "to prefer, to put first." This is the choice of the NASB also: "Give preference to one another in honor." I.e., give honor to your fellow believers "by putting them first" (MacArthur, 2:189). The main problem with this view is that this verb is not known to be used in this sense anywhere else (it appears only here in the NT). Many give it this meaning anyway, seeing a parallel between this verse and Phil 2:3b, "in humility consider others better than yourselves" (see Cranfield, 2:632-633; Hendriksen, 2:415). "The condition and result of true affection are that no one seeks his own honour or position, and every one is willing to give honour to others" (SH, 361).

Any one of these views is possible. Whichever we adopt, the main point is that we must exhibit toward one another the spirit of courtesy, unselfishness, and humility. See Murray, 2:130.

12:11 This verse is not a single neat sentence but a string of three short, sharp imperatival, participial phrases that express three basic Christian states of mind: "As to zeal - not slothful; as to the Spirit - on fire; as to the Lord - serving." The first appears in the NIV thus: Never be lacking in zeal, . . . The word for "zeal" (spoudhv , spoudç ) is used in v. 8 in the expression "diligently" or "with diligence" (NASB). Its verb form has the sense of "to apply oneself diligently to, to devote oneself to" a task. Spoudç itself means "fervor, zeal, eagerness, ardor, passion, enthusiasm."

"Never be lacking" is literally "not slow, not slothful, not lagging behind (NASB), not hesitant, not lazy, not complacent." The word for "lacking" describes "a person showing hesitation . . . through weariness, sloth, fear, bashfulness, or reserve" (Dunn, 2:741). It describes a loafer or a sluggard who is slow to get started, or who puts off fulfilling his Christian duties. See Prov 6:6-11; 21:25; 22:13; 26:13-16. As Cranfield says, Paul is warning us against "that attitude which seeks to get by with as little work and inconvenience as possible, which shrinks from dust and heat and resents the necessity for any exertion as a burden and imposition" (2:633).

It is interesting that in the LXX spoudç ("zeal") is almost always translated "haste." Spicq says, "The idea of 'haste, rapidity, alacrity' is in the forefront" of this word ( Lexicon , 3:276-277). Thus Paul is making a kind of play on these words. In those matters of the Christian life that demand haste, do not be slow!

[B]ut keep your spiritual fervor . . . . (lit., "in the Spirit - on fire"). "Fervor" is from the verb zeô , "to bubble, to boil, to seethe, to burn." It is used of water boiling or of metal glowing with heat. Metaphorically it means to burn with desire or passion or rage (see Oepke, "zevw ," 2:875-876). In the context of Christian service (as here), it means "to be full of energy, to be on fire with zeal and enthusiasm." It is a warning against settling into comfortable, shallow ruts in our spiritual lives.

Paul says literally that we must be glowing or burning "in the Spirit." The issue here is whether he means our human spirit or the Holy Spirit. The same expression is used of Apollos in Acts 18:25, where it seems best to understand it as his own spirit, since he had not yet received the Holy Spirit in Christian baptism. But it is not necessary to interpret the phrase in the same way here. Indeed, the reference in the next phrase to "the Lord" gives us reason to see it as referring here to the Holy Spirit. The meaning would then be that "the Christian is to allow himself to be set on fire . . . by the Holy Spirit" (Cranfield, 2:634). Rather than depending on external stimulation (such as innovative worship programming), we must look to the Spirit within us to energize us and fire us up for Christian service.

. . . serving the Lord. "The Lord" is specifically Jesus Christ. "Lord" (kuvrio" , kyrios ) has the connotation of owner or master; "serving" (douleuvw , douleuô ) has the connotation of serving as a slave, a dou'lo" ( doulos ). This exhortation to serve the Lord as a slave refers not just to external obedience but also to the inner spiritual attitude of submission to the Lord's authority over us. We must be "obedient from the heart" (6:17). In other words it refers not just to individual acts of obedience, but to the willing acceptance of a certain identity. This is who we are: we are slaves, "serving the Lord." See 6:16,18,22.

12:12 Here is another triad of exhortations that are loosely related to each other, literally: "As to hope - rejoicing; as to affliction - patiently enduring; as to prayer - steadfastly persisting." The first appears in the NIV as Be joyful in hope, . . . Over and over the NT exhorts us to "Rejoice!" (e.g., Matt 5:12; Phil 3:1; 4:4; Rev 19:7). The word is caivrw (chairô ), which is related to the word for grace (cari" , charis ).

Paul indicates that one specific source of our joy as Christians is our hope , which of course is based on the grace bestowed upon us in Christ Jesus. Christian hope is not just a fond wish, but is an earnest and confident expectation of the full salvation awaiting us at the eschaton . See 4:18; 5:2 (JC, 1:301, 315). No matter what our present circumstances may be, when we think about the sure glory of heaven yet to come, we cannot help but be filled with joy! "Let hope keep you joyful," as Dunn puts it (2:742). "Hope of future salvation . . . stimulates present joy," says Hendriksen (2:415). It enables us to live our daily Christian lives with "the eagerness of a pilgrim going home" (DeWelt, 201).

The next admonition is to be patient in affliction, . . . This follows naturally from the former; our hope-inspired joy gives us the courage to hold up under the afflictions of this age. Afflictions include the various sufferings to which all men are susceptible because of the fallenness of this present world; they also include the opposition and persecution Christians can expect just because we are Christians (John 16:23; Acts 14:22; Rev 7:14).

"Be patient" is uJpomevnw (hypomenô ). Cranfield says this translation is too weak; he suggests "hold out steadfastly" (2:637). The noun form (uJpomenhv , hypomenç ) was used in 5:3-5; it means "patient endurance, steadfastness, the ability to bear up under whatever comes along" (JC, 1:317). These words have the nuance of "bearing up with courage" and "enduring what is hard to bear," i.e., "perseverance despite difficulties" (Spicq, Lexicon , 3:416-417, 419).

The next exhortation is related to this sort of situation but cannot be limited to it: be faithful in prayer. It is natural and proper to fall back on prayer in the midst of affliction or persecution, but we must not wait for trouble to befall us before we are moved to pray. The word translated "be faithful" is used with reference to prayer also in Acts 1:14; 2:42; 6:4; Col 4:2. It means "to continue steadfastly in, to persevere in, to persist in" prayer. "The idea is constant diligence, effort that never lets up, confident waiting for results" (Spicq, Lexicon , 3:193). See Luke 18:1; Eph 6:18; 1 Thess 5:17. The spirit or attitude of prayer, as well as regular times for praying, should be a major aspect of a Christian's life.

12:13 The two exhortations in this verse fall under the general heading of benevolence. They direct us to cultivate the spirit of giving, which befits those who are saved by grace. First, Share with God's people who are in need. This verse refers literally to "the needs of the saints," with physical needs such as food and clothing being specifically in view. "To share with" is koinwnevw (koinôneô ), which is related to koinwniva (koinônia , "fellowship, sharing, participation (in)." These words are sometimes used for the gift or contribution of one's own money or material goods toward providing for the needs of the poor, or for the needs of gospel preachers.

The idea is not just the outward act of giving, though, but sharing in one's own heart the burden of need felt by the needy, and the sense of a common ownership of those things that can meet these needs (Acts 4:32-35). In Murray's words, "We are to identify ourselves with the needs of the saints and make them our own" (2:133). Lard says, "When the children of God fall into want, take a part of their wants upon yourselves. Make their wants your wants to the full extent of your ability to relieve them" (391).

Some Christians are especially gifted to meet the needs of the saints, whether in a leadership capacity (12:7) or individually (12:8); but here Paul tells us that every Christian has a responsibility to participate in the church's ministry of benevolence to some degree. See Gal 6:10.

The Apostle zeroes in on a very specific kind of need when he says, Practice hospitality. "Hospitality" (filoxeniva , philoxenia ) is literally "love of strangers," or treating a stranger (xevno" , xenos ) as a friend (fivlo" , philos ). It refers to the practice of hosting travelers. In NT times it was not nearly as easy for travelers to find safe and reasonable accommodations as it is today, so this would have been an important service. In most ancient cultures hospitality was a prized virtue, and it is identified as an important Christian virtue as well (see Matt 25:35; 1 Tim 3:2; Titus 1:8; Heb 13:2; 1 Pet 4:9; 3 John 5-8). It was especially necessary to care for itinerate preachers and Christians fleeing persecution.

"Practice" is an inadequate translation for the strong verb diwvkw (diôkô ; see v. 14). It means "to run after, to chase, to pursue, to strive for, to earnestly aspire to or seek after." In other words, we should take the initiative in this matter of hospitality. Lenski says, "Hospitality is literally to be chased after as one hunts an animal and delights to carry the booty home" (773). Spicq relates the story of a pagan Greek citizen, Gallias of Agrigentum, who in the fourth century B.C. was so hospitable "that he posted his slaves at the city gates to welcome strangers when they presented themselves and ask them to his house" ( Lexicon , 3:455). Some Christians have been known to build extra rooms on their houses in order to provide for traveling evangelists and missionaries on furlough.

12:14 Bless those who persecute you; bless and do not curse. This admonition may have been suggested to Paul by the fact that the word diôkô can mean both "pursue" (as in v. 13) and also "persecute" (as here). That Christians may expect to be persecuted, i.e., forced to suffer hurt and hatred and unjust treatment, is a common theme in the NT (Matt 5:10-11; John 15:20; 2 Tim 3:12).

Exactly what is God here requiring of us? Not just to endure persecution, not just to refrain from striking back at our persecutors, and not even just to refrain from wishing them harm. Rather, he is requiring us to pray a prayer of blessing for our persecutors. To "bless" in this sense is to ask God to bestow his favor upon someone. To "curse" would be the opposite, i.e., to call upon God to bring harm upon someone (Dunn, 2:744).

But how is this possible? As Murray says, the very fact that persecution is so unreasonable and unfair makes it seem inevitable and natural for its victims to have feelings of animosity and vindictiveness toward its perpetrators (2:134). Thus to bless those who persecute us seems to be the very opposite of the so-called "natural" response. This is what makes this admonition so striking and, on the face of it, so impossible to obey. Murray observes that "no practical exhortation places greater demands upon our spirits" than this (2:134). It surely "requires a powerful effort of the will," says Godet; and that is probably why it is repeated with such emphasis (436).

But this is the whole point of the renewing of the mind and the transformed life (v. 2): the regeneration of the Holy Spirit enables us to do what may seem impossible in the eyes of those still held captive by the powers of sin. God may require the "impossible," but he empowers us to achieve it! (See Cranfield, 2:640-641.) Jesus himself has shown us how to do this even in the most extreme circumstances (Luke 23:34), and the martyr Stephen has demonstrated that even an ordinary human being can follow Jesus' example (Acts 7:60).

We should note that Paul is not giving us a new teaching on this subject, but is just passing along commands already uttered by Jesus Christ: "Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you" (Matt 5:44); and "bless those who curse you, pray for those who mistreat you" (Luke 6:28).

12:15 Rejoice with those who rejoice; mourn with those who mourn. Here is another requirement of love that will seem difficult for many, because it focuses on the emotional life. Many of us have enough difficulty "getting in touch with" our own feelings, but Paul exhorts us to get in touch even with the feelings of others! He calls for compassion , which literally means "suffering with"; and for empathy , which is the ability to identify with and actually experience the feelings and inner dispositions of others. See 1 Cor 12:26.

To "rejoice with those who rejoice," to "share in one another's triumphs, joys, and successes," is probably the harder of the two commandments, as Fitzmyer observes (655). To see others succeed (especially where we may have failed) leads easily to negative feelings of envy, jealousy, and resentment. Through the renewing power of the Holy Spirit we must fight against such tendencies and be genuinely happy and filled with good will when others have cause to rejoice. MacArthur says, "It is distinctively Christian to rejoice in the blessings, honor, and welfare of others" (2:197).

To feel compassion toward others who are suffering may seem easier, but often it too requires deliberate, Spirit-assisted effort. It is easy to be indifferent toward the troubles and sorrows of others, especially when we ourselves are caught up in troubles of our own. Even worse, more often than we like to admit, we have a tendency to be glad when misfortune overtakes certain people. This is usually the case when their sufferings are the result of their own carelessness or sinful folly. Here we must guard against the urge to say, "It serves them right!"

12:16 The final verse in this section is a series of exhortations condemning pride and enjoining humility. First Paul says, Live in harmony with one another. "Live in harmony" is a very loose translation of "think the same thing" or "think the same way." The word for "think" is fronevw (phroneô ; see 12:3); the idea is that we should all have the same attitude toward one another.

Some take this to mean that all Christians should have harmony and agreement in our doctrinal thinking, at least on the basics (see Cranfield, 2:643; Dunn, 2:746). Such doctrinal harmony is required of the church, to be sure (15:5-6; 1 Cor 1:10; Eph 4:13-15), but this is probably not Paul's point here. He does not just say, "Have the same mind," period. Nor does he say, "Think the same thoughts along with one another." Rather, he specifically says, "Think the same thing toward [eij" , eis ] one another." As Lard puts it, "Be of the same disposition one toward another; or have the same sentiments and feelings" (392). See Lenski, 775; Moo, 782-783. The NEB (first edition) captures this idea: "Have equal regard for one another." The TEV says, "Have the same concern for everyone."

This is the kind of harmony of which Paul is speaking, i.e., that we should all have the same attitudes and a common mindset toward one another. Exactly what is the content of this mindset? He has just been telling us: sincere love (v. 9a), family affection (v. 10a), mutual honor and respect (v. 10b), a spirit of sharing (v. 13), and empathetic joy and sorrow (v. 15).

What is the greatest hindrance to such harmonious attitudes? Putting oneself and one's own happiness ahead of that of others; having too high an opinion of oneself; in a word, pride. Thus in the interest of removing this barrier to harmony, Paul enjoins us thus: Do not be proud, but be willing to associate with people of low position. Literally he says, "Do not think high things," about yourself. This is basically the same as the admonitions in 11:20 and 12:3. We are to avoid self-aggrandizement, or thinking so highly of ourselves that the desires and opinions of others no longer matter.

The word for "associate with" should not be translated "condescend" as in the KJV, since this English word has a very unsavory connotation today. The word (in the passive voice) literally means "to be led along or carried away with" something or someone. The thought here is "to go along with, to be at home with, to associate comfortably with" the lowly.

A major question is whether "the lowly" (tapeinov" , tapeinos ) here is masculine ("humble people") or neuter ("humble things"). Since this seems to be in contrast with "Do not think high things" (neuter), some take it as humble things (e.g., Lard, 392-393; Murray, 2:136; SH, 364). But since tapeinos is used elsewhere in the NT only for people, and since the main point of the verse seems to be interrelationships among Christian people, most take this as a reference to humble people , as in the NIV (e.g., Godet, 437; Cranfield, 2:644; Fitzmyer, 656). The NEB says, "go about with humble folk." Hendriksen puts it, "Do not be snobbish, but readily associate with humble folk" (2:419).

The latter approach (as in the NIV) is to be preferred: Associate with people who are tapeinos . In the Greek world such a person was not "humble" in the sense of showing humility, but in the sense of having a position in life regarded as inferior because of his origin or occupation. The tapeinos person was "base, ignoble, of low birth . . . , servile . . . , working at a humble occupation . . . , held in low esteem" (Spicq, Lexicon , 3:370).

Paul's point is that, insofar as we are able, we must ignore the caste distinctions and social classes imposed by our various cultures, and look upon all people, especially our Christian brothers and sisters, in the same way. The Apostle does not tell us to associate only with "people of low position"; he tells us rather to include these folks in our circle of friends and not to discriminate against them. It would be appropriate, though, to pay special attention to those regarded as lowly in one's particular culture, since these are the ones more likely to be shunned by the world in general.

The final admonition in this paragraph is, Do not be conceited , or "Do not become wise in your own eyes" (see discussion on 11:25). "Wise" is frovnimo" ( phronimos ), which is a positive attribute in itself ("sensible, thoughtful, wise"). The idea here, though, is not to let your wisdom become ingrown, or not to consider yourself to be the ultimate measure of wisdom. Paul thus forbids "that self-sufficiency by which our own judgment is so highly esteemed that we will not have regard to wisdom that comes from any other source" (Murray, 2:137). As McGuiggan words it, "Don't take yourself too seriously. Others really can teach you something" (373).

D. PERSONAL VENGEANCE IS FORBIDDEN (12:17-21)

Paul is still explaining the essence of the sanctified life, but this is a new paragraph for two reasons. First, regarding form, the previous section (vv. 9-16) was basically a series of one-liners: short, terse exhortations in no particular order, handed to us like beads on a string. This section, though, seems to be a substantial development of a single theme. Second, for the most part, insofar as personal relationships are in view, vv. 9-16 tell us how Christians should relate to one another. In the present paragraph the emphasis is mainly on our relations with unbelievers, in particular those who in some way have caused us harm or injury.

Exactly what is the topic being discussed here? Our heading identifies it as personal vengeance. This is stated at the beginning in v. 17, "Do not repay anyone evil for evil," and is repeated in v. 19, "Do not take revenge." Sometimes these exhortations are equated with v. 14, "Bless those who persecute you"; but they are not exactly the same. Persecution is a specific kind of injury; it is injury inflicted upon a Christian just because he is a Christian ("because of me," Matt 5:11). Verses 17-21 are more general and speak of evil done to someone for any reason, including persecution but not limited to it.

What should a Christian do when harmed by another person, i.e., when he is cheated, insulted, assaulted, cursed, robbed, or treated unjustly in any way? The almost-universal tendency is to personally strike back, to retaliate, to try to get even, to make the evildoer pay for the harm he has done, i.e., to seek personal revenge. Paul's point is that this tendency must be resisted. It is wrong for anyone to take it upon himself, personally, to exact vengeance upon someone who has harmed him.

This is not to say that vengeance as such, or seeing that the evildoer pays for his wrongdoing, is wrong. This is nothing more and nothing less than retributive justice, which as an ethical principle is just as eternally valid as mercy itself. The point is that there is an important limitation on who is permitted to be the instrument of retributive justice: vengeance is God's prerogative, not that of the person whose rights have been violated. Verse 19 states this clearly: "Never take your own revenge, beloved, but leave room for the wrath of God, for it is written, 'Vengeance is Mine, I will repay,' says the Lord" (NASB).

A crucial question, though, is how and when God pours out his vengeance upon evildoers. The answer is twofold. On the one hand, God's vengeance in the form of eternal wrath will be poured out upon all unbelieving evildoers at the final judgment (Heb 10:30). But on the other hand - and this is extremely important - God's vengeance in the form of temporal punishment is poured out now through his appointed servants, those who work in civil government.

The break between Rom 12 and Rom 13 is quite unfortunate, since it tends to obscure the deliberate connection between 12:17-21 and 13:1-7, which are two sides of one coin. Individuals (not just Christians, but all individuals) should not take their own revenge (12:17-21), because God has assigned the responsibility for exacting vengeance in his name here on earth to human government (13:1-7).

The proximity of these two passages, one forbidding personal revenge and the other affirming government's responsibility for retributive justice, shows the continuity between the Old Covenant ethic and the New Covenant ethic on this matter. Very often, Christian pacifists and others interpret Christ's teaching in Matt 5:38-48 as a repudiation of the OT ethic and a prohibition of vengeance in any form. Paul's teaching shows this is not the case. The key to understanding Christ's teaching is the distinction between personal vengeance, which is forbidden, and God's own vengeance rendered through civil government, which is necessary and right. Jesus was speaking only of the former, not the latter.

The Law of Moses included both teachings. On the one hand, it absolutely forbade personal vengeance: "Do not seek revenge or bear a grudge against one of your people, but love your neighbor as yourself" (Lev 19:18). Thus neither Jesus nor Paul was the first to teach this. On the other hand, Moses' Law required civil judges to measure out punishment to evildoers that fit the crime, no more and no less. This was the point of the lex talionis , the "eye-for-an-eye" principle. This principle is stated three times in the Mosaic Law: Exod 21:23-25; Lev 24:19-20; and Deut 19:21. In each case it is set forth as a rule to be applied only in a judicial context, not by individuals or by the injured parties themselves.

In Rom 12:17-13:7 Paul teaches the same two moral rules: no personal vengeance, and retributive justice only in the context of a court of law. The latter is the same as the "eye-for-an-eye" principle, which has not been repealed. Jesus does not repeal it in Matt 5:38-48. In that part of the Sermon on the Mount our Lord corrects rabbinic misinterpretations and misapplications of OT Law. One such misapplication was the wrongful use of the "eye-for-an-eye" principle as justification for personal revenge. This is what Jesus is repudiating. He is not contradicting the OT Law, nor is he setting this principle aside. He is simply saying, like Moses and Paul, that individuals do not have the right to take their own personal revenge. The lex talionis as it stood in the Law of Moses was never meant to apply to personal revenge; it was meant to be applied only by civil government. This is Paul's point in Romans. Jesus himself makes no reference to the role of civil government; he is concerned only with the way individuals should respond to those who have wronged them. But Jesus does not contradict anything said by Paul. The following chart summarizes this:

Law of Moses Jesus Paul No personal revenge: Lev 19:18 Matt 5:38-48 Rom 12:17-21 Governmental Exod 21:23-25 [silence] Rom 13:1-7 retribution: Lev 24:19-20 Deut 19:21

Clearly there are continuity and harmony among the Law of Moses, Jesus, and Paul on this subject. The prohibition of personal revenge and the approval of governmental retribution are not contradictory but complementary. Thus it is not wrong for governments to punish criminals, nor is it wrong for Christians to punish criminals when they are serving in an official capacity as representatives of civil government, e.g., as jurors, judges, or correctional workers. What is wrong is for anyone , Christians and unbelievers alike, to take justice into their own hands.

12:17 Do not repay anyone evil for evil. By "evil" Paul means any injury or injustice, any situation in which someone "does you wrong." Our first inclination when we have been thus wronged is to strike back and "get even." This spirit of revenge, retaliation, and vindictiveness is what Paul is forbidding here.

As explained in the introduction above, this is not a condemnation of vengeance as such, but personal vengeance only, i.e., making oneself the instrument by which the wrongdoer is made to suffer. Vengeance is God's prerogative, and he has his own ways of working it out.

Paul's use of the word translated "anyone" (lit., "to no one") shows that this admonition applies to our relationships with all people and not just our fellow Christians. In fact, "to no one" is the first word in the sentence in the Greek, making it emphatic that this is a universal rule.

Other biblical references expressing this same rule include Lev 19:18; Matt 5:39-44; Luke 6:27-30; 1 Thess 5:15; and 1 Pet 3:9.

Be careful to do what is right in the eyes of everybody. "Be careful" is pronoevw (pronoeô ), which literally means "to think about in advance." It means to give serious thought to something. "What is right" is kalav ( kala ; neuter plural of kalov" [ kalos ]), "good things." In this context it refers to what is morally good or right; this is in direct contrast with "evil" (kakov" , kakos ) in v. 17a. In vv. 2 and 21 Paul uses another word for "good," ajgaqov" ( agathos ). As Wuest explains it, agathos refers to intrinsic goodness, "and kalos , our word here, to exterior goodness, or goodness that is seen on the exterior of a person, the outward expression of an inward goodness" (218). Such exterior goodness is necessary because what we do as Christians is observed by those around us, and it is important that our conduct, which is open to "the eyes of everybody," brings honor to our God.

The main point is that, instead of reciprocating evil for evil, we should think out ahead of time how we will respond when others attack us or wrong us in some way. By taking forethought we can be ready to respond aright, with "good things," i.e., in such a way that we bear impressive witness before the world.

"In the eyes of everybody" is literally "before or in the sight of all men." Jesus taught that we should let our light shine before men, "that they may see your good deeds and praise your Father in heaven" (Matt 5:16; see 2 Cor 8:21; 1 Pet 2:12). This is a general principle and applies to all areas of our lives. The point is that we should always be sensitive to how our conduct is viewed by others, so as not to cause anyone to stumble or reject the gospel, and so as not to be an occasion for anyone to mock the God we profess to serve (1 Cor 10:32; 2 Cor 4:2; 1 Tim 3:7; 5:14; 1 Pet 2:15). Compare especially Rom 2:23-24. Phillips' translation of v. 17b reads, "See that your public behaviour is above criticism."

We must be careful not to misunderstand Paul here. He is not saying that we should do only what other people consider to be right, as if we are conforming to the world's norms after all, contrary to the command in v. 2. Nor is he saying that we should simply "live out the implications of the gospel" before the world, even if the world does not see the virtue of it (contra Cranfield, 2:646; Morris, 452). Rather, since the conduct of the law is written on the hearts of everyone (2:15), Paul assumes that there is a common core of decency acknowledged by all, or what Hendriksen calls a "public conscience" (2:420). Even if the world itself does not live up to such a standard, it is aware of it and is also keenly aware that Christians have openly subscribed to it. Thus the world is quick to notice when Christians' lives do not conform to this standard, and in such cases is even quicker to mock our faith and our Lord. See Dunn, 2:748; Fitzmyer, 656; Moo, 785.

12:18 If it is possible, as far as it depends on you, live at peace with everyone. See Matt 5:9; Heb 12:14; 1 Pet 3:11. As in v. 17, the admonition is about our relationships not just with other Christians but with everyone in general. As Murray sums it up, "Peaceableness in disposition and behaviour is a virtue to be cultivated in our relations with all men" (2:139). I.e., our goal should be to live in such a way that we would never antagonize anyone or give anyone an occasion for doing evil against us. We should never take the initiative in disturbing the peace (Morris, 452). In fact, we should go out of our way, doing all that is possible , to establish and maintain peaceable relations with others (see Matt 5:23-24). As Jesus says, we should make peace happen (Matt 5:9).

If it depended only on us, we could, through the power of the Holy Spirit working in us, be at peace with all men. But it does not depend just on us. Unfortunately, even after we have done everything in our power to live peaceably with others, sometimes they themselves simply will not allow it. Despite our best efforts they continue to perpetuate a spirit of hostility from their side.

In fact, if we live consistent, faithful lives, and if we take a firm stand for the truth of God's Word and for the uniqueness of Jesus Christ as the only Savior, we can expect to arouse enmity and be openly opposed and hated by those who hate Jesus (Matt 10:22, 34-36; John 16:33). The only way to avoid all such enmity is to compromise our commitment to Jesus, and this we cannot do. I.e., living at peace with others is not the highest virtue. Like Melchizedek, God is first King of righteousness, then King of peace (Heb 7:2). God's wisdom is first pure, then peaceable (Jas 3:17). Peace is nothing without holiness (Heb 12:14). See Murray 2:139-140.

