Text -- Revelation 1:1-6 (NET)

The Prologue

1:1 The revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him to show his servants what must happen very soon. He made it clear by sending his angel to his servant John, 1:2 who then testified to everything that he saw concerning the word of God and the testimony about Jesus Christ. 1:3 Blessed is the one who reads the words of this prophecy aloud, and blessed are those who hear and obey the things written in it, because the time is near! 1:4 From John, to the seven churches that are in the province of Asia: Grace and peace to you from “he who is,” and who was, and who is still to come, and from the seven spirits who are before his throne, 1:5 and from Jesus Christ– the faithful witness, the firstborn from among the dead, the ruler over the kings of the earth. To the one who loves us and has set us free from our sins at the cost of his own blood 1:6 and has appointed us as a kingdom, as priests serving his God and Father– to him be the glory and the power for ever and ever! Amen.

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Robertson: Rev 1:1

The Revelation ( apokalupsis ).

Late and rare word outside of N.T. (once in Plutarch and so in the vernacular Koiné ), only once in the Gospels (Luk 2:32), but in lxx and common in the Epistles (2Th 1:7), though only here in this book besides the title, from apokaluptō , old verb, to uncover, to unveil. In the Epistles apokalupsis is used for insight into truth (Eph 1:17) or for the revelation of God or Christ at the second coming of Christ (2Th 1:7; 1Pe 1:7). It is interesting to compare apokalupsis with epiphaneia (2Th 2:8) and phanerōsis (1Co 12:7). The precise meaning here turns on the genitive following.

Robertson: Rev 1:1

Of Jesus Christ ( Iēsou Christou ).

Hort takes it as objective genitive (revelation about Jesus Christ), but Swete rightly argues for the subjective genitive because of the next clause.

Robertson: Rev 1:1

Gave him ( edōken autoi ).

It is the Son who received the revelation from the Father, as is usual (Joh 5:20-23f., Joh 5:26, etc.).

Robertson: Rev 1:1

To shew ( deixai ).

First aorist active infinitive of deiknumi , purpose of God in giving the revelation to Christ.

Robertson: Rev 1:1

Unto his servants ( tois doulois autou ).

Believers in general and not just to officials. Dative case. God’ s servants (or Christ’ s).

Robertson: Rev 1:1

Must shortly come to pass ( dei genesthai en tachei ).

Second aorist middle infinitive of ginomai with dei . See this same adjunct (en tachei ) in Luk 18:8; Rom 16:20; Rev 22:6. It is a relative term to be judged in the light of 2Pe 3:8 according to God’ s clock, not ours. And yet undoubtedly the hopes of the early Christians looked for a speedy return of the Lord Jesus. This vivid panorama must be read in the light of that glorious hope and of the blazing fires of persecution from Rome.

Robertson: Rev 1:1

Sent and signified ( esēmanen aposteilas ).

"Having sent"(first aorist active participle of apostellō , Mat 10:16 and again in Rev 22:6 of God sending his angel) "signified"(first aorist active indicative of sēmainō , from sēma , sign or token, for which see Joh 12:33; Act 11:28). See Rev 12:1 for sēmeion , though sēmainō (only here in the Apocalypse) suits admirably the symbolic character of the book.

Robertson: Rev 1:1

By his angel ( dia tou aggelou autou ).

Christ’ s angel as Christ is the subject of the verb esēmanen , as in Rev 22:16 Christ sends his angel, though in Rev 22:6 God sends.

Robertson: Rev 1:1

Unto his servant John ( tōi doulōi autou Iōanei ).

Dative case. John gives his name here, though not in Gospel or Epistles, because "prophecy requires the guarantee of the individual who is inspired to utter it"(Milligan). "The genesis of the Apocalypse has now been traced from its origin in the Mind of God to the moment when it reached its human interpreter"(Swete). "Jesus is the medium of all revelation"(Moffatt).

Robertson: Rev 1:2

Bare witness ( emarturēsen ).

First aorist active indicative of martureō , which, along with martus and marturia , is common in all the Johannine books (cf. Rev 22:18, Rev 22:20), usually with peri or hoti , but with cognate accusative as here in Rev 22:16, Rev 22:20; 1Jo 5:10. Epistolary aorist here, referring to this book.

Robertson: Rev 1:2

The word of God ( ton logon tou theou ).

Subjective genitive, given by God. The prophetic word as in Rev 1:9; Rev 6:9; Rev 20:4, not the personal Word as in Rev 19:14.

Robertson: Rev 1:2

The testimony of Jesus Christ ( tēn marturian Iēsou Christou ).

Subjective genitive again, borne witness to by Jesus Christ.

Robertson: Rev 1:2

Even of all the things that he saw ( hosa eiden ).

Relative clause in apposition with logon and marturian .

Robertson: Rev 1:3

Blessed ( makarios ).

As in Mat 5:3. This endorses the book as a whole.

Robertson: Rev 1:3

He that readeth ( ho anaginōskōn ).

Present active singular articular participle of anaginōskō (as in Luk 4:16). Christians in their public worship followed the Jewish custom of public reading of the Scriptures (2Co 3:14.). The church reader (anagnōstēs , lector) gradually acquired an official position. John expects this book to be read in each of the seven churches mentioned (Rev 1:4) and elsewhere. Today the public reading of the Bible is an important part of worship that is often poorly done.

Robertson: Rev 1:3

They that hear ( hoi akouontes ).

Present active plural articular participle of akouō (the audience).

Robertson: Rev 1:3

And keep ( kai tērountes ).

Present active participle of tēreō , a common Johannine word (1Jo 2:4, etc.). Cf. Mat 7:24. "The content of the Apocalypse is not merely prediction; moral counsel and religious instruction are the primary burdens of its pages"(Moffatt).

Robertson: Rev 1:3

Written ( gegrammena ).

Perfect passive participle of graphō .

Robertson: Rev 1:3

For the time is at hand ( ho gar kairos eggus ).

Reason for listening and keeping. On kairos see Mat 12:1, time of crisis as in 1Co 7:29. How near eggus (at hand) is we do not know any more than we do about en tachei (shortly) in Rev 1:1.

Robertson: Rev 1:4

To the seven churches which are in Asia ( tais hepta ekklēsiais tais en tēi Asiāi ).

Dative case as in a letter (Gal 1:1). John is writing, but the revelation is from God and Christ through an angel. It is the Roman province of Asia which included the western part of Phrygia. There were churches also at Troas (Act 20:5.) and at Colossal and Hierapolis (Col 1:1; Col 2:1; Col 4:13) and possibly at Magnesia and Tralles. But these seven were the best points of communication with seven districts (Ramsay) and, besides, seven is a favorite number of completion (like the full week) in the book (Rev 1:4, Rev 1:12, Rev 1:16; Rev 4:5; Rev 5:1, Rev 5:6; Rev 8:2; Rev 10:3; Rev 11:13; Rev 12:3; Rev 13:1; Rev 14:6.).

Robertson: Rev 1:4

From him which is ( apo ho ōn ).

This use of the articular nominative participle of eimi after apo instead of the ablative is not due to ignorance or a mere slip (lapsus pennae ), for in the next line we have the regular idiom with apo tōn hepta pneumatōn . It is evidently on purpose to call attention to the eternity and unchangeableness of God. Used of God in Exo 3:14.

Robertson: Rev 1:4

And which was ( kai ho ēn ).

Here again there is a deliberate change from the articular participle to the relative use of ho (used in place of hos to preserve identity of form in the three instances like Ionic relative and since no aorist participle of eimi existed). The oracle in Pausanias X. 12 has it: Zeus ēn , Zeus esti , Zeus essetai (Zeus was, Zeus is, Zeus will be).

Robertson: Rev 1:4

Which is to come ( ho erchomenos ).

"The Coming One,"futuristic use of the present participle instead of ho esomenos . See the same idiom in Rev 1:8; Rev 4:8 and (without ho erchomenos ) in Rev 11:17; Rev 16:5.

Robertson: Rev 1:4

From the seven spirits ( apo tōn hepta pneumatōn ).

A difficult symbolic representation of the Holy Spirit here on a par with God and Christ, a conclusion borne out by the symbolic use of the seven spirits in Rev 3:1; Rev 4:5; Rev 5:6 (from Zec 4:2-10). There is the one Holy Spirit with seven manifestations here to the seven churches (Swete, The Holy Spirit in the N.T. , p. 374), unity in diversity (1Co 12:4).

Robertson: Rev 1:4

Which are ( tōn article Aleph A, ha relative P).

Robertson: Rev 1:4

Before his throne ( enōpion tou thronou autou ).

As in Rev 4:5.

Robertson: Rev 1:5

Who is the faithful witness ( ho martus ho pistos ).

"The witness the faithful,"nominative in apposition like prōtotokos and archōn with the preceding ablative Iēsou Christou with apo , a habit of John in this book (apparently on purpose) as in Rev 2:13, Rev 2:20; Rev 3:12, etc. See this same phrase in Rev 2:13; Rev 3:14. The use of martus of Jesus here is probably to the witness (Rev 1:1) in this book (Rev 22:16.), not to the witness of Jesus before Pilate (1Ti 6:13).

Robertson: Rev 1:5

The first-born of the dead ( ho prōtotokos tōn nekrōn ).

A Jewish Messianic title (Psa 89:27) and as in Col 1:18 refers to priority in the resurrection to be followed by others. See Luk 2:7 for the word.

Robertson: Rev 1:5

The ruler of the kings of the earth ( ho archōn tōn basileōn tēs gēs ).

Jesus by his resurrection won lordship over the kings of earth (Rev 17:14; Rev 19:16), what the devil offered him by surrender (Mat 4:8.).

Robertson: Rev 1:5

Unto him that loveth us ( tōi agapōnti hēmās ).

Dative of the articular present (not aorist agapēsanti ) active participle of agapaō in a doxology to Christ, the first of many others to God and to Christ (Rev 1:6; Rev 4:11; Rev 5:9, Rev 5:12.; Rev 7:10, Rev 7:12, etc.). For the thought see Joh 3:16.

Robertson: Rev 1:5

Loosed ( lusanti ).

First aorist active participle of luō (Aleph A C), though some MSS. (P Q) read lousanti (washed), a manifest correction. Note the change of tense. Christ loosed us once for all, but loves us always.

Robertson: Rev 1:5

By his blood ( en tōi haimati autou ).

As in Rev 5:9. John here as in the Gospel and Epistles states plainly and repeatedly the place of the blood of Christ in the work of redemption.

Robertson: Rev 1:6

And he made ( kai epoiēsen ).

Change from the participle construction, which would be kai poiēsanti (first aorist active of poieō ) like lusanti just before, a Hebraism Charles calls it, but certainly an anacoluthon of which John is very fond, as in Rev 1:18; Rev 2:2, Rev 2:9, Rev 2:20; Rev 3:9; Rev 7:14; Rev 14:2.; Rev 15:3.

Robertson: Rev 1:6

Kingdom ( basileian ).

So correctly Aleph A C, not basileis (P cursives). Perhaps a reminiscence of Exo 19:6, a kingdom of priests. In Rev 5:10 we have again "a kingdom and priests."The idea here is that Christians are the true spiritual Israel in God’ s promise to Abraham as explained by Paul in Gal 3; Rom 9.

Robertson: Rev 1:6

To be priests ( hiereis ).

In apposition with basileian , but with kai (and) in Rev 5:10. Each member of this true kingdom is a priest unto God, with direct access to him at all times.

Robertson: Rev 1:6

Unto his God and Father ( tōi theōi kai patri autou ).

Dative case and autou (Christ) applies to both theōi and patri . Jesus spoke of the Father as his God (Mat 27:46; Joh 20:17) and Paul uses like language (Eph 1:17), as does Peter (1Pe 1:3).

Robertson: Rev 1:6

To him ( autōi ).

Another doxology to Christ. "The adoration of Christ which vibrates in this doxology is one of the most impressive features of the book"(Moffatt). Like doxologies to Christ appear in Rev 5:13; Rev 7:10; 1Pe 4:11; 2Pe 3:18; 2Ti 4:18; Heb 13:21. These same words (hē doxa kai to kratos ) in 1Pe 4:11, only hē doxa in 2Pe 3:18; 2Ti 4:18, but with several others in Rev 5:13; Rev 7:10.

Vincent: Rev 1:1

The Revelation ( ἀποκάλυψις )

The Greek word is transcribed in Apocalypse . The word occurs only once in the Gospels, Luk 2:32, where to lighten should be rendered for revelation . It is used there of our Lord, as a light to dispel the darkness under which the heathen were veiled. It occurs thirteen times in Paul's writings, and three times in first Peter. It is used in the following senses:

(a.) The unveiling of something hidden , which gives light and knowledge to those who behold it . See Luk 2:32 (above). Christianity itself is the revelation of a mystery (Rom 16:25). The participation of the Gentiles in the privileges of the new covenant was made known by revelation (Eph 3:3). Paul received the Gospel which he preached by revelation (Gal 1:12), and went up to Jerusalem by revelation (Gal 2:2).

(b.) Christian insight into spiritual truth . Paul asks for Christians the spirit of revelation (Eph 1:17). Peculiar manifestations of the general gift of revelation are given in Christian assemblies (1Co 14:6, 1Co 14:26). Special revelations are granted to Paul (2Co 12:1, 2Co 12:7).

(c.) The second coming of the Lord (1Pe 1:7, 1Pe 1:13; 2Th 1:7; 1Co 1:7) in which His glory shall be revealed (1Pe 4:13), His righteous judgment made known (Rom 2:5), and His children revealed in full majesty (Rom 8:19).

The kindred verb ἀποκαλύπτω is used in similar connections. Following the categories given above,

(a.) Gal 1:16; Gal 3:23; Eph 3:5; 1Pe 1:12.

(b.) Mat 11:25, Mat 11:27; Mat 16:17; Luk 10:21, Luk 10:22; 1Co 2:10; 1Co 14:30; Phi 3:15.

(c.) Mat 10:26; Luk 2:35; Luk 12:2; Luk 17:30; Rom 1:17, Rom 1:18; Rom 8:18; 1Co 3:13; 2Th 2:3, 2Th 2:6, 2Th 2:8; 1Pe 1:5; 1Pe 5:1.

The word is compounded with ἀπό from , and καλύπτω to cover . Hence, to remove the cover from anything; to unveil . So of Balaam, the Lord opened or unveiled his eyes (ἀπεκάλυψεν τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς : Num 22:31, Sept.). So Boaz to Naomi's kinsman: " I thought to advertise thee:" Rev., " disclose it unto thee" (ἀποκαλύψω τὸ οὖς σου : Rth 4:4, Sept.). Lit., I will uncover thine ear .

The noun ἀποκάλυψις revelation , occurs only once in the Septuagint (1Sa 20:30), in the physical sense of uncovering . The verb is found in the Septuagint in Dan 2:19, Dan 2:22, Dan 2:28.

In classical Greek, the verb is used by Herodotus (i., 119) of uncovering the head; and by Plato: thus, " reveal (ἀποκαλύψας ) to me the power of Rhetoric" (" Gorgias," 460): " Uncover your chest and back" (" Protagoras," 352). Both the verb and the noun occur in Plutarch; the latter of uncovering the body, of waters, and of an error. The religious sense, however, is unknown to heathenism.

The following words should be compared with this: Ὀπτασία a vision (Luk 1:22; Act 26:19; 2Co 12:1). Ὅραμα a vision (Mat 17:9; Act 9:10; Act 16:9). Ὅρασις a vision (Act 2:17; Rev 9:17. Of visible form, Rev 4:3). These three cannot be accurately distinguished. They all denote the thing seen or shown , without anything to show whether it is understood or not.

As distinguished from these, ἀποκάλυψις includes, along with the thing shown or seen, its interpretation or unveiling.

Ἐπιφάνεια appearing (hence our epiphany ), is used in profane Greek of the appearance of a higher power in order to aid men. In the New Testament by Paul only, and always of the second appearing of Christ in glory, except in 2Ti 1:10, where it signifies His first appearing in the flesh. See 2Th 2:8; 1Ti 6:14; Tit 2:13. As distinguished from this, ἀπολάλυψις is the more comprehensive word. An apocalypse may include several ἐπιφάνειαι appearings . The appearings are the media of the revealings .

Φανέρωσις manifestation ; only twice in the New Testament; 1Co 12:7; 2Co 4:2. The kindred verb φανερόω to make manifest , is of frequent occurrence. See on Joh 21:1. It is not easy, if possible, to show that this word has a less dignified sense than ἀποκάλυψις . The verb φανερόω is used of both the first and the second appearing of our Lord (1Ti 3:16; 1Jo 1:2; 1Pe 1:20; Col 3:4; 1Pe 5:4). See also Joh 2:11; Joh 21:1.

Some distinguish between φανέρωσις as an external manifestation, to the senses, but single and isolated ; while ἀποκάλυψις is an inward and abiding disclosure. According to these, the Apocalypse or unveiling , precedes and produces the φανέρωσις or manifestation . The Apocalypse contemplates the thing revealed; the manifestation, the persons to whom it is revealed .

The Revelation here is the unveiling of the divine mysteries .

Vincent: Rev 1:1

Of Jesus Christ

Not the manifestation or disclosure of Jesus Christ, but the revelation given by Him.

Vincent: Rev 1:1

To shew ( δεῖξαι )

Frequent in Revelation (Rev 4:1; Rev 17:1; Rev 21:9; Rev 22:1). Construe with ἔδωκεν gave : gave him to shew . Compare " I will give him to sit" (Rev 3:21): " It was given to hurt" (Rev 7:2): " It was given him to do;" (A.V. " had power to do;" Rev 13:14).

Vincent: Rev 1:1

Servants ( δούλοις )

Properly, bond-servants . See on Mat 20:26; see on Mar 9:35.

Vincent: Rev 1:1

Must ( δεῖ )

As the decree of the absolute and infallible God.

Vincent: Rev 1:1

Shortly come to pass ( γενέσθαι ἐν τάχει )

For the phrase ἐν τάχει shortly , see Luk 18:8, where yet long delay is implied. Expressions like this must be understood, not according to human measurement of time, but rather as in 2Pe 3:8. The idea is, before long, as time is computed by God. The aorist infinitive γενέσθαι is not begin to come to pass, but denotes a complete fulfilment : must shortly come to pass in their entirety .

Vincent: Rev 1:1

He sent ( ἀποστείλας )

See on Mat 10:2, Mat 10:16.

Vincent: Rev 1:1

Signified ( ἐσήμανεν )

From σῆμα a sign . Hence, literally, give a sign or token . The verb occurs outside of John's writings only in Act 11:28; Act 25:27. See Joh 12:33; Joh 18:32; Joh 21:19. This is its only occurrence in Revelation. The word is appropriate to the symbolic character of the revelation, and so in Joh 12:33, where Christ predicts the mode of His death in a figure. Compare sign , Rev 12:1.

Vincent: Rev 1:1

Angel ( ἀγγέλου )

Strictly, a messenger . See Mat 11:10; Luk 8:24; Luk 9:52. Compare the mediating angel in the visions of Daniel and Zechariah (Dan 8:15, Dan 8:16; Dan 9:21; Dan 10:10; Zec 1:19). See on Joh 1:51.

Vincent: Rev 1:1

Servant

Designating the prophetic office. See Isa 59:5; Amo 3:7; compare Rev 19:10; Rev 22:9.

Vincent: Rev 1:2

Bare record ( ἐμαρτύρησεν )

See on Joh 1:7. Rev., bear witness . The reference is to the present book and not to the Gospel. The aorist tense is the epistolary aorist. See on 1Jo 2:13, and compare the introduction to Thucydides' " History:" " Thucydides, an Athenian, wrote (ξυνέγραψε ) the history of the war," etc.; placing himself at the reader's stand point, who will regard the writing as occurring in the past.

Vincent: Rev 1:2

Word of God

Not the personal Word, but the prophetic contents of this book. See Rev 22:6.

Vincent: Rev 1:2

Testimony ( μαρτυρίαν )

For the phrase to witness a witness see Joh 4:32. For the peculiar emphasis on the idea of witness in John, see on Joh 1:7. The words and the ides are characteristic of Revelation as of the Gospel and Epistles.

Vincent: Rev 1:2

And ( τε )

Omit. The clause all things that he saw is in apposition with the Word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ , marking these as seen by him. Rev. adds even .

Vincent: Rev 1:2

All things that he saw ( ὅσα εἶδεν )

Lit., as many things as he saw . In the Gospel John uses the word εἶδεν saw , only twice of his own eye-witness (Joh 1:40; Joh 20:8). In Revelation it is constantly used of the seeing of visions. Compare Rev 1:19. For the verb as denoting the immediate intuition of the seer, see on Joh 2:24.

Vincent: Rev 1:3

Blessed ( μακάριος )

See on Mat 5:3.

Vincent: Rev 1:3

He that readeth ( ὁ ἀναγινώσκων )

See on Luk 4:16. The Reader in the Church. See 2Co 3:14. They that hear , the congregation. The words imply a public , official reading, in full religious assembly for worship. The passage is of some weight in determining the date of this book. The stated reading of the Apostolical writings did not exist as a received form before the destruction of Jerusalem, a.d. 70.

Vincent: Rev 1:3

And keep ( καὶ τηροῦντες )

The absence of the article from τηροῦντες keeping (compare οἱ ἀκούντες they that hear ), shows that the hearers and the keepers form one class. Τηρεῖν to keep , is a peculiarly Johannine word, and is characteristic of Revelation as of the other writings in its own peculiar sense of " keeping" in the exercise of active and strenuous care, rather than of watching over to preserve. See on reserved , 1Pe 1:4.

Vincent: Rev 1:3

Prophecy

See on prophet , Luk 7:26.

Vincent: Rev 1:3

Which are written ( τὰ γεγραμμένα )

Perfect participle, have been written , and therefore stand written .

Vincent: Rev 1:3

The time ( ὁ καιρὸς )

See on Mat 12:1.

Vincent: Rev 1:3

At hand ( ἐγγύς )

Lit., near . See on shortly , Rev 1:1.

Vincent: Rev 1:4

John

Note the absence of all official titles, such as are found in Paul; showing that John writes as one whose position is recognized.

Vincent: Rev 1:4

Seven

Among every ancient people, especially in the East, a religious significance attaches to numbers. This grows out of the instinctive appreciation that number and proportion are necessary attributes of the created universe. This sentiment passes over from heathenism into the Old Testament. The number seven was regarded by the Hebrews as a sacred number, and it is throughout Scripture the covenant number, the sign of God's covenant relation to mankind, and especially to the Church. The evidences of this are met in the hallowing of the seventh day; in the accomplishment of circumcision, which is the sign of a covenant, after seven days; in the part played by the number in marriage covenants and treaties of peace. It is the number of purification and consecration (Lev 4:6, Lev 4:17; Lev 8:11, Lev 8:33; Num 19:12). " Seven is the number of every grace and benefit bestowed upon Israel; which is thus marked as flowing out of the covenant, and a consequence of it. The priests compass Jericho seven days, and on the seventh day seven times, that all Israel may know that the city is given into their hands by God, and that its conquest is a direct and immediate result of their covenant relation to Him. Naaman is to dip in Jordan seven times, that he may acknowledge the God of Israel as the author of his cure. It is the number of reward to those who are faithful in the covenant (Deu 28:7; 1Sa 2:5); of punishment to those who are froward in the covenant (Lev 26:21, Lev 26:24, Lev 26:28; Deu 28:25), or to those who injure the people in it (Gen 4:15, Gen 4:24; Exo 7:25; Psa 79:12). All the feasts are ordered by seven, or else by seven multiplied into seven, and thus made intenser still. Thus it is with the Sabbath, the Passover, the Feast of Weeks, of Tabernacles, the Sabbath-year, and the Jubilee."