12:19 Do not take revenge, my friends, but leave room for God's wrath, . . . "Do not take revenge" is literally "not avenging yourselves." Unfortunately the NIV does not translate "yourselves"; the NASB is better: "Never take your own revenge, beloved." The issue is personal revenge, as explained in the introduction to this section. Some see this verse as different from "Do not repay anyone evil for evil" in v. 17. If there is a difference, it is minimal. The verb here is ejkdokevw (ekdokeô ), which means to avenge or punish. "Do not avenge yourself" means "Do not take it upon yourself to punish someone for some wrong he has done to you."

The alternative to personal vengeance is not no vengeance, but God's vengeance. Paul says, "Leave room for God's wrath." The expression "leave room" means the same thing as in Eph 4:27, i.e., "make room for, give place to." Here Paul means, "Get out of the way and allow God to handle the matter in his own way" (see Lenski, 780). Step aside, back off, and leave it up to the wrath of God.

The Greek text does not specifically say God's wrath; it just says "Give place to the wrath." Some (e.g., Moule, 213) have suggested this may mean the wrath of one's enemy, i.e., "Back off and let your enemy's wrath run its course without trying to retaliate." Others have suggested it refers to one's own wrath, i.e, "Slow down and count to ten and give your wrath room to dissipate; then you will not want to retaliate." Another possibility is that it means the wrath of human government. I.e., "Let the civil authorities handle it" (13:4). Almost everyone today agrees, though, that it refers to the wrath of God , even though it just says "the wrath" (as in 5:9; 1 Thess 2:16).

Thus whenever we suffer harm or injustice, we must allow God to be our avenger. Wrath is his prerogative, and we must not attempt to usurp it.

[F]or it is written: "It is mine to avenge; I will repay," says the Lord. Here Paul lets us know immediately that he is referring to the wrath of God, by quoting an OT text in which God (the Lord, Yahweh) specifically says, "Vengeance is mine." This is a paraphrase of Deut 32:35, where the Hebrew text says, "To me belongs vengeance and recompense." This is also cited in Heb 10:30, where it refers to the final judgment.

The emphasis here is clearly on God's role as the one who exacts justice. The word order is emphatic: " To me belongs vengeance; I will repay." This shows that vengeance per se is not wrong. The moral issue is simply, who has the right to exact vengeance on evildoers; the answer is, God does.

We must ask, though, exactly when and how God inflicts his wrath upon these evildoers. As explained in the introduction, he does this in two ways. The ultimate expression of divine wrath, of course, is the eschatological wrath of eternal punishment in hell (Heb 10:30). Some think Paul is referring to this here (Fitzmyer, 657), or at least mainly to this (Morris, 454). I believe this is an error, though, because God has another means of inflicting his wrath on evildoers, and he is already in the process of doing so even now in this world. The means by which he is doing so is civil government , as Paul goes on to explain in this very context, in 13:1-4, especially v. 4. Thus it is a mistake to separate the wrath of government from the wrath of God; ideally they are the same thing.

Thus I believe God's wrath as expressed through civil government is Paul's primary reference here. I.e., "Leave room for God's wrath to work through his appointed servants, the civil rulers. When you try to take your own revenge, you are usurping the divinely-ordained role of government."

We may identify two reasons why God has not left vengeance in the hands of those who have been wronged, but has appointed civil rulers to take care of it instead. First, it is almost always impossible for the wronged party to be objective and even-handed in deciding on a proper punishment for the evildoer; the tendency will always be to go beyond what is warranted. Civil government as a third party (theoretically) can evaluate and decide on such matters objectively and fairly.

Second, some people who are wronged will not on their own have the power or the resources to see that justice is done and the evildoer punished. Thus it is necessary to have a civil government that is strong enough to take vengeance on even the most powerful wrongdoers.

12:20 On the contrary: "If your enemy is hungry, feed him; if he is thirsty, give him something to drink." The strong contrast between the world's tendency to seek personal revenge for wrongs suffered, and the response God demands and expects from those leading a transformed life, is seen in the opening phrase, "on the contrary" (ajllav , alla ). Except for this phrase, this verse is a direct quote from Prov 25:21-22a (LXX).

In a circumstance crying out for revenge, it is not enough for us as individuals to passively refrain from retaliating while allowing God's vengeance to prevail. Invoking the passage from Proverbs, Paul shows that the wronged party must also have a positive, loving attitude toward the wrongdoer, and must actively take steps to meet needs that he might have. Providing food and drink to satisfy his hunger and thirst are examples of the sort of kindness that must be shown; if these needs are not immediately present, we should look for other ways to give concrete expression to the love for our enemies that Jesus requires (Matt 5:44).

The rest of the quotation from Proverbs reads thus: "In doing this, you will heap burning coals on his head." The connecting word gavr ( gar , "for, because"), untranslated by the NIV, suggests that what follows is at least the result and possibly the motive for responding to our enemies with acts of kindness.

This is a very difficult clause, because we simply are not sure of the significance of heaping burning coals on someone's head. Two major approaches have been pursued. One interprets the burning coals negatively, as representing ultimate harm upon the enemy; the other takes the coals as a positive symbol representing a good result for the enemy.

The first view had adherents in the early centuries of the church, and has an occasional defender in modern times. In this view the burning coals represent the wrath of God (see Ps 11:6; 140:10). The idea is that the acts of kindness bestowed by a victim upon his enemy will in the final judgment only increase his guilt and thus intensify his eternal punishment, if he has not repented by then. Such action could thus be regarded as "a more noble type of revenge," as Fitzmyer puts it (658).

The biggest problem with this view is that it seems to suggest a motive for such acts of kindness that is the exact opposite of everything Paul is teaching about the transformed life. Deeds of kindness done for the express purpose of increasing an enemy's eternal punishment would not be more noble than tit-for-tat retaliation, but less noble. This is why most who have taken this view say that the increased punishment is just the result of showing kindness to an enemy, and should never be one's purpose or motive (Cranfield, 2:649; Moo, 788). But such a distinction, while clear in theory, would be difficult to maintain in practice, and would only create unnecessary ambiguities for the person who only wants to do the most loving thing for his enemy. Besides, the teaching from Proverbs as quoted by Paul seems to suggest that heaping coals on an enemy's head is the very reason why ( gar ) one should do such acts of kindness, and not just the result. Thus the context seems to be against this view. See Cranfield, 2:648-649; Morris, 454-455; Dunn, 2:750; Moo, 788-789.

The second view, rightly accepted by most modern scholars, is that the burning coals are meant to symbolize an attitude that may develop within the enemy's heart as a result of his victim's acts of kindness. This attitude is usually identified as the "burning pangs of shame and contrition" (Cranfield, 2:649), or "the vehement pangs and pains of conscience, the torments of shame, remorse, and self-reproach" (MP, 505). This is considered to be a positive result of the kind deeds, since burning shame and a tormented conscience may lead to genuine repentance.

Why should the experience of shame, remorse, and repentance be symbolized by burning coals on the head? The answer to this is not clear. One speculation is that "heaping coals of fire is a figure derived from the crucible, where they were heaped upon the hard metal till it softened and melted" (MP, 505). Acts of kindness may have a similar effect upon a hardened heart. Another suggestion is that the writer of Proverbs was alluding to an Egyptian practice in which a penitent carried a container of live coals on his head as a sign of his contrition and repentance (Cranfield, 2:650; Moo, 789).

Whatever the origin of the metaphor, this view sees the acts of kindness as nothing but a positive expression of love, performed in order to influence the enemy to repent. As Moo says, "Acting kindly toward our enemies is a means of leading them to be ashamed of their conduct toward us and, perhaps, to repent and turn to the Lord whose love we embody" (789). In Stott's words, "The coals of fire this may heap on him are intended to heal, not to hurt, to win, not to alienate, in fact, to shame him into repentance" (337). Whether such repentance actually occurs is not the point; what matters is that we have done for our enemy what our transformed life requires and makes possible. See Cranfield, 2:649-50; Dunn, 2:750-751; Moo, 788-789.

12:21 Do not be overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good. This could be an unlimited exhortation that applies to our battle against evil in general, but Paul more likely intends it to sum up his teaching about personal revenge in this paragraph.

"Do not be conquered by evil," or "Do not let evil gain the victory over you," means "Do not give in to the temptation to get even with your tormenter. Do not seek personal revenge." "Evil" (lit., "the evil") is not "the evil person," or the enemy himself. Rather, it refers to moral evil as a power that seeks to overcome us. We allow the power of evil to conquer us when we resort to acts of personal revenge.

To "overcome evil with good" means first to resist the temptation to retaliate in kind against one who has wronged us, and then to respond with acts of kindness instead. When we do this, we win the victory not only over the evil done against us by the enemy, but also over the evil we are tempted to do in retaliation.

McGarvey: Rom 12:8

or he that exhorteth, to his exhorting: he that giveth, let him do it with liberality [Exhortation is addressed to the feeling as teaching is to the understanding. It is used to stir or excite people, whether of the church or not, to do their duty. As endowed or spiritually gifted Christians of that day spoke with tongues (1 Cor 12 and 14), both the teacher and the exhorter would be properly classed as among the workers of miracles. After mentioning the exhorter, Paul drops the word "or" (eite), and thus seems to make a distinction between the workers of miracles whom he has been admonishing, and the class of workers who follow, who evidently had no miraculous power whatever. "Liberality" (haplotes) signifies "the disposition not to turn back on oneself; and it is obvious that from this first meaning there may follow either that of generosity, when a man gives without letting himself be arrested by any selfish calculation; or that of simplicity, when he gives without his left hand knowing what his right hand does -- that is to say, without any vain going back on himself, and without any air of haughtiness" (Godet). The word may be correctly translated objectively "liberality" (2Co 8:2 ; 2Co 9:11 ; 2Co 9:13 ; Jam 1:5); but, used subjectively and more naturally, it signifies singleness of purpose, simplicity, sincerity (Mat 6:22 ; Luk 11:34 ; 2Co 1:12 ; 2Co 11:3 ; Eph 6:5 ; Col 3:22). The latter meaning is clearly indicated here by the context,* for Paul is rebuking ostentation (comp. Mat 6:1-4) and enforcing humility, sober self-thought, subjective investigation, simplicity. The giving was to be with honesty of aim, without ulterior or personal or selfish motive]; he that ruleth, with diligence; he that showeth mercy, with cheerfulness . [Whether they ruled as elders and deacons in the church, or as parents at home (1Ti 3:3-5 ; 1Ti 3:12), they were to do so with a spirit of zealous attention to the work entrusted to them, not with a vainglorious desire to lord it, or to exalt or enrich themselves (1Th 5:12-13 ; 1Ti 3:4-5 ; 1Ti 3:12 ; 1Ti 5:17 ; 1Pe 5:1-4). Showing mercy is probably best defined at Mat 25:35-36 . Paul here directs that these acts be performed with cheerfulness. The context shows that he means inward joy, not outward simulation of it; for the whole passage is subjective, not objective. (Comp. 2Co 9:7) Cheer, like love, must be without hypocrisy, for the one showing mercy has the better end of the blessing (Act 20:35). The purpose of the entire passage is to enforce the spirit of contented humility upon Christians in all their actions, lest those having superior gifts be thereby betrayed into pride and self-exaltation, and those having inferior gifts be seduced by envy to fall into bitterness of spirit or idleness. "In the school of Christ," says Leighton, "the first lesson of all is, self-denial and humility; yea, it is written above the door, as the rule of entry or admission, 'Learn of me, for I am meek and lowly in heart.'"]

* We are decidedly averse to criticizing or correcting the text of the English Revised Version, not wishing to breed suspicious unrest in the minds of its readers. But we can not but feel that occasionally the translators yield to the strong temptation to choose the English word which can be understood at once without the aid of the commentator, whether it conveys the shade of meaning desired by the Scripture writer or not. (Compare note on "spiritual," Rom 12:1 .) In such cases we have pointed out the looseness of the translators. "Give much!" is the urgent cry of this age, and it is thoroughly Scriptural; but the Spirit, speaking through Paul, also said, "Give in simplicity" -- i. e., in meekness -- and the command must not be lost sight of, simply to effect an easy translation. Perhaps this age needs the latter command more than the former; for, as Caryl observes, "you must rather bring your graces to the touchstone, to try their truth, than to the balance, to weigh their measure."

Introduction / Outline

Robertson: Romans (Book Introduction)

The Epistle to the Romans

Spring of a.d. 57

By Way of Introduction

Integrity of the Epistle

The genuineness of the Epistle is so generally admitted by scholars that it is unnecessary to prove it here, for Loman, Steck, and the Dutch scholars (Van Manen, etc.) who deny it as Pauline are no longer taken seriously. He wrote it from Corinth because he sent it to Rome by Phoebe of Cenchreae (Rom_16:2) if chapter 16 is acknowledged to be a part of the Epistle. Chapter 16 is held by some to be really a short epistle to Ephesus because of the long list of names in it, because of Paul’s long stay in Ephesus, because he had not yet been to Rome, and because, in particular, Aquila and Priscilla are named (Rom_16:3-5) who had been with Paul in Ephesus. But they had come from Rome before going to Corinth and there is no reason for thinking that they did not return to Rome. It was quite possible for Paul to have many friends in Rome whom he had met elsewhere. People naturally drifted to Rome from all over the empire. The old MSS. (Aleph A B C D) give chapter 16 as an integral part of the Epistle. Marcion rejected it and chapter 15 also for reasons of his own. Renan’s theory that Romans was a circular letter like Ephesians sent in different forms to different churches (Rome, Ephesus, Thessalonica, etc.) has appealed to some scholars as explaining the several doxologies in the Epistle, but they cause no real difficulty since Paul interjected them in his other epistles according to his moods (2Co_1:20, for instance). That theory raises more problems than it solves as, for example, Paul’s remarks about going to Rome (Rom_1:9-16) which apply to Rome. Lightfoot suggests the possibility that Paul added Rom_16:25-27 some years after the original date so as to turn it into a circular letter. But the MSS. do not support that theory and that leaves Rom_15:22-33 in the Epistle quite unsuitable to a circular letter. Modern knowledge leaves the Epistle intact with occasional variations in the MSS. on particular points as is true of all the N.T.

The Time and Place

The place is settled if we accept Rom_16:1. The time of the year is in the spring if we combine statements in the Acts and the Epistle. He says: " I am now going to Jerusalem ministering to the saints" (Rom_15:25). In Act_20:3 we read that Paul spent three months in Corinth. In II Corinthians we have a full account of the collection for the poor saints in Jerusalem. The account of the journey from Corinth to Jerusalem is given in Acts 20:3-21:17. It was in the spring between passover at Philippi (Act_20:6) and pentecost in Jerusalem (Act_20:16; Act_21:17). The precise year is not quite so certain, but we may suggest a.d. 57 or 58 with reasonable confidence.

The Purpose

Paul tells this himself. He had long cherished a desire to come to Rome (Act_19:21) and had often made his plans to do so (Rom_1:13) which were interrupted (Rom_15:22), but now he definitely plans to go from Jerusalem, after taking the contribution there (Rom_15:26), to Rome and then on to Spain (Rom_15:24, Rom_15:28). Meanwhile he sends this Epistle that the Romans may know what Paul’s gospel really is (Rom_1:15; Rom_2:16). He is full of the issues raised by the Judaizing controversy as set forth in the Epistles to Corinth and to Galatia. So in a calmer mood and more at length he presents his conception of the Righteousness demanded by God (Rom_1:17) of both Gentile (Rom_1:18-32) and Jew (Romans 2:1-3:20) and only to be obtained by faith in Christ who by his atoning death (justification) has made it possible (Romans 3:21-5:21). This new life of faith in Christ should lead to holiness of life (sanctification, chapters Romans 6-8). This is Paul’s gospel and the remaining chapters deal with corollaries growing out of the doctrine of grace as applied to practical matters. It is a cause for gratitude that Paul did write out so full a statement of his message. He had a message for the whole world and was anxious to win the Roman Empire to Christ. It was important that he go to Rome for it was the centre of the world’s life. Nowhere does Paul’s Christian statesmanship show to better advantage than in this greatest of his Epistles. It is not a book of formal theology though Paul is the greatest of theologians. Here Paul is seen in the plenitude of his powers with all the wealth of his knowledge of Christ and his rich experience in mission work. The church in Rome is plainly composed of both Jews and Greeks, though who started the work there we have no way of knowing. Paul’s ambition was to preach where no one else had been (Rom_15:20), but he has no hesitation in going on to Rome.

JFB: Romans (Book Introduction)

THE GENUINENESS of the Epistle to the Romans has never been questioned. It has the unbroken testimony of all antiquity, up to CLEMENT OF ROME, the apostle's "fellow laborer in the Gospel, whose name was in the Book of Life" (Phi 4:3), and who quotes from it in his undoubted Epistle to the Corinthians, written before the close of the first century. The most searching investigations of modern criticism have left it untouched.

WHEN and WHERE this Epistle was written we have the means of determining with great precision, from the Epistle itself compared with the Acts of the Apostles. Up to the date of it the apostle had never been at Rome (Rom 1:11, Rom 1:13, Rom 1:15). He was then on the eve of visiting Jerusalem with a pecuniary contribution for its Christian poor from the churches of Macedonia and Achaia, after which his purpose was to pay a visit to Rome on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-28). Now this contribution we know that he carried with him from Corinth, at the close of his third visit to that city, which lasted three months (Act 20:2-3; Act 24:17). On this occasion there accompanied him from Corinth certain persons whose names are given by the historian of the Acts (Act 20:4), and four of these are expressly mentioned in our Epistle as being with the apostle when he wrote it--Timotheus, Sosipater, Gaius, and Erastus (Rom 16:21, Rom 16:23). Of these four, the third, Gaius, was an inhabitant of Corinth (1Co 1:14), and the fourth, Erastus, was "chamberlain of the city" (Rom 16:23), which can hardly be supposed to be other than Corinth. Finally, Phœbebe, the bearer, as appears, of this Epistle, was a deaconess of the Church at Cenchrea, the eastern port of Corinth (Rom 16:1). Putting these facts together, it is impossible to resist the conviction, in which all critics agree, that Corinth was the place from which the Epistle was written, and that it was despatched about the close of the visit above mentioned, probably in the early spring of the year 58.FOUNDER of this celebrated church is unknown. That it owed its origin to the apostle Peter, and that he was its first bishop, though an ancient tradition and taught in the Church of Rome as a fact not to be doubted, is refuted by the clearest evidence, and is given up even by candid Romanists. On that supposition, how are we to account for so important a circumstance being passed by in silence by the historian of the Acts, not only in the narrative of Peter's labors, but in that of Paul's approach to the metropolis, of the deputations of Roman "brethren" that came as far as Appii Forum and the Three Taverns to meet him, and of his two years' labors there (Act 28:15, Act 28:30)? And how, consistently with his declared principle--not to build on another man's foundation (Rom 15:20) --could he express his anxious desire to come to them that he might have some fruit among them also, even as among other Gentiles (Rom 1:13), if all the while he knew that they had the apostle of the circumcision for their spiritual father? And how, if so, is there no salutation to Peter among the many in this Epistle? or, if it may be thought that he was known to be elsewhere at that particular time, how does there occur in all the Epistles which our apostle afterwards wrote from Rome not one allusion to such an origin of the church at Rome? The same considerations would seem to prove that this church owed its origin to no prominent Christian laborer; and this brings us to the much-litigated question.

For WHAT CLASS of Christians was this Epistle principally designed--Jewish or Gentile? That a large number of Jews and Jewish proselytes resided at this time at Rome is known to all who are familiar with the classical and Jewish writers of that and the immediately subsequent periods; and that those of them who were at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (Act 2:10), and formed probably part of the three thousand converts of that day, would on their return to Rome carry the glad tidings with them, there can be no doubt. Nor are indications wanting that some of those embraced in the salutations of this Epistle were Christians already of long standing, if not among the earliest converts to the Christian faith. Others of them who had made the apostle's acquaintance elsewhere, and who, if not indebted to him for their first knowledge of Christ, probably owed much to his ministrations, seemed to have charged themselves with the duty of cherishing and consolidating the work of the Lord in the capital. And thus it is not improbable that up to the time of the apostle's arrival the Christian community at Rome had been dependent upon subordinate agency for the increase of its numbers, aided by occasional visits of stated preachers from the provinces; and perhaps it may be gathered from the salutations of the last chapter that it was up to that time in a less organized, though far from less flourishing state, than some other churches to whom the apostle had already addressed Epistles. Certain it is, that the apostle writes to them expressly as a Gentile Church (Rom 1:13, Rom 1:15; Rom 15:15-16); and though it is plain that there were Jewish Christians among them, and the whole argument presupposes an intimate acquaintance on the part of his readers with the leading principles of the Old Testament, this will be sufficiently explained by supposing that the bulk of them, having before they knew the Lord been Gentile proselytes to the Jewish faith, had entered the pale of the Christian Church through the gate of the ancient economy.

It remains only to speak briefly of the PLAN and CHARACTER Of this Epistle. Of all the undoubted Epistles of our apostle, this is the most elaborate, and at the same time the most glowing. It has just as much in common with a theological treatise as is consistent with the freedom and warmth of a real letter. Referring to the headings which we have prefixed to its successive sections, as best exhibiting the progress of the argument and the connection of its points, we here merely note that its first great topic is what may be termed the legal relation of man to God as a violator of His holy law, whether as merely written on the heart, as in the case of the heathen, or, as in the case of the Chosen People, as further known by external revelation; that it next treats of that legal relation as wholly reversed through believing connection with the Lord Jesus Christ; and that its third and last great topic is the new life which accompanies this change of relation, embracing at once a blessedness and a consecration to God which, rudimentally complete already, will open, in the future world, into the bliss of immediate and stainless fellowship with God. The bearing of these wonderful truths upon the condition and destiny of the Chosen People, to which the apostle next comes, though it seem but the practical application of them to his kinsmen according to the flesh, is in some respects the deepest and most difficult part of the whole Epistle, carrying us directly to the eternal springs of Grace to the guilty in the sovereign love and inscrutable purposes of God; after which, however, we are brought back to the historical platform of the visible Church, in the calling of the Gentiles, the preservation of a faithful Israelitish remnant amidst the general unbelief and fall of the nation, and the ultimate recovery of all Israel to constitute, with the Gentiles in the latter day, one catholic Church of God upon earth. The remainder of the Epistle is devoted to sundry practical topics, winding up with salutations and outpourings of heart delightfully suggestive.

JFB: Romans (Outline)

• INTRODUCTION. (Rom. 1:1-17)
• THE JEW UNDER LIKE CONDEMNATION WITH THE GENTILE. (Rom. 2:1-29)
• JEWISH OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. (Rom 3:1-8)
• THAT THE JEW IS SHUT UP UNDER LIKE CONDEMNATION WITH THE GENTILE IS PROVED BY HIS OWN SCRIPTURE. (Rom 3:9-20)
• GOD'S JUSTIFYING RIGHTEOUSNESS THROUGH FAITH IN JESUS CHRIST, ALIKE ADAPTED TO OUR NECESSITIES AND WORTHY OF HIMSELF. (Rom 3:21-26)
• INFERENCES FROM THE FOREGOING DOCTRINES AND AN OBJECTION ANSWERED. (Rom 3:27-31)
• THE FOREGOING DOCTRINE OF JUSTIFICATION BY FAITH ILLUSTRATED FROM THE OLD TESTAMENT. (Rom. 4:1-25)
• THE BLESSED EFFECTS OF JUSTIFICATION BY FAITH. (Rom 5:1-11)
• COMPARISON AND CONTRAST BETWEEN ADAM AND CHRIST IN THEIR RELATION TO THE HUMAN FAMILY. (Rom 5:12-21)
• THE BEARING OF JUSTIFICATION BY GRACE UPON A HOLY LIFE. (Rom 6:1-11)
• WHAT PRACTICAL USE BELIEVERS SHOULD MAKE OF THEIR DEATH TO SIN AND LIFE TO GOD THROUGH UNION TO THE CRUCIFIED SAVIOUR. (Rom 6:12-23)
• SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. (Rom. 7:1-25)
• CONCLUSION OF THE WHOLE ARGUMENT--THE GLORIOUS COMPLETENESS OF THEM THAT ARE IN CHRIST JESUS. (Rom. 8:1-39)
• THE BEARING OF THE FOREGOING TRUTHS UPON THE CONDITION AND DESTINY OF THE CHOSEN PEOPLE--ELECTION--THE CALLING OF THE GENTILES. (Rom. 9:1-33)
• SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED--HOW ISRAEL CAME TO MISS SALVATION, AND THE GENTILES TO FIND IT. (Rom. 10:1-21)
• SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED AND CONCLUDED--THE ULTIMATE INBRINGING OF ALL ISRAEL, TO BE, WITH THE GENTILES, ONE KINGDOM OF GOD ON THE EARTH. (Rom. 11:1-36)
• DUTIES OF BELIEVERS, GENERAL AND PARTICULAR. (Rom. 12:1-21)
• SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED--POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS--MOTIVES. (Rom 13:1-14)
• SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED--CHRISTIAN FORBEARANCE. (Rom. 14:1-23)
• SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED AND CONCLUDED. (Rom 15:1-13)
• CONCLUSION: IN WHICH THE APOSTLE APOLOGIZES FOR THUS WRITING TO THE ROMAN CHRISTIANS, EXPLAINS WHY HE HAD NOT YET VISITED THEM, ANNOUNCES HIS FUTURE PLANS, AND ASKS THEIR PRAYERS FOR THE COMPLETION OF THEM. (Rom. 15:14-33)
• CONCLUSION, EMBRACING SUNDRY SALUTATIONS AND DIRECTIONS, AND A CLOSING PRAYER. (Rom. 16:1-27)
• WHY THIS DIVINELY PROVIDED RIGHTEOUSNESS IS NEEDED BY ALL MEN. (Rom 1:18)
• THIS WRATH OF GOD, REVEALED AGAINST ALL INIQUITY, OVERHANGS THE WHOLE HEATHEN WORLD. (Rom 1:18-32)

TSK: Romans (Book Introduction)

The Epistle to the Romans is " a writing," says Dr. Macknight, " which, for sublimity and truth of sentiment, for brevity and strength of expression, for regularity in its structure, but above all, for the unspeakable importance of the discoveries which it contains, stands unrivalled by any mere human composition, and as far exceeds the most celebrated productions of the learned Greeks and Romans, as the shining of the sun exceeds the twinkling of the stars." " The plan of it is very extensive; and it is surprising to see what a spacious field of knowledge is comprised, and how many various designs, arguments, explications, instructions, and exhortations, are executed in so small a compass....The whole Epistle is to be taken in connection, or considered as one continued discourse; and the sense of every part must be taken from the drift of the whole. Every sentence, or verse, is not to be regarded as a distinct mathematical proposition, or theorem, or as a sentence in the book of Proverbs, whose sense is absolute, and independent of what goes before, or comes after, but we must remember, that every sentence, especially in the argumentative part, bears relation to, and is dependent upon, the whole discourse, and cannot be rightly understood unless we understand the scope and drift of the whole; and therefore, the whole Epistle, or at least the eleven first chapters of it, ought to be read over at once, without stopping. As to the use and excellency of this Epistle, I shall leave it to speak for itself, when the reader has studied and well digested its contents....This Epistle will not be difficult to understand, if our minds are unprejudiced, and at liberty to attend to the subject, and to the current scriptural sense of the words used. Great care is taken to guard and explain every part of the subject; no part of it is left unexplained or unguarded. Sometimes notes are written upon a sentence, liable to exception and wanting explanation, as Rom 2:12-16. Here Rom 2:13 and Rom 2:15 are a comment upon the former part of it. Sometimes are found comments upon a single word; as Rom 10:11-13. Rom 10:12 and Rom 10:13 are a comment upon πας [Strong’s 3956]

TSK: Romans 12 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

Rom 12:1, God’s mercies must move us to please God; Rom 12:3, No man must think too well of himself; Rom 12:6, but everyone attend on that calling wherein he is placed; Rom 12:9, Love, and many other duties are required of us; Rom 12:19, Revenge is especially forbidden.

Poole: Romans 12 (Chapter Introduction)

CHAPTER 12

MHCC: Romans (Book Introduction)

The scope or design of the apostle in writing to the Romans appears to have been, to answer the unbelieving, and to teach the believing Jew; to confirm the Christian and to convert the idolatrous Gentile; and to show the Gentile convert as equal with the Jewish, in respect of his religious condition, and his rank in the Divine favour. These several designs are brought into on view, by opposing or arguing with the infidel or unbelieving Jew, in favour of the Christian or believing Gentile. The way of a sinner's acceptance with God, or justification in his sight, merely by grace, through faith in the righteousness of Christ, without distinction of nations, is plainly stated. This doctrine is cleared from the objections raised by Judaizing Christians, who were for making terms of acceptance with God by a mixture of the law and the gospel, and for shutting out the Gentiles from any share in the blessings of salvation brought in by the Messiah. In the conclusion, holiness is further enforced by practical exhortations.

MHCC: Romans 12 (Chapter Introduction)

(Rom 12:1, Rom 12:2) Believers are to dedicate themselves to God.

(Rom 12:3-8) To be humble, and faithfully to use their spiritual gifts, in their respective stations.

(Rom 12:9-16) Exhortations to various duties.

(Rom 12:17-21) And to peaceable conduct towards all men, with forbearance and benevolence.

Matthew Henry: Romans (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans

If we may compare scripture with scripture, and take the opinion of some devout and pious persons, in the Old Testament David's Psalms, and in the New Testament Paul's Epistles, are stars of the first magnitude, that differ from the other stars in glory. The whole scripture is indeed an epistle from heaven to earth: but in it we have upon record several particular epistles, more of Paul's than of any other, for he was the chief of the apostles, and laboured more abundantly than they all. His natural parts, I doubt not, were very pregnant; his apprehension was quick and piercing; his expressions were fluent and copious; his affections, wherever he took, very warm and zealous, and his resolutions no less bold and daring: this made him, before his conversion, a very keen and bitter persecutor; but when the strong man armed was dispossessed, and the stronger than he came to divide the spoil and to sanctify these qualifications, he became the most skilful zealous preacher; never any better fitted to win souls, nor more successful. Fourteen of his epistles we have in the canon of scripture; many more, it is probable, he wrote in the course of his ministry, which might be profitable enough for doctrine, for reproof, etc., but, not being given by inspiration of God, they were not received as canonical scripture, nor handed down to us. Six epistles, said to be Paul's, written to Seneca, and eight of Seneca's to him, are spoken of by some of the ancients [ Sixt. Senens. Biblioth. Sanct. lib. 2] and are extant; but, upon the first view, they appear spurious and counterfeit.

This epistle to the Romans is placed first, not because of the priority of its date, but because of the superlative excellency of the epistle, it being one of the longest and fullest of all, and perhaps because of the dignity of the place to which it is written. Chrysostom would have this epistle read over to him twice a week. It is gathered from some passages in the epistle that it was written Anno Christi 56, from Corinth, while Paul made a short stay there in his way to Troas, Act 20:5, Act 20:6. He commendeth to the Romans Phebe, a servant of the church at Cenchrea (ch. 16), which was a place belonging to Corinth. He calls Gaius his host, or the man with whom he lodged (Rom 16:23), and he was a Corinthian, not the same with Gaius of Derbe, mentioned Acts 20. Paul was now going up to Jerusalem, with the money that was given to the poor saints there; and of that he speaks, Rom 15:26. The great mysteries treated of in this epistle must needs produce in this, as in other writings of Paul, many things dark and hard to be understood, 2Pe 3:16. The method of this (as of several other of the epistles) is observable; the former part of it doctrinal, in the first eleven chapters; the latter part practical, in the last five: to inform the judgment and to reform the life. And the best way to understand the truths explained in the former part is to abide and abound in the practice of the duties prescribed in the latter part; for, if any man will do his will, he shall know of the doctrine, Joh 7:17.

I. The doctrinal part of the epistles instructs us,

1. Concerning the way of salvation (1.) The foundation of it laid in justification, and that not by the Gentiles' works of nature (ch. 1), nor by the Jews' works of the law (ch. 2, 3), for both Jews and Gentiles were liable to the curse; but only by faith in Jesus Christ, Rom 3:21, etc.; ch. 4. (2.) The steps of this salvation are, [1.] Peace with God, ch. 5. [2.] Sanctification, ch. 6, 7. [3.] Glorification, ch. 8.

2. Concerning the persons saved, such as belong to the election of grace (ch. 9), Gentiles and Jews, ch. 10, 11. By this is appears that the subject he discourses of were such as were then the present truths, as the apostle speaks, 2Pe 1:12. Two things the Jews then stumbled at - justification by faith without the works of the law, and the admission of the Gentiles into the church; and therefore both these he studied to clear and vindicate.

II. The practical part follows, wherein we find, 1. Several general exhortations proper for all Christians, ch. 12. 2. Directions for our behaviour, as members of civil society, Rom 13:1-14. 3. Rules for the conduct of Christians to one another, as members of the Christian church, ch. 14 and Rom 15:1-14.

III. As he draws towards a conclusion, he makes an apology for writing to them (Rom 15:14-16), gives them an account of himself and his own affairs (Rom 15:17-21), promises them a visit (Rom 15:22-29), begs their prayers (Rom 15:30-32), sends particular salutations to many friends there (ch. 16:1-16), warns them against those who caused divisions (Rom 16:17-20), adds the salutations of his friends with him (Rom 16:21-23), and ends with a benediction to them and a doxology to God (Rom 16:24-27).

Matthew Henry: Romans 12 (Chapter Introduction)

The apostle, having at large cleared and confirmed the prime fundamental doctrines of Christianity, comes in the next place to press the principal duties. We mistake our religion if we look upon it only as a system of notions and a guide to speculation. No, it is a practical religion, that tends to the right ordering of the conversation. It is designed not only to inform our judgments, but to reform our hearts and lives. From the method of the apostle's writing in this, as in some other of the epistles (as from the management of the principal ministers of state in Christ's kingdom) the stewards of the mysteries of God may take direction how to divide the word of truth: not to press duty abstracted from privilege, nor privilege abstracted from duty; but let both go together, with a complicated design, they will greatly promote and befriend each other. The duties are drawn from the privileges, by way of inference. The foundation of Christian practice must be laid in Christian knowledge and faith. We must first understand how we receive Christ Jesus the Lord, and then we shall know the better how to walk in him. There is a great deal of duty prescribed in this chapter. The exhortations are short and pithy, briefly summing up what is good, and what the Lord our God in Christ requires of us. It is an abridgment of the Christian directory, an excellent collection of rules for the right ordering of the conversation, as becomes the gospel. It is joined to the foregoing discourse by the word " therefore." It is the practical application of doctrinal truths that is the life of preaching. He had been discoursing at large of justification by faith, and of the riches of free grace, and the pledges and assurances we have of the glory that is to be revealed. Hence carnal libertines would be apt to infer." Therefore we may live as we list, and walk in the way of our hearts and the sight of our eyes." Now this does not follow; the faith that justifies is a faith that " works by love." And there is no other way to heaven but the way of holiness and obedience. Therefore what God hath joined together let no man put asunder. The particular exhortations of this chapter are reducible to the three principal heads of Christian duty: our duty to God t ourselves, and to our brother. The grace of God teaches us, in general, to live " godly, soberly, and righteously;" and to deny all that which is contrary hereunto. Now this chapter will give us to understand what godliness, sobriety, and righteousness, are though somewhat intermixed.

Barclay: Romans (Book Introduction)

A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE LETTERS OF PAUL

The Letters Of Paul

There is no more interesting body of documents in the New Testament than the letters of Paul. That is because of all forms of literature a letter is most personal. Demetrius, one of the old Greek literary critics, once wrote, "Every one reveals his own soul in his letters. In every other form of composition it is possible to discern the writercharacter, but in none so clearly as the epistolary." (Demetrius, On Style, 227.) It is just because he left us so many letters that we feel we know Paul so well. In them he opened his mind and heart to the folk he loved so much; and, in them, to this day, we can see that great mind grappling with the problems of the early church and feel that great heart throbbing with love for men, even when they were misguided and mistaken.

The Difficulty Of Letters

At the same time there is often nothing so difficult to understand as a letter. Demetrius (On Style, 223) quotes a saying of Artemon, who edited the letters of Aristotle. Artemon said that a letter ought to be written in the same manner as a dialogue, because it was one of the two sides of a dialogue. In other words, to read a letter is like listening to one side of a telephone conversation. So when we read the letters of Paul we are often in a difficulty. We do not possess the letter which he was answering; we do not fully know the circumstances with which he was dealing; it is only from the letter itself that we can deduce the situation which prompted it. Before we can hope to understand fully any letter Paul wrote, we must try to reconstruct the situation which produced it.

The Ancient Letters

It is a great pity that Paulletters were ever called epistles. They are in the most literal sense letters. One of the great lights shed on the interpretation of the New Testament has been the discovery and the publication of the papyri. In the ancient world, papyrus was the substance on which most documents were written. It was composed of strips of the pith of a certain bulrush that grew on the banks of the Nile. These strips were laid one on top of the other to form a substance very like brown paper. The sands of the Egyptian desert were ideal for preservation, for papyrus, although very brittle, will last for ever so long as moisture does not get at it. As a result, from the Egyptian rubbish heaps, archaeologists have rescued hundreds of documents, marriage contracts, legal agreements, government forms, and, most interesting of all, private letters. When we read these private letters we find that there was a pattern to which nearly all conformed; and we find that Paulletters reproduce exactly that pattern. Here is one of these ancient letters. It is from a soldier, called Apion, to his father Epimachus. He is writing from Misenum to tell his father that he has arrived safely after a stormy passage.

"Apion sends heartiest greetings to his father and lord Epimachus.

I pray above all that you are well and fit; and that things are

going well with you and my sister and her daughter and my

brother. I thank my Lord Serapis [his god] that he kept me safe

when I was in peril on the sea. As soon as I got to Misenum I got

my journey money from Caesar--three gold pieces. And things

are going fine with me. So I beg you, my dear father, send me a

line, first to let me know how you are, and then about my

brothers, and thirdly, that I may kiss your hand, because you

brought me up well, and because of that I hope, God willing, soon

to be promoted. Give Capito my heartiest greetings, and my

brothers and Serenilla and my friends. I sent you a little picture

of myself painted by Euctemon. My military name is Antonius

Maximus. I pray for your good health. Serenus sends good

wishes, Agathos Daimonboy, and Turbo, Galloniuson."

(G. Milligan, Selections from the Greek Papyri, 36.)

Little did Apion think that we would be reading his letter to his father 1800 years after he had written it. It shows how little human nature changes. The lad is hoping for promotion quickly. Who will Serenilla be but the girl he left behind him? He sends the ancient equivalent of a photograph to the folk at home. Now that letter falls into certain sections. (i) There is a greeting. (ii) There is a prayer for the health of the recipients. (iii) There is a thanksgiving to the gods. (iv) There are the special contents. (v) Finally, there are the special salutations and the personal greetings. Practically every one of Paulletters shows exactly the same sections, as we now demonstrate.

(i) The Greeting: Rom_1:1 ; 1Co_1:1 ; 2Co_1:1 ; Gal_1:1 ; Eph_1:1 ; Phi_1:1 ; Col_1:1-2 ; 1Th_1:1 ; 2Th_1:1 .

(ii) The Prayer: in every case Paul prays for the grace of God on the people to whom he writes: Rom_1:7 ; 1Co_1:3 ; 2Co_1:2 ; Gal_1:3 ; Eph_1:2 ; Phi_1:3 ; Col_1:2 ; 1Th_1:1 ; 2Th_1:2 .

(iii) The Thanksgiving: Rom_1:8 ; 1Co_1:4 ; 2Co_1:3 ; Eph_1:3 ; Phi_1:3 ; 1Th_1:3 ; 2Th_1:3 .

(iv) The Special Contents: the main body of the letters.

(v) Special Salutations and Personal Greetings: Rom 16 ; 1Co_16:19 ; 2Co_13:13 ; Phi_4:21-22 ; Col_4:12-15 ; 1Th_5:26 .

When Paul wrote letters, he wrote them on the pattern which everyone used. Deissmann says of them, "They differ from the messages of the homely papyrus leaves of Egypt, not as letters but only as the letters of Paul." When we read Paulletters we are not reading things which were meant to be academic exercises and theological treatises, but human documents written by a friend to his friends.

The Immediate Situation

With a very few exceptions, all Paulletters were written to meet an immediate situation and not treatises which he sat down to write in the peace and silence of his study. There was some threatening situation in Corinth, or Galatia, or Philippi, or Thessalonica, and he wrote a letter to meet it. He was not in the least thinking of us when he wrote, but solely of the people to whom he was writing. Deissmann writes, "Paul had no thought of adding a few fresh compositions to the already extant Jewish epistles; still less of enriching the sacred literature of his nation. He had no presentiment of the place his words would occupy in universal history; not so much that they would be in existence in the next generation, far less that one day people would look at them as Holy Scripture." We must always remember that a thing need not be transient because it was written to meet an immediate situation. All the great love songs of the world were written for one person, but they live on for the whole of mankind. It is just because Paulletters were written to meet a threatening danger or a clamant need that they still throb with life. And it is because human need and the human situation do not change that God speaks to us through them today.

The Spoken Word

One other thing we must note about these letters. Paul did what most people did in his day. He did not normally pen his own letters but dictated them to a secretary, and then added his own authenticating signature. (We actually know the name of one of the people who did the writing for him. In Rom_16:22 Tertius, the secretary, slips in his own greeting before the letter draws to an end.) In 1Co_16:21 Paul says, "This is my own signature, my autograph, so that you can be sure this letter comes from me" (compare Col_4:18 ; 2Th_3:17 ).

This explains a great deal. Sometimes Paul is hard to understand, because his sentences begin and never finish; his grammar breaks down and the construction becomes involved. We must not think of him sitting quietly at a desk, carefully polishing each sentence as he writes. We must think of him striding up and down some little room, pouring out a torrent of words, while his secretary races to get them down. When Paul composed his letters, he had in his mindeye a vision of the folk to whom he was writing, and he was pouring out his heart to them in words that fell over each other in his eagerness to help.

INTRODUCTION TO THE LETTER TO THE ROMANS

The Epistle That Is Different

There is an obvious difference between PaulLetter to the Romans and any other of his letters. Anyone coming from, say, a reading of the Letters to the Corinthians, will immediately feel that difference, both of atmosphere and of method. A very great part of it is due to one basic fact--when Paul wrote to the Church at Rome he was writing to a Church with whose founding he had had nothing whatever to do and with which he had had no personal contact at all. That explains why in Romans there are so few of the details of practical problems which fill the other letters. That is why Romans, at first sight, seems so much more impersonal. As Dibelius put it, "It is of all Paulletters the least conditioned by the momentary situation."

We may put that in another way. Romans, of all Paulletters, comes nearest to being a theological treatise. In almost all his other letters he is dealing with some immediate trouble, some pressing situation, some current error, some threatening danger, which was menacing the Church to which he was writing. Romans is the nearest approach to a systematic exposition of Paulown theological position, independent of any immediate set of circumstances.

Testamentary And Prophylactic

Because of that, two great scholars have applied two very illuminating adjectives to Romans. Sanday called Romans "testamentary." It is as if Paul was writing his theological last will and testament, as if into Romans he was distilling the very essence of his faith and belief. Rome was the greatest city in the world, the capital of the greatest Empire the world had ever seen. Paul had never been there, and he did not know if he ever would be there. But, in writing to such a Church in such a city, it was fitting that he should set down the very centre and core of his belief. Burton called Romans "prophylactic." A prophylactic is something which guards against infection. Paul had seen too often what harm and trouble could be caused by wrong ideas, twisted notions, misguided conceptions of Christian faith and belief. He therefore wished to send to the Church in the city which was the centre of the world a letter which would so build up the structure of their faith that, if infections should ever come to them, they might have in the true word of Christian doctrine a powerful and effective defence. He felt that the best protection against the infection of false teaching was the antiseptic of the truth.

The Occasion Of PaulWriting To Rome

All his life Paul had been haunted by the thought of Rome. It had always been one of his dreams to preach there. When he is in Ephesus, he is planning to go through Achaea and Macedonia again, and then comes a sentence obviously dropped straight from the heart, "After I have been there, I must also see Rome" (Act_19:21 ). When he was up against things in Jerusalem, and the situation looked threatening and the end seemed near, he had one of those visions which always lifted up his heart. In that vision the Lord stood by him and said, "Take courage, Paul. For as you have testified about me at Jerusalem, so you must bear witness also at Rome" (Act_23:11 ). In the very first chapter of this letter Pauldesire to see Rome breathes out. "I long to see you that I may impart to you some spiritual gift to strengthen you" (Rom_1:11 ). "So, I am eager to preach the gospel to you also who are in Rome" (Rom_1:15 ). It might well be said that the name Rome was written on Paulheart.

When he actually wrote the Letter to the Romans, the date was sometime in the year A.D. 58, and he was in Corinth. He was just about to bring to its completion a scheme that was very dear to his heart. The Church at Jerusalem was the mother Church of them all, but it was poor, and Paul had organized a collection throughout the younger churches for it (1Co_16:1 ; 2Co_9:1 ). That collection was two things. It was an opportunity for his younger converts to put Christian charity into Christian action, and it was a most practical way of impressing on all Christians the unity of the Christian Church, of teaching them that they were not members of isolated and independent congregations, but of one great Church, each part of which had a responsibility to all the rest. When Paul wrote Romans he was just about to set out with that gift for the Jerusalem Church. "At present, however, I am going to Jerusalem with aid for the saints" (Rom_15:25 ).

The Object Of PaulWriting

Why, then, at such a moment should he write?

(a) Paul knew that the journey to Jerusalem was not without its peril. He knew that he had enemies there, and that to go to Jerusalem was to take his life and liberty in his hands. He desired the prayers of the Roman Church before he set out on this expedition. "Now I appeal to you brethren, by our Lord Jesus Christ and by the love of the Spirit, to strive together with me in your prayers to God on my behalf, that I may be delivered from the unbelievers in Judaea" (Rom_15:30-31 ). He was mobilizing the prayers of the Church before he embarked on this perilous undertaking.

(b) Paul had great schemes simmering in his mind. It has been said of him that he was "always haunted by the regions beyond." He never saw a ship at anchor but he wished to board her and to carry the good news to men across the sea. He never saw a range of mountains, blue in the distance, but he wished to cross them, and to bring the story of the Cross to men who had never heard it. At this time Paul was haunted by the thought of Spain. "I hope to see you in passing as I go to Spain" (Rom_15:24 ). "When I have completed this [that is, when he had delivered the collection to the Church in Jerusalem] I shall go on by way of you to Spain" (Rom_15:28 ).

Why this great desire to go to Spain? Rome had opened up that land. Some of the great Roman roads and buildings still stand there to this day. And it so happened that, just at this time, there was a blaze of greatness in Spain. Many of the great figures who were writing their names on Roman history and literature were Spaniards. There was Martial, the master of the epigram. There was Lucan, the epic poet. There were Columella and Pomponius Mela, great figures in Roman literature. There was Quintilian, the master of Roman oratory. And, above all, there was Seneca, the greatest of the Roman Stoic philosophers, the tutor of the Emperor Nero, and the Prime Minister of the Roman Empire. It was most natural that Paulthoughts should go out to this land which was producing such a scintillating galaxy of greatness. What might happen if men like that could be touched for Christ? As far as we know Paul never got to Spain. On that visit to Jerusalem he was arrested and he was never freed again. But, when he was writing Romans, that was his dream.

Paul was a master strategist. He had an eye for the layout of territory like a great commander. He felt that by this time he could move on from Asia Minor and for the time being leave Greece behind. He saw the whole west lying in front of him, virgin territory to be won for Christ. But, if he was to launch a campaign in the west, he needed a base of operations. There was only one such base possible--and that was Rome.

That was why Paul wrote this letter to Rome. He had this great dream in his heart and this great plan in his mind. He needed Rome for a base for this new campaign. He was aware that the Church in Rome must know his name. But he was also aware, for he was a realist, that the reports which reached Rome would be mixed. His opponents were not above spreading slanders and false accusation against him. So he wrote this letter to set out for the Church at Rome an account of the very essence of his belief, in order that, when the time came for action, he might find in Rome a sympathetic Church from which the lines of communication might go out to Spain and the west. It was with such a plan and such an intention, that in A.D. 58 Paul sat down in Corinth to write his letter to the Church at Rome.

The Layout Of The Letter

Romans is at once a very complicated and a very carefully constructed letter. It will therefore help us to find our way through it, if we have in our minds an idea of its framework. It falls into four definite divisions.

(i) Rom 1-8, which deal with the problem of righteousness.

(ii) Rom 9-11, which deal with problem of the Jews, the chosen

people.

(iii) Rom 12-15, which deal with practical questions of life and

living.

(iv) Rom 16 , which is a letter of introduction for Phoebe,

and a list of final personal greetings.

(i) When Paul uses the word "righteousness," he means a right relationship with God The man who is righteous is the man who is in a right relationship with God, and whose life shows it.

Paul begins with a survey of the Gentile world. We have only to look at its decadence and corruption to know that it had not solved the problem of righteousness. He looks at the Jewish world. The Jews had sought to solve the problem of righteousness by meticulous obedience to the law. Paul had tried that way himself, and it had issued in frustration and defeat, because no man on earth can ever fully obey the law, and, therefore, every man must have the continual consciousness of being in debt to God and under his condemnation.

So Paul finds the way to righteousness in the way of utter trust and utter yieldedness. The only way to a right relationship with God is to take him at his word, and to cast oneself, just as one is, on his mercy and love. It is the way of faith. It is to know that the important thing is, not what we can do for God, but what he has done for us. For Paul the centre of the Christian faith was that we can never earn or deserve the favour of God, nor do we need to. The whole matter is one of grace, and all that we can do is to accept in wondering love and gratitude and trust what God has done for us.

That does not free us, however, from obligations or entitle us to do as we like; it means that for ever and for ever we must try to be worthy of the love which does so much for us. But we are no longer trying to fulfil the demands of stern and austere and condemnatory law; we are no longer like criminals before a judge; we are lovers who have given all life in love to the one who first loved us.

(ii) The problem of the Jews was a torturing one. In a real sense they were Godchosen people, and yet, when his Son had come into the world, they had rejected him. What possible explanation could there be for this heart-breaking fact?

The only one Paul could find was that, in the end, it was all Goddoing. Somehow the hearts of the Jews had been hardened; but it was not all failure, for there had always been a faithful remnant. Nor was it for nothing, for the very fact that the Jews had rejected Christ opened the door so the Gentiles would bring in the Jews and all men would be saved.

Paul goes further. The Jew had always claimed that he was a member of the chosen people in virtue of the fact that he was a Jew. It was solely a matter of pure racial descent from Abraham. But Paul insists that the real Jew is not the man whose flesh and blood descent can be traced to Abraham. He is the man who has made the same decision of utter yieldedness to God in loving faith which Abraham made. Therefore, Paul argues, there are many pure-blooded Jews who are not Jews in the real sense of the term at all; and there are many people of other nations who are really Jews in the true meaning of that word. The new Israel was not a racial thing at all; it was composed of those who had the same faith as Abraham had had.

(iii) Rom 12 is so great an ethical statement that it must always be set alongside the Sermon on the Mount. In it Paul lays down the ethical character of the Christian faith. The fourteenth and fifteenth chapters deal with an ever-recurring problem. In the Church there was a narrower party who believed that they must abstain from certain foods and drinks, and who counted special days and ceremonies as of great importance. Paul thinks of them as the weaker brethren because their faith was dependent on these external things. There was a more liberal party, who had liberated themselves from these external rules and observances. He thinks of them as the brethren who are stronger in the faith. He makes it quite clear that his sympathies are with the more liberal party; but he lays down the great principle that no man must ever do anything to hurt the conscience of a weaker brother or to put a stumbling block in his way. His whole point of view is that we must never do anything which makes it harder for someone else to be a Christian; and that that may well mean the giving up of something, which is right and safe for us, for the sake of the weaker brother. Christian liberty must never be used in such a way that it injures anotherlife or conscience.