Similarly the number appears in God's dealing with nations outside the covenant, showing that He is working for Israel's sake and with respect to His covenant. It is the number of the years of plenty and of famine, in sign that these are for Israel's sake rather than for Egypt's. Seven times pass over Nebuchadnezzar, that he may learn that the God of his Jewish captives is king over all the earth (partly quoted and partly condensed from Trench's " Epistles to the Seven Churches" ).

Seven also occurs as a sacred number in the New Testament. There are seven beatitudes, seven petitions in the Lord's Prayer; seven parables in Matthew 13; seven loaves, seven words from the cross, seven deacons, seven graces (Rom 12:6-8), seven characteristics of wisdom (Jam 3:17). In Revelation the prominence of the number is marked. To a remarkable extent the structure of that book is molded by the use of numbers, especially of the numbers seven, four, and three. There are seven spirits before the throne; seven churches; seven golden candlesticks; seven stars in the right hand of Him who is like unto a son of man; seven lamps of fire burning before the throne; seven horns and seven eyes of the Lamb; seven seals of the book; and the thunders, the heads of the great dragon and of the beast from the sea, the angels with the trumpets, the plagues, and the mountains which are the seat of the mystic Babylon, - are all seven in number.

So there are four living creatures round about the throne, four angels at the four corners of the earth, holding the four winds; the New Jerusalem is foursquare. Authority is given to Death to kill over the fourth part of the earth, and he employs four agents.

Again the use of the number three is, as Professor Milligan remarks, " so remarkable and continuous that it would require an analysis of the whole book for its perfect illustration." There are three woes, three unclean spirits like frogs, three divisions of Babylon, and three gates on each side of the heavenly city. The Trisagion, or " thrice holy," is sung to God the Almighty, to whom are ascribed three attributes of glory.

Vincent: Rev 1:4

Seven Churches

Not all the churches in Asia are meant, since the list of those addressed in Revelation does not include Colossae, Miletus, Hierapolis, or Magnesia. The seven named are chosen to symbolize the whole Church. Compare Rev 2:7. Seven being the number of the covenant, we have in these seven a representation of the Church universal.

Vincent: Rev 1:4

In Asia

See on Act 2:9.

Vincent: Rev 1:4

Grace - peace

For grace (χάρις ), see on Luk 1:30. Both words are used by Paul in the salutations of all his Epistles, except the three Pastorals.

Vincent: Rev 1:4

From Him which is, and which was, and which is to come ( ἀπὸ τοῦ ὁ ὢν καὶ ὁ ἦν καὶ ὁ ἐρχόμενος )

The whole salutation is given in the name of the Holy Trinity: the Father (Him which is, and was, and is to come), the Spirit (the seven spirits), the Son (Jesus Christ). See further below. This portion of the salutation has no parallel in Paul, and is distinctively characteristic of the author of Revelation. It is one of the solecisms in grammatical construction which distinguishes this book from the other writings of John. The Greek student will note that the pronoun which (ὁ ) is not construed with the preposition from (ἀπό ), which would require the genitive case, but stands in the nominative case.

Each of these three appellations is treated as a proper name. The Father is Him which is , and which was , and which is to come . This is a paraphrase of the unspeakable name of God (Exo 3:14), the absolute and unchangeable. Ὁ ὢν , the One who is , is the Septuagint translation of Exo 3:14, " I am the ὁ ὢν ( I am ):" " ὁ ὢν ( I am ), hath sent me unto you." The One who was (ὁ ἦν ). The Greek has no imperfect participle, so that the finite verb is used. Which is and which was form one clause, to be balanced against which is to come . Compare Rev 11:17; Rev 16:5; and " was (ἦν ) in the beginning with God" (Joh 1:2). Which is to come (ὁ ἐρχόμενος ). Lit., the One who is coming . This is not equivalent to who shall be ; i.e., the author is not intending to describe the abstract existence of God as covering the future no less than the past and the present. If this had been his meaning, he would have written ὁ ἐσόμενος , which shall be . The phrase which is to come would not express the future eternity of the Divine Being. The dominant conception in the title is rather that of immutability . Further, the name does not emphasize so much God's abstract existence, as it does His permanent covenant relation to His people. Hence the phrase which is to come , is to be explained in accordance with the key-note of the book, which is the second coming of the Son (Rev 1:7; Rev 22:20).

The phrase which is to come , is often applied to the Son (see on 1Jo 3:5), and so throughout this book. Here it is predicated of the Father, apart from whom the Son does nothing. " The Son is never alone, even as Redeemer" (Milligan). Compare " We will come unto him," Joh 14:23. Origen quotes our passage with the words: " But that you may perceive that the omnipotence of the Father and of the Son is one and the same, hear John speaking after this manner in Revelation, ' Who is , etc.'" Dean Plumptre cornpares the inscription over the temple of Isis at Sais in Egypt: " I am all that has come into being, and that which is, and that which shall be, and no man hath lifted my veil."

The Spirit is designated by

Vincent: Rev 1:4

The seven Spirits ( τῶν ἑπτὰ πνευμάτων )

Paul nowhere joins the Spirit with the Father and the Son in his opening salutations. The nearest approach is 2Co 13:13. The reference is not to the seven principal angels (Rev 8:2). These could not be properly spoken of as the source of grace and peace; nor be associated with the Father and the Son; nor take precedence of the Son, as is the case here. Besides, angels are never called spirits in this book. With the expression compare Rev 4:5, the seven lamps of fire, " which are the seven Spirits of God:" Rev 3:1, where Jesus is said to have " the seven Spirits of God." Thus the seven Spirits belong to the Son as well as to the Father (see Joh 15:26). The prototype of John's expression is found in the vision of Zechariah, where the Messiah is prefigured as a stone with seven eyes, " the eyes of the Lord, which run to and fro through the whole earth" (Zec 3:9; Zec 4:10). Compare also the same prophet's vision of the seven-branched candlestick (Zec 4:2).

Hence the Holy Spirit is called the Seven Spirits ; the perfect, mystical number seven indicating unity through diversity (1Co 12:4). Not the sevenfold gifts of the Spirit are meant, but the divine Personality who imparts them; the one Spirit under the diverse manifestations. Richard of St. Victor (cited by Trench, " Seven Churches" ) says: " And from the seven Spirits, that is, from the sevenfold Spirit, which indeed is simple in nature, sevenfold in grace."

Vincent: Rev 1:5

Jesus Christ

The Son. Placed after the Spirit because what is to follow in Rev 1:5-8 relates to Him. This is according to John's manner of arranging his thoughts so that a new sentence shall spring out of the final thought of the preceding sentence. Compare the Prologue of the Gospel, and Rev 1:1, Rev 1:2, of this chapter.

Vincent: Rev 1:5

The faithful witness ( ὁ μάρτυς ὁ πιστὸς )

For the phraseology see on 1Jo 4:9. For witness , see on Joh 1:7; see on 1Pe 5:1. As applied to the Messiah, see Psa 89:37; Isa 55:4. The construction again departs from the grammatical rule. The words witness , first-born , ruler , are in the nominative case, instead of being in the genitive, in apposition with Jesus Christ . This construction, though irregular, nevertheless gives dignity and emphasis to these titles of the Lord. See on Rev 1:4. The word πιστὸς , faithful is used (1), of one who shows Himself faithful in the discharge of a duty or the administration of a trust (Mat 24:45; Luk 12:42). Hence, trustworthy (1Co 7:25; 2Ti 2:2). Of things that can be relied upon (1Ti 3:1; 2Ti 2:11). (2), Confiding; trusting; a believer (Gal 3:9; Act 16:1; 2Co 6:15; 1Ti 5:16). See on 1Jo 1:9. The word is combined with ἀληθινός , true , genuine in Rev 3:14; Rev 19:11; Rev 21:5; Rev 22:6. Richard of St. Victor (cited by Trench) says: " A faithful witness, because He gave faithful testimony concerning all things which were to be testified to by Him in the world. A faithful witness, because whatever He heard from the Father, He faithfully made known to His disciples. A faithful witness, because He taught the way of God in truth, neither did He care for any one nor regard the person of men. A faithful witness, because He announced condemnation to the reprobate and salvation to the elect. A faithful witness, because He confirmed by miracles the truth which He taught in words. A faithful witness, because He denied not, even in death, the Father's testimony to Himself. A faithful witness, because He will give testimony in the day of judgment concerning the works of the good and of the evil."

Vincent: Rev 1:5

The first-begotten of the dead ( ὁ πρωτότοκος ἐκ τῶν νεκρῶν )

Rev., the first-born . The best texts omit ἐκ from . Compare Col 1:18. The risen Christ regarded in His relation to the dead in Christ. He was not the first who rose from the dead, but the first who so rose that death was thenceforth impossible for Him (Rom 6:9); rose with that resurrection-life in which He will finally bring with Him those who sleep in Him (1Th 4:14). Some interpreters, rendering first-born , find in the phrase the metaphor of death as the womb which bare Him (see on Act 2:24). Others, holding by the rendering first-begotten , connect the passage with Psa 2:7, which by Paul is connected with the resurrection of Christ (Act 13:32, Act 13:33). Paul also says that Jesus " was declared to be the Son of God with power by the resurrection from the dead" (Rom 1:4). The verb τίκτω which is one of the components of πρωτότοκος first-begotten or born , is everywhere in the New Testament used in the sense of to bear or to bring forth , and has nowhere the meaning beget , unless Jam 1:15 be an exception, on which see note. In classical Greek the meaning beget is common.

Vincent: Rev 1:5

The Ruler of the kings of the earth ( ὁ ἄρχων τῶν βασιλέων τῆς γῆς )

Through resurrection He passes to glory and dominion (Phi 2:9). The comparison with the kings of the earth is suggested by Psa 2:2. Compare Psa 89:27; Isa 52:15; 1Ti 6:16; and see Rev 6:15; Rev 17:4; Rev 19:16.

Vincent: Rev 1:5

Unto Him that loved ( τῳ ἀγαπήσαντι )

The true reading is ἀγαπῶντι that loveth . So Rev. Christ's love is ever present See Joh 13:1.

Vincent: Rev 1:5

Washed ( λούσαντι )

Read λύσαντι loosed . Trench remarks on the variation of readings as having grown out of a play on the words λουτρόν , a bathing , and λύτρον a ransom , both of which express the central benefits which redound to us through the sacrifice and death of Christ. He refers to this play upon words as involved in the etymology of the name Apollo as given by Plato; viz., the washer (ὁ ἀπολούων ) and the absolver (ὁ ἀπολύων ) from all impurities. Either reading falls in with a beautiful circle of imagery. If washed , compare Psa 51:2; Isa 1:16, Isa 1:18; Eze 36:25; Act 22:16; Eph 5:26; Tit 3:5. If loosed , compare Mat 20:28; 1Ti 2:6; 1Pe 1:18; Heb 9:12; Gal 3:13; Gal 4:5; Rev 5:9; Rev 14:3, Rev 14:4.

Vincent: Rev 1:6

Kings ( βασιλεῖς )

The correct reading is, βασιλείαν a kingdom . The term King is never applied in the New Testament to individual Christians. The reigning of the saints is emphasized in this book. See Rev 5:10; Rev 20:4, Rev 20:6; Rev 22:5. Compare Dan 7:18, Dan 7:22.

Vincent: Rev 1:6

Priests ( ἱερεῖς )

Kingdom describes the body of the redeemed collectively . Priests indicates their individual position. Peter observes the same distinction (1Pe 2:5) in the phrases living stones (individuals) and a spiritual house (the body collectively), and combines both kings and priests in another collective term, royal priesthood (1Pe 2:9). The priesthood of believers grows out of the priesthood of Christ (Psa 60:4; Zec 6:13; Hebrews 7-10). This dignity was promised to Israel on the condition of obedience and fidelity to God. " Ye shall be a kingdom of priests and a holy nation" (Exo 19:6). In the kingdom of Christ each individual is a priest. The priest's work is not limited to any order of the ministry. All may offer the sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving: all have direct access to the holiest through the blood of Jesus: all Christians, as priests, are to minister to one another and to plead for one another. The consummation of this ideal appears in Rev 21:22, where the heavenly Jerusalem is represented as without temple. It is all temple. " It is the abolition of the distinction between holy and profane (Zec 14:20, Zec 14:21) - nearer and more remote from God - through all being henceforth holy, all being brought to the nearest whereof it is capable, to Him" (Trench).

Vincent: Rev 1:6

Unto God and His Father ( τῷ Θεῷ καὶ πατρὶ αὐτοῦ )

Lit., to the God and Father of Him . Hence Rev., correctly, His God and Father . For the phrase compare Rom 15:6; 2Co 1:3; Eph 1:3.

Vincent: Rev 1:6

Glory and dominion ( ἡ δόξα καὶ τὸ κράτος )

Rev., correctly, rendering the two articles, " the glory and the dominion." The articles express universality: all glory; that which everywhere and under every form represents glory and dominion. The verb be (the glory) is not in the text. We may render either as an ascription, be , or as a confession, is . The glory is His. Δόξα glory means originally opinion or judgment . In this sense it is not used in Scripture. In the sacred writers always of a good or favorable opinion, and hence praise , honor , glory (Luk 14:10; Heb 3:3; 1Pe 5:4). Applied to physical objects, as light , the heavenly bodies (Act 22:11; 1Co 15:40). The visible brightness in manifestations of God (Luk 2:9; Act 7:55; Luk 9:32; 2Co 3:7). Magnificence , dignity (Mat 4:8; Luk 4:6). Divine majesty or perfect excellence , especially in doxologies, either of God or Christ (1Pe 4:11; Jud 1:25; Rev 4:9, Rev 4:11; Mat 16:27; Mar 10:37; Mar 8:38; Luk 9:26; 2Co 3:18; 2Co 4:4). The glory or majesty of divine grace (Eph 1:6, Eph 1:12, Eph 1:14, Eph 1:18; 1Ti 1:11). The majesty of angels (Luk 9:26; Jud 1:8; 2Pe 2:10). The glorious condition of Christ after accomplishing His earthly work , and of the redeemed who share His eternal glory (Luk 24:26; Joh 17:5; Phi 3:21; 1Ti 3:16; Rom 8:18, Rom 8:21; Rom 9:23; 2Co 4:17; Col 1:27).

Trench remarks upon the prominence of the doxological element in the highest worship of the Church as contrasted with the very subordinate place which it often occupies in ours. " We can perhaps make our requests known unto God, and this is well, for it is prayer; but to give glory to God, quite apart from anything to be directly gotten by ourselves in return, this is better, for it is adoration." Dr. John Brown in his Memoir of his father, one of the very finest biographical sketches in English literature, records a formula used by him in closing his prayers on specially solemn occasions: " And now unto Thee, O Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, the one Jehovah and our God, we would - as is most meet - with the Church on earth and the Church in heaven, ascribe all honor and glory, dominion and majesty, as it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be, world without end, Amen" (" Horae Subsecivae" ). Compare the doxologies in 1Pe 4:11; Gal 1:5; Rev 4:9, Rev 4:11; Rev 5:13; Rev 7:12; Jud 1:25; 1Ch 29:11.

Vincent: Rev 1:6

Forever and ever ( εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας τῶν αἰώνων )

Lit., unto the ages of the ages . For the phrase compare Gal 1:5; Heb 13:21; 1Pe 4:11. It occurs twelve times in Revelation, but not in John's Gospel or Epistles. It is the formula of eternity.

Vincent: Rev 1:6

Amen ( ἀμὴν )

The English word is a transcription of the Greek and of the Hebrew. A verbal adjective, meaning firm , faithful . Hence ὁ ἀμὴν , the Amen , applied to Christ (Rev 3:14). It passes into an adverbial sense by which something is asserted or confirmed. Thus often used by Christ, verily . John alone uses the double affirmation, verily , verily . See on Joh 1:51; see on Joh 10:1.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

Properly so called; for things covered before are here revealed, or unveiled. No prophecy in the Old Testament has this title; it was reserved for this alone in the New. It is, as it were, a manifesto, wherein the Heir of all things declares that all power is given him in heaven and earth, and that he will in the end gloriously exercise that power, maugre all the opposition of all his enemies.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

Not of "John the Divine," a title added in latter ages. Certain it is, that appellation, the Divine, was not brought into the church, much less was it affixed to John the apostle, till long after the apostolic age. It was St. John, indeed, who wrote this book, but the author of it is Jesus Christ.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

According to his holy, glorified humanity, as the great Prophet of the church. God gave the Revelation to Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ made it known to his servants.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

This word recurs, Rev 22:6; and in many places the parts of this book refer to each other. Indeed the whole structure of it breathes the art of God, comprising, in the most finished compendium, things to come, many, various; near, intermediate, remote; the greatest, the least; terrible, comfortable; old, new; long, short; and these interwoven together, opposite, composite; relative to each other at a small, at a great, distance; and therefore sometimes, as it were, disappearing, broken off, suspended, and afterwards unexpectedly and most seasonably appearing again. In all its parts it has an admirable variety, with the most exact harmony, beautifully illustrated by those very digressions which seem to interrupt it. In this manner does it display the manifold wisdom of God shining in the economy of the church through so many ages.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

Much is comprehended in this appellation. It is a great thing to be a servant of Jesus Christ. This book is dedicated particularly to the servants of Christ in the seven churches in Asia; but not exclusive of all his other servants, in all nations and ages. It is one single revelation, and yet sufficient for them all, from the time it was written to the end of the world. Serve thou the Lord Jesus Christ in truth: so shalt thou learn his secret in this book; yea, and thou shalt feel in thy heart whether this book be divine, or not.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

The things contained in this prophecy did begin to be accomplished shortly after it was given; and the whole might be said to come to pass shortly, in the same sense as St. Peter says, "The end of all things is at hand;" and our Lord himself, "Behold, I come quickly." There is in this book a rich treasure of all the doctrines pertaining to faith and holiness. But these are also delivered in other parts of holy writ; so that the Revelation need not to have been given for the sake of these. The peculiar design of this is, to show the things which must come to pass. And this we are especially to have before our eyes whenever we read or hear it.

It is said afterward, "Write what thou seest;" and again, "Write what thou hast seen, and what is, and what shall be hereafter;" but here, where the scope of the hook is shown, it is only said, the things which must come to pass. Accordingly, the showing things to come, is the great point in view throughout the whole. And St. John writes what he has seen, and what is, only as it has an influence on, or gives light to, what shall be.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

Jesus Christ.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

Showed them by signs or emblems; so the Greek word properly means.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

Peculiarly called, in the sequel, "the angel of God," and particularly mentioned, Rev 17:1; Rev 21:9; Rev 22:6, Rev 22:16.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

A title given to no other single person throughout the book.

Wesley: Rev 1:2

In the following book.

Wesley: Rev 1:2

Given directly by God.

Wesley: Rev 1:2

Which he hath left us, as the faithful and true witness.

Wesley: Rev 1:2

In such a manner as was a full confirmation of the divine original of this book.

Wesley: Rev 1:3

Some have miserably handled this book. Hence others are afraid to touch it; and, while they desire to know all things else, reject only the knowledge of those which God hath shown. They inquire after anything rather than this; as if it were written, "Happy is he that doth not read this prophecy." Nay, but happy is he that readeth, and they that hear, and keep the words thereof - Especially at this time, when so considerable a part of them is on the point of being fulfilled.

Nor are helps wanting whereby any sincere and diligent inquirer may understand what he reads therein. The book itself is written in the most accurate manner possible. It distinguishes the several things whereof it treats by seven epistles, seven seals, seven trumpets, seven phials; each of which sevens is divided into four and three. Many things the book itself explains; as the seven stars; the seven candlesticks; the lamb, his seven horns and seven eyes; the incense; the dragon; the heads and horns of the beasts; the fine linen; the testimony of Jesus: and much light arises from comparing it with the ancient prophecies, and the predictions in the other books of the New Testament.

In this book our Lord has comprised what was wanting in those prophecies touching the time which followed his ascension and the end of the Jewish polity. Accordingly, it reaches from the old Jerusalem to the new, reducing all things into one sum, in the exactest order, and with a near resemblance to the ancient prophets. The introduction and conclusion agree with Daniel; the description of the man child, and the promises to Sion, with Isaiah; the judgment of Babylon, with Jeremiah; again, the determination of times, with Daniel; the architecture of the holy city, with Ezekiel; the emblems of the horses, candlesticks, &c., with Zechariah. Many things largely described by the prophets are here summarily repeated; and frequently in the same words. To them we may then usefully have recourse. Yet the Revelation suffices for the explaining itself, even if we do not yet understand those prophecies; yea, it casts much light upon them. Frequently, likewise, where there is a resemblance between them, there is a difference also; the Revelation, as it were, taking a stock from one of the old prophets, and inserting a new graft into it. Thus Zechariah speaks of two olive trees; and so does St. John; but with a different meaning. Daniel has a beast with ten horns; so has St. John; but not with quite the same signification. And here the difference of words, emblems, things, times, ought studiously to be observed. Our Lord foretold many things before his passion; but not all things; for it was not yet seasonable. Many things, likewise, his Spirit foretold in the writings of the apostles, so far as the necessities of those times required: now he comprises them all in one short book; therein presupposing all the other prophecies, and at the same time explaining, continuing, and perfecting them in one thread. It is right therefore to compare them; but not to measure the fulness of these by the scantiness of those preceding.

Christ, when on earth, foretold what would come to pass in a short time; adding a brief description of the last things. Here he foretells the intermediate things; so that both put together constitute one complete chain of prophecy. This book is therefore not only the sum and the key of all the prophecies which preceded, but likewise a supplement to all; the seals being closed before. Of consequence, it contains many particulars not revealed in any other part of scripture. They have therefore little gratitude to God for such a revelation, reserved for the exaltation of Christ, who boldly reject whatever they find here which was not revealed, or not so clearly, in other parts of scripture.

Wesley: Rev 1:3

St. John probably sent this book by a single person into Asia, who read it in the churches, while many heard. But this, likewise, in a secondary sense, refers to all that shall duly read or hear it in all ages.

Wesley: Rev 1:3

It is a revelation with regard to Christ who gives it; a prophecy, with regard to John who delivers it to the churches.

Wesley: Rev 1:3

In such a manner as the nature of them requires; namely, with repentance, faith, patience, prayer, obedience, watchfulness, constancy. It behoves every Christian, at all opportunities, to read what is written in the oracles of God; and to read this precious book in particular, frequently, reverently, and attentively.

Wesley: Rev 1:3

Of its beginning to be accomplished.

Wesley: Rev 1:3

Even when St. John wrote. How much nearer to us is even the full accomplishment of this weighty prophecy!

Wesley: Rev 1:4

The dedication of this book is contained in Rev 1:4-6; but the whole Revelation is a kind of letter.

Wesley: Rev 1:4

That part of the Lesser Asia which was then a Roman province. There had been several other churches planted here; but it seems these were now the most eminent; and it was among these that St. John had laboured most during his abode in Asia. In these cities there were many Jews. Such of them as believed in each were joined with the gentile believers in one church. Grace be unto you, and peace - The favour of God, with all temporal and eternal blessings. From him who is, and who was, and who cometh, or, who is to come - A wonderful translation of the great name JEHOVAH: he was of old, he is now, he cometh; that is, will be for ever.