(iv) The fourth section is a recommendation on behalf of Phoebe, a member of the Church at Cenchreae, who is coming to Rome. The letter ends with a list of greetings and a final benediction.

Two Problems

Rom 16 has always presented scholars with a problem. Many have felt that it does not really form part of the Letter to the Romans at all; and that it is really a letter to some other Church which became attached to Romans when Paulletters were collected. What are their grounds? First and foremost, in this chapter Paul sends greetings to twenty-six different people, twenty-four of whom he mentions by name and all of whom he seems to know very intimately. He can, for instance, say that the mother of Rufus has also been a mother to him. Is it likely that Paul knew intimately twenty-six people in a Church which he had never visited? He, in fact, greets far more people in this chapter than he does in any other letter, and yet he had never set foot in Rome. Here is something that needs explanation.

If Rom 16 was not written to Rome, what was its original destination? It is here that Prisca and Aquila come into the argument. We know that they left Rome in A.D. 52 when Claudius issued his edict banishing the Jews (Act_18:2 ). We know that they went with Paul to Ephesus (Act_18:18 ). We know that they were in Ephesus when Paul wrote his letter to Corinth, less than two years before he wrote Romans (1Co_16:19 ). And we know that they were still in Ephesus when the Pastoral Epistles were written (2Ti_4:19 ). It is certain that if we had come across a letter sending greeting to Prisca and Aquila we should have assumed that it was sent to Ephesus, if no other address was given.

Is there any other evidence to make us think that chapter sixteen may have been sent to Ephesus in the first place? There is the perfectly general reason that Paul spent longer in Ephesus than anywhere else, and it would be very natural for him to send greetings to many people there. Paul speaks of Epaenetus, the first-fruits of Asia. Ephesus is in Asia, and such a reference, too, would be very natural in a letter to Ephesus, but not so natural in a letter to Rome. Rom_16:17 speaks about difficulties, in opposition to the doctrine which you have been taught, which sounds as if Paul was speaking about possible disobedience to his own teaching, and he had never taught in Rome.

It can be argued that the sixteenth chapter was originally addressed to Ephesus, but the argument is not so strong as it looks. For one thing, there is no evidence that the chapter was ever attached anywhere except to the Letter to the Romans. For another thing, the odd fact is that Paul does not send personal greetings to churches which he knew well. There are no personal greetings in Thessalonians, Corinthians, Galatians, and Philippians, all of them letters to churches he knew well; whereas there are personal greetings in Colossians, although Paul had never set foot in Colosse.

The reason is really quite simple. If Paul had sent personal greetings to churches he knew well, jealousies might well have arisen; on the other hand, when he was writing to churches he had never visited, he liked to establish as many personal links as possible. The very fact that Paul had never been in Rome makes it likely that he would try to establish as many personal connections as possible. Again, it is to be remembered that Prisca and Aquila were banished by edict from Rome. What is more likely than that, after the trouble was over, six or seven years later, they would return to Rome and pick up the threads of their business after their stay in other towns? And is it not most likely that many of the other names are names of people who shared in this banishment, who took up temporary residence in other cities, who met Paul there, and who, when the coast was clear, returned to Rome and their old homes? Paul would be delighted to have so many personal contacts in Rome and to seize hold of them.

Further, as we shall see, when we come to study chapter 16 in detail, many of the names--the households of Aristobulus and Narcissus, Amplias, Nereus and others--well suit Rome. In spite of the arguments for Ephesus, we may take it that there is no necessity to detach chapter sixteen from the Letter to the Romans.

But there is a more interesting, and a much more important, problem. The early manuscripts show some very curious things with regard to Rom 14-16. The only natural place for a doxology is at the very end. Rom_16:25-27 is a doxology, and in most good manuscripts it comes at the end. But in a number of manuscripts it comes at the end of Rom 14 ; two good manuscripts have it in both places; one ancient manuscript has it at the end of Rom 15 ; two manuscripts have it in neither place, but leave an empty space for it. One ancient Latin manuscript has a series of section summaries. The last two are as follows:

50: On the peril of him who grieves his brother by meat.

That is obviously Rom_14:15-23 .

51: On the mystery of the Lord, kept secret before his passion

but after his passion revealed.

That is equally clearly Rom_16:25-27 , the doxology. Clearly, these summaries were made from a manuscript which did not contain chapters fifteen and sixteen. Now there is one thing which sheds a flood of light on this. In one manuscript the mention of Rome in Rom_1:7 and Rom_1:15 is entirely omitted. There is no mention of any destination.

All this goes to show that Romans circulated in two forms--one form as we have it with sixteen chapters, and one with fourteen chapters; and perhaps also one with fifteen chapters. The explanation must be this. As Paul wrote it to Rome, it had sixteen chapters; but Rom 15-16 are private and personal to Rome. Now no other letter gives such a compendium of Pauldoctrine. What must have happened was that Romans began to circulate among all the churches, with the last two local chapters omitted, except for the doxology. It must have been felt that Romans was too fundamental to stop at Rome and so the purely local references were removed and it was sent out to the Church at large. From very early times the Church felt that Romans was so great an expression of the mind of Paul that it must become the possession not of one congregation, but of the whole Church. We must remember, as we study it, that men have always looked on Romans as the quintessence of Paulgospel.

FURTHER READING

Romans

C. H. Dodd, The Epistle of Paul to the Romans (MC; E)

A. M. Hunter, The Epistle to the Romans: The Law of Love (Tch; E)

W. Sanday and A.C. Headlam, Romans (Sixth edition, in two volumes, revised by C. E. B. Cranfield) (ICC; G)

Abbreviations

ICC: International Critical Commentary

MC : Moffatt Commentary

Tch: Torch Commentary

E: English Text

G: Greek Text

Barclay: Romans 12 (Chapter Introduction)

The True Worship And The Essential Change (Rom_12:1-2)

Each For All And All For Each (Rom_12:3-8)

The Christian Life In Everyday Action (Rom_12:9-13)

The Christian And His Fellow Men (Rom_12:14-21)

Constable: Romans (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Historical Background

Throughout the history of the church, from postapostolic times to the present, Christians have regarded Romans as having been one of the Apostle Paul's epistles.¹ Not only does the letter claim that he wrote it (1:1), but it develops many of the same ideas and uses the same terminology that appear in Paul's earlier writings (e.g., Gal. 2; 1 Cor. 12; 2 Cor. 8-9).

Following his conversion on the Damascus Road (34 A.D.), Paul preached in Damascus, spent some time in Arabia, and then returned to Damascus. Next he travelled to Jerusalem where he met briefly with Peter and James. He then moved on to Tarsus, which was evidently his base of operations and from which he ministered for about six years (37-43 A.D.). In response to an invitation from Barnabas he moved to Antioch of Syria where he served for about five years (43-48 A.D.). He and Barnabas then set out on their so-called first missionary journey into Asia Minor (48-49 A.D.). Returning to Antioch Paul wrote the Epistle to the Galatians to strengthen the churches that he and Barnabas had just planted in Asia Minor (49 A.D.). After the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), Paul took Silas and began his second missionary journey (50-52 A.D.) through Asia Minor and on westward into the Roman provinces of Macedonia and Achaia. From Corinth, Paul wrote 1 and 2 Thessalonians (51 A.D.). He proceeded to Ephesus by ship and then on to Syrian Antioch. From there he set out on his third missionary journey (53-57 A.D.). Passing through Asia Minor he arrived in Ephesus where he labored for three years (53-56 A.D.). During this time he wrote 1 Corinthians (56 A.D.). Finally Paul left Ephesus and travelled by land to Macedonia where he wrote 2 Corinthians (56 A.D.). He continued south and spent the winter of 56-57 A.D. in Corinth. There he wrote the Epistle to the Romans and sent it by Phoebe (16:1-2) to the Roman church.

The apostle then proceeded from Corinth by land clockwise around the Aegean Sea back to Troas in Asia where he boarded a ship and eventually reached Jerusalem. In Jerusalem, the Jews arrested Paul and imprisoned him (57 A.D.). He arrived in Rome as a prisoner and ministered there for two years (60-62 A.D.). During this time he wrote the Prison Epistles (Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon). The Romans freed Paul, and he returned to the Aegean area. There he wrote 1 Timothy and Titus, experienced arrest again, suffered imprisonment in Rome a second time, wrote 2 Timothy, and died as a martyr under Nero in A.D. 68.²

We know very little about the founding of the church in Rome. According to Ambrosiaster, a church father who lived in the fourth century, an apostle did not found it (thus discrediting the Roman Catholic claim that Peter founded the church). A group of Jewish Christians did.³ It is possible that these Jews became believers in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2) or at some other time quite early in the church's history. By the time Paul wrote Romans the church in Rome was famous throughout the Roman Empire for its faith (1:18).

Purpose

Paul wrote this epistle under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit for several reasons.⁴ He wanted to prepare the way for his intended visit to the church (15:22-24). He evidently hoped that Rome would become a base of operations and support for his pioneer missionary work in Spain and the western portions of the empire that he had not yet evangelized. His full exposition of the gospel in this letter would have provided a solid foundation for their participation in this mission.

As Paul looked forward to returning to Jerusalem between his departure from Corinth and his arrival in Rome, he was aware of the danger he faced (15:31). He may have written the exhaustive exposition of the gospel that we have in Romans to set forth his teaching in case he did not reach Rome. From Rome his doctrine could then go out to the rest of the empire as others preached it. Paul may have viewed Romans as his legacy to the church, his last will and testament.

Another reason for writing Romans was undoubtedly Paul's desire to minister to the spiritual needs of the Christians in Rome even though they were in good spiritual condition (15:14-16). The common problems of all the early churches were dangers to the Roman church as well. These difficulties included internal conflicts, mainly between Jewish and Gentile believers, and external threats from false teachers. Paul gave both of these potential problems attention in this epistle (15:1-8; 16:17-20).

Paul also wrote Romans as he did because he was at a transition point in his ministry, as he mentioned at the end of chapter 15. His ministry in the Aegean region was solid enough that he planned to leave it and move farther west into new virgin missionary territory. Before he did that, he planned to visit Jerusalem where he realized he would be in danger. Probably therefore Paul wrote Romans as he did to leave a full exposition of the gospel in good hands if his ministry ended prematurely in Jerusalem.

"The peculiar position of the apostle at the time of writing, as he reviews the past and anticipates the future, enables us to understand the absence of controversy in this epistle, the conciliatory attitude, and the didactic and apologetic elements which are all found combined herein."⁵

The great contribution of this letter to the body of New Testament inspired revelation is its reasoned explanation of how God's righteousness can become man's possession.

The Book of Romans is distinctive among Paul's inspired writings in several respects. It was one of the few letters he wrote to churches with which he had had no personal dealings. The only other epistle of this kind was Colossians. It is also a formal treatise within a personal letter.⁶ Paul expounded on the gospel in this treatise. He probably did so in this epistle rather than in another because the church in Rome was at the heart of the Roman Empire. As such it was able to exert great influence in the dissemination of the gospel. For these two reasons Romans is more formal and less personal than most of Paul's other epistles.

The Epistle to the Romans is, by popular consent, the greatest of Paul's writings. William Tyndale, the great English reformer and translator, referred to Romans as "the principle and most excellent part of the New Testament." He went on to say the following in his prologue to Romans that he wrote in the 1534 edition of his English New Testament.

"No man verily can read it too oft or study it too well; for the more it is studied the easier it is, the more it is chewed the pleasanter it is, and the more groundly [sic] it is searched the preciouser [sic] things are found in it, so great treasures of spiritual things lieth hid therein."⁷

Martin Luther wrote the following commendation of this epistle.

"[Romans] is worthy not only that every Christian should know it word for word, by heart, but occupy himself with it every day, as the daily bread of the soul. It can never be read or pondered too much, and the more it is dealt with the more precious it becomes, and the better it tastes."⁸

Message⁹

Throughout the history of the church Christians have recognized this epistle as the most important book in the New Testament. The reason for this conviction is that it is an exposition of the gospel of Jesus Christ. Luther called Romans "the chief part of the New Testament and the perfect gospel." Coleridge, the English poet, declared it to be "the most profound work in existence." Frederick Godet, the French commentator, described it as "the cathedral of the Christian faith."¹⁰

To appreciate the message of this book it will be helpful first to consider Paul's presuppositions. He based these, of course, on Old Testament revelation concerning cosmology and history.

First, Paul assumed the God of the Old Testament. He assumed God's existence and full deity. He believed that God is holy and just. He also held that God is the creator, sustainer, and sovereign ruler of the universe.

Second, Paul's view of man is that he is subject to God's government of the universe. Man has received a measure of freedom from God, so he can choose to pursue sin. However, if he does so, he is still in the sovereign hand of God. God can allow the consequences of his sins to have their effects on him both now and forever. Man is also in authority over the rest of the material creation (Gen. 1:28). What man has experienced, the material creation also has experienced and reflects as a result of man's action.

Third, Paul's view of history was that of Old Testament revelation. The important historical events for Paul were those in his Scriptures.

Adam was the first man. He rebelled against God's authority. The result was threefold: the practical dethronement of God in the minds of Adam's descendents, the degradation of humanity, and the defilement of creation. This is a very different view of history from what evolutionists and humanists take. Man has lost his scepter because he rebelled against God's scepter.

Two other individuals were specially significant in history for Paul as we see in Romans: Abraham and Jesus Christ. God called Abraham to be a channel of blessing to the world. Christ is the greatest blessing. Through Him people and creation can experience restoration to God's original intention for them.

These are Paul's basic presuppositions on which all his reasoning in Romans rests. Romans is not the best book to put in the hands of an unsaved person to lead him or her to salvation. John is better for that purpose. However, Romans is the best book to put in the hands of a saved person to lead him or her to understand and appreciate our salvation.

We turn now to the major revelations in this book. These are its central teachings, the emphases that distinguish Romans from other books of the Bible.

First, Romans reveals the tragic helplessness of the human race. No other book of the Bible looks so fearlessly into the abysmal degradation that has resulted from human sin. If you read only 1:18-3:20, you will become depressed by its pessimism. If you keep reading, you will conclude from 3:21 on that we have the best, most optimistic news you have ever heard. This book is all about ruin and redemption. Its first great revelation is the absolute ruin and helplessness of the human race.

Paul divides the ruined race into two parts. The first of these is the Gentiles who have the light of nature. God has given everyone, Gentiles and Jews, the opportunity of observing and concluding two things about Himself: His wisdom and power. The average person as well as the scientist concludes that Someone wise must have put the natural world together, and He must be very powerful. Nevertheless having come to that conclusion he turns from God to vain reasonings, vile passions, unrighteous behavior, envy, murder, strife, deceit, insolence, pride, and perverted conduct. Just read today's newspaper and you will find confirmation of Paul's analysis of the human race.

The other part of the ruined race is the Jews who, in addition to the light of nature, also had the light of Scripture. Paul observed that in spite of his greater revelation and privilege the Jew behaves the same way as the Gentile. Yet he is a worse sinner. Having professed devotion to God and having claimed to be a teacher of the Gentiles because of his greater light he disobeys God and causes the Gentiles to blaspheme His name. Paul concluded, "There is none righteous, no, not one" (3:10). "All have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" (3:23).

The second major revelation of Romans is the magnificence of the divine plan of salvation. This plan centers on Jesus Christ whom Paul introduced on the very first page of his letter (1:3-4). God declared to everyone that the Jesus of the Gospels is His Son by resurrecting Him.

Two words describe Christ's relation to the divine plan of salvation: manifestation and propitiation. The righteousness manifested in Him is available to people through His propitiation. God's righteousness is available to everyone because Jesus died as the perfect offering for sin. The righteousness we see in Jesus in the Gospel records is available to those who believe that His sacrifice satisfied God (3:21, 25).

We can also describe God's relation to the plan of salvation with two words: holiness and love. The plan of salvation that Romans expounds resulted from a holy God reaching out to sinful humanity lovingly (3:22, 24). This plan vindicates the holiness of God as it unveils God's gracious love (chs. 9-11).

Man's relation to the plan of salvation is threefold. It involves justification, the imputation of God's righteousness to the believing sinner. It also involves sanctification, the impartation of God's righteousness to the redeemed sinner. Third, it involves glorification, the perfection of God's righteousness in the sanctified sinner. In justification God lifts the sinner into a relationship with Himself that is more intimate than we would have enjoyed if we had never sinned. In sanctification God progressively transforms the sinner into the Savior's image by the power of the indwelling Holy Spirit. In glorification God finally restores the sinner to the place God intended for us to occupy in creation.

The creation's relation to the plan of salvation is twofold. God restores creation's king, man, to his intended position. Second, creation realizes all of its intended possibilities that sin has denied it.

Let us note next some of the lessons of this book. What did God want us to learn from it?

First, Romans calls us to measure ourselves by divine rather than human standards. We sometimes evaluate ourselves and one another by using the criteria that our age sets or that we set. However to know our true condition we must use the criteria that God sets. This standard reveals that we are all guilty before God. This is one of the great lessons that Romans teaches us.

Second, Romans calls us to live by faith rather than by sight. God did not come any closer to mankind in the incarnation of Christ than He ever had been. Yet in the incarnation the nearness of God became more obvious to people. In the resurrection the Son of God became observable as the Son of God to human beings. All the glories of salvation come to us as we believe God. Romans contrasts the folly of trying to obtain salvation by working for it with trusting God, simply believing what He has revealed as true.

Third, Romans calls us to dedicate ourselves to God rather than living self-centered lives (12:1). This is the reasonable response to having received salvation. We should give ourselves to God. God's grace puts us in His debt. Paul did not say that if we fail to dedicate ourselves to God we are unsaved. Rather he appeals to us as saved people to do for God what He has done for us, namely giving ourselves out of love. When we do this, we show that we truly appreciate what God has done for us.

On the basis of these observations I would summarize the message of Romans in these words. Since God has lovingly provided salvation for helpless sinners through His Son, we should accept that sacrifice by faith and express our gratitude to God by dedicating our lives to Him.

In conclusion let me suggest an application of the message of Romans.

In view of the greatness of the salvation that God has provided as Romans reveals, we, as Paul, have a duty to communicate this good news to the world (1:14-17; Matt. 28:19). We do this both by lip and life, by explanation and by example (8:29). Our living example will reflect death to self as well as life to God (6:13).

Constable: Romans (Outline)

Outline

I. Introduction 1:1-17

A. Salutation 1:1-7

1. The writer 1:1

2. The subject of the epistle 1:2-5

3. The original recipients 1:6-7

B. Purpose 1:8-15

C. Theme 1:16-17

II. The need for God's righteousness 1:18-3:20

A. The need of all people 1:18-32

1. The reason for human guilt 1:18

2. The ungodliness of mankind 1:19-27

3. The wickedness of mankind 1:28-32

B. The need of good people 2:1-3:8

1. God's principles of judgment 2:1-16

2. The guilt of the Jews 2:17-29

3. Answers to objections 3:1-8

C. The guilt of all humanity 3:9-20

III. The imputation of God's righteousness 3:21-5:21

A. The description of justification 3:21-26

B. The defense of justification by faith alone 3:27-31

C. The proof of justification by faith from the law ch. 4

1. Abraham's justification by faith 4:1-5

2. David's testimony to justification by faith 4:6-8

3. The priority of faith to circumcision 4:9-12

4. The priority of faith to the promise concerning headship of many nations 4:13-17

5. The exemplary value of Abraham's faith 4:18-22

6. Conclusions from Abraham's example 4:23-25

D. The benefits of justification 5:1-11

E. The universal applicability of justification 5:12-21

IV. The impartation of God's righteousness chs. 6-8

A. The believer's relationship to sin ch. 6

1. Freedom from sin 6:1-14

2. Slavery to righteousness 6:15-23

B. The believer's relationship to the law ch. 7

1. The law's authority 7:1-6

2. The law's activity 7:7-12

3. The law's inability 7:13-25

C. The believer's relationship to God ch. 8

1. Our deliverance from the flesh by the power of the Spirit 8:1-11

2. Our new relationship to God 8:12-17

3. Our present sufferings and future glory 8:18-25

4. Our place in God's sovereign plan 8:26-30

5. Our eternal security 8:31-39

V. The vindication of God's righteousness chs. 9-11

A. Israel's past election ch. 9

1. God's blessings on Israel 9:1-5

2. God's election of Israel 9:6-13

3. God's freedom to elect 9:14-18

4. God's mercy toward Israel 9:19-29

5. God's mercy toward the Gentiles 9:30-33

B. Israel's present rejection ch. 10

1. The reason God has set Israel aside 10:1-7

2. The remedy for rejection 10:8-15

3. The continuing unbelief of Israel 10:16-21

C. Israel's future salvation ch. 11

1. Israel's rejection not total 11:1-10

2. Israel's rejection not final 11:11-24

3. Israel's restoration assured 11:25-32

4. Praise for God's wise plans 11:33-36

VI. The practice of God's righteousness 12:1-15:13

A. Dedication to God 12:1-2

B. Conduct within the church 12:3-21

1. The diversity of gifts 12:3-8

2. The necessity of love 12:9-21

C. Conduct within the state ch. 13

1. Conduct towards the government 13:1-7

2. Conduct toward unbelievers 13:8-10

3. Conduct in view of our hope 13:11-14

D. Conduct within Christian liberty 14:1-15:13

1. The folly of judging one another 14:1-12

2. The evil of offending one another 14:13-23

3. The importance of pleasing one another 15:1-6

4. the importance of accepting one another 15:7-13

VII. Conclusion 15:14-16:27

A. Paul's ministry 15:14-33

1. Past labors 15:14-21

2. Present program 15:22-29

3. Future plans 15:30-33

B. Personal matters ch. 16

1. A commendation 16:1-2

2. Various greetings to Christians in Rome 16:3-16

3. A warning 16:17-20

4. Greetings from Paul's companions 16:21-24

5. A doxology 16:25-27

Constable: Romans

Romans

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Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: Romans (Book Introduction)

THE

EPISTLE OF ST. PAUL, THE APOSTLE,

TO THE ROMANS.

INTRODUCTION.

After the Gospels, which contain the history of Christ, and the Acts of the Apostles, which contain the history of the infant Church, we have the Epistles of the Apostles. Of these fourteen have been penned on particular occasions, and addressed to particular persons, by St. Paul; the others of St. James, St. Peter, St. John, and St. Jude, are called Catholic Epistles, because they are addressed to all Christians in general, if we except the two latter short epistles of St. John. --- The epistles of St. Paul contain admirable advice, and explain fully several tenets of Christianity: but an humble and teachable mind and heart are essentially requisite to draw good from this inexhaustible source. If we prepare our minds by prayer, and go to these sacred oracles with proper dispositions, as to Jesus Christ himself, not preferring our own weak judgment to that of the Catholic Church divinely inspired, and which he has commanded us to hear, and which he has promised to lead in all truth unto the end of the world, we shall improve both our mind and heart by a frequent and pious perusal. We shall learn there that faith is essentially necessary to please God; that this faith is but one, as God is but one; and that faith which shews itself not by good works, is dead. Hence, when St. Paul speaks of works that are incapable of justifying us, he speaks not of the works of moral righteousness, but of the ceremonial works of the Mosaic law, on which the Jews laid such great stress as necessary to salvation. --- St. Peter (in his 2nd Epistle, chap. iii.) assures us that there were some in his time, as there are found some now in our days, who misconstrue St. Paul's epistles, as if he required no good works any more after baptism than before baptism, and maintaining that faith alone would justify and save a man. Hence the other apostles wrote their epistles, as St. Augustine remarks in these words; "therefore because this opinion, that faith only was necessary to salvation, was started, the other apostolical epistles do most pointedly refute it, forcibly contending that faith without works profiteth nothing." Indeed St. Paul himself, in his first Epistle to the Corinthians, (Chap. xiii. 2.) positively asserts: if I should have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not charity, I am nothing. --- This epistle, like most of the following, is divided into two parts: the first treats of points of doctrine, and extends to the eleventh chapter inclusively; the second treats of morality, and is contained in the last five chapters: but to be able to understand the former, and to practise the latter, humble prayer and a firm adherence to the Catholic Church, which St. Paul (1 Timothy chap. iii.) styles, the pillar and ground of truth, are undoubtedly necessary. Nor should we ever forget what St. Peter affirms, that in St. Paul's epistles there are some things hard to be understood, which the unlearned and the unstable wrest, as they do also the other Scriptures, to their own destruction. (2 Peter chap. iii. ver. 16.) (Haydock) --- St. Paul had not been at Rome when he wrote this epistle, which was in the year fifty-seven or fifty-eight, when he was preparing to go to Jerusalem with the charitable contributions and alms, collected in Achaia and Macedonia, for the benefit and relief of the poor Christians in Judea, and at Jerusalem; and after he had preached in almost all places from Jerusalem even to Illyris, Illyrium, or Illyricum. See this Epistle, chap. xv. It was written in Greek. It is not the first in order of time, though placed first, either because of the dignity of the chief Christian Church, or of its sublime contents. --- The apostle's chief design was not only to unite all the new Christian converts, whether they had been Gentiles or Jews, in the same faith, but also to bring them to a union in charity, love, and peace; to put an end to those disputes and contentions among them, which were particularly occasioned by those zealous Jewish converts, who were for obliging all Christians to the observance of the Mosaic precepts and ceremonies. They who had been Jews, boasted that they were the elect people of God, preferred before all other nations, to whom he had given this written law, precepts, and ceremonies by Moses, to whom he had sent his prophets, and had performed so many miracles in their favour, while the Gentiles were left in their ignorance and idolatry. The Gentiles, now converted, were apt to brag of the learning of their great philosophers, and that sciences had flourished among them: they reproached the Jews with the disobedience of their forefathers to God, and the laws he had given them; that they had frequently returned to idolatry; that they had persecuted and put to death the prophets, and even their Messias, the true Son of God. St. Paul shews that neither the Jew nor the Gentile had reason to boast, but to humble themselves under the hand of God, the author of their salvation. He puts the Jews in mind, that they could not expect to be justified and saved merely by the ceremonies and works of their law, thought good in themselves; that the Gentiles, as well as they, were now called by the pure mercy of God: that they were all to be saved by believing in Christ, and complying with his doctrine; that sanctification and salvation can only be had by the Christian faith. He does not mean by faith only, as it is one particular virtue, different from charity, hope, and other Christian virtues; but he means by faith, the Christian religion, and worship, taken in opposition to the law of Moses and to the moral virtues of heathens. The design of the Epistle to the Galatians is much the same. From the 12th chapter he exhorts them to the practice of Christian virtues. (Witham)

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Gill: Romans (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO ROMANS

Though this epistle is in order placed the first of the epistles, yet it was not first written: there were several epistles written before it, as the two epistles to the Thessalonians, the two to the Corinthians, the first epistle to Timothy, and that to Titus: the reason why this epistle stands first, is either the excellency of it, of which Chrysostom had so great an esteem that he caused it to be read over to him twice a week; or else the dignity of the place, where the persons lived to whom it is written, being Rome, the imperial city: so the books of the prophets are not placed in the same order in which they were written: Hosea prophesied as early as Isaiah, if not earlier; and before Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and yet stands after them. This epistle was written from Corinth, as the subscription of it testifies; and which may be confirmed from the apostle's commendation of Phoebe, by whom he sent it, who was of Cenchrea, a place near Corinth; by his calling Erastus, the chamberlain of the city, who abode at Corinth, 2Ti 4:20, and Gaius his host, who was a Corinthian, Rom 16:23, 1Co 1:14, though at what time it was written from hence, is not so evident: some think it was written in the time of his three months' travel through Greece, Act 20:2, a little before the death of the Emperor Claudius, in the year of Christ 55; others, that it was written by him in the short stay he made at Corinth, when he came thither, as is supposed, from Philippi, in his way to Troas, where some of his company went before, and had been there five days before him: and this is placed in the second year of Nero, and in the year of Christ 56; however, it was not written by him during his long stay at Corinth, when he was first there, but afterwards, even after he had preached from Jerusalem, and round about unto Illyricum: and when he was about to go to Jerusalem, with the contributions of the churches of Macedonia and Achaia, to the poor saints there, Rom 15:19. The persons to whom this epistle was sent were Roman saints, both Jews and Gentiles, inhabiting the city of Rome; of which city and church; See Gill on Act 28:14; Act 28:15; by whom the Gospel was first preached at Rome, and who were the means of forming the church there, is not very evident Irenaeus, an ancient writer, says ^a, that Peter and Paul preached the Gospel at Rome, and founded the church; and Gaius, an ecclesiastical man, who lived in the time of Zephyrinus, bishop of Rome, asserts the same; and Dionysius; bishop of the Corinthians, calls the Romans the plantation of Peter and Paul ^b: whether Peter was ever at Rome is not a clear point with many; and certain it is, that the Apostle Paul had not been at Rome when he wrote this epistle, at least it seems very probable he had not, by several expressions in Rom 1:10; and yet here was a church to which he writes, and had been a considerable time; for their faith was spoken of throughout the world, Rom 1:8; and when the apostle was on the road to this city, the brethren in it met him, Act 28:15. The chief design of this epistle is to set in a clear light the doctrine of justification: showing against the Gentiles, that it is not by the light of nature, and works done in obedience to that, and against the Jews, that it was not by the law of Moses, and the deeds of that; which he clearly evinces, by observing the sinful and wretched estate both of Jews and Gentiles: but that it is by the righteousness of Christ imputed through the grace of God, and received by faith; the effects of which are peace and joy in the soul, and holiness in the life and conversation: he gives an account of the justified ones, as that they are not without sin, which he illustrates by his own experience and case; and yet are possessed of various privileges, as freedom from condemnation, the blessing of adoption, and a right to the heavenly inheritance; he treats in it concerning predestination, the calling of the Gentiles, and the rejection of the Jews; and exhorts to the various duties incumbent on the saints, with respect to one another, and to the world, to duties of a moral and civil nature, and the use of things indifferent; and closes it with the salutations of divers persons.

Gill: Romans 12 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO ROMANS 12

The doctrines concerning predestination, justification, &c. being established, the duties of religion are built upon them, and enforced by them in this and the following chapters. The apostle first exhorts all the members of the church in common to a regard to the worship of God, in opposition to the things of the world; and then the officers of the church particularly, to the discharge of their duty; and next all of them, both officers and members, to the performance of various duties respecting God, themselves, one another, and the men of the world. The duty of attending public worship is first mentioned, signified by a presentation of their bodies to the Lord, Rom 12:1, to which they are moved, partly by the plenteous mercy and goodness of God to them; and partly by the acceptableness of it to God; as also by the reasonableness of the thing: then follows a dehortation from conformity to the world, the men and manners of it, in superstition and will worship, or in acts of immorality, Rom 12:2, and also an exhortation to a different course of life, in seeking to please God; which is proposed upon a principle of grace in them, being renewed in the Spirit of their mind; and with this end and view, that they might the better prove, try, and discern, and come at, a greater knowledge of the mind and will of God: and whereas gifts are apt to swell men with pride and vanity, such as qualify men to bear any office in the church, the apostle cautions against this spirit and conduct, and exhorts to sobriety and humility; by observing, that what gifts they have, are such that God has given them, and which they have not of themselves; and what they have is only in part and in measure, some one and some another; and none have all gifts, Rom 12:3, this he illustrates, Rom 12:4, by an human body and the members of it, which being many, have not the same office, but some one and some another; which he accommodates to the body of Christ the church, Rom 12:5, which though but one in Christ, has many members; and these are members one of another, and are designed mutually to serve and help each other, for which the gifts among them were bestowed: and then the apostle proceeds to take notice of the particular officers in the church, and exhorts them to the function of their offices, according to their different gifts; as, first, the preacher to preach according to the rule of faith, and the measure of gifts bestowed, Rom 12:6, and then the deacon, the other officer, to attend to his deaconship, Rom 12:7, and inasmuch as these officers, according to their different gifts, may be distinguished, some having a talent for stating, explaining, and defending doctrines, and may be called doctors, or teachers, let them attend to the doctrinal part of the word; and others having a talent in the practical way of preaching, whether by way of exhortation or comfort, and may be called exhorters or comforters, let them attend to that branch of the ministry, Rom 12:8, and as for the deacon, the performance of his office, whether it be by distributing to the poor, let him do it impartially and faithfully; or by assisting in the government of the church, let it be done with all diligence; or by showing mercy to the poor in distress, besides what they usually receive, let it be done with a cheerful countenance: next follow various duties which are mentioned, not in an exact order or method, but may be reduced to these heads; such as concern God, an unfeigned love of him, abhorrence of all evil, and a close attachment to whatsoever is good, Rom 12:9, and also the worship of him, which is to be performed with diligence and fervency, Rom 12:11, the exercise of the grace of hope with joy, patience in the midst of tribulations, and perseverance in prayer, Rom 12:12, then such duties as concern one another, as Christians and brethren in a church relation; as to exercise an affectionate brotherly love to each other, and to honour one another; and even to give each other the preference, who may be equal or superior, both in spiritual gifts, and in temporal things, Rom 12:10, and with respect to poor saints, to communicate cheerfully to their necessities; and with respect to strangers, to entertain them hospitably, Rom 12:13, and as to every member, whether in prosperous or adverse circumstances, to bear a part with them, rejoicing with the one, weeping with the other, Rom 12:15, and to behave with humility, modesty, and sobriety, towards all, Rom 12:16, and next such duties as concern the men of the world, particularly to bless, and not curse persecutors, Rom 12:14, not to retaliate evil for evil, but to do everything that is of good report in the sight of men, Rom 12:17, to study, if possible, to live peaceably with all men, Rom 12:18, to bridle passion and refrain from wrath, and not seek private revenge, but leave it with the Lord to take vengeance, Rom 12:19, on the other hand, to he kind and beneficent to enemies, by giving them food and drink when hungry and thirsty, expressed in the words of Solomon, Pro 25:21, the reasons for which are, because hereby an enemy may be wrought upon, and be brought either to shame or repentance, and become a friend, Rom 12:20, and because by doing otherwise, resenting and returning the evil, a man is conquered by it; whereas, by the other method, the enemy is conquered by good, Rom 12:21, and it is much more commendable and honourable to be a conqueror, than to be conquered.

College: Romans (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION

I. ROMANS: ITS INFLUENCE AND IMPORTANCE

God's Word is a lamp to our feet and a light for our path (Ps 119:105), and no part of it shines more brilliantly than the book of Romans. The truth of God's Word sets us free (John 8:32), and Romans teaches us the most liberating of all truths. God's Word is sharp and piercing like a sword (Heb 4:12), and no blade penetrates more deeply into our hearts than Romans. Overall the book of Romans may be the most read and most influential book of the Bible, but sometimes it is the most neglected and most misunderstood book. The Restoration Movement has tended to concentrate especially on the book of Acts, which is truly foundational and indispensable. But Romans is to Acts what meat is to milk. We need to mature; we need to graduate from Acts to Romans.

In 1 Cor 15:3-4 Paul sums up the gospel as these three truths: Christ died for our sins, was buried, and was raised up again on the third day. The reality of the historical facts of the Savior's death and resurrection is stressed over and over in the book of Acts. Romans, however, is an exposition of the meaning of these facts. In the language of 1 Cor 15:3, Romans focuses not on "Christ died," but on the next three words: " for our sins ." Acts explains what salvation consists of and how we may receive it. Romans does the same, but carries the explanation to heights and depths that thrill and satisfy the soul, providing it with an experience that is at the same time intellectual, spiritual, and esthetic.

The unparalleled ability of Romans to convict sinners and to motivate Christians is well attested. The comment of Sanday and Headlam (v) has often been noted: "If it is a historical fact that the spiritual revivals of Christendom have been usually associated with closer study of the Bible, this would be true in an eminent degree of the Epistle to the Romans." Leon Morris (1) concurs: "It is commonly agreed that the Epistle to the Romans is one of the greatest Christian writings. Its power has been demonstrated again and again at critical points in the history of the Christian church."

The role of Romans in Augustine's conversion is well known. In his Confessions he tells how a discussion of Christian commitment with two of his friends brought him under strong conviction, filling him with remorse for his sins of sexual immorality and a sense of helplessness to overcome them. Later he and his friend Alypius went into the garden, taking along a copy of Paul's writings. Augustine went off by himself to weep over his sins. While doing so, he reports, "I heard the voice as of a boy or girl, I know not which, coming from a neighbouring house, chanting, and oft repeating, 'Take up and read; take up and read.'" He took this as a sign from God to open the book of Paul's writings and read the first passage that met his eyes. He quickly returned to where Alypius was sitting and the book was lying. When he opened it, the first words he saw were these from Rom 13:13-14: "Not in orgies and drunkenness, not in sexual immorality and debauchery, not in dissension and jealousy. Rather, clothe yourselves with the Lord Jesus Christ, and do not think about how to gratify the desires of the sinful nature." This experience and these words gave him what he needed to turn completely to Christ. He says, "No further would I read, nor did I need; for instantly, as the sentence ended, - by a light, as it were, of security infused into my heart, - all the gloom of doubt vanished away."

Godet (1) declares that "the Reformation was undoubtedly the work of the Epistle to the Romans." Morris (1) agrees: "The Reformation may be regarded as the unleashing of new spiritual life as a result of a renewed understanding of the teaching of Romans."

Insofar as the Reformation depends on the work of Martin Luther, this is surely the case. Luther confesses how in 1519 he had an ardent desire to understand the epistle to the Romans. His problem was the way he had been taught to understand the expression "the righteousness of God" in Rom 1:17. To him it meant the divine justice and wrath by which God punishes sin, which did not sound very much like gospel . "Nevertheless," he says, "I beat importunately upon Paul at that place, most ardently desiring to know what St. Paul wanted." Finally, by the mercy of God, he began to understand this expression in a totally different way, i.e., as the righteousness of Christ that God bestows upon the sinner and on the basis of which the sinner is justified. The effect on Luther was electrifying: "I felt that I was altogether born again and had entered paradise itself through open gates." This new understanding of this one verse - Rom 1:17 - changed everything; it became in a real sense the doorway to the Reformation. "Thus that place in Paul was for me truly the gate to paradise," says Luther ("Latin Writings," 336-337).

Luther's regard for Romans is clearly seen in this well-known paragraph from his famous preface to this epistle:

This epistle is really the chief part of the New Testament, and is truly the purest gospel. It is worthy not only that every Christian should know it word for word, by heart, but also that he should occupy himself with it every day, as the daily bread of the soul. We can never read it or ponder over it too much; for the more we deal with it, the more precious it becomes and the better it tastes ("Preface," 365).

These words, first published in 1522, were echoed almost verbatim by the English reformer William Tyndale, in his prologue to his 1534 English translation of the New Testament. He says, "This epistle is the principal and most excellent part of the New Testament, and most pure . . . gospel, and also a light and a way in unto the whole Scripture." He also recommends learning it by heart and studying it daily, because "so great treasure of spiritual things lieth hid therein."

The Swiss reformer John Calvin echoes some of Tyndale's thoughts in his own commentary on Romans (xxix): "When any one gains a knowledge of this Epistle, he has an entrance opened to him to all the most hidden treasures of Scripture."

Working indirectly through Luther's preface, the book of Romans had an effect on John Wesley similar to the way it influenced Augustine and Luther. In his journal Wesley recounts his own search for personal victory over sin and assurance of salvation based on trust in the blood of Christ alone. He tells what happened to him on May 24, 1738:

In the evening I went very unwillingly to a society in Aldersgate Street, where one was reading Luther's preface to the Epistle to the Romans. About a quarter before nine, while he was describing the change which God works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone for salvation: And an assurace was given me, that he had taken away my sins, even mine , and saved me from the law of sin and death ( Works , I:103).

Modern scholars and expositors seem unable to praise the letter to the Romans highly enough. Philip Schaff has said, "The Epistle to the Romans is the Epistle of the Epistles, as the Gospel of John is the Gospel of the Gospels" ("Preface," v). "This is in every sense the greatest of the Epistles of Paul, if not the greatest book in the New Testament," declares Thiessen ( Introduction , 219). Newell (375) says Romans is "probably the greatest book in the Bible." "If the apostle Paul had written nothing else, he would still be recognized as one of the outstanding Christian thinkers of all time on the basis of this letter alone," say Newman and Nida (1). This familiar praise comes from Godet (x):

The pious Sailer used to say, "O Christianity, had thy one work been to produce a St. Paul, that alone would have rendered thee dear to the coldest reason." May we not be permitted to add: And thou, O St. Paul, had thy one work been to compose an Epistle to the Romans, that alone would have rendered thee dear to every sound reason.

Godet adds, "The Epistle to the Romans is the cathedral of the Christian faith" (1).

Others add even higher praise. Batey (7) says, "Paul's epistle to the Romans stands among the most important pieces of literature in the intellectual history of Western man." "It is safe to say that Romans is probably the most powerful human document ever written," declares Stedman. Some might think this honor should go to the U.S. Constitution or to the Declaration of Independence. "But even they cannot hold a candle to the impact the Epistle to the Romans has had upon human history" (I:1-2). Boice avows: "Christianity has been the most powerful, transforming force in human history - and the book of Romans is the most basic, most comprehensive statement of true Christianity" (I:13).

Commentators often quote this statement from Coleridge: "I think St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans the most profound work in existence" ( Table Talk , 245). Many will certainly agree, but to Coleridge such profundity was not altogether a virtue. For him it meant that Romans "undoubtedly . . . is, and must be, very obscure to ordinary readers" (ibid., 245-246). Indeed, some think that the Apostle Peter may have been referring to Romans in 2 Pet 3:16. But at the same time, perhaps paradoxically, Newell is correct when he says (vii), "There is no more simple book in the Bible than Romans, when one comes to know the book, its contents, its message, its power."

Scholars praise Romans as the clearest statement of the gospel of salvation. As noted above, Luther called it "the purest gospel." Nygren agrees (3): "What the gospel is, what the content of the Christian faith is, one learns to know in the Epistle to the Romans as in no other place in the New Testament." Cranfield says Romans is "the most systematic and complete exposition of the gospel that the NT contains" (I:31). The Restoration scholar Moses Lard (xx) concurs: "It is the whole gospel compressed into the short space of a single letter - a generalization of Christianity up to the hight [sic] of the marvelous, and a detail down to exhaustion." In Stott's words (19), Romans is "the fullest, plainest and grandest statement of the gospel in the New Testament."

Scholars also praise Romans for its unparalleled presentation of the essence of Christian doctrine . In his preface to Romans (380) Luther says that in Romans we "find most abundantly the things that a Christian ought to know, namely, what is law, gospel, sin, punishment, grace, faith, righteousness, Christ, God, good works, love, hope, and the cross; and also how we are to conduct ourselves toward everyone." Thus it seems that Paul "wanted in this one epistle to sum up briefly the whole Christian and evangelical doctrine." Schaff declares it to be "the heart of the doctrinal portion of the New Testament. It presents in systematic order the fundamental truths of Christianity in their primitive purity, inexhaustible depth, all-conquering force, and never-failing comfort. It is the bulwark of the evangelical doctrines of sin and grace" ("Preface," v).

Modern writers agree. "The truth laid down in Romans forms the Gibraltar basis of doctrine, teaching, and confession in the true evangelical church," says Lenski (8). Moo says the Puritan writer Thomas Draxe described Romans as "the quintessence and perfection of saving doctrine." Moo agrees: "When we think of Romans, we think of doctrine" (I:1). Lard (xx) calls Romans Paul's "great doctrinal chart for the future." Newman and Nida (1) declare that "above all else, the appeal of Romans is its theology ."

Concerning its doctrinal content, MacArthur lists 49 significant questions about God and man that are answered by Romans, e.g., How can a person who has never heard the gospel be held spiritually responsible? How can a sinner be forgiven and justified by God? How are God's grace and God's law related? Why is there suffering? MacArthur points out that these key words are used repeatedly in the epistle: God (154 times), law (77), Christ (66), sin (45), Lord (44), and faith (40).

Which of these assessments is correct? Is Romans the crowning presentation of the Christian gospel ? Or is it the grandest statement of Christian doctrine ? Actually, it is both. Romans is the theology of the New Testament; it is also the definitive statement of the gospel. In this epistle doctrine and gospel merge, and the result is a spiritual feast for Christians.

Boice (I:10) advises that "it is time to rediscover Romans." Actually, it is always time to "rediscover" Romans, and down through the history of Christianity individuals have been doing just this. The results have been earth-shaking. It can and does happen over and over, in the lives of individuals, in congregations, in the Church at large. F.F. Bruce (60) has well said, "There is no telling what may happen when people begin to study the Epistle to the Romans."

II. THE AUTHOR OF ROMANS

The epistle to the Romans was written by the Apostle Paul (1:1). In the past a few critics challenged this, but without any real basis in fact. Today, as Cranfield says, "no responsible criticism disputes its Pauline origin" (I:2). Romans was quoted by the earliest Christian writers (Clement, Ignatius, Polycarp, Justin), and was attributed to Paul by name by Marcion in the mid-second century. Since the time of Irenaeus (late second century) writers have explicitly and regularly viewed it as Pauline.

Though composed and dictated by Paul, the letter was actually written down by a Christian scribe named Tertius, who inserted his own greeting in 16:22.

A. PAUL'S JEWISH BACKGROUND

It is not necessary to go into the details of Paul's life, except for a few facts that are important in view of the content of the epistle, which relates especially to the distinction between law and grace. One relevant fact is Paul's Jewish background, which he proudly avowed: "I am an Israelite myself, a descendant of Abraham, from the tribe of Benjamin," a "Hebrew of Hebrews" (11:1; Phil 3:5; 2 Cor 11:22). Though born in Tarsus, he was reared in Jerusalem (Acts 22:3), the capital of Judaism.

Paul's education included strict and thorough religious training in the contents of the Old Testament - especially the Law (Torah) - at the feet of Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). Gamaliel was one of the most famous and most revered of all rabbis. His knowledge of the Law was so great that he was practically identified with it, being given the title "the Beauty of the Law." A saying recorded in the Talmud declares, "Since Rabban Gamaliel died the glory of the Law has ceased." "Under Gamaliel," says Paul, "I was thoroughly trained in the law of our fathers" (Acts 22:3). "Thoroughly" translates kataÉ ajkrivbeian ( kata akribeian ), "according to exactness, strictness, precision."

Paul's zeal for God and commitment to his Law was total (Acts 22:3; Gal 1:14). He was a Pharisee (Acts 23:6; Phil 3:5), which he properly identified as "the strictest sect of our religion" (Acts 26:5). The glory of the Pharisees was the Law; they were devoted to akribeia in its interpretation and observance (Dunn, I:xl). Thus Paul not only knew the Law but also devoted himself to scrupulous obedience to its commandments (Acts 26:4-5; Phil 3:6).

This probably means that he was a legalist in the proper sense of that word, i.e., one who sought acceptance by God on the basis of his obedience to the Law. This is implied in the way he contrasted his pre-Christian life (Phil 3:6) and his Christian life (Phil 3:9). This is also the way Pharisees are generally pictured in the Gospels.

Paul's zeal for the Law was expressed perhaps most vehemently in his fanatical persecution of the earliest Christians, all converted Jews whom he no doubt regarded as traitors to God and his Law (Phil 3:6). See Acts 7:58; 8:3; 9:1-2; 22:4-5; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Tim 1:13.

B. PAUL'S CONVERSION TO CHRISTIANITY

The second relevant fact about the Apostle Paul is his conversion. The details need not be recounted here. What is important is that the one who converted him to Christianity was no human preacher, but was Jesus himself (Gal 1:15-16). Also, the gospel he preached was not taught to him by a human teacher; he received it by direct revelation from Jesus (Gal 1:11-12). The result was that Paul's conversion, his change, his turnaround, was complete. Whereas before he was totally committed to the Mosaic Law as a way of life and salvation, once converted he was just as totally committed to the gospel of grace.

As a Christian Paul set himself in complete opposition to everything he had stood for as a Pharisee. He now understood the way of law to be futile (10:3). He saw that his former legalistic approach to salvation was, as Murray says, "the antithesis of grace and of justification by faith" (I:xiii). Thus when Paul presents the classic contrast between law and grace in Romans, he speaks as one who knew both sides of the issue from personal experience and from the best teachers available. As Murray says, he is describing "the contrast between the two periods in his own life history, periods divided by the experience of the Damascus road" (I:xiv).

It is no surprise that Paul's preaching of the gospel and his condemnation of law-righteousness turned the Jews completely against him, even to the point that they tried to kill him (Acts 9:29; 13:45; 14:2, 19; 17:5-8; 18:12; 2 Cor 11:24-26). His opponents included "false brothers" (2 Cor 11:26), the Judaizers, or Jews who accepted Jesus as the Messiah but still clung to the Law of Moses.

In spite of all of this upheaval, Paul did not turn against the Jews as such. He still regarded them as his beloved brothers according to the flesh (9:1-3; 10:1), and as blessed by God in an incomparable way (3:1-2; 9:4-5). In fact, a major aspect of the teaching in Romans is an explanation and a defense of God's purpose for his Old Covenant people, the Jews (see especially chs. 9-11).

C. PAUL'S COMMISSION AS

THE APOSTLE TO THE GENTILES

The last detail about Paul's life that is relevant here is his call and commission to be the Apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 26:17). His appointment as an apostle (1:1) invested him with the full authority of Jesus Christ and with the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, so that his teachings are truly the Word of God (1 Cor 2:6-13; 1 Thess 2:13). When we read the book of Romans, we must understand it to be nothing less than this.

Also, Paul's appointment as the apostle to the Gentiles (1:5) completely governed his thoughts and deeds from that point on. As a Jew and a Pharisee, he had no doubt shared the typical Hebrew aversion to anything Gentile; and he had no doubt gloried in the Jews' exclusive position as God's chosen people. Thus when God revealed to him the mystery of the Gentiles - that it had been his plan all along to include Gentiles in the people of the Messiah (Eph 3:1-10), Paul was overwhelmed with awe and joy. He unhesitatingly opened his heart to the very people he had once despised. This was another complete turnaround in his life, and he devoted himself totally to his new mission.

Paul's role as apostle to the Gentiles had a direct bearing on his relationship with the Roman church and his letter to them. Paul tells us that he had often desired to visit Rome, in order to preach the gospel and have some converts there, "just as I have had among the other Gentiles" (1:13). But since there was already a church in Rome, God's Spirit directed him into other Gentile areas in Asia Minor and the Greek peninsula first (15:17-22). But now he has covered this territory with three lengthy tours of missionary service (15:19). Thus he is ready to launch out into a totally new area, namely, Spain; and his journey there will take him through Rome, as he announces in this epistle (15:23-24).

Throughout the epistle to the Romans, Paul writes with the full conciousness of his mission to the Gentiles and of the Gentiles in his audience. One point that he clarifies in the letter is the relation of the Gentiles to the Jews with respect to salvation.

III. TIME AND PLACE OF WRITING

Immediately after his baptism Paul began to preach Christ in Damascus (Acts 9:19-20), but soon went away into Arabia (Gal 1:17), which may have been the time he received his revelation from Jesus Christ (Gal 1:12). He went from there back to Damascus, then to Jerusalem (Gal 1:17-18) and elsewhere, and ultimately to Antioch (Acts 11:25-26).

From Antioch Paul launched his first missionary trip among the Gentiles (Acts 13:1-3), which was followed by two more. While in Ephesus on his third journey, "Paul decided to go to Jerusalem, passing through Macedonia and Achaia. 'After I have been there,' he said, 'I must visit Rome also'" (Acts 19:21). He shortly departed for Achaia (Greece) and arrived in Corinth, where he stayed for three months (Acts 20:1-3). This was approximately twenty years after his conversion, and ten years after the beginning of his first journey.

Corinth was the farthest point of his third trip, whence he retraced his steps back toward Ephesus. He stopped at Miletus instead, and traveled from there on to Jerusalem, with the goal of arriving by Pentecost (Acts 20:16-17). One main reason for the trip to Jerusalem was to deliver the money he had collected from the (mostly Gentile) churches in Galatia, Macedonia, and Greece, to help the poor (mostly Jewish) saints in Jerusalem (1 Cor 16:1-4; Rom 15:25-26). Though "compelled by the Spirit" to go to Jerusalem, he was apprehensive about what might happen to him there (Acts 20:22-23).

It was in the midst of this final journey, during the three months Paul spent at Corinth, that he most likely wrote the letter to the Romans. He was apparently staying at the house of Gaius (16:23), one of his converts at Corinth (1 Cor 1:14). The letter was carried to Rome by Phoebe, a Christian from the church in nearby Cenchrea (16:1).