Wesley: Rev 1:4

Christ is he who "hath the seven spirits of God." "The seven lamps which burn before the throne are the seven spirits of God." " The lamb hath seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God." Seven was a sacred number in the Jewish church: but it did not always imply a precise number. It sometimes is to be taken figuratively, to denote completeness or perfection. By these seven spirits, not seven created angels, but the Holy Ghost is to be understood. The angels are never termed spirits in this book; and when all the angels stand up, while the four living creatures and the four and twenty elders worship him that sitteth on the throne, and the Lamb, the seven spirits neither stand up nor worship. To these "seven spirits of God," the seven churches, to whom the Spirit speaks so many things, are subordinate; as are also their angels, yea, and "the seven angels which stand before God." He is called the seven spirits, not with regard to his essence, which is one, but with regard to his manifold operations.

Wesley: Rev 1:5

Three glorious appellations are here given him, and in their proper order. He was the faithful witness of the whole will of God before his death, and in death, and remains such in glory. He rose from the dead, as "the first fruits of them that slept;" and now hath all power both in heaven and earth. He is here styled a prince: but by and by he hears his title of king; yea, King of kings, and Lord of lords." This phrase, the kings of the earth, signifies their power and multitude, and also the nature of their kingdom. It became the Divine Majesty to call them kings with a limitation; especially in this manifesto from his heavenly kingdom; for no creature, much less a sinful man, can bear the title of king in an absolute sense before the eyes of God.

Wesley: Rev 1:6

Partakers of his present, and heirs of his eternal, kingdom.

Wesley: Rev 1:6

To whom we continually offer ourselves, an holy, living sacrifice.

Wesley: Rev 1:6

For his love and redemption.

Wesley: Rev 1:6

Whereby he governs all things.

JFB: Rev 1:1

An apocalypse or unveiling of those things which had been veiled. A manifesto of the kingdom of Christ. The travelling manual of the Church for the Gentile Christian times. Not a detailed history of the future, but a representation of the great epochs and chief powers in developing the kingdom of God in relation to the world. The "Church-historical" view goes counter to the great principle that Scripture interprets itself. Revelation is to teach us to understand the times, not the times to interpret to us the Apocalypse, although it is in the nature of the case that a reflex influence is exerted here and is understood by the prudent [AUBERLEN]. The book is in a series of parallel groups, not in chronological succession. Still there is an organic historical development of the kingdom of God. In this book all the other books of the Bible end and meet: in it is the consummation of all previous prophecy. Daniel foretells as to Christ and the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, and the last Antichrist. But John's Revelation fills up the intermediate period, and describes the millennium and final state beyond Antichrist. Daniel, as a godly statesman, views the history of God's people in relation to the four world kingdoms. John, as an apostle, views history from the Christian Church aspect. The term Apocalypse is applied to no Old Testament book. Daniel is the nearest approach to it; but what Daniel was told to seal and shut up till the time of the end, John, now that the time is at hand (Rev 1:3), is directed to reveal.

JFB: Rev 1:1

Coming from Him. Jesus Christ, not John the writer, is the Author of the Apocalypse. Christ taught many things before His departure; but those which were unsuitable for announcement at that time He brought together into the Apocalypse [BENGEL]. Compare His promise, Joh 15:15, "All things that I have heard of My Father, I have made known unto you"; also, Joh 16:13, "The Spirit of truth will show you things to come." The Gospels and Acts are the books, respectively, of His first advent, in the flesh, and in the Spirit; the Epistles are the inspired comment on them. The Apocalypse is the book of His second advent and the events preliminary to it.

JFB: Rev 1:1

The Father reveals Himself and His will in, and by, His Son.

JFB: Rev 1:1

The word recurs in Rev 22:6 : so entirely have the parts of Revelation reference to one another. It is its peculiar excellence that it comprises in a perfect compendium future things, and these widely differing: things close at hand, far off, and between the two; great and little; destroying and saving; repeated from old prophecies and new; long and short, and these interwoven with one another, opposed and mutually agreeing; mutually involving and evolving one another; so that in no book more than in this would the addition, or taking away, of a single word or clause (Rev 22:18-19), have the effect of marring the sense of the context and the comparison of passages together [BENGEL].

JFB: Rev 1:1

Not merely to "His servant John," but to all His servants (compare Rev 22:3).

JFB: Rev 1:1

Greek, "speedily"; literally, "in," or "with speed." Compare "the time is at hand," Rev 1:3; Rev 22:6, "shortly"; Rev 22:7, "Behold, I come quickly." Not that the things prophesied were according to man's computation near; but this word "shortly" implies a corrective of our estimate of worldly events and periods. Though a "thousand years" (Rev 20:1-15) at least are included, the time is declared to be at hand. Luk 18:8, "speedily." The Israelite Church hastened eagerly to the predicted end, which premature eagerness prophecy restrains (compare Dan. 9:1-27). The Gentile Church needs to be reminded of the transitoriness of the world (which it is apt to make its home) and the nearness of Christ's advent. On the one hand Revelation says, "the time is at hand"; on the other, the succession of seals, &c., show that many intermediate events must first elapse.

JFB: Rev 1:1

Jesus Christ sent.

JFB: Rev 1:1

Joined with "sent." The angel does not come forward to "signify" things to John until Rev 17:1; Rev 19:9-10. Previous to that John receives information from others. Jesus Christ opens the Revelation, Rev 1:10-11; Rev 4:1; in Rev 6:1 one of the four living creatures acts as his informant; in Rev 7:13, one of the elders; in Rev 10:8-9, the Lord and His angel who stood on the sea and earth. Only at the end (Rev 17:1) does the one angel stand by Him (compare Dan 8:16; Dan 9:21; Zec 1:19).

JFB: Rev 1:2

"testified the word of God" in this book. Where we would say "testifies," the ancients in epistolary communications use the past tense. The word of God constitutes his testimony; Rev 1:3, "the words of this prophecy."

JFB: Rev 1:2

"the Spirit of prophecy" (Rev 19:10).

JFB: Rev 1:2

The oldest manuscripts omit "and." Translate, "whatsoever things he saw," in apposition with "the word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ."

JFB: Rev 1:3

Namely, the public reader in Church assemblies, and his hearers. In the first instance, he by whom John sent the book from Patmos to the seven churches, read it publicly: a usage most scriptural and profitable. A special blessing attends him who reads or hears the apocalyptic "prophecy" with a view to keeping the things therein (as there is but one article to "they that hear and keep those things," not two classes, but only one is meant: "they who not only hear, but also keep those things," Rom 2:13); even though he find not the key to its interpretation, he finds a stimulus to faith, hope, and patient waiting for Christ. Note: the term "prophecy" has relation to the human medium or prophet inspired, here John: "Revelation" to the Divine Being who reveals His will, here Jesus Christ. God gave the revelation to Jesus: He by His angel revealed it to John, who was to make it known to the Church.

JFB: Rev 1:4

The apostle. For none but he (supposing the writer an honest man) would thus sign himself nakedly without addition. As sole survivor and representative of the apostles and eye-witnesses of the Lord, he needed no designation save his name, to be recognized by his readers.

JFB: Rev 1:4

Not that there were not more churches in that region, but the number seven is fixed on as representing totality. These seven represent the universal Church of all times and places. See TRENCH'S [Commentary on the Epistles to the Seven Churches in Asia] interesting note, Rev 1:20, on the number seven. It is the covenant number, the sign of God's covenant relation to mankind, and especially to the Church. Thus, the seventh day, sabbath (Gen 2:3; Eze 20:12). Circumcision, the sign of the covenant, after seven days (Gen 17:12). Sacrifices (Num 23:1; Num 14:29; 2Ch 29:21). Compare also God's acts typical of His covenant (Jos 6:4, Jos 6:15-16; 2Ki 5:10). The feasts ordered by sevens of time (Deu 15:1; Deu 16:9, Deu 16:13, Deu 16:15). It is a combination of three, the divine number (thus the Trinity: the thrice Holy, Isa 6:3; the blessing, Num 6:24-26), and four the number of the organized world in its extension (thus the four elements, the four seasons, the four winds, the four corners or quarters of the earth, the four living creatures, emblems of redeemed creaturely life, Rev 4:6; Eze 1:5-6, with four faces and four wings each; the four beasts and four metals, representing the four world empires, Dan 2:32-33; Dan 7:3; the four-sided Gospel designed for all quarters of the world; the sheet tied at four corners, Act 10:11; the four horns, the sum of the world's forces against the Church, Zec 1:18). In the Apocalypse, where God's covenant with His Church comes to its consummation, appropriately the number seven recurs still more frequently than elsewhere in Scripture.

JFB: Rev 1:4

Proconsular, governed by a Roman proconsul: consisting of Phrygia, Mysia, Caria, and Lydia: the kingdom which Attalus III had bequeathed to Rome.

JFB: Rev 1:4

Paul's apostolical greeting. In his Pastoral Epistles he inserts "mercy" in addition: so 2Jo 1:3.

JFB: Rev 1:4

A periphrasis for the incommunicable name JEHOVAH, the self-existing One, unchangeable. In Greek the indeclinability of the designation here implies His unchangeableness. Perhaps the reason why "He which is to come" is used, instead of "He that shall be," is because the grand theme of Revelation is the Lord's coming (Rev 1:7). Still it is THE FATHER as distinguished from "Jesus Christ" (Rev 1:5) who is here meant. But so one are the Father and Son that the designation, "which is to come," more immediately applicable to Christ, is used here of the Father.

JFB: Rev 1:4

The oldest manuscripts omit "are."

JFB: Rev 1:4

Literally, "in the presence of." The Holy Spirit in His sevenfold (that is, perfect, complete, and universal) energy. Corresponding to "the seven churches." One in His own essence, manifold in His gracious influences. The seven eyes resting on the stone laid by Jehovah (Rev 5:6). Four is the number of the creature world (compare the fourfold cherubim); seven the number of God's revelation in the world.

JFB: Rev 1:5

Of the truth concerning Himself and His mission as Prophet, Priest, and King Saviour. "He was the faithful witness, because all things that He heard of the Father He faithfully made known to His disciples. Also, because He taught the way of God in truth, and cared not for man, nor regarded the persons of men. Also, because the truth which He taught in words He confirmed by miracles. Also, because the testimony to Himself on the part of the Father He denied not even in death. Lastly, because He will give true testimony of the works of good and bad at the day of judgment" [RICHARD OF ST. VICTOR in TRENCH]. The nominative in Greek standing in apposition to the genitive, "Jesus Christ," gives majestic prominence to "the faithful witness."

JFB: Rev 1:5

(Col 1:18). Lazarus rose, to die again. Christ rose to die no more. The image is not as if the grave was the womb of His resurrection-birth [ALFORD]; but as Act 13:33; Rom 1:4, treat Christ's resurrection as the epoch and event which fulfilled the Scripture, Psa 2:7, "This day (at the resurrection) have I begotten Thee." It was then that His divine Sonship as the God-man was manifested and openly attested by the Father. So our resurrection and our manifested sonship, or generation, are connected. Hence "regeneration" is used of the resurrection-state at the restitution of all things (Mat 19:28).

JFB: Rev 1:5

Or Ruler. The kingship of the world which the tempter offered to Jesus on condition of doing homage to him, and so shunning the cross, He has obtained by the cross. "The kings of the earth" conspired against the Lord's Anointed (Psa 2:2): these He shall break in pieces (Psa 2:9). Those who are wise in time and kiss the Son shall bring their glory unto Him at His manifestation as King of kings, after He has destroyed His foes.

JFB: Rev 1:5

The oldest manuscripts read the present, ". . . loveth us." It is His ever-continuing character, He loveth us, and ever shall love us. His love rests evermore on His people.

JFB: Rev 1:5

The two oldest manuscripts read, "freed (loosed as from a bond) us": so ANDREAS and PRIMASIUS. One very old manuscript, Vulgate, and Coptic read as English Version, perhaps drawn from Rev 7:4. "Loosed us in (virtue of) His blood," being the harder reading to understand, is less likely to have come from the transcribers. The reference is thus to Greek, "lutron," the ransom paid for our release (Mat 20:28). In favor of English Version reading is the usage whereby the priests, before putting on the holy garments and ministering, washed themselves: so spiritually believers, as priests unto God, must first be washed in Christ's blood from every stain before they can serve God aright now, or hereafter minister as dispensers of blessing to the subject nations in the millennial kingdom, or minister before God in heaven.

JFB: Rev 1:6

Rather as Greek, "And (He) hath."

JFB: Rev 1:6

The oldest manuscripts read, "a kingdom." One oldest manuscript reads the dative, "for us." Another reads "us," accusative: so Vulgate, Syriac, Coptic, and ANDREAS. This seems preferable, "He made us (to be) a kingdom." So Exo 19:6, "a kingdom of priests"; 1Pe 2:9, "a royal priesthood." The saints shall constitute peculiarly a kingdom of God, and shall themselves be kings (Rev 5:10). They shall share His King-Priest throne in the millennial kingdom. The emphasis thus falls more on the kingdom than on priests: whereas in English Version reading it is equally distributed between both. This book lays prominent stress on the saints' kingdom. They are kings because they are priests: the priesthood is the continuous ground and legitimization of their kingship; they are kings in relation to man, priests in relation to God, serving Him day and night in His temple (Rev 7:15; Rev 5:10). The priest-kings shall rule, not in an external mechanical manner, but simply in virtue of what they are, by the power of attraction and conviction overcoming the heart [AUBERLEN].

JFB: Rev 1:6

Who have pre-eminently the privilege of near access to the king. David's sons were priests (Hebrew), 2Sa 8:18. The distinction of priests and people, nearer and more remote from God, shall cease; all shall have nearest access to Him. All persons and things shall be holy to the Lord.

JFB: Rev 1:6

There is but one article to both in the Greek, therefore it means, "Unto Him who is at once God and His Father."

JFB: Rev 1:6

Greek, "the glory and the might." The fuller threefold doxology occurs, Rev 4:9, Rev 4:11; fourfold, Rev 5:13; Jud 1:25; sevenfold, Rev 7:12; 1Ch 29:11. Doxology occupies the prominent place above, which prayer does below. If we thought of God's glory first (as in the Lord's Prayer), and gave the secondary place to our needs, we should please God and gain our petitions better than we do.

JFB: Rev 1:6

Greek, "unto the ages."

Clarke: Rev 1:1

The Revelation of Jesus Christ - The word Αποκαλυψις, from which we have our word Apocalypse, signifies literally, a revelation, or discovery of what was concealed or hidden. It is here said that this revelation, or discovery of hidden things, was given by God to Jesus Christ; that Christ gave it to his angel; that this angel showed it to John; and that John sent it to the Churches. Thus we find it came from God to Christ, from Christ to the angel, from the angel to John, and from John to the Church. It is properly, therefore, the Revelation of God, sent by these various agents to his servants at large; and this is the proper title of the book

Clarke: Rev 1:1

Things which must shortly come to pass - On the mode of interpretation devised by Wetstein, this is plain; for if the book were written before the destruction of Jerusalem, and the prophecies in it relate to that destruction, and the civil wars among the Romans, which lasted but three or four years, then it might be said the Revelation is of things which must shortly come to pass. But if we consider the book as referring to the state of the Church in all ages, the words here, and those in Rev 1:3, must be understood of the commencement of the events predicted; as if he had said: In a short time the train of these visions will be put in motion: -

- et incipient magni procedere menses

"And those times, pregnant with the most stupendous events, will begin to roll on."

Clarke: Rev 1:2

Who bare record of the word of God - Is there a reference here to the first chapter of John’ s gospel, In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, etc.? Of this Word John did bear record. Or, does the writer mean the fidelity with which he noted and related the word - doctrines or prophecies, which he received at this time by revelation from God? This seems more consistent with the latter part of the verse.

Clarke: Rev 1:3

Blessed is he that readeth - This is to be understood of the happiness or security of the persons who, reading and hearing the prophecies of those things which were to come to pass shortly, took proper measures to escape from the impending evils

Clarke: Rev 1:3

The time is at hand - Either in which they shall be all fulfilled, or begin to be fulfilled. See the note on Rev 1:1

These three verses contain the introduction; now the dedication to the seven Churches commences.

Clarke: Rev 1:4

John to the seven Churches - The apostle begins this much in the manner of the Jewish prophets. They often name themselves in the messages which they receive from God to deliver to the people; e.g. "The vision of Isaiah, the son of Amoz, which he saw concerning Judah and Jerusalem.""The words of Jeremiah, the son of Hilkiah; to whom the word of the Lord came.""The word of the Lord came expressly unto Ezekiel, the priest.""The word of the Lord that came unto Hosea, the son of Beeri.""The word of the Lord that came to Joel.""The words of Amos, who was among the herdsmen of Tekoa.""The vision of Obadiah; thus saith the Lord.""The word of the Lord came unto Jonah."So, "The revelation of Jesus Christ, which he sent and signified to his servant John.""John to the seven Churches,"etc

The Asia here mentioned was what is called Asia Minor, or the Lydian or Proconsular Asia; the seven Churches were those of Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. Of these as they occur. We are not to suppose that they were the only Christian Churches then in Asia Minor; there were several others then in Phrygia, Pamphylia, Galatia, Pontus, Cappadocia, etc., etc. But these seven were those which lay nearest to the apostle, and were more particularly under his care; though the message was sent to the Churches in general, and perhaps it concerns the whole Christian world. But the number seven may be used here as the number of perfection; as the Hebrews use the seven names of the heavens, the seven names of the earth, the seven patriarchs, seven suns, seven kinds, seven years, seven months, seven days, etc., etc.; in which the rabbins find a great variety of mysteries

Clarke: Rev 1:4

Grace be unto you - This form of apostolical benediction we have often seen in the preceding epistles

Clarke: Rev 1:4

From him which is, and which was, and which is to come - This phraseology is purely Jewish, and probably taken from the Tetragrammaton, יהוה Yehovah ; which is supposed to include in itself all time, past, present, and future. But they often use the phrase of which the ὁ ων, και ὁ ην, και ὁ ερχομενος, of the apostle, is a literal translation. So, in Sohar Chadash, fol. 7, 1: "Rabbi Jose said, By the name Tetragrammaton, (i.e. יהוה, Yehovah ), the higher and lower regions, the heavens, the earth, and all they contain, were perfected; and they are all before him reputed as nothing; והוא היה והוא הוה והוא יהיה vehu hayah , vehu hoveh , vehu yihyeh ; and He Was, and He Is, and He Will Be. So, in Shemoth Rabba, sec. 3, fol. 105, 2: "The holy blessed God said to Moses, tell them: - אני שהייתי ואני הוא עכשיו ואני הוא לעתיד לבוא ani shehayithi , veani hu achshaiu , veani hu laathid labo ; I Was, I Now Am, and I Will Be in Future."In Chasad Shimuel, Rab. Samuel ben David asks: "Why are we commanded to use three hours of prayer? Answer: These hours point out the holy blessed God; שהוא היה הוה ויהיה shehu hayah , hoveh , veyihyeh ; he who Was, who Is, and who Shall Be. The Morning prayer points out him who Was before the foundation of the world; the Noonday prayer points out him who Is; and the Evening prayer points out him who Is to Come."This phraseology is exceedingly appropriate, and strongly expresses the eternity of God; for we have no other idea of time than as past, or now existing, or yet to exist; nor have we any idea of eternity but as that duration called by some aeternitas a parte ante , the eternity that was before time, and aeternitas a parte post , the endless duration that shall be when time is no more. That which Was, is the eternity before time; that which Is, is time itself; and that which Is to Come, is the eternity which shall be when time is no more

Clarke: Rev 1:4

The seven Spirits - before his throne - The ancient Jews, who represented the throne of God as the throne of an eastern monarch, supposed that there were seven ministering angels before this throne, as there were seven ministers attendant on the throne of a Persian monarch. We have an ample proof of this, Tobit 12:15: I am Raphael, one of the Seven Holy Angels which present the prayers of the saints, and which go in and out before the glory of the Holy One. And in Jonathan ben Uzziel’ s Targum, on Gen 11:7 : God said to the Seven Angels which stand before him, Come now, etc

In Pirkey Eliezer, iv. and vii: "The angels which were first created minister before him without the veil."Sometimes they represent them as seven cohorts or troops of angels, under whom are thirty inferior orders

That seven Angels are here meant, and not the Holy Spirit, is most evident from the place, the number, and the tradition. Those who imagine the Holy Ghost to be intended suppose the number seven is used to denote his manifold gifts and graces. That these seven spirits are angels, see Rev 3:1; Rev 4:5; and particularly Rev 5:6, where they are called the seven spirits of God Sent Forth into All the Earth.

Clarke: Rev 1:5

The faithful witness - The true teacher, whose testimony is infallible, and whose sayings must all come to pass

Clarke: Rev 1:5

The first-begotten of the dead - See the note on Col 1:18

Clarke: Rev 1:5

The prince of the kings - Ὁ αρχων, The chief or head, of all earthly potentates; who has them all under his dominion and control, and can dispose of them as he will

Clarke: Rev 1:5

Unto him that loved us - This should begin a new verse, as it is the commencement of a new subject. Our salvation is attributed to the love of God, who gave his Son; and to the love of Christ, who died for us. See Joh 3:16

Clarke: Rev 1:5

Washed us from our sins - The redemption of the soul, with the remission of sins, and purification from unrighteousness, is here, as in all the New Testament, attributed to the blood of Christ shed on the cross for man.

Clarke: Rev 1:6

Kings and priests - See on 1Pe 2:5 (note), 1Pe 2:9 (note). But instead of βασιλεις και ἱερεις, kings and priests the most reputable MSS., versions, and fathers have βασιλειαν ἱερεις, a kingdom and priests; i.e. a kingdom of priests, or a royal priesthood. The regal and sacerdotal dignities are the two highest that can possibly exist among men; and these two are here mentioned to show the glorious prerogatives and state of the children of God

Clarke: Rev 1:6

To him be glory - That is, to Christ; for it is of him that the prophet speaks, and of none other

Clarke: Rev 1:6

For ever and ever - Εις τους αιωνας των αιωνων· To ages of ages; or rather, through all indefinite periods; through all time, and through eternity

Clarke: Rev 1:6

Amen - A word of affirmation and approbation; so it shall be, and so it ought to be.

Defender: Rev 1:1

The last book of the Bible gets its name from this first word (Greek apokalupsis), which means literally an "unveiling" of something previously concealed. The same word is translated "the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ" (1Co 1:7), "the appearing of Jesus Christ" (1Pe 1:7), and "the Lord Jesus shall be revealed from heaven" (2Th 1:7). This book is not about certain things Christ has revealed. Rather, it is about the revelation - the unveiling, the appearing - of Christ Himself.

Defender: Rev 1:1

"Shortly" (Greek en tachei) means literally "in speed." It can be understood in either of two ways, or both: (1) the coming of Christ is always imminent; (2) when He does come, the events described in this book will all take place in a short period of time.

Defender: Rev 1:1

Although some writers take this word to mean that the book is composed largely of "signs," or symbols, it is always used in the New Testament in the sense of "indicated." It is related to the Greek word for "sign;" however, "sign"; as used in the New Testament, means "miracle," not merely a symbol of something else. Its use here possibly suggests that these events which are about to come to pass, are being revealed to John in a special, miraculous way.

Defender: Rev 1:1

Note that the message was mediated to John not by Christ Himself but by a certain designated angel (compare Rev 22:6-9).

Defender: Rev 1:1

The writer claims a number of times to be John, obviously the same John who was the beloved disciple and who wrote the Gospel of John and the three Epistles of John. The vocabulary and general perspective of the five books, as well as uniform tradition, all agree on this."