The exact date of the writing of Romans is calculated in relation to the overall chronology of Paul's life and work. There is no unanimity on this chronology, though the differences of opinion are minor. Everyone agrees that the Apostle's stay in Corinth must have been in late winter and/or early spring, since he planned to set out from there and arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost. Most agree also that this would have been in the middle or late 50s. Thus Romans was probably written early in A.D. 56, 57, or 58.

IV. RECIPIENTS OF ROMANS:

THE CHURCH IN ROME

Rome was the largest and most important city in the Roman Empire in Paul's day. Its population was probably over one million. Of this number, it is estimated that forty to fifty thousand were Jews, with as many as fifteen identifiable synagogues (Dunn, I:xlvi; Edwards, 9).

How the church in Rome originated is not known. There is no real evidence that Peter founded it, contrary to a common tradition. Some say that Rom 15:20 shows this could not have been the case. Here Paul says that he does not intend to "be building on someone else's foundation." The fact that he did plan to visit Rome and work there implies that no apostle had been there yet (MacArthur, I:xviii; Moo, I:4).

One very common speculation is that the Roman church was probably started by Jews and proselytes from Rome who were in the audience that heard Peter's sermon on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:10), and who were among the converts baptized that day. Upon returning to Rome, they would have established the church there. If so, and this seems very likely, then the first Christians in Rome were converts from Judaism.

Another likely speculation is that Christians from other churches, perhaps some of Paul's own converts from his earlier work in Tarsus and Antioch and Asia Minor, were among those who started the Roman church and helped it to grow. Perhaps some of Paul's acquaintances named in Romans 16 were among this group. Such a scenario is highly probable, given the importance of Rome and the constant travel to and from that city.

Thus the church in Rome would have begun not as the result of some formal missionary effort, but by residents converted while traveling (e.g., Acts 2:10) and by Christians moving there from other places. Their own evangelistic efforts would certainly have focused on the synagogues of Rome, following the pattern of evangelism reflected in the book of Acts. This would have resulted in converts not only from Judaism but also from among Gentile "God-fearers" who were commonly attached to the synagogues (Dunn, I:xlvii-xlviii).

The epistle to the Romans is addressed "to all in Rome who are loved by God and called to be saints" (1:7). The main question about these saints is the relative number of Jews and Gentiles among them. In answering this question, scholars usually begin with one solid historical fact, and then draw conclusions based on inferences and a bit of speculation. This has led to the following scenario, for which there is considerable consensus among commentators today.

The one fact is that the Roman emperor Claudius issued a decree that expelled all Jews from Rome. This is recorded in Acts 18:2, and is also mentioned by the Roman historian Suetonius. The exact date of the decree is somewhat unclear, but the best calculation is A.D. 49. The reason for the decree is stated thus by Suetonius: "Because the Jews at Rome caused continuous disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, (Emperor Claudius) expelled them from the city" (cited in Fiensy, Introduction , 224). Though we cannot be certain about this, most scholars agree that "Chrestus" is just a mistaken spelling of "Christus," and that the decree had to do with Jesus Christ.

In what way would Christ be instigating disturbances among the Jews in Rome? It is inferred that this refers to conflicts among the Jews stemming from Christian evangelism in the various synagogues. Because there was a wide diversity among the Jews and synagogues in Rome, it is concluded that some were more receptive to Christianity than others, and that this must have led to disputes among them. The resulting unrest was apparently unpleasant enough for Claudius to order all Jews to leave the city. It is also assumed that his decree did not make a distinction between unbelieving and believing Jews; thus even the Jewish Christians had to leave, e.g., Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2). After the decree the Roman church thus would be composed almost entirely of Gentiles. (See Donfried, "Presuppositions," 104-105.)

When Claudius died around A.D. 54, the decree was no longer enforced, and Jews and Jewish Christians were free to return to Rome. Some think, however, that they were still forbidden to assemble publicly (Wiefel, "Community," 92-94). The results for the church would have been twofold. First, the problem with public assembly may have forced the Christians to set up a number of "house churches," a possibility that seems to be confirmed in Rom 16:5, 14, 15. Second, the returning Jewish Christians would find the Roman church dominated by the Gentile Christians, if not in number then certainly in power and influence (Wiefel, "Community," 94-96).

Thus the saints in Rome, to whom the letter is addressed, were almost certainly a mixture of Jewish and Gentile Christians, though there is no way to tell which group had the larger number. If the circumstances outlined in the above scenario are correct, however, it is safe to assume that there was tension if not conflict among the two groups. Wiefel refers to "quarrels about status" ("Community," 96). Bruce says, "It is implied in Romans 11:13-24 that the Gentile Christians tended to look down on their Jewish brethren as poor relations" ("Debate," 180). Dunn speaks of "at least some friction between Gentile and Jew" within the house churches, with the Jews being in a minority and feeling themselves vulnerable (I:liii).

What is obvious is that in the epistle Paul addresses both groups, with some passages being specifically directed toward the Jewish Christians and some toward the Gentile Christians (see Moo, I:10-11; Murray, I:xviii-xix). Some say the letter as a whole is directed mainly to the Jewish saints; others say it was mainly intended for the Gentiles.

Hendriksen is surely right, though, when he says that regarding the main point of Romans this whole question is really irrelevant, since it applies equally to both groups (I:23). All are sinners (3:9, 23), no one will be saved by law (3:19-20), and all are equal recipients of the grace that is in Christ Jesus (3:24; 4:11-12). Hendriksen stresses Rom 10:12-13, "For there is no difference between Jew and Gentile - the same Lord is Lord of all and richly blesses all who call on him, for, 'Everyone who calls on the name of the Lord will be saved.'"

V. THE OCCASION OF THE WRITING

What were the circumstances that prompted Paul to write his epistle to the Romans? We have already noted that he wrote the letter during his three-month stay in Corinth on his final mission trip. What sorts of things were going through his mind that led him to write it at that particular time?

We are fortunate that Paul reveals his mind to us in certain statements of his desires and plans in chapters 1 and 15. These statements show us what occasioned the writing of Romans.

One main consideration was Paul's immediate travel plans, as they related to his all-determining calling as apostle to the Gentiles (15:15-24). He refers to his "priestly duty of proclaiming the gospel of God, so that the Gentiles might become an offering acceptable to God" (15:16). For twenty years he had been preaching in the eastern and northeastern sections of the Mediterranean area, and had covered it well. "So from Jerusalem all the way around to Illyricum," he says, "I have fully proclaimed the gospel of Christ"; so now "there is no more place for me to work in these regions" (15:19, 23). Thus he decided to change his focus to the northwestern section, Spain in particular (15:24, 28). In his mind he was already planning his trip to Spain.

But first he had to go to Jerusalem (15:25-31). His purpose for doing this was to deliver the funds he had been collecting from the Gentile churches "for the poor among the saints in Jerusalem" (15:26). He wanted to do this personally, to make sure that the funds were properly received (15:28). To this end he asked the Roman Christians to offer two specific prayers for him (15:30-31).

First, he knew that he still had many enemies in Jerusalem among the Jews especially. He knew that some of these enemies had already tried to kill him. Thus he really was not sure what dangers he might be facing in Jerusalem. Nevertheless he was determined to go (Acts 20:22-23), so he requested that the Roman Christians "pray that I may be rescued from the unbelievers in Judea" (15:31). He was not afraid of losing his life; he just did not want his newly-formed missionary plans to be aborted (Acts 20:24; Rom 15:32).

Second, Paul was not really sure how the offering from the Gentile churches would be received by the Jewish saints in Jerusalem. There were still a lot of suspicions and misunderstandings between the two groups, mostly about the relation between the Old and New Covenants and the role of the Mosaic Law in the life of the Christian. Thus the money he was bringing to the poor in Jerusalem was not just an act of charity, but was also a symbol of unity between the two main factions in the church. Thus Paul was anxious that it might be received in the proper spirit, so he asked the Romans to pray "that my service in Jerusalem may be acceptable to the saints there" (15:31).

Thus Paul was ultimately bound for Spain, after an initial trip to Jerusalem. But there was a third item in his itinerary: an intermediate stop in Rome itself (Acts 19:21; 23:11), a place he had never been. So he announced to the Christians in Rome that on his way to Spain he would stop and visit them (15:23, 24, 28). This was something he had longed to do for many years and had even made plans to do (1:11, 13; 15:23), but had "often been hindered from coming to you" (15:22; cf. 1:13).

Paul had many reasons for wanting to visit the church in Rome. For one thing, he wanted to enlist their help for his mission to Spain. "I hope to visit you while passing through and to have you assist me on my journey there," he says (15:24). But he had other reasons that predated his plans for Spain. For example, he seems simply to have desired to visit with the Christians there: to have fellowship with them, to enjoy their company, to be spiritually refreshed by them (15:24, 32), and to be encouraged by them (1:12). After all, he knew quite a few of them personally (16:3-15).

Paul's principal longstanding reason for wanting to visit Rome, though, was his desire to preach the gospel there. "I am obligated," he says, "both to Greeks and non-Greeks, both to the wise and the foolish. That is why I am so eager to preach the gospel also to you who are at Rome" (1:14-15). By this means or by some accompanying means he would be able to "impart to you some spiritual gift to make you strong" (1:11). This would also enable him to "have a harvest among you, just as I have had among the other Gentiles" (1:13).

No wonder that Paul says he was praying "that now at last by God's will the way may be opened for me to come to you" (1:10).

These are the immediate circumstances that prompted Paul to write the epistle to the Romans. But a simple presentation of these facts does not in itself answer the question of exactly why he wrote the letter. What was his purpose for writing? What did he hope to accomplish by writing this particular letter? This is the subject of the next section.

VI. THE PURPOSE OF ROMANS

The question of Paul's purpose for writing the epistle to the Romans is very controversial; there is much disagreement about it. Everyone agrees on the facts described above relating to the occasion for the writing. The problem is that these facts have to be assessed in view of the contents of the main body of the letter, 1:18-15:13. The question is not just why he wrote a letter to the Roman church, but why he wrote this specific letter with this particular content. Why does he write "such a lengthy and involved discussion to a largely unknown congregation"? (Dunn, I:lv).

There are two basic approaches to this question. The older and more traditional approach is that the historical circumstances as described in the previous section were not particularly relevant with regard to Paul's decision to write the letter. Neither Paul's own plans nor the state of the Roman church presented him with a pressing need or occasion that required him to write. Thus unlike his other letters, Romans is more or less non-occasional. It is regarded rather as a kind of timeless theological essay on the essence of Christianity. As Sanday and Headlam describe this view, "the main object of the Epistle is doctrinal; it is rather a theological treatise than a letter; its purpose is to instruct the Roman Church in central principles of the faith, and has but little reference to the circumstances of the moment" (xl).

The more recent approaches to the purpose of Romans take the opposite view, that it is "a situational letter rather than a doctrinal treatise" (Jewett, "Argument," 265). Paul was not simply writing an essay detached from his circumstances, but was specifically addressing a particular situation that needed his attention at that time. Thus Romans is just as much an occasional letter as 1 Corinthians or Galatians.

Those who take the latter approach usually go in one of two directions. Some emphasize that Paul wrote the letter to fulfill certain needs of his own, relating to his trip either to Jerusalem or to Spain. Others say that Paul wrote mainly to meet the needs of the Roman church at that particular time.

It is possible, of course, that Paul had more than one purpose for writing Romans, as Cranfield says: "It is surely quite clear that Paul did not have just one single purpose in mind but rather a complex of purposes and hopes" (II:815). Dunn (I:lx) and Moo (I:20) agree.

A. ROMANS IS A DOCTRINAL ESSAY

Now we shall go into a bit more detail concerning the possibilities outlined above. The first view is that Paul was not addressing a specific situation but was writing a timeless doctrinal essay. In its most extreme form this view says that Romans is a complete systematic theology, a compendium of Christian doctrine. Shedd (viii) calls it " an inspired system of theology , . . . a complete statement of religious truth." Romans is so "encyclopædic in its structure" that one "need not go outside of this Epistle, in order to know all religious truth."

More recently Bornkamm has taken a similar view, describing Romans as Paul's "last will and testament" - "a summary of his theology in light of the impending danger in Jerusalem" (Donfried, "Presuppositions," 103). Bornkamm says ("Letter," 27-28), "This great document . . . summarizes and develops the most important themes and thoughts of the Pauline message and theology and . . . elevates his theology above the moment of definite situations and conflicts into the sphere of the eternally and universally valid."

Many writers agree that Romans was not occasioned by some immediate need or crisis but was a kind of doctrinal essay. Nygren says (4), "The characteristic and peculiar thing about Romans, differentiating it from the rest of Paul's epistles, is just the fact that it was not, or was only in slight degree aimed at circumstances within a certain congregation." Lenski (10-12) agrees.

Most who take this non-occasional view, however, say that it is an exaggeration to call Romans a full-blown systematic theology. "If Romans is a compendium of theology," says Morris (8), "there are some curious gaps." (See also Moo, I:1; Hendriksen, I:25; W. Williams, 19-20.) It is a doctrinal essay, to be sure, but one that is more focused and limited in its scope.

Just what is the focus of this doctrinal essay? The most common view is that it has to do with the doctrines of salvation, i.e., that Romans is a summary or synopsis of Paul's gospel . Morris says that Paul probably thought his three-month, pressure-free sojourn in Corinth was a good time to bring together the timeless teachings that had crystallized in his thinking during his twenty years as a preacher. Thus he sets forth "a summary of the gospel and its consequences as he understood them" (pp. 18-19). Cranfield likewise says it is likely that Paul "was conscious of having reached a certain maturity of experience, reflection and understanding, which made the time ripe for him to attempt, with God's help, such an orderly presentation of the gospel" (II:817).

Vincent summarizes this whole approach quite well when he says that Romans "is distinguished among the epistles by its systematic character. Its object is to present a comprehensive statement of the doctrine of salvation through Christ, not a complete system of christian doctrine" ( Word Studies , III:x). As Hendriksen says (I:25), "Romans is not really 'a complete compendium of Christian Doctrine.' If it had been Paul's intention to draw up such a document, he would surely have included far more material." The specific doctrine he deals with is one needed not just in Rome but by all people in all times: " the manner in which sinners are saved ." (See Edwards, 3.)

The idea that Romans is a kind of doctrinal essay focusing on the general doctrine of salvation is correct, in my opinion. However, I do not think it is wise to separate it too sharply from the occasion or circumstances discussed in the last section. I question W. Williams' approach, for example, when he says (19), "The Epistle to the Romans is a discussion of the relation of the Gentile world to God's plan of salvation," and in the next sentence says, "This discussion was incidental to the apostle's circumstances." In my opinion this is a false choice. It is an essay on salvation, but its purpose was definitely related to the circumstances at that time, as we shall see below.

B. ROMANS WAS OCCASIONED

BY PAUL'S IMMEDIATE NEEDS

The second major approach to the purpose of Romans is that it was occasioned by the various circumstances relating to Paul's immediate plans in relation to his mission. In other words, it was designed to meet needs that Paul felt in his own life at the time. As Jervell says, "Its raison d'être does not stem from the situation of the Roman congregation, but is to be found in Paul himself at the time of writing" ("Letter," 54).

The main idea here resembles the modern practice of churches requesting that prospective ministers send a tape recording of one of their sermons. In this case Paul takes the initiative and sets forth in writing a "sermon" or a lengthy presentation of his gospel. He does this because he needs to introduce himself to people who are not familiar with him or with what he preaches. Or, he does this because his enemies are spreading false rumors about what he preaches, and are misrepresenting his gospel especially as to what he says about Jew-Gentile relations. Thus Romans is not just a presentation but also a defense of Paul's gospel.

This is how Moo explains the purpose of Romans. The various circumstances that he faced "forced Paul to write a letter in which he carefully rehearsed his understanding of the gospel, especially as it related to the salvation-historical questions of Jew and Gentile and the continuity of the plan of salvation" (I:20). Bruce agrees that it was "expedient that Paul should communicate to the Roman Christians an outline of the message which he proclaimed. Misrepresentations of his preaching and his apostolic procedure were current and must have found their way to Rome" ("Debate," 182). (See Stuhlmacher, "Purpose," 236.)

Why was it crucial for Paul at this particular time to write such a presentation and defense of his gospel? The answer is that it was necessary in order to facilitate his immediate plans. For one thing, he was on his way to Jerusalem with the offering for the poor saints, and was apprehensive about how this would turn out. Thus some contend that in this letter Paul was rehearsing what he was going to say in Jerusalem in defense of himself and in an effort to seal Jew-Gentile unity. He sent the product to the Roman church in a letter, asking them to pray for him and the upcoming Jerusalem episode (15:30-32). Thus, says Jervell, Romans is Paul's "'collection speech,' or more precisely, the defense which Paul plans to give before the church in Jerusalem." He sends it to Rome "to ask the Roman congregation for solidarity, support, and intercession on his behalf" ("Letter," 56). Dunn calls this Paul's "apologetic purpose" (I:lvi; see I:xlii-xliii).

Though this is a fairly common view today, some object to it or at least doubt that it could be the only purpose for Romans (Moo, I:18). Thus other aspects of Paul's immediate plans must have elicited the letter. One of the most obvious is Paul's plan to visit Rome itself. Though he knew some of the Roman Christians, he had never been in Rome and would not know most of the people there. It must have seemed expedient, then, for him to write a kind of "letter of introduction" to himself, especially in view of the false rumors that were probably afoot.

This is how Morris understands it (16-17). Paul used his three-month interlude in Corinth "to write to the Roman Christians to let them know of his plan to visit them and to set down in order something of what the gospel meant." He wanted to give them "a clear but profound statement of the essential message of Christianity as he proclaimed it. This will show the Romans where he stands." MacArthur's view is similar: "Paul's letter to the church at Rome was, among other things, an introduction to himself as an apostle. He clearly set forth the gospel he preached and taught, so that believers in Rome would have complete confidence in his authority" (I:xix). (See also Stott, 34.)

Those who hold this view usually take it a step further, and say that Paul laid out and defended his gospel to the Romans as a means of enlisting their support for his Spanish mission. In a real sense Rome was just a means to an end, both in Paul's itinerary and in his missionary strategy. He needed them as a kind of "base of operations" for what he hoped to accomplish in Spain (Stott, 33). Thus "if Rome was to be his base, the Romans would need to be assured of his message and theological position" (Morris, 17). This is what Dunn calls Paul's "missionary purpose" for Romans (I:lv). This is a fairly common view. (See Cranfield, II:817-818; Jewett, "Argument," 266, 277.)

C. ROMANS WAS OCCASIONED BY NEEDS AT ROME ITSELF

As we have just seen, those who believe the writing of Romans was motivated by the immediate circumstances sometimes locate those circumstances in Paul's own personal needs. Others who take the occasional approach, however, believe that the situation in Rome itself is what Paul is specifically addressing in this epistle. Though he had not been there, he still would have been acquainted with the state of the Roman church. It was, after all, a famous church (1:8). Besides, Paul's Roman friends, such as Aquila and Priscilla (16:3), would probably have kept him informed especially of any problems that existed there (Sanday and Headlam, xl-xli).

Whatever the nature of those problems or needs, Paul wrote to resolve them. Since all of Paul's other letters were "addressed to the specific situations of the churches or persons involved," says Donfried, we must begin with the assumption that Romans "was written by Paul to deal with a concrete situation in Rome" ("Presuppositions," 103). This is what Dunn calls Paul's "pastoral purpose" (I:lvi-lviii).

1. The Need for Jew-Gentile Unity

What sorts of needs existed at Rome that would call forth from Paul's pen the most magnificent gospel tract ever written? Several possibilities are suggested, but the one most commonly held begins with the assumption that there was considerable tension in the Roman church between the Jewish Christians and the Gentile Christians. Thus the purpose of Paul's letter was to resolve this tension.

This view usually grows out of the speculations (discussed above) concerning the development of the Roman church following Claudius' decree expelling the Jews from Rome. With Jewish Christians being forced to leave Rome, the Gentile Christians became the dominant force; and this situation prevailed even after the former returned to Rome. This led to conflict between the two factions. This scenario is supported by the various references to Jews and Gentiles (Greeks) in Romans, by the discussion of the weak (Jews?) and the strong (Gentiles?) in 14:1-15:13, and by several references to unity and division within the church (12:16; 15:5; 16:17-18). Such texts seem to be evidence of a "basic division existing between the Jewish Christians and the Gentile Christians at Rome" (P. Williams, "Purpose," 64).

This view has been argued by Marxsen and more recently by Wiefel, who concludes that Romans "was written to assist the Gentile Christian majority, who are the primary addressees of the letter, to live together with the Jewish Christians in one congregation, thereby putting an end to their quarrels about status" ("Community," 96). Here is Edwards' summary (15-16):

Romans is addressed to the problems which inevitably resulted when Jewish Christians began returning to Rome following the edict of Claudius. We can imagine their trials of readjusting to churches which had become increasingly Gentile in their absence. Would Gentile believers who had established their supremacy during the Jewish absence, and for whom the law was now largely irrelevant, continue to find a place within their fellowship for a Jewish Christian minority which still embraced the law? Paul cannot have been unaware of such concerns.

In Dunn's words, "Paul wrote to counter (potential) divisions within Rome among the Christian house churches, particularly the danger of gentile believers despising less liberated Jewish believers" (I:lvii). (See also Stott, 34-36.)

2. The Need for an Apostolic Foundation

Another possible need being addressed by Paul is related to the circumstances of the origin of the church in Rome. It is inferred from 15:20 that no apostle was involved in its founding, nor as yet had even visited Rome. Thus Paul was concerned that the church did not have a solid apostolic foundation (see Eph 2:20), and he writes this epistle in order to provide that foundation. This is the view of Günter Klein ("Purpose," 39, 42), but Morris (11-12) gives reasons for doubting it.

3. The Need for Paul's Gospel

Another possibility (to which I subscribe) is that Paul did indeed recognize the need of the Roman church to hear his apostolic preaching and teaching, but not necessarily in a foundational sense. This view begins with Paul's sense of duty, based upon his special calling, to preach the gospel to everyone in the Gentile world (1:14), including those in Rome: "That is why I am so eager to preach the gospel also to you who are at Rome" (1:15).

But these people are already Christians. Why would Paul want to "preach the gospel" to believers ? Here is a point that is often missed: the gospel is more than just the initial evangelistic witness given to unbelievers with a view to their conversion. It also includes the deeper meaning and implications of the basic facts of salvation, which are things about which even mature believers can never hear enough. That Paul wanted to preach the gospel to the Christians in Rome means that he wanted to go deeper into the meaning of Christ's saving work "for our sins," unfolding for them the full power of the gospel in the Christian life and at the same time clearing up common misunderstandings that may arise through incomplete knowledge.

Paul's desire, of course, was to do this in person, and he had often planned to travel to Rome for this very reason. Up to this point, however, God's providence had prevented it (1:13; 15:22). Now he is once again planning to go to Rome, after his trip to Jerusalem with the offering. But based on his past experience and the uncertainty about what would happen to him in Jerusalem (Acts 20:22-24), at this point he could not be certain that he would ever reach Rome in person.

This led Paul to the conclusion that if he was ever going to preach the gospel in Rome, perhaps the only way he would be able to do so was in writing . Thus he takes the time, while staying in Corinth just before traveling to Jerusalem, to prepare a well-thought-out essay on the gospel as every Christian needs to hear it; and he sends it on to Rome in advance of his intended trip there. Thus it seems likely, says Campbell, that "the letter is the written equivalent of the oral presentation which Paul would have delivered to the congregation had he himself been present" ("Key," 258).

According to this view, then, Romans is not just a basic presentation of the gospel, written in order to provide the Roman Christians with a missing apostolic foundation. And as Nygren (7) rightly notes, "it is a misunderstanding of Romans to see in it a typical example of Paul's missionary preaching." This is contrary to those who think Paul was just introducing himself to the Roman church, hoping to win their support for his mission to Spain by rehearsing the gospel as he usually preached it. Stuhlmacher rightly notes that how Paul "preached and taught as a missionary cannot be simply inferred from the outline of Romans" ("Purpose," 242).

According to this view, then, the primary purpose for Romans is not related to some need within Paul himself (e.g., his concern for defending himself; his missionary plans); nor is it related to some negative situation in the Roman church (e.g., Jew-Gentile disunity). It is motivated rather by Paul's loving concern for his fellow-Christians at Rome, and his desire to bless their hearts and lives with this written version of the deeper aspects of the gospel of grace. This point is brought out very well by Hendriksen (I:24):

Paul, being an intensely warm and loving person, desires to go to Rome in order to be a blessing to his friends (Rom. 1:10, 11) and to be refreshed by them (15:32). Moreover, it is for this same reason that he, now that it is impossible for him to go to Rome immediately , communicates with the Roman church by means of this letter. He writes to the Romans because he loves them. They are his friends "in Christ," and by means of this letter he imparts his love to them . . . .

It is strange that this deeply personal reason . . . , a reason clearly brought out by the apostle himself, is often overlooked. At times the emphasis is placed entirely on theological motivation or on mission incentive: Paul wants to correct errors of the antinomians and/or wants to make Rome the headquarters for the evangelization of Spain. To be sure, these matters are important, but we should begin with the reason first stated by Paul himself in this very epistle.

D. CONCLUSION

We have surveyed the main reasons why Paul wrote the epistle to the Romans. It should be obvious that some of these reasons may overlap or be combined; so we need not focus narrowly upon just one of them. Jewett, for example, says the immediate reason was to resolve the Jew-Gentile tensions, but this was sought in order to gain a strong and unified backing for the mission to Spain ("Argument," 266). After summarizing the missionary, apologetic, and pastoral purposes, Dunn concludes that "all three of these main emphases and purposes hang together and indeed reinforce each other when taken as a whole" (I:lviii).

In my opinion, though, the dominant reason is the last one discussed above: Paul's desire to preach the gospel to the Romans, and his decision to do so in the form of an epistle. This is the factor that Paul stresses in the introductory section of the letter, where we would expect him to say what is closest to his heart. It seems inappropriate to give priority to ch. 15 on this matter, and to pass over what Paul himself chooses to mention first of all. Just because he tells the Romans about his plans in ch. 15 is no reason to assume that his purpose for writing to Rome is specifically or directly related to these plans.

We may conclude, then, that Romans is indeed an occasional letter, that it was occasioned by the need of the Roman Christians to hear Paul's gospel and by the circumstances that made it expedient for him to send it to them in written form at this particular time. Thus Romans is by design a clear presentation of the deeper implications of the gospel, written not for Paul's sake but for the sake of the church at Rome. The references to Paul's own plans and needs in ch. 15 are secondary.

At the same time, just because of the nature of the situation that caused Paul to write this epistle, the purpose for Romans includes the first view discussed above, namely, that it was intended to be a kind of doctrinal essay focusing on the meaning of salvation through the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ. As noted above, it is a systematic presentation of the gospel : not necessarily the gospel as proclaimed in an evangelistic situation, but the gospel as unfolded to mature Christians.

When this point is understood, we can see that the epistle to the Romans is intended not just for the saints in Rome in the middle of the first century A.D., but for all Christians in all ages. It is relevant for all since it deals with salvation from sin through God's grace. As Moo rightly says (I:21),

That Paul was dealing in Romans with immediate concerns in the early church we do not doubt. But, especially in Romans, these issues are ultimately the issues of the church - and the world - of all ages: the continuity of God's plan of salvation, the sin and need of human beings, God's provision for our sin problem in Christ, the means to a life of holiness, security in the face of suffering and death.

The circumstances contributing to the writing of this letter were far broader than the immediate situation in Rome and Paul's own immediate travel plans. They included Paul's own pre-Christian life as a Jew who sought acceptance with God on the basis of his own righteousness. They included Paul's twenty years of preaching to sinners of all types, Jews and Gentiles. They included his dealings with new Christians and new churches with all their weaknesses and problems. His experience and knowledge of human nature and human need were personal and comprehensive; thus the gospel of Romans is generic and timeless.

In most of the discussions of the purpose of Romans, a forgotten factor is the role of the Holy Spirit in the inspiration of Scripture. It is Paul himself who tells us that "all Scripture is God-breathed" (2 Tim 3:16). Whatever circumstances led Paul to compose his letter to the Romans, the choice to write and the message he wrote were not his alone. The Holy Spirit worked through Paul to produce this letter (see 2 Pet 1:20-21), and the Holy Spirit knows more than any man what is needed by every sinner and by every Christian seeking peace and power. In the final analysis it is the Spirit of God, and not just the Apostle Paul, who speaks to our hearts in the epistle to the Romans.

VII. THE THEME OF ROMANS

Almost everyone today rejects the idea that Romans is a compendium or summary of Christian theology as such. It is nevertheless generally recognized that the content of the epistle is doctrinal in nature. Its main body is an essay or treatise with a strong doctrinal emphasis and seems to be built around a particular theme. The question now is, exactly what is the theme of Romans? Several answers have been proposed.

A. JUSTIFICATION BY FAITH

The Reformation established a way of looking at Romans that still has considerable support among Protestants, namely, that the main theme of the epistle is stated in 1:16-17. It can be summed up in the familiar phrase, "justification by faith," i.e., justification or righteousness before God comes through faith alone. John Calvin (xxix) states succinctly that "the main subject of the whole Epistle" is "justification by faith."

Boers says this is the theme that "currently almost universally controls the interpretation of the letter" ( Justification , 77). This is surely an exaggeration, but the justification view is still very popular. Concerning the principal content of Romans, Nygren says (16), "From the beginning evangelical Christianity has spoken clearly on that point: justification by faith. That answer is correct." Defining "theme" as "central topic" rather than as exclusive topic, Hendriksen agrees that justification by faith, "spread out into 'justification by grace through faith'. . . , is clearly the theme of Romans" (I:29). Edwards (3) says that "the driving concern throughout is salvation - that righteousness comes as a free gift of God and is received by faith alone." Stott (35) says two themes are woven together in the epistle. "The first is the justification of guilty sinners by God's grace alone in Christ alone through faith alone, irrespective of either status or works."

Many scholars today have rejected this traditional approach. Though justification by faith is a main topic in Romans, says Boers (88), it "never becomes thematic." Too much of its subject matter simply does not relate to this subject, he says (78). Moo agrees (I:26-27). (See Stott, 24-31.)

B. THE RIGHTEOUSNESS OF GOD

Those who are not satisfied with justification by faith as the theme for Romans sometimes opt for one that is very similar, namely, the righteousness of God (1:17). Beker says this is "the key term for the letter as a whole" ("Faithfulness," 331). Jewett says the thesis of Romans is that the gospel is "the 'power of God' to achieve the triumph of divine righteousness (Rom. 1:16-17)" ("Argument," 266).

Since the righteousness of God is integrally related to justification by faith, the two themes are sometimes confused. This is because one aspect of the theme of divine righteousness is that the righteousness of God is the basis for the personal justification of individual sinners. This is the sense in which Nygren says that the righteousness of God - in the sense of righteousness from God - is "the fundamental concept" and "the very foundation thought" of the epistle (9, 14-15), even though he says the "principal content" of the letter is justification by faith (16).

But most of those today who say that the righteousness of God is the theme of Romans are using the expression in a broader, more comprehensive sense. For them it includes the idea of the divine righteousness as the basis for individual justification, to be sure. For example, Stuhlmacher says the theme of Romans is "the gospel of the divine righteousness in Christ for those who believe from among the Jews and Gentiles" ("Theme," 334, 337). But in Romans, they say, the theme is more inclusive than this. It includes God's righteousness as the basis not only of his dealings with individual believers, but also of his dealings with mankind in general and especially with the Jewish nation in the context of redemptive history.

The question raised by the indiscriminate offer of justification by faith to both Jews and Gentiles is whether God is being fair with the Jews, in view of all the special treatment he has already bestowed upon them and the special promises he has given them. Does the gospel's "no partiality" principle bring God's justice or righteousness into question? "What is at stake is nothing less than the faithfulness of God," says Beker ("Faithfulness," 330); and this is what Paul is dealing with especially in Rom 9-11. Stuhlmacher explains that the "righteousness of God" refers to "the entire redemptive activity of God in Christ from creation to redemption" ("Theme," 341).

Thus according to this view the theme of Romans is not just the salvation of man but the defense of God, with perhaps the greater emphasis falling on the latter. As Fiensy says (227), "Romans is then a theodicy or defense of God in light of the Jewish-Gentile problem in the church." Gaertner says that the kinds of questions Paul raises in Romans (e.g., 3:3; 3:5; 3:29; 9:14) inquire into the nature of God's dealings with sinners, especially with his fairness and faithfulness. Thus Gaertner labels Romans "the gospel of God's fairness" ("Fairness," 1:14).

C. THE EQUALITY OF JEWS AND GENTILES

A third view is that the theme of Romans is the equality of Jews and Gentiles in God's plan of salvation. This is currently a popular view. It stems mainly from the reconstruction of the origin and development of the Roman church as described earlier in this introduction. It goes hand in hand with the idea that the letter is intended to deal with certain specific circumstances existing in Rome, especially the apparent disunity between Jewish and Gentile Christians. It recognizes that "the entire letter to the Romans is . . . permeated with Jew-Gentile issues" (Fiensy, Introduction , 230).

In its most general form this view says that the main emphasis of Romans is the universality of the gospel: there is just one way of salvation for Jews and Gentiles alike. The transcendent gospel goes beyond the Jew-Gentile distinction. God's salvation is given to both groups equally, favoring neither and offering favor to both.

Boers is an example of this view. He says the consistent theme of the main body of Romans is "salvation of Jews and gentiles, and the relationship between them" ( Justification , 80). This theme is stated in Rom 1:16, "that the gospel is the power of God for all who believe, to the Jews first, and to the Hellenes" (80). That salvation is offered to the Jews first is important, but so is the idea that "there is no difference between Jews and gentiles" (81-82).

Dunn says, "It is precisely the tension between 'Jew first but also Greek' (1:16), which . . . provides an integrating motif for the whole letter." Paul's "repeated emphasis on 'all'" underscores the theme of universality. Even the emphasis on the righteousness of God "is primarily an exposition of the same Jew/Gentile theme," i.e., it is Paul's way of arguing that Gentiles are full recipients of the saving grace of God as much as Jews are (I:lxii-lxiii).

As noted earlier, Stott says two themes are woven together in Romans, the first being justification by faith. But since this applies equally to all people, it is the "fundamental basis of Christian unity." This provides the second theme of Romans, that "'there is no difference' now between Jews and Gentiles. . . . Indeed, 'the single most important theme of Romans is the equality of Jews and Gentiles'" (35-36).

Interpreters differ as to the nature of the circumstances that led Paul to emphasize the theme of equality. Some say the Gentile Christians at Rome did not want to fully accept the Jewish Christians, so Romans is basically defending the right of the latter to full status in the Kingdom of God. This is how Boers understands the "Jews first" theme, as noted above. Jewett says, "Nowhere else in Paul's writings are the concerns of Jewish Christians taken up in so systematic and friendly a manner, thus counterbalancing the prejudices of the Gentile majority of Roman Christians" ("Argument," 276). The development of this theme in Rom 9-11 "is relevant to the situation in Rome," says Bruce. Here Paul "warns the Gentiles among his readers not to despise the Jews, . . . because God has not written them off" ("Debate," 183-184).

On the other hand, some say the problem in Rome was the status of the Gentile Christians. W. Williams says (19-20), "The Epistle to the Romans is a discussion of the relation of the Gentile world to God's plan of salvation." More specifically, Romans is Paul's "defense of the rights of the Gentiles against the Jewish assumption that excluded them from the Church, and from the chance of salvation." Thus "the sole intent of the apostle was to maintain the equality of the Gentiles against the assumption of the Jews." Stendahl agrees that Paul's concern is the salvation of the Gentiles. Even the subject of justification serves the purpose of "defending the rights of Gentile converts to be full and genuine heirs to the promises of God to Israel" ( Paul , 2-4).

Either way the subject is approached, the main point is the same: the principal theme of Romans is to demonstrate the equality of Jews and Gentiles with regard to the saving grace of God.

D. SINNERS ARE SAVED BY GRACE, NOT LAW

All of the themes discussed above are certainly present in Romans, and all are important. All of them contribute significantly to the main theme. But I believe none of them as such is the main point Paul is communicating to us in the epistle. Rather than seeing 1:16-17 as the thesis statement for Paul's treatise, I see it more or less as the starting point leading up to the thesis, which is 3:28: "For we maintain that a man is justified by faith apart from observing the law."

In the most general sense Paul's thesis relates to the gospel , since his desire to preach the gospel in Rome (1:15) is what led him to compose the epistle as a written version of his gospel. In this sense Moo is correct: "What, then, is the theme of the letter? If we have to choose one - and perhaps it would be better not to - we would choose 'the gospel.'" Romans is simply "Paul's statement of 'his' gospel" (I:28).

But since the gospel is the good news about salvation, also in a general sense the theme of Romans is salvation . As Harrison says (7), "Salvation is the basic theme of Romans (cf. 1:16) - a salvation presented in terms of the righteousness of God, which, when received by faith, issues in life (1:17)." Or as Hendriksen says, the basic doctrine at stake (especially in 1:16-8:39) is " the manner in which sinners are saved" (I:25). And the manner in which sinners are saved, whether Jews or Gentiles, is the same: justification by faith.

But the theme of Romans is more precise than this. Yes, sinners are justified by faith, but this means they are not justified by works of law, which is the only alternative. It is just as important to include the negative statement in the theme as the positive one.

In actuality, then, the basic theme of Romans is the contrast between law and grace as ways of salvation. This contrast is seen especially in 3:28, which (literally translated) says, "For we maintain that a man is justified by faith apart from works of law." The contrast is stated succinctly in 6:14, "You are not under law, but under grace." This is the gospel, the good news of salvation. Certainly it is good news to know that God justifies us by faith in the saving work of Jesus Christ. But in a real sense it is also good news to know that we are not justified by law-keeping: a way of salvation which is not only futile but which sinners in their hearts know is futile, and which thus leads only to self-deception or to despair.

Commenting on Romans, Grubbs says, "The Gospel versus the Law is the one theme of which he [Paul] never loses sight in the elaboration of the details of this wonderful production" (9). Though this is a very common way of speaking - "gospel versus law" - it is not altogether accurate. The real contrast is grace versus law, and this message as a whole is the gospel.

Thus Paul's theme is indeed that we are saved by grace, not by law. Law is not a viable option as a means of salvation; the only way for sinners to be counted righteous before God is by grace. Yes, we are justified by faith, but not by works of law. Yes, the righteousness of God figures prominently in our justification, but in contrast to the righteousness of man. Yes, Romans does emphasize full equality regarding this way of salvation; Jews and Gentiles are saved the same way. Both are saved by grace and justified by faith as provided by the righteousness of God, but in contrast with every false way.

This contrast between law and grace as competing ways of salvation is not a matter of OT versus NT nor Old Covenant versus New Covenant, as if law were the way to be saved prior to Christ and grace is the way to be saved now that Christ has come. Also, the contrast between law and grace - THIS IS VERY IMPORTANT - is not simply the Law of Moses versus the grace of Jesus Christ. No sinner has ever been saved nor can be saved by the law that applies to him, whether it be the Law of Moses for Jews under the Old Covenant, or some other comparable set of God's commandments for anyone else in any other time. Every sinner who has been saved since the time of Adam has been saved by grace and not by law, and this will always be the case.

The problem that Paul addresses in the book of Romans is not one that confronts Jews only, nor Gentiles only. It is not a problem faced only by those who are under the Mosaic Law, nor only by those to whom the Mosaic Law does not apply. The problem being addressed is this: As a sinner, how can I be saved? It is a problem faced by Jews and Gentiles alike, and the solution is the same for both.

Perhaps even more significantly, the problem addressed in Romans is not one confronted only by unbelieving sinners. It is a problem that believers often wrestle with as well (e.g., the Judaizers). When we state the problem thus - "As a sinner, how can I be saved?" - we can break it down into two separate problems. First is the unbeliever's problem: "How can I become saved?" The answer is: by grace through faith, not by works of law. Second is the believer's continuing problem: "How can I stay saved?" And the answer is: by grace through faith, not by works of law.

This is why the epistle to the Romans has always been and always will be in a class by itself with regard to its impact on individuals and upon the church as a whole. Its basic theme is one that is always needed and always applicable, and one that will result in the highest praise to God the Redeemer once it is understood.

PREFACE TO VOLUME 2

The introductory issues regarding the book of Romans have been discussed in Vol. 1 of this work (pp. 21-55). Also, the outline for chs. 1-8 of Romans is included in that volume (pp. 55-58).

References to passages in the book of Romans itself are usually limited to chapter and verse data only. For my policy regarding quotations from other sources, see the note at the beginning of the bibliography.

I wish to express my thanks to my wife, Barbara, for her patience in accepting my writing schedule while this work has been in production. My thanks go also to College Press for inaugurating this project, and especially to College Press editor John Hunter for adjusting to a writer who suffers from incurable prolixity. Another special word of thanks is due to my employers at the Cincinnati Bible College and Seminary who encourage my writing in many ways, especially through their regular sabbatical policy.

Above all, thanks be to God for his saving grace, for his Holy Word, and especially for the letter to the Romans with its incomparable beauty and power.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following bibliography includes commentaries, books, and articles cited in the text and footnotes of this work. Citations include a minimum of information; the reader must use this list for full titles and bibliographical data.

When commentaries are cited, only the author's name and page number are given. When other sources are cited, usually just the author's name and an abbreviated title (in bold print below) are given.

I. COMMENTARIES

Barclay, William. The Letter to the Romans , 2 ed. The Daily Study Bible. Edinburgh: Saint Andrew Press, 1957.

Barrett, C.K. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . Harper's New Testament Commentaries. New York: Harper & Row, 1957; reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987.

Bartlett, C. Norman. Right in Romans: Studies in the Epistle of Paul to the Romans . Chicago: Moody Press, 1953.

Batey, Richard A. The Letter of Paul to the Romans . Austin: R.B. Sweet, 1969.

Black, Matthew. Romans , 2 ed. New Century Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989.

Boice, James Montgomery. Romans , 4 vols. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1991ff.

Brokke, Harold J. Saved by His Life . Minneapolis: Bethany Fellowship, 1964.

Bruce, F.F. The Epistle of Paul to the Romans . Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1963.

Calvin, John. Commentaries on the Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans . Tr. by John Owen. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1947 reprint.

Cranfield, C.E.B. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . 2 vols. The International Critical Commentary, new series. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1975 (1990 corrected printing).

DeWelt, Don. Romans Realized . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1959.

Dodd, C.H. The Epistle of Paul to the Romans . New York: Harper & Brothers, 1932.

Dunn, James D.G. Romans. 2 vols. Volume 38 in Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word Books, 1988.

Edwards, James R. Romans . New International Biblical Commentary. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1992.

Erdman, Charles R. The Epistle to the Romans: An Exposition . Philadelphia: Westminster, 1925.

Godet, Frederic L. Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . Tr. by A. Cusin. Ed. by Talbot W. Chambers. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1956 reprint of 1883 ed.

Greathouse, William M. Romans . Vol. 6 of Beacon Bible Expositions. Kansas City, MO: Beacon Hill Press, 1975.

Grubbs, Isaiah Boone. An Exegetical and Analytical Commentary on Paul's Epistle to the Romans . Ed. by George A. Kingman. 6th ed. Nashville: Gospel Advocate, n.d.

Harrison, Everett F. "Romans." In The Expositor's Bible Commentary . Volume 10. Ed. by Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976. Pp. 1-171.

Hendriksen, William. Exposition of Paul's Epistle to the Romans . 2 vols. New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980-1981.

Käsemann, Ernst. Commentary on Romans . Tr. by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980.

Lard, Moses E. Commentary on Paul's Letter to Romans . Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, n.d.

Lenski, R.C.H. The Interpretation of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans . Columbus, OH: Wartburg Press, 1945.

Lipscomb, David. Romans . Vol. I in A Commentary on the New Testament Epistles. 2nd ed. Ed. by J. W. Shepherd. Nashville: Gospel Advocate, 1965.

Lloyd-Jones, D.M. Romans: An Exposition of Chapters 3.20-4.25-Atonement and Justification . London: Banner of Truth Trust, 1970.

. Romans: An Exposition of Chapter 6-The New Man . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1973.

. Romans: An Exposition of Chapters 7.1-8.4-The Law: Its Functions and Limits . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1973.

Luther, Martin. Luther: Lectures on Romans . Ed. & tr. by Wilhelm Pauck. The Library of Christian Classics. Vol. XV. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1961.

MacArthur, John, Jr. Romans . 2 vols. The MacArthur New Testament Commentary. Chicago: Moody, 1991, 1994.

McGarvey, J.W., and Philip Y. Pendleton. Thessalonians, Corinthians, Galatians, and Romans . Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, n.d.

McClain, Alva J. Romans: The Gospel of God's Grace . Ed. by Herman A. Hoyt. Chicago: Moody Press, 1973.

Mitchell, John G., with Dick Bohrer. Right with God: A Devotional Study of the Epistle to the Romans . Portland, OR: Multnomah, 1990.

Moo, Douglas. Romans . 2 vols. The Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary. Chicago: Moody, 1991.

Morris, Leon. The Epistle to the Romans . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988.

Moser, K.C. The Gist of Romans , revised ed. Delight, AR: Gospel Light Publishing Company, 1958.

Moule, H.C.G. The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans . The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. Cambridge: The University Press, 1918.

Mounce, Robert H. Romans . Vol. 27 in The New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995.

Murray, John. The Epistle to the Romans . 2 vols. New International Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959, 1965.

Newell, William R. Lessons on the Epistle of Paul to the Romans . No publisher given, 1925.

Newman, Barclay M., and Eugene A. Nida. A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letter to the Romans . London: United Bible Societies, 1973.

Nygren, Anders. Commentary on Romans . Tr. by Carl C. Rasmussen. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1949.

Reese, Gareth L. New Testament Epistles: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Paul's Epistle to the Romans . Moberly, MO: Scripture Exposition Press, 1987.

Robertson, A.T. The Epistles of Paul . Vol. IV in Word Pictures in the New Testament. Nashville: Broadman, 1931.

Sanday, William, and Arthur C. Headlam. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . 2nd ed. The International Critical Commentary, old series. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, n.d.

Schlatter, Adolf. Romans: The Righteousness of God . Tr. by Siegfried Schatzmann. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995.

Shedd, William G.T. A Critical and Doctrinal Commentary on the Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1967 reprint of 1879 edition.

Shields, Bruce. Romans . Standard Bible Studies. Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, 1988.

Smith, Sherwood. Thirteen Lessons on Romans . Vol. 1 (1979); and Thirteen Lessons on Romans . Vol. 2 (1981). Joplin, MO: College Press.

Stedman, Ray C. From Guilt to Glory, Volume I: Romans 1-8 . Waco: Word Books, 1978.

Stott, John. Romans: God's Good News for the World . Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1994.

Williams, William G. An Exposition of the Epistle of Paul to the Romans . Cincinnati: Jennings and Pye, 1902.

Wuest, Kenneth S. Romans in the Greek New Testament for the English Reader . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1955.

II. MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS AND ARTICLES

Arndt, William F., and F. Wilbur Gingrich. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature . 4th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957.

Augustine, The Confessions of St. Augustine . Vol. XIV in The Works of Aurelius Augustine. Ed. by Marcus Dods. Tr. by J.G. Pilkington. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1876.

Balz, Horst. "ajpokaradokiva." Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament . Ed. by Horst Balz and Gerhard Schneider. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990. I:132-133.

Bartchy, S. Scott. MALLON CHRESAI: First Century Slavery and the Interpretation of 1 Corinthians 7:21 . Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series, #11. Missoula: Scholars Press, 1973.

Beker, J.C. "The Faithfulness of God and the Priority of Israel in Paul's Letter to the Romans." RomDeb , 327-332.

Boers, Hendrikus. The Justification of the Gentiles: Paul's Letters to the Galatians and Romans . Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994.

Bornkamm, Günther. "The Letter to the Romans as Paul's Last Will and Testament." RomDeb , 16-28.

Boswell, John. Christianity , Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980.

Bruce, F.F. "The Romans Debate -Continued." RomDeb , 177-194.

Campbell, William S. "Romans III as a Key to the Structure and Thought of the Letter." RomDeb , 251-264.

Carson, D.A. Exegetical Fallacies . Grand Rapids: Baker, 1984.

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. The Table Talk and Omniana of Samuel Taylor Coleridge . London: Oxford University Press, 1917.

Cooper, John W. Body , Soul, and Life Everlasting: Biblical Anthropology and the Monism-Dualism Debate . Grand Rapids: Baker, 1989.

Corson, John. " Faith Alone Involves Obedience, Too!" Christian Standard . (10/2/77), pp. 5-6.

Cottrell, Jack. Baptism : A Biblical Study . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1989.

. "Baptism According to the Reformed Tradition ." In Baptism and the Remission of Sins . Ed. by David W. Fletcher. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1990. Pp. 39-81.

. "The Biblical Consensus : Historical Backgrounds to Reformed Theology." In Baptism and the Remission of Sins . Ed. by David W. Fletcher. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1990. Pp. 17-38.

. " Covenant and Baptism in the Theology of Huldreich Zwingli." Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Theological Seminary, 1971.

. " Faith , History, and the Resurrection Body of Jesus," The Seminary Review (Dec. 1982): 28:143-160.

. Faith's Fundamentals : Seven Essentials of Christian Belief . Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, 1995.

. Gender Roles and the Bible: Creation, the Fall, and Redemption . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1994.

. His Truth . 2nd ed. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1989.

. Thirteen Lessons on Grace . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1988.

. What the Bible Says about God the Creator . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1984.

. What the Bible Says about God the Redeemer . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1987.

. What the Bible Says about God the Ruler . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1984.

Delling, G. "lambavnw, etc." TDNT, IV:5-15.

DeYoung, James B. "The Meaning of 'Nature' in Romans 1." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society , 31 (December 1988): 429-441.

Donfried, Karl P. "False Presuppositions in the Study of Romans." RomDeb , 102-125.

, ed. The Romans Debate . Revised & expanded edition. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991.

. "A Short Note on Romans 16." RomDeb , 44-52.

Erickson, Millard J. The Evangelical Mind and Heart . Grand Rapids: Baker, 1993.

Fiensy, David A. New Testament Introduction . The College Press NIV Commentary. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1994.

Foerster, Werner. "swvzw, etc." TDNT, VII:965-1024.

Friedrich, Gerhard. "eujaggelivzomai, etc." TDNT, II:707-737.

Fuller, Daniel P. The Unity of the Bible: Unfolding God's Plan for Humanity . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992.

Gaertner, Dennis. "Romans: Gospel of God's Fairness ." Christian Standard , part 1 (12/20/87), pp. 14-16; and part 2 (12/27/87), pp. 4-6.

Graber, Friedrich. "All, Many." The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology . Ed. by Colin Brown. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1975. I:94-97.

Gromacki, Robert. The Virgin Birth : Doctrine of Deity . Nashville: Nelson, 1974.

Gundry, Robert H. Sôma in Biblical Theology: With Emphasis on Pauline Anthropology . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987.

Harris, M.J. " Prepositions and Theology in the Greek New Testament." Appendix. The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology . Ed. by Colin Brown. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978. III:1171-1213.

Hobbs, A. I. " Conversion : What Is It, and How Produced?" In The Old Faith Restated . Ed. by J.H. Garrison. St. Louis: Christian Publishing Company, 1891. Pp. 254-274.

Hodges, Zane C. Absolutely Free . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989.

Jervell, Jacob. "The Letter to Jerusalem." RomDeb , 53-64.

Jeremias, Joachim. The Central Message of the New Testament . London: SCM Press, 1965.

Jewett, Robert. "Following the Argument of Romans." RomDeb , 265-277.

Kittel, Gerhard, and Gerhard Friedrich, eds. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament . Tr. & ed. by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. 10 vols. Grand Rapid: Eerdmans, 1964-1976.

Klein, Günter. "Paul's Purpose in Writing the Epistle to the Romans." RomDeb , 29-43.

Lamar, J.S. "The Ground of Man's Need of Salvation." In The Old Faith Restated . Ed. by J.H. Garrison. St. Louis: Christian Publishing Company, 1891. Pp. 98-119.

Lewis, C.S. The Abolition of Man . New York: Macmillan, 1947.

Luther, Martin. "Preface to the Complete Edition of Luther's Latin Writings ." In Vol. 34: Career of the Reformer IV . Luther's Works (American Edition). Ed. by Lewis W. Spitz and Helmut T. Lehmann. Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press, 1960. Pp. 327-338.