Defender: Rev 1:2

The Book of Revelation is John's record of what he saw and heard taking place in the future. John uses the same, or related, Greek word (all derived from martios) frequently in the book of Revelation, as well as in his other writings. In Revelation, it is translated "witness" four times, "testimony" or "testify" nine times, and "martyr" twice."

Defender: Rev 1:3

This is the only book of the Bible where blessing is promised to all who either read it or hear it read. This fact indicates that its meaning and message are clear. A book that could not be understood could hardly be a blessing to anybody."

Defender: Rev 1:4

This is the first occurrence of the number seven in Revelation. The word (Greek hepta) occurs fifty-four times in this book, more than in all the rest of the New Testament combined. The reason for its pervasive use in Revelation is undoubtedly to emphasize that this book completes God's written revelation to man. Ever since God completed His creation of the world in six days and rested on the seventh, "seven" has been regarded in general as indicating fullness or completion.

Defender: Rev 1:4

These churches were seven real local churches, but they represent all churches with their various merits and problems. Christ's messages to them surely are also directed to all churches of all times and all places. It is significant that the Apostle Paul also wrote inspired messages to seven different local churches - the churches at Rome, Corinth, Galatia, Ephesus, Philippi, Colosse and Thessalonica. The church at Ephesus was included in both sets of epistles. This church was founded by Paul, then eventually ministered to by John.

Defender: Rev 1:4

The message of grace and peace is sent through John by the three that bear witness in heaven (1Jo 5:7).

Defender: Rev 1:4

The seven spirits are not seven angels at the throne. If they were angels, the text would say so. Since they join with the Father and Christ in sending the message, they must be one with God and should be recognized as the sevenfold Holy Spirit. This sevenfold nature of the Spirit presumably speaks of His ministry in the whole world (Joh 16:8; 2Ch 16:9). There is also a possible reference to Isa 11:2, which speaks of "the spirit of the Lord" resting on the coming Messiah. He is then called "the spirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit of counsel and might, the spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the Lord.""

Defender: Rev 1:5

Jesus Christ is anointed Prophet, Priest and King. As the "faithful witness," or "martyr," He shed His blood for our sins. As "the firstborn from the dead" (Col 1:18), He is our great "high priest for ever after the order of Melchizedec" (Heb 6:20). As the prince of earthly kings, He is also "Lord of lords, and King of kings" (Rev 17:14)."

TSK: Rev 1:1

Revelation : Dan 2:28, Dan 2:29; Amo 3:7; Rom 16:25; Gal 1:12; Eph 3:3

which God : Joh 3:32, Joh 8:26, Joh 12:49

to show : Rev 22:6; Psa 25:14; Joh 15:15

which must : Rev 1:3, Rev 1:19, Rev 4:1, Rev 22:10, 2Pe 3:8

and he : Rev 22:6, Rev 22:16; Dan 8:16, Dan 9:21, Dan 9:23

John : Rev 1:4, Rev 1:9, Rev 21:2

TSK: Rev 1:2

bare : Rev 1:9, Rev 6:9, Rev 12:11, Rev 12:17; Joh 1:32, Joh 12:17, Joh 19:35, Joh 21:24; 1Co 1:6, 1Co 2:1; 1Jo 5:7-11; 3Jo 1:12

and of all : Rev 1:19; Joh 3:11; Act 4:20, Act 22:15, Act 26:16; 1Jo 1:1, 1Jo 4:14

TSK: Rev 1:3

Blessed : Rev 22:7; Pro 8:34; Dan 12:12, Dan 12:13; Luk 11:28

for : Rev 22:6, Rev 22:10,Rev 22:12, Rev 22:20; Rom 13:11; Jam 5:8, Jam 5:9; 1Pe 4:7; 2Pe 3:8

TSK: Rev 1:4

John : Rev 1:1

to the : Rev 1:11, Rev 1:20, Rev 2:1, Rev 2:8, Rev 2:12, Rev 2:18, Rev 3:1, Rev 3:7, Rev 3:14; Act 19:10; 1Pe 1:1

Grace : Rom 1:7; 1Co 1:3; 2Co 1:2; 1Pe 1:2

him : Rev 1:8; Exo 3:14; Psa 90:2, Psa 102:25-27; Isa 41:4, Isa 57:15; Mic 5:2; Joh 1:1; Heb 1:10-13, Heb 13:8; Jam 1:17

from the : Rev 3:1, Rev 4:5, Rev 5:6; Zec 3:9, Zec 4:10, Zec 6:5; 1Co 12:4-13

TSK: Rev 1:5

who is : Rev 3:14; Psa 89:36, Psa 89:37; Isa 55:4; Joh 3:11, Joh 3:32, Joh 8:14-16, Joh 18:37; 1Ti 6:13; 1Jo 5:7-10

and the first : Act 26:23; 1Co 15:20-23; Col 1:18

and the prince : Rev 11:15, Rev 17:14, Rev 19:16; Psa 72:11, Psa 89:27; Pro 8:15, Pro 8:16; Dan 2:2, Dan 7:14; Mat 28:18; Eph 1:20-22; 1Ti 6:15

him : Deu 7:8, Deu 23:5; Joh 13:1, Joh 13:34, Joh 15:9; Rom 8:37; Gal 2:20; Eph 2:4, Eph 5:2, Eph 5:25-27; 1Jo 4:10

washed : Rev 7:14; Zec 13:1; Joh 13:8-10; Act 20:28; 1Co 6:11; Heb 9:14; 1Pe 1:19; 1Jo 1:7

TSK: Rev 1:6

made : Rev 5:10, Rev 20:6; Exo 19:6; Isa 61:6; Rom 12:1; 1Pe 2:5-9

to him : Rev 4:11, Rev 5:12-14; Psa 72:18, Psa 72:19; Dan 4:34; Mat 6:13; Joh 5:23; Phi 2:11; 1Ti 6:16; Heb 13:21; 1Pe 4:11, 1Pe 5:11; 2Pe 3:18; Jud 1:25

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: Rev 1:1

The Revelation of Jesus Christ - This is evidently a title or caption of the whole book, and is designed to comprise the substance of the whole; for all that the book contains would be embraced in the general declaration that it is a revelation of Jesus Christ. The word rendered "Revelation"- Ἀποκάλυψις Apokalupsis , whence we have derived our word "Apocalypse"- means properly an that is, nakedness; from ἀποκαλύπτω apokaluptō , to uncover. It would apply to anything which had been covered up so as to be bidden from the view, as by a veil, a darkness, in an ark or chest, and then made manifest by removing the covering. It comes then to be used in the sense of disclosing or revealing, by removing the veil of darkness or ignorance. "There is nothing covered that shall not be revealed."It may be applied to the disclosing or manifesting of anything which was before obscure or unknown. This may be done:

(a) by instruction in regard to what was before obscure; that is, by statements of what was unknown before the statements were made; as in Luk 2:32, where it is said that Christ would be "a light to lighten the Gentiles"- φῶς εἰς ἀποκάλυψιν ἐθνῶν phōs eis apokalupsin ethnōn ; or when it is applied to the divine mysteries, purposes, or doctrines, before obscure or unknown, but made clear by light revealed in the gospel, Rom 16:25; 1Co 2:10; 1Co 14:6; Eph 3:5.

(b) by the event itself; as the manifestation of the wrath of God at the day of judgment will disclose the true nature of his wrath. "After thy hardness and impenitent heart treasurest up unto thyself wrath against the day of wrath and "revelation"of the righteous judgment of God,"Rev 2:5. "For the earnest expectation of the creature waiteth for the manifestation (Greek revelation) of the sons of God,"Rom 8:19; that is until it shall be manifest by the event what they who are the children of God are to be. In this sense the word is frequently applied to the second advent or appearing of the Lord Jesus Christ, as disclosing him in his glory, or showing what he truly is; "When the Lord Jesus shall be revealed,"2Th 1:7 - ἐν τῇ ἀποκαλυψει en tēn apokalupsei - in the revelation of Jesus Christ; "Waiting for the coming (the revelation - την ἀποκάλυψιν tēn apokalupsin of our Lord Jesus Christ,"1Co 1:7; "At the appearing (Greek revelation) of Jesus Christ,"1Pe 1:7; "When his glory shall be revealed,"1Pe 4:13.

© It is used in the sense of making known what is to come, whether by words, signs, or symbols, as if a veil were lifted from what is hidden from human vision, or which is covered by the darkness of the unknown future. This is called a revelation, because the knowledge of the event is in fact made known to the world by Him who alone can see it, and in such a manner as he pleases to employ; though many of the terms or the symbols may be, from the necessity of the case, obscure, and though their full meaning may be disclosed only by the event. It is in this sense, evidently, that the word is used here: and in this sense that it is more commonly employed when we speak of a revelation. Thus, the word גּלה gaalaah is used in Amo 3:7, "Surely the Lord God will do nothing, but he revealeth his secret unto his servants."So Job 33:16, "Then he openeth (margin, revealeth or uncovereth; Heb. יגלה yigleh the ears of men"; that is, in a dream, he discloses to their ears his truth before concealed or unknown. Compare Dan 2:22, Dan 2:28-29; Dan 10:1; Deu 29:29. These ideas enter into the word as used in the passage before us. The idea is that of a disclosure of an extraordinary character, beyond the mere ability of man, by a special communication from heaven. This is manifest, not only from the usual meaning of this word, but by the word "prophecy,"in Rev 1:3, and by all the arrangements by which these things were made known. The ideas which would be naturally conveyed by the use of this word in this connection are two:

(1)\caps1     t\caps0 hat there was something which was before hidden, obscure, or unknown; and,

(2)\caps1     t\caps0 hat this was so disclosed by these communications as to be seen or known.

The things hidden or unknown were those which pertained to the future; the method of disclosing them was mainly by symbols. In the Greek, in this passage, the article is missing - ἀποκάλυψις apokalupsis - a Revelation, not ἡ hē , the Revelation. This is omitted because it is the title of a book, and because the use of the article might imply that this was the only revelation, excluding other books claiming to be a revelation; or it might imply some previous mention of the book, or knowledge of it in the reader. The simple meaning is, that this was "a Revelation"; it was only a part of the revelation which God has given to mankind.

The phrase, "the Revelation of Jesus Christ,"might, so far as the construction of the language is concerned, refer either to Christ as the subject or object. It might either mean that Christ is the object revealed in this book, and that its great purpose is to make him known, and so the phrase is understood in the commentary called Hyponoia (New York, 1844); or it may mean that this is a revelation which Christ makes to mankind, that is, it is his in the sense that he communicates it to the world. That this latter is the meaning here is clear:

(1)\caps1     b\caps0 ecause it is expressly said in this verse that it was a revelation which God gave to him;

(2)\caps1     b\caps0 ecause it is said that it pertains to things which must shortly come to pass; and,

(3)\caps1     b\caps0 ecause, in fact, the revelation is a disclosure of eyelets which were to happen, and not of the person or work of the Lord Jesus Christ.

Which God gave unto him - Which God imparted or communicated to Jesus Christ. This is in accordance with the representations everywhere made in the Scriptures, that God is the original fountain of truth and knowledge, and that, whatever was the original dignity of the Son of God, there was a mediatorial dependence on the Father. See Joh 5:19-20, "Verily, verily, I say unto you, the Son can do nothing of himself, but what he seeth the Father do: for whatsoever he doeth, these also doeth the Son likewise. For the Father loveth the Son, and showeth him ( δεικνυσιν αὐτῷ deiknusin autō ) all things that himself doeth.""My doctrine is not mine, but his that sent me,"Joh 7:16. "As my Father hath taught me ἐδιδάξεν με edidaxen me , I speak these things,"Joh 8:28. "For I have not spoken of myself; but the Father which sent me, he gave me a commandment, what I should say, and what I should speak,"Joh 12:49. See also Joh 14:10; Joh 17:7-8; Mat 11:27; Mar 13:32. The same mediatorial dependence the apostle teaches us still subsists in heaven in his glorified state, and will continue until he has subdued all things 1Co 15:24-28; and hence, even in that state, he is represented as receiving the Revelation from the Father to communicate it to people.

To show unto his servants - That is, to his people, to Christians, often represented as the servants of God or of Christ, 1Pe 2:16; Rev 2:20; Rev 7:3; Rev 19:2; Rev 22:3. It is true that the word is sometimes applied, by way of eminence, to the prophets 1Ch 6:49; Dan 6:20, and to the apostles Rom 1:1; Gal 1:10; Phi 1:1; Tit 1:1; Jam 1:1; but it is also applied to the mass of Christians, and there is no reason why it should not be so understood here. The book was sent to the churches of Asia, and was clearly designed for general use; and the contents of the book were evidently intended for the churches of the Redeemer in all ages and lands. Compare Rev 1:3. The word rendered "to show"( δεῖξαι deixai ) commonly denotes to point out, to cause to see, to present to the sight, and is a word eminently appropriate here, as what was to be revealed was, in general, to be presented to the sight by sensible tokens or symbols.

Things which must shortly come to pass - Not all the things that will occur, but such as it was deemed of importance for his people to be made acquainted with. Nor is it certainly implied that all the things that are communicated would shortly come to pass, or would soon occur. Some of them might perhaps he in the distant future, and still it might be true that there were those which were revealed in connection with them, which soon would occur. The word rendered "things"( ἅ ha ) is a pronoun, and might be rendered "what"; "he showed to his servants what things were about to occur,"not implying that he showed all the things that would happen, but such as he judged to be needful that his people should know. The word would naturally embrace those things which, in the circumstances, were most desirable to be known. The phrase rendered "must come to pass"( δεῖ γενέσθαι dei genesthai ), would imply more than mere futurity; The word used ( δεῖ dei ) means "it needs, there is need of,"and implies that there is some kind of necessity that the event should occur.

That necessity may either arise from the felt waist of anything, as where it is absent or missing, Xen. Cyr. iv., 10; ib. Rev 7:5, Rev 7:9; or from the nature of the case, or from a sense of duty, as Mat 16:21, "Jesus began to show to his disciples that he must go ( δεῖ ἀπελθεῖν dei apelthein ) to Jerusalem"(compare Mat 26:35; Mar 14:31; Luk 2:49); or the necessity may exist, because a thing is right and just, meaning that it ought to be done, as Luk 13:14, "There are six days in which men ought to work" δεῖ ἐργάζεσθαι dei ergazesthai . And ought not this woman οὐκ ἔδει ouk edei , whom Satan hath bound, etc., be loosed from this bond,"Luk 13:16 (compare Mar 13:14; Joh 4:20; Act 5:11, Act 5:29; 2Ti 2:6; Mat 18:33; Mat 25:27); or the necessity may be that it is conformable to the divine arrangement, or is made necessary by divine appointment, as in Joh 3:14, "As Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, even so must ( δεῖ dei ) the Son of man be lifted up.""For as yet they knew not the Scriptures, that he must ( δεῖ dei ) rise again from the dead,"Joh 20:9; compare Act 4:12; Act 14:22, et al.

In the passage before us, it is implied that there was some necessity that the things referred to should occur. They were not the result of chance, they were not fortuitous. It is not, however, stated what was the ground of the necessity; whether because there was a want of something to complete a great arrangement, or because it was fight and proper in existing circumstances, or because such was the divine appointment. They were events which, on some account, must certainly occur, and which, therefore, it was important should be made known. The real ground of the necessity, probably, was founded in the design of God in redemption. He intended to carry out his great plans in reference to his church, and the things revealed here must necessarily occur in the completion of that design. The phrase rendered "shortly"( ἐν τάχει en tachei ) is one whose meaning has been much controverted, and on which much has been made to depend in the interpretation of the whole book.

The question has been whether the phrase necessarily implies that the events referred to were soon to occur, or whether it may have such an extent of meaning as to admit the supposition that the events referred to, though beginning soon, would embrace in their development far distant years, and would reach the end of all things. Those who maintain, as Prof. Stuart, that the book was written before the destruction of Jerusalem, and that the portion in Rev. 4\endash 11 has special reference to Jerusalem and Judea, and the portion in Rev. 12\endash 19 refers to persecution and pagan Rome, maintain the former opinion; those who suppose that Rev. 4\endash 11 refers to the irruption of Northern barbarians in the Roman empire, and Rev. 12ff., to the rise and the persecutions of the papal power, embrace the latter opinion. All that is proper in this place is, without reference to any theory of interpretation, to inquire into the proper meaning of the language, or to ascertain what idea it would naturally convey:

(a) The phrase properly and literally means, "with quickness, swiftness, speed; that is, speedily, quickly, shortly"(Robinson’ s Lexicon; Stuart, in loco). It is the same in meaning as ταχέως tacheōs . Compare 1Co 4:19, "But I will come to you shortly, if the Lord will.""Go out quickly into the streets,"Luk 14:21. "Sit down quickly, and write fifty,"Luk 16:6. "She rose up hastily ( ταχέως tacheōs ) and went out,"Joh 11:31. "That ye are so soon removed ( ταχέως tacheōs ) from him that called you,"Gal 1:6. "Lay hands suddenly on no man,"1Ti 5:22. See also Phi 2:19, Phi 2:24; 2Th 2:2; 2Ti 4:9. The phrase used here ἐν τάχει en tachei occurs in Luk 18:8, "He will avenge them speedily"(literally with speed). "Arise up quickly,"Act 12:7. "Get time quickly out of Jerusalem,"Act 22:18. "Would depart shortly,"Act 25:4. "Bruise Satan under your feet shortly,"Rom 16:20; and Rev 1:1; Rev 22:6. The essential idea is, that the thing which is spoken of was soon to occur, or it was not a remote and distant event. There is the notion of rapidity, of haste, of suddenness. It is such a phrase as is used when the thing is on the point of happening, and could not be applied to an event which was in the remote future, considered as an independent event standing by itself. The same idea is expressed, in regard to the same thing, in Rev 1:3, "The time is at hand"- ὁ γὰρ καιρὸς ἐγγύς ho gar kairos engus ; that is, it is near, it is soon to occur. Yet.

(b) it is not necessary to suppose that the meaning is that all that there is in the book was soon to happen. It may mean that the series of events which were to follow on in their proper order was soon to commence, though it might be that the sequel would be remote. The first in the series of events was soon to begin, and the others would follow on in their train, though a portion of them, in the regular order, might be in a remote futurity. If we suppose that there was such an order, that a series of transactions was about to commence, involving along train of momentous developments, and that the beginning of this was to occur soon, the language used by John would be what would be naturally employed to express it. Thus, in case of a revolution in a government, when a reigning prince should be driven from his kingdom, to be succeeded by a new dynasty, which would long occupy the throne, and involving, as the consequence of the revolution, important events extending far into the future, we would naturally say that these things were shortly to occur, or that the time was near. It is customary to speak of a succession of events or periods as near, however vast or interminable the series may be, when the commencement is at hand. Thus, we say that the great events of the eternal world are near; that is, the beginning of them is soon to occur. So Christians now speak often of the millennium as near, or as about to occur, though it is the belief of many that it will be protracted for many ages.

© That this is the true idea hem is clear, whatever general view of interpretation in regard to the book is adopted. Even Prof. Stuart, who contends that the greater portion of the book refers to the destruction of Jerusalem, and the persecutions of pagan Rome, admits that "the closing part of the Revelation relates beyond all doubt to a distant period, and some of it to a future eternity"(ii., p. 5); and, if this be so, then there is no impropriety in supposing that a part of the series of predictions preceding this may lie also in a somewhat remote futurity. The true idea seems to be that the writer contemplated a series of events that were to occur, and that this series was about to commence. How far into the future it was to extend, is to be learned by the proper interpretation of all the parts of the series.

And he sent - Greek: "Sending by his angel, signified it to his servant John."The idea is not precisely that he sent his angel to communicate the message, but that he sent by him, or employed him as an agent in doing it. The thing sent was rather the message than the angel.

And signified it - Ἐσήμανεν Esēmanen . He indicated it by signs and symbols. The word occurs in the New Testament only in Joh 12:33; Joh 18:32; Joh 21:19; Act 11:28; Act 25:27, and in the passage before us, in all which places it is rendered "signify, signifying, or signified."It properly refers to some sign, signal, or token by which anything is made known (compare Mat 26:28; Rom 4:11; Gen 9:12-13; Gen 17:11; Luk 2:12; 2Co 12:12; 1Co 14:22), and is a word most happily chosen to denote the manner in which the events referred to were to be communicated to John, for nearly the whole book is made up of signs and symbols. If it be asked what was signified to John, it may be replied that either the word "it"may be understood, as in our translation, to refer to the Apocalypse (Revelation), or refer to what he saw ( ὅσα εἶδε hosa eide ), as Prof. Stuart supposes; or it may be absolute, without any object following, as Prof. Robinson (Lexicon) supposes. The general sense is, that, sending by his angel, he made to John a communication by expressive signs or symbols.

By his angel - That is, an angel was employed to cause these scenic representations to pass before the mind of the apostle. The communication was not made directly to him, but was through the medium of a heavenly messenger employed for this purpose. Thus, in Rev 22:6, it is said, "And the Lord God of the holy prophets sent his angel to show unto his servants the things which must shortly be done."Compare Rev 1:8-9 of that chapter. There is frequent allusion in the Scriptures to the fact that angels have been employed as agents in making known the divine will, or in the revelations which have been made to people. Thus, in Act 7:53, it is said, "Who have received the law by the disposition of angels.""For if the word spoken by angels was stedfast,"etc., Heb 2:2; "and it was ordained by angels in the hand of a mediator,"Gal 3:19. Compare the notes on Act 7:38, Act 7:53. There is almost no further reference to the agency of the angel employed for this service in the book, and there is no distinct specification of what he did, or of his great agency in the case.

John is everywhere represented as seeing the symbols himself, and it would seem that the agency of the angel was, either to cause those symbols to pass before the apostle, or to convey their meaning to his mind. How far John himself understood the meaning of these symbols, we have not the means of knowing with certainty. The most probable supposition is, that the angel was employed to cause these visions or symbols to pass before his mind, rather than to interpret them. If an interpretation had been given, it is inconceivable that it should not have been recorded, and there is no more probability that their meaning should have been disclosed to John himself, for his private use, than that it should have been disclosed and recorded for the use of others. It would seem probable, therefore, that John had only that view of the meaning of what he saw which anyone else might obtain from the record of the visions. Compare the notes on 1Pe 1:10-12.

Unto his servant John - Nothing could be learned from this expression as to what John was the author of the book, whether the apostle of that name or some other. Compare the introduction, section 1. It cannot be inferred from the use of the word "servant,"rather than apostle, that the apostle John was not the author, for it was not uncommon for the apostles to designate themselves merely by the words "servants,"or "servants of God."Compare the notes on Rom 1:1.

Barnes: Rev 1:2

Who bare record of the word of God - Who bore witness to, or testified of ἐμαρτύρησεν emarturēsen the Word of God. He regarded himself merely as a "witness"of what he had seen, and claimed only to make a fair and faithful "record"of it. "This is the disciple which "testifieth"( ὁ μαρτυρῶν ho marturōn ) of these things, and wrote these things,"Joh 21:24. "And he that saw it bare record"- μεμαρτύρηκε memarturēke Joh 19:35. Compare also the following places, where the apostle uses the same word of himself: 1Jo 1:2; 1Jo 4:14. The expression here, "the word of God,"is one the meaning of which has been much controverted, and is important in its bearing on the question who was the author of the Book of Revelation. The main inquiry is, whether the writer refers to the "testimony"which he bears in this book respecting the "word of God"; or whether he refers to some testimony on that subject in some other book with which those to whom he wrote were so familiar that they would at once recognize him as the author; or whether he refers to the fact that he had borne his testimony to the great truths of religion, and especially respecting Jesus Christ, as a preacher who was well known, and who would be characterized by this expression.

The phrase "the word of God"- τὸν λόγον τοῦ Θεοῦ ton logon tou Theou - occurs frequently in the New Testament (compare Joh 10:35; Act 4:31; Act 6:2, Act 6:7; Act 11:1; Act 12:24); and may either mean the Word or doctrine respecting God - that which teaches what God is - or what he speaks or teaches. It is more commonly used in the latter sense (compare the passages referred to above), and especially refers to what God speaks or commands in the gospel. The fair meaning of this expression would be, that John had borne faithful witness to, or testimony of, the truth which God had spoken to man in the gospel of Christ. So far as the "language"used here is concerned, this might apply either to a written or an oral testimony; either to a treatise like that of his gospel, to his preaching, or to the record which he was then making. Vitringa and others suppose that the reference here is to the gospel which he had published, and which now bears his name; Lucke and others, to the revelation made to him in Patmos, the record of which he now makes in this book; Prof. Stuart and others, to the fact that he was a teacher or preacher of the gospel, and that (compare Rev 1:9) the allusion is to the testimony which he had borne to the gospel, and for which he was an exile in Patmos. Is it not possible that these conflicting opinions may be to some extent harmonized, by supposing that in the use of the aorist tense - ἐμαρτύρησε emarturēse - the writer meant to refer to a characteristic of himself, to wit, that he was a faithful witness of the Word of God and of Jesus Christ whenever and however made known to him?

With an eye, perhaps, to the record which he was about to make in this book, and intending to include that may he not also refer to what had been and was his well-known character as a witness of what God communicated to him? He had always borne this testimony. He always regarded himself as such a witness. He had been an eyewitness of what had occurred in the life and at the death of the Saviour (see the notes on 2Pe 1:17-18), and had, in all his writings and public administrations, horne witness to what he had seen and heard; for that Rev 1:9 he had been banished to Patmos: and he was now about to carry out the same characteristic of himself by bearing witness to what he saw in these new revelations. This would be much in the manner of John, who often refers to this characteristic of himself (compare Joh 19:35; Joh 21:24; 1Jo 1:2), as well as harmonize the different opinions. The meaning, then, of the expression, "who bare record of the word of God,"as I understand it, is, that it was a characteristic of the writer to bear simple but faithful testimony to the truth which God communicated to people in the gospel. If this be the correct interpretation, it may be remarked:

(a)\caps1     t\caps0 hat this is such language as John the apostle would be likely to use, and yet

(b)\caps1     t\caps0 hat it is not such language as an author would be likely to adopt if there was an attempt to forge a book in his name.

The artifice would be too refined to occur probably to anyone, for although perfectly natural for John, it would not be so natural for a forger of a book to select this circumstance and weave it thus unostentatiously into his narrative.

And of the testimony of Jesus Christ - That is, in accordance with the interpretation above, of the testimony "which Jesus Christ bore for the truth"; not of a testimony "respecting"Jesus Christ. The idea is, that Jesus Christ was himself "a witness"to the truth, and that the writer of this book was a witness merely of the testimony which Christ had borne. Whether the testimony of Jesus Christ was borne in his preaching when in the flesh, or whether made known to the writer by him at any subsequent period, it was his office to make a faithful record of that testimony. As he had always before done that, so he was about to do it now in the new revelation made to him in Patmos, which he regarded as a new testimony of Jesus Christ to the truth, Rev 1:1. It is remarkable that, in confirmation of this view, John so often describes the Lord Jesus as a witness, or represents him as having come to hear his faithful testimony to the truth. Thus, in Rev 1:5; "And from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful and true witness.""I am one that bear witness - ὁ μαρτυρῶν ho marturōn - of myself,"Joh 8:18. "To this end was I born, and for this cause came I into the world, that I should bear witness - ἵνα μαρτυρήσω hina marturēsō - to the truth,"Joh 18:37. "These things saith the Amen, the faithful and true witness"- ὁ μάρτυς ὁ πιστὸς ho martus ho pistos , ... Rev 3:14. Of this testimony which the Lord Jesus came to bring to man respecting eternal realities, the writer of this book says that he regarded himself as a witness. To the office of bearing such testimony he had been dedicated; that testimony he was now to bear, as he had always done.

And of all things that he saw - Ὅσα τε εἰδεν Hosa te eiden . This is the common reading in the Greek, and according to this reading it would properly mean, "and whatsoever he saw"; that is, it would imply that he bore witness to "the Word of God,"and to "the testimony of Jesus Christ,"and to "whatever he saw"- meaning that the things which he saw, and to which he refers, were things additional to those to which he had referred by "the Word of God,"and the "testimony of Christ."From this it has been supposed that in the former part of the verse he refers to some testimony which he had formerly borne, as in his gospel or in his preaching, and that here he refers to what he "saw"in the visions of the Revelation as additional to the former. But it should be remembered that the word rendered "and"- τε te - is missing in a large number of manuscripts (see Wetstein), and that it is now omitted in the best editions of the Greek Testament - as by Griesbach, Tittmann and Hahn. The evidence is clear that it should be omitted; and if so omitted, the reference is to whatever he had at any time borne his testimony to, and not particularly to what passed before him in the visions of this book.

It is a general affirmation that he had always borne a faithful testimony to whatever he had seen respecting the Word of God and the testimony of Christ. The correct rendering of the whole passage then would be, "And sending by his angel, he signifies it to his servant John, who bare record of"(that is, whose character and office it was to bear his testimony to) "the word of God"(the message which God has sent to me), "and the testimony of Jesus Christ"(the testimony which Christ bore to the truth), "whatsoever he saw."He concealed nothing; he held nothing back; he made it known precisely as it was seen by him. Thus interpreted, the passage refers to what was a general characteristic of the writer, and is designed to embrace all that was made known to him, and to affirm that he was a faithful witness to it. There were doubtless special reasons why John was employed as the medium through which this communication was to be made to the church and the world. Among these reasons may have been the following:

(a)    That he was the "beloved disciple."

(b)    That he was the only surviving apostle.

©    That his character was such that his statements would be readily received. Compare Joh 19:35; Joh 21:24; 3Jo 1:12.

(d)    It may be that his mind was better suited to be the medium of these communications than that of any other of the apostles - even if they had been then alive.

There is almost no one whose mental characteristics are less correctly understood than those of the apostle John. Among the most gentle and amiable of people; with a heart so suited for love as to be known as "the beloved disciple"- he yet had mental characteristics which made it proper that he should be called "a son of thunder"Mar 3:17; a mind suited to preserve and record the profound thoughts in his gospel; a mind of high poetic order, suited for the magnificent conceptions in this book.

Barnes: Rev 1:3

Blessed is he that readeth - That is, it is to be regarded as a privilege attended with many blessings, to be permitted to mark the disclosures to be made in this book; the important revelations respecting future times. Prof. Stuart supposes that this refers to a public reading, and that the phrase "those who hear the words of this prophecy,"refers to those who listened to the public reader, and that both the reader and hearer should regard themselves as highly favored. It is, however, more in accordance with the usual meaning of the word rendered "read,"to suppose that it refers to the act of one’ s reading for himself; to learn by reading. So Robinson (Lexicon) understands it. The Greek word, indeed, would bear the other interpretation (see Luk 4:16; Act 13:27; Act 15:21; 2Co 3:15); but as this book was sent abroad to be read by Christians, and not merely to be in the hands of the ministers of religion to be read by them to others, it is more natural to interpret the word in the usual sense.

And hear the words of this prophecy - As they shall be declared or repeated by others; or perhaps the word "hear"is used in a sense that is not uncommon, that of giving attention to; taking heed to. The general sense is, that they were to be regarded as highly favored who became acquainted in any way with what is here communicated. The writer does not say that they were blessed who understood it, or that they who read or heard it would fully understand it; but it is clearly implied, that there would be so far an understanding of its meaning as to make it a felicitous condition to have been made acquainted with it. An author could not be supposed to say that one should regard his condition as a favored one who merely heard words that he could not understand, or who had placed before him magnificent symbols that had to him no meaning. The word "prophecy"is used here in its more strict sense as denoting the disclosure of future events - a large portion of the book being of this nature. It is here synonymous with "Revelation"in Rev 1:1.

And keep those things which are written therein - Keep in mind those things which relate to the future; and obey those things which arc required as truth and duty. The blessing which results from having in possession the revealed truth of God is not merely in reading it, or in hearing it: it results from the fact that the truth is properly regarded, and exerts a suitable influence over our lives. Compare Psa 19:11; "And in keeping of them there is great reward."

For the time is at hand - See Rev 1:1. The word used here - ἐγγύς engus - has the same signification substantially as the word "shortly"in Rev 1:1. It would apply to any event whose beginning was soon to occur, though the end might be remote, for the series of events might stretch far into the future. It cannot be doubted, however, that the writer meant to press upon them the importance of attending to these things, from the fact that either entirely or in part these things were soon to happen. It may be inferred from this verse, that it is possible so to "understand"this book, as that it may convey useful instruction. This is the only book in the Bible of which a special blessing is pronounced on him who reads it; but assuredly a blessing would not be pronounced on the perusal of a book which is entirely unintelligible. While, therefore, there may be many obscurities in this book, it is also to be assumed that it may be so far understood as to be useful to Christians, in supporting their faith, and giving them elevated views of the final triumph of religion, and of the glory of the world to come. Anything is a blessing which enables us with well-founded hope and joy to look forward to the heavenly world.

Barnes: Rev 1:4

John to the seven churches which are in Asia - The word "Asia"is used in quite different senses by different writers. It is used:

(1)\caps1     a\caps0 s referring to the whole eastern continent now known by that name;

(2)\caps1     e\caps0 ither Asia or Asia Minor;

(3)\caps1     t\caps0 hat part of Asia which Attalus III, king of Pergamos, gave to the Romans, namely, Mysia, Phrygia, Lycaonia, Lydia, Carla, Pisidia, and the southern coast - that is, all in the western, southwestern, and southern parts of Asia Minor; and,

(4)\caps1     i\caps0 n the New Testament, usually the southwestern part of Asia Minor, of which Ephesus was the capital. See the notes at Act 2:9.

The word "Asia"is not found in the Hebrew Scriptures, but it occurs often in the Books of Maccabees, and in the New Testament. In the New Testament it is not used in the large sense in which it is now, as applied to the whole continent, but in its largest signification it would include only Asia Minor. It is also used, especially by Luke, as denoting the country that was called "Ionia,"or what embraced the provinces of Caria and Lydia. Of this region Ephesus was the principal city, and it was in this region that the "seven churches"were situated. Whether there were more than seven churches in this region is not intimated by the writer of this book, and on that point we have no certain knowledge. it is evident that these seven were the principal churches, even if there were more, and that there was some reason why they should be particularly addressed.

There is mention of some other churches in the neighborhood of these. Colosse was near to Laodicea; and from Col 4:13, it would seem not improbable that there was a church also at Hierapolis. But there may have been nothing in their circumstances that demanded particular instruction or admonition, and they may have been on that account omitted. There is also some reason to suppose that, though there had been other churches in that vicinity besides the seven mentioned by John, they had become extinct at the time when he wrote the Book of Revelation. It appears from Tacitus (History, xiv, 27; compare also Pliny, N. H., v. 29), that in the time of Nero, 61 a.d., the city of Laodicea was destroyed by an earthquake, in which earthquake, according to Eusebius, the adjacent cities of Colosse and Hierapolis were involved. Laodicea was, indeed, immediately rebuilt, but there is no evidence of the re-establishment of the church there before the time when John wrote this book.

The earliest mention we have of a church there, after the one referred to in the New Testament by Paul Col 2:1; Col 4:13, Col 4:15-16, is in the time of Trajan, when Papias was bishop there, sometime between 98 a.d. and 117 a.d. It would appear, then, to be not improbable that at the time when the Apocalypse was written, there were in fact but seven churches in the vicinity. Prof. Stuart (i., 219) supposes that "seven, and only so many, may have been named, because the sevenfold divisions and groups of various objects constitute a conspicuous feature in the Apocalypse throughout."But this reason seems too artificial; and it can hardly be supposed that it would influence the mind of John, in the specification by name of the churches to which the book was sent. If no names had been mentioned, and if the statement had occurred in glowing poetic description, it is not inconceivable that the number seven might have been selected for some such purpose.

Grace be unto you, and peace - The usual form of salutation in addressing a church. See the notes on Rom 1:7.

From him which is, and which was, and which is to come - From him who is everlasting - embracing all duration, past, present, and to come. No expression could more strikingly denote eternity than this. He now exists; he has existed in the past; he will exist in the future. There is an evident allusion here to the name Yahweh, the name by which the true God is appropriately designated in the Scriptures. That name יהוה Yahweh , from היה haayah , to be, to exist, seems to have been adopted because it denotes existence, or being, and as denoting simply one who exists; and has reference merely to the fact of existence. The word has no variation of form, and has no reference to time, and would embrace all time: that is, it is as true at one time as another that he exists. Such a word would not be inappropriately paraphrased by the phrase "who is, and who was, and who is to come,"or who is to be; and there can be no doubt that John referred to him here as being himself the eternal and uncreated existence, and as the great and original fountain of all being.

They who desire to find a full discussion in regard to the origin of the name Yahweh, may consult an article by Prof. Tholuck, in the "Biblical Repository,"vol. iv., pp. 89-108. It is remarkable that there are some passages in pagan inscriptions and writings which bear a very strong resemblance to the language used here by John respecting God. Thus, Plutarch (De Isa. et Osir., p. 354.), speaking of a temple of Isis, at Sais, in Egypt, says, "It bore this inscription - ‘ I am all that was, and is, and shall be, and my vail no mortal can remove’ "- Ἐγώ εἰμι πᾶν τὸ γεγονός, καὶ ὅν, καὶ ἐσόμενον καὶ τὸν ἐμὸν πέπλον οὐδείς τω θνητὸς ἀνεκάλυψεν Egō eimi pan to gegonos , kai hon , kai esomenon kai ton emon peplon oudeis tō thnētos anekalupsen . So Orpheus (in Auctor. Lib. de Mundo), "Jupiter is the head, Jupiter is the middle, and all things are made by Jupiter."So in Pausanias (Phocic. 12), "Jupiter was; Jupiter is; Jupiter shall be."The reference in the phrase before us is to God as such, or to God considered as the Father.

And from the seven Spirits which are before his throne - After all that has been written on this very difficult expression, it is still impossible to determine with certainty its meaning. The principal opinions which have been held in regard to it are the following:

I. That it refers to God, as such. This opinion is held by Eichhorn, and is favored by Ewald. No arguments derived from any parallel passages are urged for this opinion, nor can any such be found, where God is himself spoken of under the representation of a sevenfold Spirit. But the objections to this view are so obvious as to be insuperable:

(1)    If it refers to God as such, then it would be mere tautology, for the writer had just referred to him in the phrase "from him who was,"etc.

(2)\caps1     i\caps0 t is difficult to perceive in what sense "seven spirits"could be ascribed to God, or how he could be described as a being of "Seven Spirits."At least, if he could be spoken of as such, there would be no objection to applying the phrase to the Holy Spirit.

(3)\caps1     h\caps0 ow could it be said of God himself that he was "before the throne?"He is everywhere represented as sitting on the throne, not as before it. It is easy to conceive of angels as standing before the throne; and of the Holy Spirit it is more easy to conceive as being represented thus as ready to go forth and convey a heavenly influence from that throne, but it is impossible to conceive in what sense this could be applied to God as such.

II. The opinion held by Grotius, and by John Henry Heinrichs, that it refers to "the multiform providence of God,"or to God considered as operating in seven or many different ways. In support of this Grotius appeals to Rev 5:12; Rev 7:12. But this opinion is so far-fetched, and it is so destitute of support, as to have found, it is believed, no other advocates, and to need no further notice. It cannot be supposed that John meant to personify the attributes of the Deity, and then to unite them with God himself, and with the Lord Jesus Christ, and to represent them as real subsistences from which important blessings descend to people. It is clear that as by the phrase, "who is, and who was, and who is to come,"and by "Jesus Christ, the faithful and true witness,"he refers to real subsistences, so he must here. Besides, if the attributes of God, or the modes of divine operation, are denoted why is the number seven chosen? And why are they represented as standing before the throne?

III. A third opinion is, that the reference is to seven attending and ministering presence-angels - angels represented as standing before the throne of God, or in his presence. This opinion was adopted among the ancients by Clemens of Alexandria Andreas of Cesarea, and others; among the moderns by Beza, Drusius, Hammond, Wetstein, Rosenmuller, Clarke, Prof. Stuart, and others. This opinion, however, has been held in somewhat different forms; some maintaining that the seven angels are referred to because it was a received opinion among the Hebrews that there were seven angels standing in the presence of God as seven princes stood in the Persian court before the king; others, that the angels of the seven churches are particularly referred to, represented now as standing in the presence of God; others, that seven angels, represented as the principal angels employed in the government of the world, are referred to; and others, that seven archangels are particularly designated. Compare Poole, Synoptists in loco. The arguments which are relied on by those who suppose that seven angels are here referred to are briefly these:

(1) The nature of the expression used here. The expression, it is said, is such as would naturally denote beings who were before his throne - beings who were different from him who was on the throne - and beings more than one in number. That it could not refer to one on the throne, but must mean those distinct and separate from one on the throne, is argued from the use of the phrases "before the throne,"and "before God,"in Rev 4:5; Rev 7:9, Rev 7:15; Rev 8:2; Rev 11:4, Rev 11:16; Rev 12:10; Rev 14:3; Rev 20:12; in all which places the representation denotes those who were in the presence of God, and standing before him.

\caps1 (2) i\caps0 t is argued from other passages in the Book of Revelation which, it is said (Prof. Stuart), go directly to confirm this opinion. Thus, in Rev 8:2; "And I saw the seven angels which stood before God."So Rev 4:5; the seven lamps of fire burning before the throne, are said to be "the seven Spirits of God."In these passages, it is alleged that the article "the"designates the well-known angels; or those which had been before specified, and that this is the first mention of any such angels after the designation in the passage before us.

\caps1 (3) i\caps0 t is said that this is in accordance with what was usual among the Hebrews, who were accustomed to speak of seven presence-angels, or angels standing in the presence of Yahweh. Thus, in the Book of Tobit (12:15), Raphael is introduced as using this language: "I am Raphael, one of the seven holy angels, which present the prayers of the saints, and which go in and out before the glory of the Holy One."The apocryphal Book of Enoch (chapter 20) gives the names of the seven angels who watch; that is, of the watchers (compare the notes on Dan 4:13, Dan 4:17) who stand in the presence of God waiting for the divine commands, or who watch over the affairs of people. So in the Zendavesta of Zoroaster, seven amshaspends, or archangels, are mentioned. See Prof. Stuart, in loco.

To these views, however, there are objections of great weight, if they are not in fact quite insuperable. They are such as the following:

(1) That the same rank should be given to them as to God, as the source of blessings. According to the view which represents this expression as referring to angels, they are placed on the same level, so far as the matter before us is concerned, with "him who was, and is, and is to come,"and with the Lord Jesus Christ - a doctrine which does not elsewhere occur in the Scriptures, and which we cannot suppose the writer designed to teach.

\caps1 (2) t\caps0 hat blessings should be invoked from angels - as if they could impart "grace and peace."It is evident that, whoever is referred to here by the phrase "the seven Spirits,"he is placed on the same level with the others mentioned as the source of "grace and peace."But it cannot be supposed that an inspired writer would invoke that grace and peace from any but a divine being.

\caps1 (3) t\caps0 hat as two persons of the Trinity are mentioned here, it is to be presumed that the third would not be omitted; or to put this argument in a stronger form, it cannot be supposed that an inspired writer would mention two of the persons of the Trinity in this connection, and then not only not mention the third, but refer to angels - to creatures - as bestowing what would be appropriately sought from the Holy Spirit. The incongruity would be not merely in omitting all reference to the Spirit - which might indeed occur, as it often does in the Scriptures - but in putting in the place which that Spirit would naturally occupy an allusion to angels as conferring blessings.

\caps1 (4) i\caps0 f this refer to angels, it is impossible to avoid the inference that angel-worship, or invocation of angels, is proper. To all intents and purposes, this is an act of worship; for it is an act of solemn invocation. It is an acknowledgment of the "seven Spirits,"as the source of "grace and peace."It would be impossible to resist this impression on the popular mind; it would not be possible to meet it if urged as an argument in favor of the propriety of angel-invocation, or angel-worship. And yet, if there is anything clear in the Scriptures, it is that God alone is to he worshipped. For these reasons, it seems to me that this interpretation cannot be well founded.

IV. There remains a fourth opinion, that it refers to the Holy Spirit, and in favor of that opinion it may be urged:

(1) That it is most natural to suppose that the Holy Spirit would be invoked on such an occasion, in connection with him "who was, and is, and is to come,"and with "Jesus Christ."If two of the persons of the Trinity were addressed on such an occasion, it would be properly supposed that the Holy Spirit would not be omitted, as one of the persons from whom the blessing was to descend. Compare 2Co 13:14; "The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the communion of the Holy Spirit, be with you all."

\caps1 (2) i\caps0 t would be unnatural and improper, in such an invocation, to unite angels with God as imparting blessings, or as participating with God and with Christ in communicating blessings to man. An invocation to God to send his angels, or to impart grace and favor through angelic help, would be in entire accordance with the usage in Scripture, but it is not in accordance with such usage to invoke such blessings from angels.

\caps1 (3) i\caps0 t cannot be denied that an invocation of grace from "him who is, and was, and is to come,"is of the nature of worship. The address to him is as God, and the attitude of the mind in such an address is that of one who is engaged in an act of devotion. The effect of uniting any other being with him in such a case, would be to lead to the worship of one thus associated with him. In regard to the Lord Jesus, "the faithful and true witness,"it is from such expressions as these that we are led to the belief that he is divine, and that it is proper to worship him as such. The same effect must be produced in reference to what is here called "the seven Spirits before the throne."We cannot well resist the impression that someone with divine attributes is intended; or, if it refer to angels, we cannot easily show that it is not proper to render divine worship to them. If they were thus invoked by an apostle, can it be improper to worship them now?

\caps1 (4) t\caps0 he word used here is not "angels,"but "spirits"; and though it is true that angels are spirits, and that the word "spirit"is applied to them Heb 1:7, yet it is also true that that is not a word which would be understood to refer to them without designating that angels were meant. If angels had been intended here, that word would naturally have been used, as is the case elsewhere in this book.

\caps1 (5) i\caps0 n Rev 4:5, where there is a reference to "the seven lamps before the throne,"it is said of them that they "are,"that is, they represent "the seven Spirits of God."This passage may be understood as referring to the same thing as that before us, but it cannot he well understood of angels; because:

(a)\caps1     i\caps0 f it did, it would have been natural to use that language for the reason above mentioned;

(b)\caps1     t\caps0 he angels are nowhere called "the spirits of God,"nor would such language be proper.

The phrase, "Spirit of God"naturally implies divinity, and could not be applied to a creature. For these reasons it seems to me that the interpretation which applies the phrase to the Holy Spirit is to be preferred; and though that interpretation is not free from difficulties, yet there are fewer difficulties in that than in either of the others proposed. Though it may not be possible wholly to remove the difficulties involved in that interpretation, yet perhaps something may be done to diminish their force:

(1) First, as to the reason why the number seven should be applied to the Holy Spirit:

(a) There would be as much propriety certainly in applying it to the Holy Spirit as to God as such. And yet Grotius, Eichhorn, Ewald, and others saw no difficulty in such an application considered as representing a sevenfold mode of operation of God, or a manifold divine agency.

(b) The word "seven"often denotes a full or complete number, and may be used to denote what is full, complete, or manifold; and might thus be used in reference to an all-perfect Spirit, or to a spirit which was manifold in its operations.

© The number seven is evidently a favorite number in the Book of Revelation, and it might be used by the author in places, and in a sense, such as it would not be likely to be used by another writer. Thus, there are seven epistles to the seven churches; there are seven seals, seven trumpets, seven vials of the wrath of God, seven last plagues; there are seven lamps, and seven Spirits of God; the Lamb has seven horns and seven eyes. In Rev 1:16, seven stars are mentioned; in Rev 5:12, seven attributes of God; Rev 12:3, the dragon has seven heads; Rev 13:1, the beast has seven heads.

(d) The number seven, therefore, may have been given to the Holy Spirit with reference to the diversity or the fulness of his operations on the souls of people, and to his manifold agency on the affairs of the world, as further developed in this book.

\caps1 (2) a\caps0 s to his being represented as "before the throne,"this may be intended to designate the fact that the Divine Spirit was, as it were, prepared to go forth, or to be sent forth, in accordance with a common representation in the Scriptures, to accomplish important purposes on human affairs. The posture does not necessarily imply inferiority of nature, anymore than the language does respecting the Son of God, when he is represented as being sent into the world to execute an important commission from the Father.

Barnes: Rev 1:5

And from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful witness - See the notes on Rev 1:2. He is faithful in the sense that he is one on whose testimony there may be entire reliance, or who is entirely worthy to be believed. From him "grace and peace"are appropriately sought, as one who hears such a testimony, and as the first-begotten from the dead, and as reigning over the kings of the earth. Thus, grace and peace are invoked from the infinite God in all his relations and operations: as the Father, the Source of all existence; as the Sacred Spirit, going forth in manifold operations upon the hearts of people; and as the Son of God, the one appointed to bear faithful testimony to the truth respecting God and future events.

And the first-begotten of the dead - The same Greek expression - πρωτότοκος prōtotokos - occurs in Col 1:18. See it explained in the notes on that passage. Compare the notes at 1Co 15:20.

And the prince of the kings of the earth - Who has over all the kings of the earth the pre-eminence which kings have over their subjects. He is the Ruler of rulers; King of kings. In Rev 17:14; Rev 19:16, the same thought is expressed by saying that he is the "King of kings."No language could more sublimely denote his exalted character, or his supremacy. Kings and princes sway a scepter over the million of the earth, and the exaltation of the Saviour is here expressed by supposing that all those kings and princes constitute a community over which he is the head. The exaltation of the Redeemer is elsewhere expressed in different language, but the idea is one that everywhere prevails in regard to him in the Scriptures. Compare Mat 28:18; Mat 11:27; Joh 17:2; Eph 1:20-22; Phi 2:9-11; Col 1:15-18. The word "prince"- ὁ ἄρχων ho archōn - means properly, "ruler, leader, the first in rank."We often apply the word "prince"to an heir to a throne who is not invested with absolute sovereignty. The word here, however, denotes that he actually exercises dominion over the rulers of the earth. As this is an authority which is claimed by God (compare Isa 10:5 ff; Isa 45:1 ff; Psa 47:2; Psa 99:1; Psa 103:9; Dan 4:34), and which can only pertain to God, it is clear that in ascribing this to the Lord Jesus it is implied that he is possessed of divine attributes. As much of the revelations of this book pertained to the assertion of power over the princes and rulers of this world, there was a propriety that, in the commencement, it should be asserted that he who was to exert that power was invested with the prerogative of a ruler of the nations, and that he had this right of control.

Unto him that loved us - This refers undoubtedly to the Lord Jesus, whose love for people was so strong that nothing more was necessary to characterize him than to speak of him as the one "who loved us."It is manifest that the division in the verses should have been made here, for this commences a new subject, not having any special connection with what precedes. In Rev 1:4, and the first part of this verse, the writer had invoked grace from the Father, the Spirit, and the Saviour. In the latter clause of the verse there commences an ascription of praise to the Redeemer; an ascription to him particularly, because the whole book is regarded as a revelation from him Rev 1:1; because he was the one who especially appeared to John in the visions of Patmos; and because he was to be the great agent in carrying into execution the purposes revealed in this book.

And washed us from our sins in his own blood - He has removed the pollution of sin from our souls by his blood; that is, his blood has been applied to cleanse us from sin. Blood can be represented as having a cleansing power only as it makes an expiation for sin, for considered literally its effect would be the reverse. The language is such as would be used only on the supposition that he had made an atonement, and that it was by the atonement that we are cleansed; for in what sense could it be said of a martyr that he "had washed us from our sins in his blood?"How could this language be used of Paul or Polycarp; of Ridley or Cranmer? The doctrine that the blood of Christ cleanses us from sin, or purifies us, is one that is common in the Scriptures. Compare 1Jo 1:7; Heb 9:14. The specific idea of washing, however - representing that blood as washing sin away - is one which does not elsewhere occur. It is evidently used in the sense of "cleansing"or "purifying,"as we do this by "washing,"and as the blood of Christ accomplishes in respect to our souls, what washing with water does in respect to the body.

Barnes: Rev 1:6

And hath made us kings and priests unto God - In 1Pe 2:9 the same idea is expressed by saying of Christians that they are "a royal priesthood."See the notes on that verse. The quotation in both places is from Exo 19:6; "And ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests."This idea is expressed here by saying that Christ had made us in fact kings and priests; that is, Christians are exalted to the dignity and are invested with the office, implied in these words. The word "kings,"as applied to them, refers to the exalted rank and dignity which they will have; to the fact that they, in common with their Saviour, will reign triumphant over all enemies; and that, having gained a victory over sin and death and hell, they may be represented as reigning together. The word "priests"refers to the fact that they are engaged in the holy service of God, or that they offer to him acceptable worship. See the notes on 1Pe 2:5.

And his Father - Even his Father; that is, the Saviour has redeemed them, and elevated them to this exalted rank, in order that they may thus be engaged in the service of his Father.

To him be glory - To the Redeemer; for so the construction Rev 1:5 demands. The word "glory"here means praise, or honor, implying a wish that all honor should be shown him.

And dominion - This word means literally "strength"- κράτος kratos ; but it here means the strength, power, or authority which is exercised over others, and the expression is equivalent to a wish that he may reign.

Poole: Rev 1:1

The Preface To The Annotations Upon The Revelation

Although some particular heretics, such as Cerdon and Marcyon, have doubted the Divine authority of this mysterious piece of holy writ, and some better men in the primitive times doubted of it, the manuscript copy of it having been at first reserved in few hands, and (as some think) in the fewer because of the affairs and fate of the Roman empire revealed in it; yet, besides its general reception as such by the church in all late ages, there is in it such a harmony, both with Daniel’ s prophecy in the Old Testament, and with the types made use of by the holy prophets; such manifest allusions to the whole order and economy of the Jewish church; such an agreement of the doctrine contained in it with the doctrine of the Old and New Testament, concerning God and Christ, the resurrection from the dead, and the day of judgment; and of the promises and threatenings contained in it, with the promises and threatenings in other parts of holy writ; that none who hath not a vanity to question the whole canon of Scripture, can reasonably dispute the Divine authority of this part of it.

It appeareth from Rev 1:1 , that John was the penman of it; and that this John was the beloved disciple, he that was the penman of one of the Gospels, hath been doubted by very few, and with very little reason, as will appear to him that will but wisely consider the terms and phrases used in it almost peculiar to this apostle, and hardly to be found in Scripture any where but in this book and the Gospel of John, such as calling Christ the Word, of which he bare record, &c. Nor is their objection of any validity, who object, that in the Gospel he ordinarily concealeth his name, which this author doth not; considering that in that he wrote a relation or history of things past, to be proved by many eye and ear witnesses; but here a Revelation or prophecy of things to come, to which his name was necessary, that men might judge by what authority he thus wrote.

For the time of his writing it, himself tells us, Rev 1:9 , that he received this Revelation from God, while he was in Patmos , for the word of God, and for the testimony of Jesus Christ; this was (if we may believe history, and we have nothing else to inform us) in the time of Domitian the Roman emperor, about the 94th or 95th year after the nativity of Christ; so as this book pleads a prescription of near sixteen hundred years, in which very few ever questioned its Divine authority.

For the scope of it, it is plainly told us, Rev 1:1 , deixai toiv douloiv autou a dei genesyai en tacei , to show unto his servants things which must shortly come to pass. The like we have repeated, Rev 22:6 : upon which account it is called a Revelation and a prophecy, neither of which terms agree to a narration or history, the object of which is some thing or things that are already past.

I will not undertake to give the certain and infallible sense of the several passages of this mysterious prophecy: In magnis voluisse sat est. But I have proceeded upon these few postulata:

1. That the whole of this book is no historical relation of things that were past before the year 95 or 96, or at least not long before, but of things to come; which hath made me wholly reject the notions of Grotius and Dr. Hammond, so far as they concerned the siege or destruction of Jerusalem, which was past twenty-six or twenty-seven years before John heard of this Revelation. I cannot understand how this can agree with Rev 1:1 , or Rev 22:6 .

2. That it contains a prophecy of the most remarkable things that happened either to the Roman empire, or to the church (all which was within the latitude of that in St. John’ s time) during the whole time of that; or which should happen after the decay of that, throughout the church, to the end of the world.

3. That this time is reasonably divided into three periods; the first determining with the Roman empire’ s, continuing pagan, 310 or 325 years after Christ: the second with the total ruin of antichrist; when that shall be I cannot tell: the third with Christ’ s coming to the last judgment. The first is by some called Regnum draconis ethnicum; the second, Vicariatus draconis antichristianus; the third, Regnum Christi, or, Status ecclesiae tranquillus.

4. I see no reason to dissent from those eminent men, who think that part of the Revelation which relates to the first period, and is predictive of what happened to the church of God until the time of Constantine the Great, 310 or 325 years after Christ, beginneth with Rev 4:1-11 and endeth with Rev 7:1-17 ; and that the silence in heaven for half an hour, mentioned Rev 8:1 , relateth to the rest which the church had from Constantine’ s time till the end of Theodosius’ s reign, about seventy or seventy-five years.

5. Where to fix the epocha, or beginning, of the one thousand two hundred and sixty years, or forty-two months, I cannot tell. That the mystery of iniquity begun to work in the apostles’ time, is evident from 1Th 2:7 ; and reason will tell us, that Rome, as it now stands, or as it was in the year 1606, was not built up in a day, the great corruptions then in it came in and grew up by degrees; but I cannot tell how to count antichrist’ s reign, but from the time Phocas humoured the pope with the title and style of "supreme" or "universal bishop"; from which time I should rather reckon the one thousand two hundred and sixty years, than from any time before.

6. I do agree with those who think the first eleven chapters contain the sum of whatsoever is prophesied concerning the two first periods, though many things falling within them are more particularly and fully opened, Rev 12:1-19:21 . Rev 12:1-17 gives us a particular account of the church during the first two periods. Rev 13:1-18 gives us a more particular account of antichrist, both in the secular power and in his ecclesiastical jurisdiction. Rev 15:1-8 and Rev 16:1-21 more fully open to us what should be done under the sixth trumpet. In Rev 17:1-18 we have a more full description of the beast with two horns, mentioned Rev 13:11 , which signified antichrist as sitting in the temple of God. Rev 18:1-24 more fully describes his fall, summarily before mentioned, Rev 14:1-20 . Rev 19:1-21 , so far as it concerneth the praise given to God for this, relates to that great dispensation of providence.

7. I take the third state of the church (to which I cannot conceive we are yet come, which I called its serene and quiet state) to be foretold and described, Rev 20:1-15 ; after which shall be the battle with all the wicked of the earth, which shall end in Christ’ s coming to judge the world, and the general resurrection in order to it.

8. I take the last two chapters to describe a state of the church agreeing to none but the church triumphant, and have accordingly interpreted them.

If any differ from me in any of these things, it will be no wonder if he disagreeth with me in the explication of the chapters and verses relating to them.

I dare not be positive as to the sense I have given, but shall only say it is what appeareth to me most probable. There have been found some in the tents of protestants, that have taken much pains to free the papacy from the imputation of antichrist. This I conceive was Grotius’ s design, in his interpretation of this book, as if it had been a history rather than a prophecy, and if a prophecy, fulfilled in less than two hundred and fifty years after it was published. As to the papacy being antichrist, I think that great person spake well, who would not be peremptory in the case, but said, it had so many of his marks, that upon a hue and cry for antichrist, he should apprehend him. I shall add, that if he were so apprehended and tried, he could never acquit himself either at the bar of Scripture or reason.

REVELATION CHAPTER 1

Rev 1:1-3 The preface.

Rev 1:4-6 John’ s salutation to the seven churches of Asia.

Rev 1:7 The coming of Christ,

Rev 1:8 his eternal majesty.

Rev 1:9-20 John relateth his vision of the Son of man with the

seven stars and the seven golden candlesticks.

The Revelation of Jesus Christ the Apocalypse, (as this book is sometimes called), that is, the discovering or unveiling of some hidden things; so the word revelation signifieth. The Greek word is often used in the New Testament, and is ordinarily translated so. It is called The Revelation of Jesus Christ because Christ received it from his Father, as the next words show.

Which God gave unto him as he was Mediator: by God here, is to be understood the Father, not exclusively to the Son, as if he were not God, but to show the order of working in the Holy Trinity, Joh 7:16 Joh 14:10 . Christ in his state of humiliation is said to learn of the Father; in his state of exaltation, to receive from the Father.

To show unto his servants to John, and by him to all saints that will be studious of things revealed.

Things which must shortly come to passa dei genesyai en tacei . This phrase puts us out of doubt, that this book is not a relation or narrative of things past, but a revelation or prediction of things to come: see also Rev 22:6,16 . Which makes me wonder at the confidence of a learned annotator of our that all things here relate, either to the siege of Jerusalem (which was past more than twenty years before this Revelation to St. John), or to pagan Rome, which, indeed, continued two hundred and odd years after this. But his notion is contrary to the general sense of all interpreters, whether the ancient fathers or modern writers. The phrase, indeed, signifies shortly, but never what was past, nor always what shall in a few days come to pass; see Luk 18:8 Rom 16:20 ; though indeed sometimes it signifies the time immediately following a command, as Act 12:7 Act 22:18 : and considering it is God’ s phrase, to whom a thousand years are but as yesterday, Psa 90:4 , and who calls the things that are not as if they were, and who manifestly calls all those years between Christ’ s coming and the end of the world (almost one thousand seven hundred of which are past already) the last days, we may allow him to say, those things should be shortly, which soon after should begin to be effected, though not finished till Christ’ s second coming. Though therefore we may allow this verse the key to open the whole Apocalypse, yet we must judge the learned author hath turned it the wrong way. Christ had foretold the ruin of Jerusalem, Mat 24:1-51 , nor was it now the matter of a prophecy, but history. The first six seals plainly show the state of the Christian church under Rome pagan; what shall we say to all things represented under the seventh seal, &c.?

And he sent and signified it by his angel first by one angel, and then by another, or (possibly) constantly by the same.

Unto his servant John: who this John was, we shall declare further, Rev 1:2,4 .

Poole: Rev 1:2

Who bare record of the word of God: this phrase determines the controversy about the penman of this part of holy writ, and puts it out of doubt that it was John the apostle and evangelist; the phrase so agrees to Joh 1:19,32,34 19:35 . The word in the Greek signifies, bare testimony to, or of, the word of God. Some understand Christ, so called, 1Jo 1:2 . Some would have the gospel meant by it; and if any think this the more probable sense, because, though Christ be elsewhere called the Word, yet he is not called the word of God; and it is not here in the dative, but the accusative case; I see no reason to contradict them.

And of the testimony of Jesus Christ: by the testimony of Christ is to be understood the doctrine of Christ, called so, because it is a testimony concerning him; or rather, that which he testified, who is elsewhere called the true and faithful witness.

And of all things that he saw: this may be understood with reference to what went before; so it agreeth with 1Jo 1:1-10 ; or to what followeth in this Revelation, made to him in visions in a great measure.

Poole: Rev 1:3

Blessed is he that readeth, and they that hear the words of this prophecy: from hence is well concluded, that this is a portion of holy writ to be read publicly and privately, otherwise no blessing would have been pronounced to the readers or the hearers of it. It is also well from hence concluded, that this book is no history of things done, but a prediction of things to come to pass; for though prophecy in some scriptures signifieth more largely the revelation of the Divine will, yet here it must signify strictly.

And keep those things which are written therein that keep it in memory, and live in view of it, and as persons that believe it; they are blessed, as they will from it be comforted, concerning all the sufferings of the church, and people of God.

For the time is at hand the season for the accomplishment of these things is nigh, not past, but the time when they shall begin to happen is not very far off.

Poole: Rev 1:4

John to the seven churches which are in Asia: John, the apostle and evangelist, writes either to all the churches of Asia under the notion of seven, (which is the number of perfection), or to those seven churches mentioned Rev 1:11 , Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea, seven famous places in Asia the Less, where the gospel was planted; which being the most famous churches in that part of the world, John is commanded to deposit this prophecy in their hands, by them to be communicated unto other churches. These churches were in the most famous cities of the Lesser Asia: some think John was the apostle that preached most in Asia, and founded these churches; others, that though they were founded by Peter and Paul, yet after their death John took upon him the charge of them. It is the opinion of some learned men, that the apostle did not, in the epistles to the churches in Asia, design only to tell them of their error, and prescribe to their cure; but that in writing to them, he assigns both a prophetical instruction of us all concerning the state of the church in all periods from that time to the day of judgment, and also to reprove and counsel all present and succeeding churches; but of this we may possibly speak more afterward.

Grace be unto you, and peace: grace and peace is the common apostolical salutation, as to the sense of which we have often spoken: the apostle wisheth them the free love of God, that is, grace, and the seal of it, Rom 5:1 , peace with God and their own consciences, and each with other.

From him which is, and which was, and which is to come: these words are a description of God, particularly of Jesus Christ in his eternity and immutability: he was from eternity; he is now; and he shall be for ever. Or, (as some), he was in his promises before his incarnation; he is now God manifested in the flesh; and he is to come as a Judge, to judge the quick and the dead. This was an ancient name of God, Exo 3:14 , I am that I am.— I AM hath sent me unto you. These words interpret the name Jehovah.

And from the seven Spirits which are before his throne it is very difficult to determine what is meant by the seven Spirits here before the throne: we read of them also, Rev 3:1 4:5 5:6 . Christ is described, Rev 3:1 , as having the seven Spirits of God. It is said, Rev 4:5 , that the seven lamps of fire burning before the throne, are the seven Spirits of God; and Rev 5:6 , that the Lamb’ s seven eyes were the seven Spirits of God. This is all the light we have from Scripture. Some think they are seven angels that are here meant. We read, Rev 8:2 , of seven angels that stood before God; and in Rev 15:6-8 , there is a like mention of seven angels; and Zec 4:2,10 , Zechariah had a vision of seven lamps, and seven pipes, which, Rev 1:10 , are said to be the eyes of the Lord, which run to and fro through the whole earth. But John saluting the churches with grace and peace from these seven Spirits, and joining them with Christ, they do not seem to be creatures, angels, that are here meant, but such a Being from whom grace and peace cometh. Others therefore understand by them, the seven workings of Divine Providence in his management of the affairs of the world, with relation to the church, of which we shall read after; but this also seems hard. The sense seems to be, and from the Holy Ghost, who, though but one spiritual Being, yet exerteth his influence many ways, and by various manifestations, called here seven Spirits, because all flow from the same Spirit. They are therefore called, Rev 4:5 , burning lamps; the Holy Ghost descending in the appearance of fire, Act 2:3,4 , and being compared to fire, Mat 3:11 . They are called the Lamb’ s seven eyes and seven horns, Rev 5:6 . Christ had the Spirit without measure; and the Holy Spirit is oft called the Spirit of Christ. This seemeth the best sense; the reader may find the objections to it answered in Mr. Pool’ s Synopsis Criticorum upon this verse.

Poole: Rev 1:5

And from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful witness: here is an express mention of Jesus Christ, because he was the procurer of our redemption, and our Mediator, to whom the Father committed all power as to the church. He is called the faithful and true witness; 1Ti 6:13 , he witnessed a good confession before Pontius Plate; he bare record of himself, Joh 8:13,14 : see also Isa 43:10 55:4 Joh 18:37 .

And the first begotten of the dead that is, who first rose from the dead, viz. by his own power, Joh 10:18 , and to die no more: see Act 13:34 1Co 15:20 .

And the prince of the kings of the earth: the King of kings, Rev 17:14 19:16 1Ti 6:15 . The first name here given to Christ speaketh his prophetical office, the second his priestly office, this last his kingly office.

Unto him that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood: here begins a doxology, or giving glory to Christ, (such forms are frequent in the Epistles), first, as he that washed us from our sins, both from the guilt and from the power and dominion of our sins, with his blood, paying a price, and satisfying God’ s justice for, and meriting our sanctification: see Heb 9:14 1Jo 1:7 .

Poole: Rev 1:6

And hath made us kings and priests unto God and his Father : kings, to rule over our own appetite, and govern ourselves by the law of his word, to fight and conquer the world, the flesh, and the devil. Kings in a spiritual sense, for our kingdom is like his from whom we derive it, not of this world; therefore he adds, unto God, to the honour and glory of God, for his service, who is the Father of Christ.

Priests, to offer up spiritual sacrifices, acceptable to God through the Beloved, 1Pe 2:5 ; our bodies as a living sacrifice, Rom 12:1 ; part of our estates, Phi 4:18 ; the sacrifice of praise, the fruit of our lips, Heb 13:15 . So as all the privileges of the Jews, Exo 19:6 , belong to us, and that in a more eminent manner. Through Christ we also are a royal priesthood, a peculiar people.

To him be glory and dominion for ever and ever. Amen: let all praise, and honour, and acknowledgments be paid, and all power ascribed, to him for ever.

PBC: Rev 1:1

Don’t try to make the book of Revelation the second bible that’s totally independent of the first one. It’s the sixty-sixth out of 66 books and it’s the same message from the same God. We have allegorized, parablized, devastated the message of Revelation to our great harm. There are two points of interpretation in Revelation that I want to suggest for your consideration -just study the book from this perspective and see if it helps you. What you have in the book of Revelation is revelations from God that present for us the image of ideas. Don’t allegorize all the horns on the beast. It’s not an allegory. It’s the image of an idea and that’s what the book of Revelation is full of. What can we learn if we take away the anemic attribute of allegory and symbolism from Revelation and look for ideas that make the images come to life and make sense to us. That’s one point. The other point -when you’re reading the book of Revelation, John in the Spirit is transported to different locations and given different perspectives of the visions he receives. He sees into heaven. He’s taken to heaven. He sees things in heaven. From heaven he sees the perspective of heaven of things on the earth. Don’t forget where John is and what perspective he has when you read the vision. Eld. Joe Holder

A PRACTICAL VIEW OF THE REVELATION

We do believe and affirm that The Revelation is scripture, and therefore the word of God. This being true it is profitable for doctrine, reproof, correction, and instruction in righteousness, to the end that through it, and all other scripture, the man of God may be made perfect unto every good work. (See 1Ti 3:16) Consequently our purpose in studying The Revelation should be not to see how many unfathomable mysteries we can find but to find how we may use it to profit in the Lord.

The first phrase of the book, The Revelation, declares the purpose and content of it. It is "The Revelation of Jesus Christ." We are to understand from the very beginning to the end of the book that the descriptions of all things, conditions, circumstances, consequences, principles, apparitions etc are presented in symbolic language, and all have to do with revealing Jesus Christ to the reader. Many symbols or figures which occur within the text are unfamiliar to us, but they would have been plain to the people of the church at the time they were written, and the church could profit from the knowledge of them. If we can discover the significance of more of them we also could profit from them.

Because of our not knowing the significance of a symbol, its meaning is lost to us. Our imagination runs wild, and beasts and dragons and serpents and horses and scorpions and thunder and lightning and blood and smoke and fire and rivers and war and famine and death and hell take on fantastic dimensions. We lose sight of Him of whom The Revelation is all about, Jesus Christ. For this reason many people have supposed the book to be a book of mysteries not to be understood until the end of time. On the contrary, it is a book of practical instruction to the church, and we, especially the ministers, ought to spend more time studying it. By hard study, meditation and fervent prayer we will be able to learn more about the book, and be able to rejoice in the view of Jesus it presents rather than standing awe-stricken by its supposed mystery and forebodings of gloom and misery.

The first three chapters of the book (Re 1:1-20; 2:1-29; 3:1-22) are more easily understood than the rest. We need to study them diligently, because the better we understand the first, the more likely we are to understand the latter. In the first chapter, Jesus appears to John while an exile on the isle of Patmos. Jesus identifies himself to John and instructs him to write what he sees in a book, and send it to the seven churches in Asia. Here is given unto us an example of resolute faith. John was a prisoner of Rome, exiled to the island called Patmos, separated from the brotherhood of the church, no means of communicating with the church except through the hands of the Romans. It would seem an impossibility, if he wrote a book, that it could be delivered to the churches. We find no indication that John faltered in the least. He immediately went forward with the work assigned to him. Evidently he understood that when God gives us a work to do, we are to be up and about it, and leave the consequences to Him. OH! that men today would exercise such faith. It is not that we do not have such faith, it is that we do not exercise the faith we do have! Faith is a gift from God. Living by faith is our responsibility!

What an important practical lesson taught in Re 1:1-20 which so many people see as a great mystery. I dare say volumes could be written about the practical lessons presented in Re 1:1-20.

461

Jesus Christ, the Alpha and Omega

The Preface {Re 1:1-3}

There are three important foundations for proper interpretation of all that follows.

First, this is revealed from God to Jesus Christ, and is to be given to the Churches. " For the Father loveth the Son, and showeth him all things that himself doeth: and he will show him greater works than these, that ye may marvel." {Joh 5:20} John was that servant who would pen these things down for the Churches.

"which must shortly come to pass"

Second, it is a revelation of things " which must shortly come to pass." The Greek word for shortly is en (SGreek: 1722. en); a primary preposition denoting (fixed) position (in place, time or state), to give oneself wholly to; to do quickly, shortly, speedily...

When we examine the text, we are told that these things will be carried out in the very near future quickly (speedily) by one who is mighty and will give Himself wholly to this work. Third, Jesus Christ signified it by His angel unto His servant John. This messenger was faithful in delivering the messages which were important to the people in that day. We are given the written word which contains those messages. Let us be careful not to add nor take away from these things. May we prayerfully and carefully seek guidance from God in our interpretations.— Eld. Charles Taylor

"The things which must shortly come to pass" deals with events that are immediate at the time of the writing. There are so many close parallels between so many of the symbols that are given later in the Book to the historical writings of Josephus that it is my opinion this revelation was given prior to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A.D.

462

PBC: Rev 1:2

"record"[1]

According to Parson’s Thesaurus, Record means a register, a catalog, a daybook, a ledger, or lot. This shows that these events were already put in a register. If so, God will not change it because He is omniscient, or all knowledgeable of past, present, and future.

Eld. Charles Taylor

[1] The Greek word marturew, (SGreek: 3140. martureo from martuv (SGreek: 3144. martus); to be a witness, give [evidence], bear record, have (obtain of) good (honest) report, be well reported of, testify, give (obtain) witness.

PBC: Rev 1:3

Blessed is he that readeth, and they that hear the words of this prophecy, and keep those things which are written therein: for the time is at hand. The blessedness of those who read this prophecy, and keep those things which are written is manifest in their obedience. Please read the instruction given in Mr 13:14, and Lu 21:20-21, concerning fleeing out of Jerusalem to the mountains. Much had been given in prophecy concerning this great catastrophe which would come upon the inhabitants of Jerusalem as a result of their condition of sinfulness and disobedience. The Jews were in possession of these prophecies and could read them. Nevertheless, the reading of God’s word is not the end which God intended for His people. Their temporal salvation lies in how they hear and obey the given instruction. " All the words of my mouth are in righteousness; there is nothing froward or perverse in them. They are all plain to him that understandeth, and right to them that find knowledge."  {Pr 8:8-9} —Eld. Charles Taylor

This verse lets us know that there are blessings to be had in reading, hearing and keeping the things written in the book, for the time is at hand. This is a very timely book. It has been a blessing to every generation of God’s children since it was written. The book is for us NOW. The time is at hand. This has been true in every generation and will be as long as time goes on.

463

PBC: Rev 1:4

The letter corpus {Re 1:4-3:22} Covering letter {Re 1:4-20}

The seven churches which are in Asia are specifically mentioned as the Churches in Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. A popular theory says these represent the so-called " ages" of the Churches, but I believe that the conditions of these churches are to be patterns for all churches who serve Jesus Christ in sincerity throughout all ages.

Grace carries the attributes of graciousness in manner or act, especially the divine influence upon the heart, and its reflection in the life. This is found most often in the benedictions given by Paul in his epistles to the churches. This should be the spiritual desire for all who are sincere in their worship and service to God. Our manner of conduct should be adorned with grace.

Peace carries the attributes of accord, armistice, harmony, reconciliation, and truce. Paul wrote, " And the peace of God, which passeth all understanding, shall keep your hearts and minds through Christ Jesus." {Php 4:7} If there is to be peace, there must first be a spirit of accord among God’s people. If there are differences there should be an armistice, in which there is a cease-fire. Harmony can only come about through reconciliation with one another and most of all, with God. There comes a time when God’s people must declare and observe a truce while we take a good look at our lives and service to God.

This peace must come " from him which is, and which was, and which is to come; and from the seven Spirits which are before his throne." The course of our lives will be changed through obedience. The seven Spirits (notice the capitalization) are in perfect accord with God. Matthew Henry takes this to mean the " Holy Spirit, which is called the seven Spirits, the infinite Spirit of God, in whom there is a diversity of gifts and operations." I can see the meaning to have something to do with the number (seven) of churches mentioned. These seven Spirits are in complete harmony with the will of God and are ready to faithfully carry out the messages to the churches.— Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 1:5

John tells us something about the One from whom he received The Revelation; "Jesus Christ" the "faithful witness," "the first begotten of the dead," "prince of the kings of the earth," who "loved us," "and washed us from our sins in his own blood"

465

"faithful"

There is none more faithful than Jesus Christ. If there is a witness, who is worthy of sending this message to His Church, let that one now be named. " Wherefore, holy brethren, partakers of the heavenly calling, consider the Apostle and High Priest of our profession, Christ Jesus. Who was faithful to him that appointed him, as also Moses was faithful in all his house. For this man was counted worthy of more glory than Moses, inasmuch as he who hath builded the house hath more honour than the house."  {Heb 3:1-3} His faithfulness is shown in the promise of the resurrection, in which He was shown to be the first begotten from the dead! Being Prince of the kings of the earth, He is King of kings. He loved us even while we were dead in trespasses and sins. {See Eph 2:1} He washed us by His blood and cleansed us from all iniquity. Surely we must say that one who loved us so much and gave Himself for us is a faithful witness in things concerning our warfare while here in the earth.

Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 1:6

"kings"

What a wonderful existence we have in His inheritance! We are kings and priests unto God! What is the meaning to this statement? If we are made kings, then we have a kingdom. " And I appoint unto you a kingdom, as my Father hath appointed unto me; that ye may eat and drink at my table in my kingdom, and sit on thrones judging the twelve tribes of Israel." {Lu 22:29-30} The writer of Hebrews states it this way, " Wherefore we receiving a kingdom which cannot be moved, let us have grace, whereby we may serve God acceptably with reverence and godly fear: For our God is a consuming fire." {Heb 12:28-29} —Eld. Charles Taylor

He has made us kings and priests unto God and his Father; in recognition of which, glory and dominion be given to Him for ever and ever. In Christ every child of God is made a king. One can not be a king except he/she have a kingdom over which to rule. Our kingdom, over which we are to rule as a king, is our body of flesh. The Spirit God has given us He has made to be king. The flesh is subject to the Spirit as the subjects of a kingdom are subject to their king. Paul, writing to the church at Corinth said, "I keep under my body and bring it into subjection." We all are to do likewise.

466

"priests"

If we are made priests, we have a priesthood. No, we are not High Priests. This is the office of Christ Jesus. However we do have a priesthood which was prefigured in the Levitical priesthood. They participated in the worship of the temple; so do we have a place in the Spiritual temple. The Levitical priests trimmed the lamps; so should we keep our lights trimmed and burning. They burned incense; so should we let our prayers ascend to God for a sweet smelling savor. They were teachers; so should we apply ourselves in teaching others by our lives.— Eld. Charles Taylor

We have also been made priests. Priests offer up sacrifices unto God. The days of animal sacrifices, when only a few priests were anointed to offer sacrifices, are past. We live in a new and better day, the day of Jesus Christ. Jesus has made the final sin offering to God for all His children. His children now are all priests unto Him and are to offer up spiritual sacrifices unto Him. "By Him therefore let us offer the sacrifice of praise to God continually, that is, the fruit of our lips giving thanks to his name." {Heb 13:15} "Ye also, as lively stones, are built up a spiritual house, a holy priesthood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices, acceptable to God by Jesus Christ." {1Pe 2:5} "I beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercies of God, that ye present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable unto God, which is your reasonable service." {Ro 12:1} See how The Revelation is inter-related to the other scriptures? It stands not alone as a separate book, but is complimentary to the other scriptures.

467

Haydock: Rev 1:1-3

The Apocalypse, or Revelation. I rather prefer the word Apocalypse, which the Latin interpreter did not think fit to change. ---

Of Jesus Christ....by his Angel, sent to his servant, John. So that these things were immediately revealed to St. John by an Angel, who represented and spoke in the person of Christ.--- Which must shortly come; and as it is again said, (ver. 3.) the time is at hand. This cannot be meant of all things in the Apocalypse, where mention is also made of the day of judgment, and of the glory of heaven at the end of the world. It can only mean, that some things were to happen shortly, i.e. what is said of the seven churches. (Chap. ii. and iii.) Or the persecutions foretold should begin shortly. Or else these expressions are only to signify, that all time is short, and that from the coming of the Messias, we are not in the last age, or the last hour. See 1 John ii. 18. (Witham) ---

St. John excites their attention by the most pressing motives, the approach of the events. Whatever explanation be given of this book, it is equally true in all, that the time is at hand, when it will begin to be accomplished. To find our consolation and happiness in this sacred book, according to the promise of the Holy Spirit, we must peruse it with faith and humility, receive the interpretation of the Church with submission and docility, and practise the truths contained with fidelity and promptitude. What is the life of man, since ages are but moments that escape us? Eternity is but a moment, but a moment that will never end.

Haydock: Rev 1:4-6

John to the seven churches, [1] afterwards named; and by them, to be understood of all churches, bishops, and people in the like dispositions. ---

From him, who is, who was, and who is to come. As these words are only applied, and applicable to him, who is truly God and eternal, Alcazar (p. 176) applies them to God the Father. Others think them to be spoken of God, as the word God agrees to all the three divine Persons, who are one and the same God. See Ribera. ---

And from the seven spirits. Alcazar understands them of seven of God's attributes, or perfections, but, by the common exposition, are meant seven of the chief created spirits, who in a special manner assist at the throne of God, employed to execute God's commands, as Raphael saith. (Tobit. xii. 15.) I am one of the seven who stand before God. (Witham) ---

Spirits, &c. Some understand this of the Holy Ghost, on account of his seven gifts; but the most literal interpretation is of the principal Angles, who always surround the throne of God, and are his ministering spirits. (Calmet) ---

And from Jesus Christ, [2] made man, and the Redeemer of mankind, whom St. John here names after the seven spirits, because he continues his discourse about Christ, who is the faithful witness; testified and approved of God by so many miracles, prophecies, &c. He is the chief of the martyrs or witnesses, as the Greek word signifies. ---

The first begotten of the dead, both first in dignity, and first that rose to an immortal life. ---

The prince of the kings of the earth, whose power is infinetely greater than all theirs; and this to put the suffering Christians in mind, that they needed not to fear the persecuting emperors, who have no power after this life. ---

And Christ hath made us a kingdom, inasmuch as by his grace he has made us members of his true Church, called the kingdom of God, and promised us to reign with him in his glorious kingdom in heaven. ---

And hath made us priests to God, and his Father, to offer up spiritual sacrifices. See 1 Peter ii. 9. ---

To him be, or is due, glory and empire, for ever and ever. Amen . That is, to Jesus Christ. (Witham)

Haydock: Rev 1:4

[BIBLIOGRAPHY]

Ab eo qui erat, & qui est, & qui venturus est, Greek: apo tou o on, kai o en, kai o erchomenos, as if it was said, Greek: apo tou os legetai o on, &c.

Haydock: Rev 1:5

[BIBLIOGRAPHY]

Qui est testis fidelis, Greek: o martus o pistos. Martyr ille fidelis.

Gill: Rev 1:1

The Revelation of Jesus Christ,.... Either of which he is the author: for it was he that sent and showed it by his angel to John; it was he, the lion of the tribe of Judah, that took the book, and opened the seals of it, and which is a very considerable proof of his deity; since none but God could foreknow and foretell things to come, or declare the end from the beginning, and from ancient times the things that are not yet, as is done in this book: or of which he is the subject; for it treats much of his person, offices, and grace, and of Christ mystical, of the state of his church, in the several ages of time; or it is that revelation which was first made unto him, to which sense the following words incline:

which God gave unto him; not to him as he is God, for as such he is omniscient, and foreknew whatever would come to pass, and needed no revelation to be made to him, but as he was man and Mediator; and this was given him by God the Father, and put into his hands, to make known as being a part of the administration of his prophetic office: the end of its being given him was,

to show unto his servant things which must shortly come to pass: the Arabic version adds, "in future ages"; things that were to be hereafter, the accomplishment of which was necessary, because of the certain and unalterable decree of God, the good of his people, and his own glory; and these were to come to pass quickly, in a very little time; not that they would all be fulfilled in a short space of time, for there are some things not fulfilled yet, though it is nineteen hundred years ago and more, since this revelation was made; and we are sure there are some things that will not be accomplished till a thousand years hence, and more, for the millennium is not yet begun; and after that is ended, there is to be a second resurrection, and a destruction of the Gog and Magog army; but the sense is, that these things should very quickly begin to be fulfilled, and from thenceforward go on fulfilling till all were accomplished. Now to show, to represent these things, in a clear manner, as the nature of them would admit of, to the servants of Christ, all true believers, read and hear and diligently observe them, and especially to the ministers of the Gospel, whose business is to search into them, and point them out to and particularly to his servant John, was this revelation made by Christ, who immediately answered this end:

and he sent, and signified it by his angel unto servant John; he who is the Lord of angels, and to whom they are ministering spirits, sometimes sent one angel and sometimes another; and by various emblems, signs, and visions, represented and set before John, a faithful servant, and a beloved disciple of his, the whole of this revelation.

Gill: Rev 1:2

Who bore record of the word of God,.... Of the essential and eternal Word of God, his only begotten Son; as John the apostle did in his Gospel, and in his epistles, and also in this book; and which is a clear evidence of his being the writer of it,

And of the testimony of Jesus Christ; that is, the Gospel, which testifies of the person of Christ, of the truth of his divinity, and reality of his human nature; of the union of the two natures, divine and human, his person: of his several offices, of prophet, priest and King; of what he did and suffered for his people; and of the blessings of grace which they receive by him:

and of all things that he saw; with his bodily eyes, as the human body of Christ, the miracles he wrought in it, the transfiguration of it on the mount, the crucifixion of it, and the piercing of it with a spear, and the resurrection of it from the dead; and also the visions recorded in this book; and such a faithful witness serves greatly to confirm the authority of this book, and to recommend the perusal of it. The Complutensian edition and the Arabic version read, "which are, and which shall", or "must be hereafter", as in Rev 1:19.

Gill: Rev 1:3

Blessed is he that readeth,.... This book the Revelation, privately, in his closet or family, carefully and diligently, with a desire of understanding it; or publicly in the church of God, and endeavours open and explain it to others; and may allude to the reading of the law and the prophets in the synagogues, which were not barely read, but expounded; see Act 13:15; and the rather this may be thought to be the sense of the words, since there is a change of number in the next clause,

and they that hear the words of this prophecy; that listen attentively to the reading and exposition of this book, and have ears to hear, so as to understand the prophecies contained in it: for the whole, when delivered to John, was a prophecy of things to come: but some versions read the number alike in both clauses; as either, "blessed is he that readeth, and he that heareth", as the Vulgate Latin and Ethiopic versions; or "blessed are they that read, and they that hear", as the Arabic version:

and keep those things which are written therein; the last version adds, "concerning this frail world"; who not only read, and hear, but put in practice what they read and hear; for there are some things in this book which are of a practical nature, especially in the epistles to the seven churches; or the sense is, happy are those persons that observe, and take notice of what is written herein, and meditate upon them, and well weigh them in their minds, and retain them in their memories. Now, though eternal happiness does not depend upon, nor is procured by any of these means, as reading, hearing, and observing; yet there is a real happiness, a true pleasure, that does attend these things, which may stir up to a regard unto them; and for which purpose the following words are added:

for the time is at hand; when thee things should begin to be fulfilled.

Gill: Rev 1:4

John to the seven churches which are in Asia,.... In lesser Asia; their names are mentioned in Rev 1:11,

grace be unto you, and peace; which is the common salutation of the apostles in all their epistles, and includes all blessings of grace, and all prosperity, inward and outward: See Gill on Rom 1:7. The persons from whom they are wished are very particularly described,

from him which is, and which was, and which is to come; which some understand of the whole Trinity; the Father by him "which is", being the I am that I am; the Son by him "which was", which was with God the Father, and was God; and the Spirit by him "which is to come", who was promised to come from the Father and the Son, as a Comforter, and the Spirit of truth: others think Christ is here only intended, as he is in Rev 1:8 by the same expressions; and is he "which is", since before Abraham he was the "I am"; and he "which was", the eternal Logos or Word; and "is to come", as the Judge of quick and dead. But rather this is to be understood of the first Person, of God the Father; and the phrases are expressive both of his eternity, he being God from everlasting to everlasting; and of his immutability, he being now what he always was, and will be what he now is, and ever was, without any variableness, or shadow of turning: they are a periphrasis, and an explanation of the word "Jehovah", which includes all tenses, past, present, and to come. So the Jews explain this name in Exo 3:14,

"Says R. Isaac ^k, the holy blessed God said to Moses, Say unto them, I am he that was, and I am he that now is, and I am he that is to come, wherefore אהיה is written three times.

And such a periphrasis of God is frequent in their writings ^l,

And from the seven spirits which are before his throne; either before the throne of God the Father; or, as the Ethiopic version reads, "before the throne of the Lord Jesus Christ"; by whom are meant not angels, though these are spirits, and stand before the throne of God, and are ready to do his will: this is the sense of some interpreters, who think such a number of them is mentioned with reference to the seven angels of the churches; or to the seven last "Sephirot", or numbers in the Cabalistic tree of the Jews; the three first they suppose design the three Persons in the Godhead, expressed in the preceding clause, and the seven last the whole company of angels: or to the seven principal angels the Jews speak of. Indeed, in the Apocrypha,

"I am Raphael, one of the seven holy angels, which present the prayers of the saints, and which go in and out before the glory of the Holy One.'' (Tobit 12:15)

Raphael is said to be one of the seven angels; but it does not appear to be a generally received notion of theirs that there were seven principal angels. The Chaldee paraphrase on Gen 11:7 is misunderstood by Mr. Mede, for not "seven", but "seventy angels" are there addressed. It was usual with the Jews only to speak of four principal angels, who stand round about the throne of God; and their names are Michael, Uriel, Gabriel, and Raphael; according to them, Michael stands at his right hand, Uriel at his left, Gabriel before him, and Raphael behind him ^m. However, it does not seem likely that angels should be placed in such a situation between the divine Persons, the Father and the Son; and still less that grace and peace should be wished for from them, as from God the Father, and the Lord Jesus Christ; and that any countenance should be given to angel worship, in a book in which angels are so often represented as worshippers, and in which worship is more than once forbidden them, and that by themselves: but by these seven spirits are intended the Holy Spirit of God, who is one in his person, but his gifts and graces are various; and therefore he is signified by this number, because of the fulness and perfection of them, and with respect to the seven churches, over whom he presided, whom he influenced, and sanctified, and filled, and enriched with his gifts and graces,

Gill: Rev 1:5

And from Jesus Christ,.... Who, though the second Person in the Trinity, is mentioned last, because many things were to be said of him; and who is described in all his offices: in his prophetic office,

the faithful witness; as he is of his Father, of his mind and will, with respect to doctrine and worship; of his truth and faithfulness in his promises; and of his love, grace, and mercy, to his chosen; and of himself, of his true deity, proper sonship, and perfect equality with the Father; of his Messiahship, and of salvation through his obedience, sufferings, and death; and of all truth in general, to which he has bore a faithful testimony several ways, in his ministry, by his miracles, at his death, and by the shedding of his blood to seal it; by his Spirit since, and by the ministers of his word: he is described in his priestly office be

the first begotten of the dead: being the first that rose from the dead by his own power, and to an immortal life; for though some few were raised before him, yet not by themselves, nor to live for ever, but to die again. Moreover, he is the firstfruits of the resurrection, the pledge and earnest of it, as well as the efficient cause and exemplar of it. This character supposes that he died, as he did, for the sins of his people; and that he rose again from the dead, as he did, for their justification; and that he rose first as their head and representative, and opened the way of life for them. And he is described in his kingly office, for it follows,

and the Prince of the kings of the earth: which is not to be understood figuratively of the saints, who have power over sin, Satan, and the world, through the efficacious grace of Christ, and of whom he is Prince or King; but literally of the kings and princes of this world, over whom Christ is King and Lord, who receive their crowns and kingdoms from him, and rule by him, and are accountable to him, as they one day must be. Next follows a doxology, or an ascription of glory to him,

unto him that hath loved us; his own, his people, his church, his chosen, and who are given him by his Father; these he has loved with an everlasting and unchangeable love, with a love of complacency and delight, which passes knowledge, and will never end: and which he has shown in espousing their persons, undertaking their cause, assuming their nature, and in nothing more than in giving himself for them as a propitiatory sacrifice, or in dying and shedding his precious blood for them, as is next expressed:

and washed us from our sins in his own blood; which shows that these persons were loved before washed; they were not first washed, and then loved, but first loved, and then washed. Love was the cause of washing, and not washing the cause of love; hence it appears that they were in themselves filthy, and unclean through sin; and that they could not cleanse themselves by anything they could do; and that such was the love of Christ to them, that he shed his precious blood for them, which is a fountain opened, to wash in for sin, and which cleanses from all sin. This is to be understood, not of the sanctification of their natures, which is the work of the Spirit, but of atonement for their sins, and justification from them by the blood of Christ, whereby they are so removed, that they are all fair, and without spot. It is afterwards said, that these same persons are made priests; and it may be observed, that the priests were always washed, before they performed their service, as such ⁿ. The Alexandrian copy and the Syriac and Arabic versions read, "and hath loosed us from our sins in", or "by his blood"; that is, from the guilt of them, which was bound upon them,

Gill: Rev 1:6

And hath made us kings and priests,.... The Alexandrian copy, and Complutensian edition, read, "a kingdom, priests"; and the Vulgate Latin version, "a kingdom and priests"; and the Arabic version, "a kingdom of priesthood"; reference seems to be had to Exo 19:6, "and ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests"; which the Jerusalem Targum renders, "ye shall be unto me", מלכין וכהנין, "kings and priests"; and so the Targum of Jonathan ben Uzziel paraphrases it thus, "and ye shall be before me", מלכין, "kings" crowned with a crown, וכהנין, "and priests" ministering. Hence it is a common saying with the Jews, that all Israelites are the sons of kings ^o; and sometimes their doctors are called מלכי תורה, "kings of the law" ^p: and they ascribe the same thing to the word of the Lord as is here attributed to Jesus Christ: so the Targum of Jonathan on Deu 28:13 paraphrases the words,

"the word of the Lord shall appoint or constitute you kings, and not private persons.

Likewise they say ^q.

"that even a Gentile, if he studies in the law, is ככהן גדול, "as an high priest".

All which may serve to show to what the reference is had in the text, and from whence the language is taken. But the words are used in a higher and greater sense. The saints are made "kings" by Christ; they are so now; they have received a kingdom of grace, which cannot be taken away; and they have the power of kings over sin, Satan, and the world, and all their enemies; and they live and fare like kings, and are clothed like them, in rich apparel, the righteousness of Christ; and are attended as kings, angels being their lifeguards; and they will appear much more so hereafter, when they shall reign on earth with Christ a thousand years, shall sit upon the same throne, and have a crown of life and righteousness given them, and at last be introduced into the kingdom of glory. And they become such by being the sons of God, which power and privilege they receive from Christ, and so are heirs of God, and joint heirs with him, and by being united to him. And he also makes them "priests" to offer up the spiritual sacrifices of prayer and praise, and those of a broken heart, and of a contrite spirit, and even their souls and bodies, as a holy, living, and acceptable sacrifice unto God, by anointing and sanctifying them by his Spirit: and they are made such by him

to God, and his Father; not to men, nor to angels. Now to him that has shown so much love, and bestowed such high favours and honours, is the following ascription made,

to him be glory and dominion for ever and ever, Amen. The glory of his deity, and of all his offices; of his being the faithful witness, the first begotten of the dead, and the Prince of the kings of the earth; and of all the benefits and blessings, favours and honours, received from him by his people: and "dominion"; over all creatures, and over all his saints, and especially in his kingdom, in the last days, which will be an everlasting one; and which is continually to be wished and prayed for, that it would come, and come quickly. "Amen"; so let it be, and so it shall be,

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

NET Notes: Rev 1:1

¹ tn The phrase ἀποκάλυψις ᾿Ιησοῦ Χριστοῦ (ajpokaluyi" Ihsou Cristou, “the revelation of Jesus Christ”) could be interpreted as either an objective genitive (“the revelation about Jesus Christ”), subjective genitive (“the revelation from Jesus Christ”), or both (M. Zerwick’s “general” genitive [Biblical Greek, §§36-39]; D. B. Wallace’s “plenary” genitive [ExSyn 119-21]). In 1:1 and 22:16 it is clear that Jesus has sent his angel to proclaim the message to John; thus the message is from Christ, and this would be a subjective genitive. On a broader scale, though, the revelation is about Christ, so this would be an objective genitive. One important point to note is that the phrase under consideration is best regarded as the title of the book and therefore refers to the whole of the work in all its aspects. This fact favors considering this as a plenary genitive.

² tn Grk “slaves.” Although this translation frequently renders δοῦλος (doulos) as “slave,” the connotation is often of one who has sold himself into slavery; in a spiritual sense, the idea is that of becoming a slave of God or of Jesus Christ voluntarily. The voluntary notion is not conspicuous here; hence, the translation “servants.” In any case, the word does not bear the connotation of a free individual serving another. BDAG notes that “‘servant’ for ‘slave’ is largely confined to Biblical transl. and early American times…in normal usage at the present time the two words are carefully distinguished” (BDAG 260 s.v.). The most accurate translation is “bondservant” (sometimes found in the ASV for δοῦλος), in that it often indicates one who sells himself into slavery to another. But as this is archaic, few today understand its force.

³ tn BDAG 992-93 s.v. τάχος has “quickly, at once, without delay Ac 10:33 D; 12:7; 17:15 D; 22:18; 1 Cl 48:1; 63:4…soon, in a short time…Rv 1:1; 22:6…shortly Ac 25:4.”

⁴ tn Or “He indicated it clearly” (L&N 33.153).

⁵ tn See the note on the word “servants” earlier in this verse.

NET Notes: Rev 1:2

¹ tn “Then” is not in the Greek text, but is supplied to make the chronological succession clear in the translation.

² tn The genitive phrase “about Jesus Christ” is taken as an objective genitive.

NET Notes: Rev 1:3

¹ tn The word “this” is used to translate the Greek article τῆς (ths), bringing out its demonstrative force.

² tn The word “aloud” has been supplied to indicate that in the original historical setting reading would usually refer to reading out loud in public rather than silently to oneself.

³ tn The words “blessed are” are repeated from the beginning of this verse for stylistic reasons and for clarity.

⁴ tn Grk “keep.” L&N 36.19 has “to continue to obey orders or commandments – ‘to obey, to keep commandments, obedience.’”

⁵ sn The time refers to the time when the things prophesied would happen.

NET Notes: Rev 1:4

¹ tn Grk “John.” The word “From” is not in the Greek text, but has been supplied to indicate the sender of the letter.

² tn Grk “Asia”; in the NT this always refers to the Roman province of Asia, made up of about one-third of the west and southwest end of modern Asia Minor. Asia lay to the west of the region of Phrygia and Galatia. The words “the province of” are supplied to indicate to the modern reader that this does not refer to the continent of Asia.

³ tn It is probable that the ὑμῖν (Jumin) applies to both elements of the greeting, i.e., to both grace and peace.

⁴ tc The earliest and best mss (Ì^18vid א A C P 2050 al lat sy co) lack the term “God” (θεοῦ, qeou) between “from” (ἀπό, apo) and “he who is” (ὁ ὤν, Jo wn). Its inclusion, as supported by the bulk of the Byzantine witnesses, is clearly secondary and a scribal attempt to achieve two things: (1) to make explicit the referent in the passage, namely, God, and (2) to smooth out the grammar. The preposition “from” in Greek required a noun in the genitive case. But here in Rev 1:4 the words following the preposition “from” (ἀπό) are in another case, i.e., the nominative. There are two principal ways in which to deal with this grammatical anomaly. First, it could be a mistake arising from someone who just did not know Greek very well, or as a Jew, was heavily influenced by a Semitic form of Greek. Both of these unintentional errors are unlikely here. Commenting on this ExSyn 63 argues: “Either of these is doubtful here because (1) such a flagrant misunderstanding of the rudiments of Greek would almost surely mean that the author could not compose in Greek, yet the Apocalypse itself argues against this; (2) nowhere else does the Seer [i.e., John] use a nom. immediately after a preposition (in fact, he uses ἀπό 32 times with the gen. immediately following).” The passage appears to be an allusion to Exod 3:14 (in the LXX) where God refers to himself as “he who is” (ὁ ὤν), the same wording in Greek as here in Rev 1:4. Thus, it appears that John is wanting to leave the divine name untouched (perhaps to allude to God’s immutability, or as a pointer to the Old Testament as the key to unlocking the meaning of this book), irrespective of what it “looks” like grammatically. The translation has placed the “he who is” in quotation marks to indicate to the reader that the syntactical awkwardness is intentional. (For further comments, see ExSyn 63).

⁵ tn BDAG 106 s.v. ἀπό 5.d states: “The expr. εἰρήνη ἀπὸ ‘ὁ ὢν καὶ ὁ ἦν καὶ ὁ ἐρχόμενος’ Rv 1:4 is quite extraordinary. It may be an interpretation of the name Yahweh already current, or an attempt to show reverence for the divine name by preserving it unchanged, or simply one more of the grammatical peculiarities so frequent in Rv.”

NET Notes: Rev 1:5

¹ tn Or “Jesus Christ – the faithful one, the witness…” Some take ὁ πιστός (Jo pistos) as a second substantive in relation to ὁ μάρτυς (Jo martus). In the present translation, however, ὁ πιστός was taken as an adjective in attributive position to ὁ μάρτυς. The idea of martyrdom and faithfulness are intimately connected. See BDAG 820 s.v. πιστός 1.a.α: “ὁ μάρτυς μου ὁ πιστός μου Rv 2:13 (μάρτυς 3); in this ‘book of martyrs’ Christ is ὁ μάρτυς ὁ πιστὸς (καὶ ὁ ἀληθινός) 1:5; 3:14; cp. 19:11 (the combination of ἀληθινός and πιστός in the last two passages is like 3 Macc 2:11). Cp. Rv 17:14.”

² sn The Greek term translated witness can mean both “witness” and “martyr.”

³ tc The reading “set free” (λύσαντι, lusanti) has better ms support (̹⁸ א A C 1611 2050 2329 2351 Ï^A sy) than its rival, λούσαντι (lousanti, “washed”; found in P 1006 1841 1854 2053 2062 Ï^K lat bo). Internally, it seems that the reading “washed” could have arisen in at least one of three ways: (1) as an error of hearing (both “released” and “washed” are pronounced similarly in Greek); (2) an error of sight (both “released” and “washed” look very similar – a difference of only one letter – which could have resulted in a simple error during the copying of a ms); (3) through scribal inability to appreciate that the Hebrew preposition ב can be used with a noun to indicate the price paid for something. Since the author of Revelation is influenced significantly by a Semitic form of Greek (e.g., 13:10), and since the Hebrew preposition “in” (ב) can indicate the price paid for something, and is often translated with the preposition “in” (ἐν, en) in the LXX, the author may have tried to communicate by the use of ἐν the idea of a price paid for something. That is, John was trying to say that Christ delivered us at the price of his own blood. This whole process, however, may have been lost on a later scribe, who being unfamiliar with Hebrew, found the expression “delivered in his blood” too difficult, and noticing the obvious similarities between λύσαντι and λούσαντι, assumed an error and then proceeded to change the text to “washed in his blood” – a thought more tolerable in his mind. Both readings, of course, are true to scripture; the current question is what the author wrote in this verse.

tn Or “and released us” (L&N 37.127).

⁴ tn The style here is somewhat Semitic, with the use of the ἐν (en) + the dative to mean “at the price of.” The addition of “own” in the English is stylistic and is an attempt to bring out the personal nature of the statement and the sacrificial aspect of Jesus’ death – a frequent refrain in the Apocalypse.

NET Notes: Rev 1:6

¹ tn The verb ποιέω (poiew) can indicate appointment or assignment rather than simply “make” or “do.” See Mark 3:14 (L&N 37.106).

² tn See BDAG 168 s.v. βασιλεία 1.a for the idea of “he made us a kingdom,” which was translated as “he appointed us (to be or function) as a kingdom” (see the note on the word “appointed” earlier in the verse).

³ tn Grk “a kingdom, priests.” The term ἱερεῖς (Jiereis) is either in apposition to βασιλείαν (basileian) or as a second complement to the object “us” (ἡμᾶς, Jhmas). The translation retains this ambiguity.

⁴ tc Both the longer reading τῶν αἰώνων (twn aiwnwn, “to the ages of the ages” or, more idiomatically, “for ever and ever”; found in א C Ï) and the shorter (“for ever”; found in ̹⁸ A P 2050 pc bo) have good ms support. The author uses the longer expression (εἰς [τοὺς] αἰῶνας [τῶν] αἰώνων, ei" [tou"] aiwna" [twn] aiwnwn) in every other instance of αἰών in Revelation, twelve passages in all (1:18; 4:9, 10; 5:13; 7:12; 10:6; 11:15; 14:11; 15:7; 19:3; 20:10; 22:5). Thus, on the one hand, the style of the author is consistent, while on the other hand, the scribes may have been familiar with such a stylistic feature, causing them to add the words here. The issues are more complex than can be presented here; the longer reading, however, is probably original (the shorter reading arising from accidental omission of the genitive phrase due to similarity with the preceding words).

Geneva Bible: Rev 1:1

The ^{( 1 ) ( a )} Revelation of ^{( b )} Jesus Christ, which God gave unto him, to shew unto his servants things which must shortly come to pass; and he sent and signified [it] by his angel unto his servant John:

1 AD The dragon watches the Church of the Jews, which was ready to travail: She brings forth, flees and hides herself, while Christ was yet on the earth.

34 AD The dragon persecutes Christ ascending to heaven, he fights and is thrown down: and after persecutes the Church of the Jews.

67 AD The Church of the Jews is received into the wilderness for three years and a half.

70 AD When the Church of the Jews was overthrown, the dragon invaded the catholic church: all this is in the twelfth chapter. The dragon is bound for a thousand years in chapter twenty. The dragon raises up the beast with seven heads, and the beast with two heads, which make havock of the catholic church and her prophets for 1260 years after the passion of Christ in (Rev 13:11).

97 AD The seven churches are admonished of things present, somewhat before the end of Domitian his reign, and are forewarned of the persecution to come under Trajan for ten years, chapter 2,3. God by word and signs provokes the world, and seals the godly in chapter 6 and 7. He shows examples of his wrath on all creatures, mankind excepted in chapter 8.

1073 AD The dragon is let loose after a thousand years, and Gregory the seventh, being Pope, rages against Henry the third, then Emperor in chapter 20.

1217 AD The dragon vexes the world for 150 years to Gregory the ninth, who wrote the Decretals, and most cruelly persecuted the Emperor Fredrick the second.

1295 AD The dragon kills the prophets after 1260 years, when Boniface the eighth was Pope, who was the author of the sixth book of the Decretals: he excommunicated Philip the French King.

1300 AD Boniface celebrates the Jubile.

1301 AD About this time was a great earthquake, which overthrew many houses in Rome.

1305 AD Prophecy ceases for three years and a half, until Benedict the second succeeded after Boniface the eighth. Prophecy is revived in chapter 11. The dragon and the two beasts question prophecy in chapter 13. Christ defends his Church in word and deed, chapter 14, and with threats and arms, chapter 16. Christ gives his Church victory over the harlot, chapter 17 and 18. Over the two beasts, chapter 19. Over the dragon and death, chapter 20. The Church is fully glorified in heaven with eternal glory, in Christ Jesus, chapter 21 and 22.

^{( 1 )} This chapter has two principal parts, the title or inscription, which stands in place of an introduction: and a narration going before the whole prophecy of this book. The inscription is double, general and particular. In (Rev 1:1) the general inscription contains the kind of prophecy, the author, end, matter, instruments, and manner of communication the same, in (Rev 1:2) the most religious faithfulness of the apostle as public witness and the use of communicating the same, taken from the promise of God, and from the circumstance of the time, (Rev 1:3)

^{( a )} An opening of secret and hidden things.

^{( b )} Which the Son opened to us out of his Father's bosom by angels.

Geneva Bible: Rev 1:4

^{( 2 )} John to the seven churches which are in Asia: Grace [be] unto you, and peace, ^{( 3 )} from him ^{( c )} which is, and which was, and which is to come; and from ^{( 4 )} the ^{( d )} seven Spirits which are before his throne;

^{( 2 )} This is the particular or singular inscription, in which salutation is written to certain churches by name, who represent the catholic church: and the certainty and truth of this is declared, from the author of it, in (Rev 1:8). ^{( 3 )} That is, from God the Father, eternal, immortal, immutable: wholly unchangeable, John declares in a form of speech which is undeclined. For there is no incongruity in this place, where, of necessity the words must be adapted to the mystery, not the mystery corrupted or impaired by the words.

^{( c )} These three, Is, Was, and Shall be, signify the word Jehovah, which is the proper name for God. ^{( 4 )} That is, from the Holy Spirit who proceeds from the Father and the Son. This Spirit is one in person according to his subsistence: but in communication of his power, and in demonstration of his divine works in those seven churches, perfectly manifests himself as if there were many spirits, every one perfectly working in his own church. Which is why in (Rev 5:6) they are called the seven horns and seven eyes of the Lamb, as if to say, as his most absolute power and wisdom. In (Rev 3:1) Christ is said to have those seven spirits of God, and in (Rev 4:5) it is said that seven lamps burn before his throne, which also are those seven spirits of God. That this place ought to be so understood, it is thus proved. For first, grace and peace is asked by prayer from this Spirit, which is a divine work, and an action incommunicable in respect to God. Secondly, he is placed between the Father and the Son, as set in the same degree of dignity and operation with them, besides, he is before the throne, as of the same substance with the Father and the Son: as the seven eyes and seven horns of the Lamb. Moreover, these spirits are never said to adore God, as all other things are. Finally, this is the power by which the Lamb opened the book, and loosed the seven seals of it, when no one could be found among all creatures by whom the book might be opened (Rev 5:1-10); Of these things long ago Master John Luide of Oxford wrote to me. Now the Holy Spirit is named before Christ because a long speech about Christ follows.

^{( d )} These are the seven spirits, which are later called the horns and eyes of the Lamb in (Rev 5:6) and are now acting as a guard waiting on God.

Geneva Bible: Rev 1:5

And from Jesus Christ, ^{( 5 )} [who is] the faithful witness, [and] the first begotten of the dead, and the prince of the kings of the earth. Unto him that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood,

^{( 5 )} A most ample and honourable commendation of Christ, first from his offices of the priesthood and kingdom: secondly from his benefits, as his love toward us, and washing us with his blood, in this verse, and communication of his kingdom and priesthood with us: thirdly, from his eternal glory and power, which is always to be celebrated by us; (Rev 1:6) Finally, from the accomplishment of all things once to be effected by him, at his second coming, at which time he shall openly destroy the wicked, and comfort the godly in the truth; (Rev 1:7).

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: Rev 1:1-20

1 The preface.

4 John's salutation to the seven churches of Asia.

7 The coming of Christ.

8 His glorious power and majesty.

Maclaren: Rev 1:4-5

The Gifts Of Christ As Witness, Risen And Crowned

"Grace be unto you, and peace, from … 5. Jesus Christ, who is the faithful Witness, and the first begotten of the dead, and the Prince of the kings of the earth."--Rev. 1:4-5.

So loftily did John in his old age come to think of his Lord. The former days of blessed nearness had not faded from his memory; rather he understood their meaning better than when he was in the midst of their sweetness. Years and experience, and the teaching of God's Spirit, had taught Him to understand what the Master meant when He said:--It is expedient for you that I go away'; for when He had departed John saw Him a great deal more clearly than ever he had done when he beheld Him with his eyes. He sees Him now invested with these lofty attributes, and, so to speak, involved in the brightness of the Throne of God. For the words of my text are not only remarkable in themselves, and in the order in which they give these three aspects of our Lord's character, but remarkable also in that they occur in an invocation in which the Apostle is calling down blessings from Heaven on the heads of his brethren. The fact that they do so occur points a question: Is it possible to conceive that the writer of these words thought of Jesus Christ as less than divine? Could he have asked for grace and peace' to come down on the Asiatic Christians from the divine Father, and an Abstraction, and a Man? A strange Trinity that would be, most certainly. Rightly or wrongly, the man that said, Grace and peace be unto you, from Him which is, and which was, and which is to come, and from the seven Spirits which are before His Throne, and from Jesus Christ,' believed that the name of the One God was Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

But it is not so much to this as to the connection of these three clauses with one another, and to the bearing of all three on our Lord's power of giving grace and peace to men's hearts, that I want to turn your attention now. I take the words simply as they lie here; asking you to consider, first, how grace and peace come to us from the faithful Witness'; how, secondly, they come from the first begotten from the dead'; and how, lastly, they come from the Prince of the kings of the earth.'

I. Now As To The First Of These, The Faithful Witness.

All of you who have any familiarity with the language of Scripture will know that a characteristic of all the writings which are ascribed to the Apostle John, viz., his Gospel, his Epistles, and the book of the Revelation, is their free and remarkable use of that expression, Witness.' It runs through all of them, and is one of the many threads of connection which tie them all together, and which constitute a very strong argument for the common authorship of the three sets of writings, vehemently as that has of late been denied.

But where did John get this word? According to his own teaching he got it from the lips of the Master, who began His career with these words, We speak that we do know, and bear witness to that we have seen,' and who all but ended it with these royal words, Thou sayest that I am a King! For this cause came I into the world, that I should bear witness unto the Truth.' Christ Himself, then, claimed to be in an eminent and special sense the witness to the world.

The witness of what? What was the substance of His testimony? It was a testimony mainly about God. The words of my text substantially cover the same ground as His own words, I have declared Thy name unto My brethren,' and as those of the Apostle: The only begotten Son which is in the bosom of the Father, He hath declared Him.' And they involve the same ideas as lie in the great name by which He is called in John's Gospel, the Word of God.'

That is to say, all our highest and purest and best knowledge of God comes from the life and conduct and character of Jesus Christ. His revelation is no mere revelation by words. Plenty of men have talked about God, and said noble and true and blessed things about Him. Scattered through the darkness of heathenism, and embedded in the sinfulness of every man's heart, there are great and lofty and pure thoughts about Him, which to cleave to and follow out would bring strength and purity. It is one thing to speak about God in words, maxims, precepts; it is another thing to show us God in act and life. The one is theology, the other is gospel. The one is the work of man, the other is the exclusive prerogative of God manifested in the flesh.

It is not Christ's words only that make Him the Amen,' the faithful and true Witness,' but in addition to these, He witnesses by all His deeds of grace, and truth, and gentleness, and pity; by all His yearnings over wickedness, and sorrow, and sinfulness; by all His drawings of the profligate and the outcast and the guilty to Himself, His life of loneliness, His death of shame. In all these, He is showing us not only the sweetness of a perfect human character, but in the sweetness of a perfect human character, the sweeter sweetness of our Father, God. The substance of His testimony is the Name, the revelation of the character of His Father and our Father.

This name of witness' bears likewise strongly upon the characteristic and remarkable manner of our Lord's testimony. The task of a witness is to affirm; his business is to tell his story--not to argue about it, simply to state it. And there is nothing more characteristic of our Lord's words than the way in which, without attempt at proof or argumentation, He makes them stand on their own evidence; or, rather, depend upon His veracity. All His teaching is characterised by what would be insane presumption in any of us, and would at once rule us out of court as unfit to be listened to on any grave subject, most of all on religious truth. For His method is this: Verily, verily,! say to you! Take it on My word. You ask Me for proof of My saying: I am the proof of it; I assert it. That is enough for you!' Not so do men speak. So does the faithful Witness speak; and instead of the conscience and common-sense of the world rising up