. " Preface to the Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans." In Vol. 35: Word and Sacrament I . Luther's Works (American Edition). Ed. by E. Theodore Bachmann and Helmut T. Lehmann. Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press, 1960. Pp. 365-380.

MacArthur, John F., Jr. The Gospel According to Jesus: What Does Jesus Mean When He Says, "Follow Me"? Revised ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994.

Maurer, Christian. " ." TDNT, VIII:557-558.

. "pravssw, etc." TDNT, VI:632-644.

Milligan, Robert. Exposition and Defense of the Scheme of Redemption . St. Louis: Bethany Press, n.d.

Moreland, J.P., and David Ciocchi, eds. Christian Perspectives on Being Human: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Integration . Grand Rapids: Baker, 1993.

Morris, Leon. The Apostolic Preaching of the Cross . 3 ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965.

Murray, John. The Imputation of Adam's Sin . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959.

Nash, Donald A. "A Critique of the New International Version of the New Testament." Cincinnati: Christian Restoration Association, n.d.

Oepke, Albrecht. "kaqivsthmi, etc." TDNT, III:444-447.

Reese, Gareth L. New Testament History: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Acts . 2nd ed. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1976.

Rengstorf, Karl Heinrich. "dou'lo", etc." TDNT, II:261-280.

Ridderbos, Herman. Paul : An Outline of His Theology . Tr. by John R. de Witt. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975.

Rueda, Enrique. The Homosexual Network : Private Lives and Public Policy . Old Greenwich, CT: Devin Adair, 1982.

Ryrie, Charles C. So Great Salvation : What It Means to Believe in Jesus Christ . Wheaton: Scripture Press/Victor Books, 1989.

Sanders, E.P. Paul and Palestinian Judaism . London: SCM, 1977.

Schaff, Philip. " Preface ." In John Peter Lange, Commentary on the Holy Scriptures: Romans . Tr. by Philip Schaff. Grand Rapids: Zondervan reprint, n.d.

Schneider, Johannes. "parabaivnw, paravbasi", etc." TDNT, V:736-744.

Schrenk, Gottlob. "iJerov", etc." TDNT, III:221-283.

Spicq, Ceslas. Theological Lexicon of the New Testament . Tr. by James D. Ernest. 3 volumes. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994.

Stendahl, Krister. Paul Among Jews and Gentiles and Other Essays . Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1976.

Stuhlmacher, Peter. "The Purpose of Romans." RomDeb , 231-242.

. "The Theme of Romans." RomDeb , 333-345.

Thielman, Frank. Paul and the Law: A Contextual Approach . Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1994.

Thiessen, Henry. Introduction to the New Testament . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1944.

Trench, Richard Chenevix. Synonyms of the New Testament . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1958.

Tyndale, William. "A Prologe to the Epistle of Paule to the Romayns." In The New Testament, Translated by William Tyndale, 1534 . Ed. by N. Hardy Wallis. Cambridge: University Press, 1938. Pp. 293-318.

Unger, Merrill F. Unger's Bible Dictionary . 3rd ed. Chicago: Moody Press, 1966.

Vincent, Marvin R. The Epistles of Paul . Vol. III in Word Studies in the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1973 reprint of 1887 edition.

Watson, Francis. "The Two Roman Congregations : Romans 14:1-15:13." RomDeb , 203-215.

Wesley, John. Journal from October 14, 1735, to November 29, 1745 . Vol. I in The Works of John Wesley. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, reprint of 1872 ed.

Wedderburn, A.J.M. "The Purpose and Occasion of Romans Again," RomDeb , 195-202.

Wiefel, Wolfgang. "The Jewish Community in Ancient Rome and the Origins of Roman Christianity." RomDeb , 85-101.

Wiens, Delbert. "An Exegesis of Romans 5:12-21." Journal of Church and Society (Fall 1969): 5:42-54.

Williams, Philip R. "Paul's Purpose in Writing Romans." Bibliotheca Sacra (January-March 1971): 128:62-67.

Young, Richard. Intermediate N.T. Greek : A Linguistic and Exegetical Approach . Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY TO VOLUME 2

The following bibliography includes commentaries, books, and articles cited in the text and footnotes of this work. Citations include a minimum of information; the reader must use this list for full titles and bibliographical data.

When commentaries are cited, only the author's name and page number are given. When other sources are cited, usually just the author's name and an abbreviated title (in bold print below) are given. Some sources are cited with an even more abbreviated reference (see list of abbreviations).

I. COMMENTARIES

Achtemeier, Paul J. Romans . Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1985.

Barrett, C.K. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . Harper's New Testament Commentaries. New York: Harper & Row, 1957; reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987.

Black, Matthew. Romans . 2nd ed. New Century Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989.

Bruce, F.F. The Epistle of Paul to the Romans . Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1963.

Brunner, Emil. The Letter to the Romans: A Commentary . Trans. H.A. Kennedy. London: Lutterworth Press, 1959.

Calvin, John. Commentaries on the Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans . Trans. John Owen. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1947 reprint.

Cottrell, Jack. Romans , Vol. 1. The College Press NIV Commentary. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1996.

Cranfield, C.E.B. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . 2 vols. The International Critical Commentary, n.s. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1975 (1990 corrected printing).

Denney, James. "St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans." In The Expositor's Greek Testament , ed. W. Robertson Nicoll, II:555-725. New York: George H. Doran, n.d.

DeWelt, Don. Romans Realized . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1959.

Dodd, C.H. The Epistle of Paul to the Romans . New York: Harper & Brothers, 1932.

Dunn, James D.G. Romans . 2 vols. Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word Books, 1988.

Earle, Ralph. Romans . Vol. 3 of Word Meanings in the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1974.

Edwards, James R. Romans . New International Biblical Commentary. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1992.

Fitzmyer, Joseph A. Romans: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary . The Anchor Bible. New York: Doubleday, 1993.

Godet, Frederic L. Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . Trans. A. Cusin. Ed. Talbot W. Chambers. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1956 reprint of 1883 ed.

Griffith Thomas, W.H. Romans: A Devotional Commentary . 3 vols. London: Religious Tract Society, n.d.

Haldane, Robert. An Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans . MacDill AFB: MacDonald Publishing, 1958.

Harrison, Everett F. "Romans." In The Expositor's Bible Commentary , Volume 10, pp. 1-171. Ed. Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976.

Hendriksen, William. New Testament Commentary: Exposition of Paul's Epistle to the Romans . 2 vols. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980-1981.

Hughes, R. Kent. Romans: Righteousness from Heaven . Preaching the Word. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 1991.

Käsemann, Ernst. Commentary on Romans . Trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980.

Lard, Moses E. Commentary on Paul's Letter to Romans . Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, n.d.

Lenski, R.C.H. The Interpretation of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans . Columbus, OH: Wartburg Press, 1945.

Lloyd-Jones, D.M. Romans: An Exposition of Chapter 9 - God's Sovereign Purpose . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1991.

Luther, Martin. Luther: Lectures on Romans . Ed. & Trans. Wilhelm Pauck. Vol. XV of The Library of Christian Classics. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1961.

MacArthur, John, Jr. Romans . 2 vols. The MacArthur New Testament Commentary. Chicago: Moody, 1991, 1994.

McGarvey, J.W., and Philip Y. Pendleton. Thessalonians, Corinthians, Galatians, and Romans . Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, n.d.

McGuiggan, Jim. The Book of Romans . Lubbock, TX: Montex Publishing Company, 1982.

Moo, Douglas. The Epistle to the Romans . The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996.

Morris, Leon. The Epistle to the Romans . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988.

Moule, H.C.G. The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans . The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. Cambridge: The University Press, 1918.

Mounce, Robert H. Romans . Vol. 27 of The New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995.

Murray, John. The Epistle to the Romans . 2 vols. New International Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959, 1965.

Newman, Barclay M., and Eugene A. Nida. A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letter to the Romans . London: United Bible Societies, 1973.

Nygren, Anders. Commentary on Romans . Trans. Carl C. Rasmussen. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1949.

Sanday, William, and Arthur C. Headlam. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans . 2nd ed. The International Critical Commentary, o.s. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, n.d.

Shedd, William G.T. A Critical and Doctrinal Commentary on the Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1967 reprint of 1879 edition.

Smith, Sherwood. Thirteen Lessons on Romans . Vol. 1 (1979). Thirteen Lessons on Romans . Vol. 2 (1981). Joplin, MO: College Press.

Stott, John. Romans: God's Good News for the World . Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1994.

Vanderlip, George. Paul and Romans . Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, 1967.

Wuest, Kenneth S. Romans in the Greek New Testament for the English Reader . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1955.

II. MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS AND ARTICLES

Arndt, William F., and F. Wilbur Gingrich. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature . 4th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957.

Bilezikian, Gilbert. Beyond Sex Roles . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1990.

Büchsel, Friedrich. "krivnw [etc.]." TDNT . III:921-954.

Cottrell, Jack. Baptism : A Biblical Study . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1989.

. "Baptism According to the Reformed Tradition ." In Baptism and the Remission of Sins , ed. David W. Fletcher, pp. 39-81. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1990.

. "The Biblical Consensus : Historical Backgrounds to Reformed Theology." In Baptism and the Remission of Sins , ed. David W. Fletcher, pp. 17-38. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1990.

. Faith's Fundamentals : Seven Essentials of Christian Belief . Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, 1995.

. Feminism and the Bible: An Introduction to Feminism for Christians . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1992.

. " 1 Timothy 2:12 and the Role of Women." Four parts. Christian Standard , January 10, 1993, pp. 4-6; January 17, 1993, pp. 4-6; January 24, 1993, pp. 4-6; January 31, 1993, pp. 4-6.

. " Priscilla , Phoebe, and Company." Christian Standard , December 12, 1993, pp. 4-5.

. " Response to My Critics." Three parts. Christian Standard , November 21, 1993, pp. 5-6; November 28, 1993, pp. 4-6; December 5, 1993, pp. 4-6.

. Tough Questions , Biblical Answers. Part Two. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1986.

. What the Bible Says about God the Creator . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1983.

. What the Bible Says about God the Redeemer . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1987.

. What the Bible Says about God the Ruler . Joplin, MO: College Press, 1984.

Delling, Gerhard. " , ." TDNT . VIII:523-524.

. "tavssw [etc.]." TDNT . VIII:27-32.

Donfried, Karl P., ed. The Romans Debate , revised & expanded edition. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991.

. "A Short Note on Romans 16." RomDeb , 44-52.

Forster, Roger T., and V. Paul Marston. God's Strategy in Human History . Wheaton: Tyndale House, 1974.

Fürst, Dieter. " Confess ." In The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology , ed. Colin Brown, I:344-348. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1975.

Gaertner, Dennis. Acts . The College Press NIV Commentary. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1993.

Hoekema, Anthony A. The Bible and the Future . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979.

Hübner, Hans. "a[timo"." In Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testamen t, ed. Horst Balz & Gerhard Schneider, I:177. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990.

Keil, C.F. and F. Delitzsch. The Pentateuch . Trans. by James Martin. Vol. 1 of Commentary on the Old Testament in Ten Volumes. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981.

Kittel, Gerhard, and Gerhard Friedrich, eds. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament . Trans. & ed. Geoffrey W. Bromiley. 10 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964-1976.

Köster, Helmut. "tevmnw [etc.]." TDNT . VIII:106-112.

Lampe, Peter. "The Roman Christians of Romans 16 ." RomDeb , 216-230.

Lewis, C.S. The Four Loves . London: Geoffrey Bles, 1960.

Michaelis, W. "mavcaira." TDNT . IV:524-527.

Nash, Donald A. "A Critique of the New International Version of the New Testament." Cincinnati: Christian Restoration Association, n.d.

Oepke, Albrecht. "zevw, zestov"." TDNT . II:875-877.

Pentecost, J. Dwight. Things To Come . Findlay, OH: Dunham, 1958.

Pinnock, Clark H. "From Augustine to Arminius: A Pilgrimage in Theology." In The Grace of God, the Will of Man: A Case for Arminianism , ed. Clark H. Pinnock, pp. 15-30. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989.

Piper, John. The Justification of God: An Exegetical and Theological Study of Romans 9:1-23 . 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1993.

Reicke, Bo. "proi?sthmi." TDNT . VI:700-703.

Schreiner, Thomas R. "Does Romans 9 Teach Individual Election unto Salvation?" In vol. 1 of The Grace of God, the Bondage of the Will , ed. Thomas R. Schreiner and Bruce A. Ware, pp. 89-106. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995.

Schüssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth. In Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of Christian Origins . New York: Crossroad, 1987.

Shank, Robert. Elect in the Son: A Study of the Doctrine of Election . Springfield, MO: Westcott Publishers, 1970.

Sherlock, William. A Discourse Concerning the Divine Providence . Pittsburgh: J.L. Read, 1848.

Spencer, Aida B. Beyond the Curse : Women Called to Ministry . Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1985.

Spicq, Ceslas. Theological Lexicon of the New Testament . 3 vol. Trans. James D. Ernest. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994.

Stählin, Gustav. " [etc.]." TDNT . IX:113-171.

. "skavndalon, skandalivzw." TDNT . VII:339-358.

Stendahl, Krister. Paul Among Jews and Gentiles and Other Essays . Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1976.

Trench, Richard Chenevix. Synonyms of the New Testament . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1958.

Walters, James. "' Phoebe ' and 'Junia(s)' - Rom. 16:1-2, 7." In Vol. 1 of Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity , ed. Carroll D. Osburn, pp. 167-190. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1993.

Weiss, K. "fevrw [etc.]." TDNT . IX:56-87.

Wright, N.T. The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline Theology . Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993.

. "The Messiah and the People of God." Oxford University: D.Phil. dissertation, 1980.

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ABBREVIATIONS

AG Arndt and Gingrich, Greek lexicon

ASV American Standard Version

GC God the Creator, by Jack Cottrell

GRe God the Redeemer, by Jack Cottrell

GRu God the Ruler, by Jack Cottrell

KJV King James Version

LB Living Bible

LXX Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT)

MP McGarvey-Pendleton Romans commentary

NAB New American Bible

NASB New American Standard Bible

NEB New English Bible

NIV New International Version

NRSV New Revised Standard Version

NT New Testament

OT Old Testament

RomDeb The Romans Debate, by Karl Donfried

RSV Revised Standard Version

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the NT, ed. Kittel

TEV Today's English Version

For fuller titles and publishing information on books, see the Bibliography.

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College: Romans (Outline)

VIII. OUTLINE

PROLOGUE - 1:1-17

I. EPISTOLARY GREETING - 1:1-7

A. The Author Introduces Himself - 1:1

1. A Slave of Christ Jesus

2. Called to Be an Apostle

3. Set Apart for the Gospel of God

B. The Gospel and the Old Testament - 1:2

C. The Subject of the Gospel Is Jesus - 1:3-4

1. The Two Natures of Jesus

2. The Incarnation

3. Messiahship

4. The Two States of Jesus

5. The Resurrection of Jesus

6. The Son's Full Identity

D. Paul's Apostleship - 1:5

1. The Origin of Paul's Apostleship

2. The Character of Paul's Apostleship

3. The Focus of Paul's Apostleship

4. The Purpose of Paul's Apostleship

5. The Goal of Paul's Apostleship

E. The Recipients of Paul's Letter - 1:6-7a

F. The Blessing - 1:7b

II. PERSONAL REMARKS - 1:8-15

A. Paul's Prayers for the Romans - 1:8-10

B. Paul's Desires Regarding Rome - 1:11-13

C. Paul's Debt to the Romans - 1:14-15

III. TRANSITIONAL STATEMENT - 1:16-17

A. The Glory of the Gospel - 1:16a

B. The Power of the Gospel - 1:16b

C. The Scope of the Gospel - 1:16c

D. Faith and the Gospel - 1:16c

1. Faith Is a Condition for Salvation

2. Faith Is Not the Only Condition

E. The Heart of the Gospel - 1:17a

F. The Golden Text of the Gospel - 1:17b

PART ONE:

THE IMPOTENCE OF LAW AS A WAY OF SALVATION - 1:18-3:20

I. THE SINFULNESS OF THE GENTILES - 1:18-32

A. Universal Knowledge of God and His Law - 1:18-20

B. Universal Rejection of the True God - 1:21-25

C. The Utter Depths of Gentile Depravity - 1:26-32

II. THE SINFULNESS OF THE JEWS - 2:1-3:8

A. Jews Are Under the Wrath of God, No Less Than the Gentiles - 2:1-5

B. God Will Be Partial to No One in the Judgment - 2:6-11

C. Under Law, the Criterion of Judgment Is Obedience Alone- 2:12-16

D. Jews Who Look to the Law for Salvation Are Condemned by Their Own Disobedience - 2:17-24

E. True Jewishness Is Identified Not by Circumcision but by the Inward State of the Heart - 2:25-29

F. Such Equal Treatment of Jews and Gentiles Does Not Nullify But Rather Magnifies God's Righteousness - 3:1-8

III. UNIVERSAL SINFULNESS AND HOPELESSNESS UNDER LAW - 3:9-20

PART TWO:

THE ALL-SUFFICIENCY OF GRACE AS A WAY OF SALVATION - 3:21-5:21

I. GRACE AS JUSTIFICATION BY CHRIST'S BLOOD THROUGH FAITH - 3:21-31

A. Righteousness Through Faith Is Now Fully Revealed - 3:21-23

B. Sinners Are Justified by the Blood of Christ - 3:24-26

C. Sinners Are Justified by Faith Apart from Works of Law - 3:27-28

D. The Way of Grace Is Available to All - 3:29-30

E. Grace Lets Law Do Its Proper Work - 3:31

II. ABRAHAM: PARADIGM OF GRACE - 4:1-25

A. Abraham Was Justified by Faith Apart from Works - 4:1-5

B. David Explains and Confirms Justification by Faith Apart from Works - 4:6-8

C. Membership in Abraham's Family Is by Faith, Not by Circumcision - 4:9-12

D. The Inheritance Promised to Abraham Comes by Faith, Not by Law - 4:13-17a

E. Faith Means Giving Glory to God and Believing His Promises - 4:17b-22

F. Those Who Believe Like Abraham Are Justified Like Abraham - 4:23-25

III. GRACE AND ASSURANCE - 5:1-21

A. Assurance of Personal Salvation - 5:1-11

1. Justification by Faith Is the Key to Assurance - 5:1-2

2. Tribulations of Believers Do Not Nullify Assurance - 5:3-5

3. Christ Died for Us While We Were Still Sinners - 5:6-8

4. Our Hope Is Even More Secure Now That We Are His Friends - 5:9-11

B. The All-Sufficiency of the Death of Christ - 5:12-21

1. One Sin of One Man (Adam) Brought Sin and Death to All - 5:12-14

2. Christ and His Sacrifice Are Greater Than Adam and His Sin - 5:15-17

3. Christ's Cross Completely Cancels the Results of Adam's Sin - 5:18-19

4. Grace Triumphs over Sin and Death - 5:20-21

PART THREE:

THE ALL-SUFFICIENCY OF GRACE GIVES VICTORY OVER SIN - 6:1-8:39

I. OBJECTIONS TO GRACE BASED ON A FEAR OF ANTINOMIANISM - 6:1-7:13

A. Does Grace Make Sin Irrelevant? NO! - 6:1-14

B. Does Freedom from Law Mean We Are Free to Sin? NO!- 6:15-7:6

1. We Are Slaves to God - 6:15-23

2. We Obey God from Our Hearts - 7:1-6

C. Does Grace Mean That Law Is Bad? NO! - 7:7-13

II. GRACE GIVES VICTORY OVER SIN - 7:14-8:13

A. The Christian Continues to Struggle Against Sin - 7:14-25

1. The Nature of the Struggle - 7:14-20

2. The Source of the Struggle - 7:21-25

B. Victory over Sin Comes Through the Holy Spirit - 8:1-13

1. God Frees Us from Sin's Penalty and Power - 8:1-4

2. Sin and Death Are Defeated in Us Through the Holy Spirit - 8:5-13

III. THE ASSURANCE OF FINAL AND TOTAL VICTORY OVER THE FALLEN WORLD - 8:14-39

A. The Holy Spirit Marks Us as Sons and Heirs - 8:14-17

B. The Redeemed Cosmos Is Our Inheritance - 8:18-25

C. God Promises to Bring His Family Through Earthly Trials - 8:26-30

D. God's Gracious Love Gives Us Unshakable Assurance - 8:31-39

PART FOUR:

THE FAITHFULNESS OF GOD

IN HIS DEALINGS WITH THE JEWS - 9:1-11:36

I. THE PROBLEM OF ISRAEL: THE AGONY AND THE ECSTASY OF THE JEWISH NATION - 9:1-5

A. Israel's Agony: They Are Accursed - 9:1-3

B. Israel's Ecstasy: They Are Recipients of Unspeakably Glorious Privileges - 9:4-5

II. THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN ETHNIC AND SPIRITUAL ISRAEL - 9:6-29

A. Israel's Situation and God's Faithfulness - 9:6-13

1. God's Word Concerning Israel Has Not Failed - 9:6a

2. The Key to the Puzzle: the Existence of Two Israels - 9:6b

3. Ethnic Israel Exists by God's Sovereign Choice - 9:7-13

a. The Choice of Isaac - 9:7-9

b. The Choice of Jacob - 9:10-13

B. God's Right to Choose and Use People without Saving Them - 9:14-18

1. God's Righteousness Is Challenged - 9:14

2. God's Sovereignty in Election for Service - 9:15-16

3. God's Purposes Can Be Served by the Unsaved - 9:17-18

C. God Used Ethnic Israel to Produce Spiritual Israel - 9:19-29

1. The Objection - 9:19

2. Paul's Initial Rebuke of the Objector's Attitude - 9:20-21

3. Beyond Ethnic Israel to Spiritual Israel - 9:22-24

a. The Calvinist View

b. Seeing Paul Through Non-Calvinist Eyes

4. Prophetic Confirmation of God's Purpose - 9:25-29

III. ISRAEL'S CHOICE OF LAW RATHER THAN GRACE 9:30-10:21

A. Personal Righteousness Versus the Righteousness of God- 9:30-10:3

1. The Reason for the Gentiles' Acceptance - 9:30

2. The Reason for the Jews' Lostness - 9:31-33

3. The Jews' Rejection of God's Righteousness - 10:1-3

B. Christ Alone Is the Source of Saving Righteousness - 10:4-13

1. An Either-Or Choice: Works-Righteousness, or Faith in Christ - 10:4

2. The Futility of Law-Righteousness - 10:5

3. Saving Righteousness Comes through Trusting Christ's Works, Not Our Own - 10:6-10

4. God's Righteousness Is Available Equally to Jews and Gentiles - 10:11-13

C. The Jews Have Not Believed in Christ, and Their Unbelief Is Inexcusable - 10:14-21

1. The Necessary Prerequisites to Saving Faith - 10:14-15

2. Most Jews Have Not Believed the Gospel Message - 10:16

3. The Jews' Problem Is Not Ignorance but Stubbornness of Will - 10:17-21

IV. THE SALVATION OF GOD'S TRUE ISRAEL - 11:1-32

A. God's True Israel Is the Remnant Chosen by Grace - 11:1-6

1. God Has Not Rejected His People - 11:1-2a

2. God Had a Remnant of Believers in the OT - 11:2b-4

3. Those under Grace Are God's New Covenant Israel - 11:5-6

B. Unbelieving Israel Has Been Hardened - 11:7-10

C. The Hardening of Unbelieving Israel Becomes a Blessing

for Both the Gentiles and the Jews - 11:11-16

D. The Olive Tree: A Metaphor of Judgment and Hope - 11:17-24

1. Words of Warning to Gentile Christians - 11:17-22

2. Words of Hope for Hardened Jews - 11:23-24

E. God's Plan for Israel's Salvation - 11:25-32

1. The Mystery of Israel's Salvation - 11:25-27

2. God's Continuing Love for Israel - 11:28-29

3. God's Ultimate Purpose Is Mercy - 11:30-32

V. DOXOLOGY: GOD'S WAY IS RIGHT - 11:33-36

PART FIVE:

LIVING THE SANCTIFIED LIFE - 12:1-15:13

I. A CATALOGUE OF VIRTUES - 12:1-13:14

A. Grace Demands a Transformed Life - 12:1-2

B. Using the Gifts of Grace for Unselfish Service - 12:3-8

C. Miscellaneous Moral Teaching - 12:9-16

D. Personal Vengeance Is Forbidden - 12:17-21

E. The Relation between Citizens and Government - 13:1-7

F. The Relation between Love and Law - 13:8-10

G. Walking in the Light - 13:11-14

II. CHRISTIAN LIBERTY IN MATTERS OF OPINION - 14:1-15:13

A. Do Not Judge Others in Matters of Opinion - 14:1-12

1. We Should Accept All Whom God Has Accepted - 14:1-3

2. We Answer to Our Lord and Not to Each Other - 14:4-9

3. Each of Us Will Be Judged by God - 14:10-12

B. The Stewardship of Christian Liberty 14:13-23

1. We Must Sacrifice Our Liberty for the Sake of the Weak - 14:13-15

2. Do Not Allow What You Consider Good to Be Spoken of as Evil - 14:16-18

3. We Must Do Only Those Things Which Build Others Up - 14:19-21

4. Each Christian Must Be True to His Own Convictions - 14:22-23

C. Living in Unity and Hope - 15:1-13

1. Selfless Service Produces a Unified Witness - 15:1-6

2. Through Christ's Selfless Service, Jews and Gentiles Glorify God Together - 15:7-12

3. A Prayer That All Believers May Abound in Hope - 15:13

PART SIX:

PERSONAL MESSAGES FROM PAUL - 15:14-16:27

I. PAUL'S MINISTRY AS THE APOSTLE TO THE GENTILES - 15:14-33

A. Reflections on His Past Service - 15:14-22

B. His Plans for the Future - 15:23-29

C. His Request for Prayer - 15:30-33

II. PAUL AND HIS FELLOW WORKERS - 16:1-24

A. Commendation of Phoebe - 16:1-2

B. Greetings to Individual Acquaintances - 16:3-16

C. Warnings against False Teachers - 16:17-20

D. Greetings from Paul's Companions - 16:21-24

III. CONCLUDING DOXOLOGY - 16:25-27

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV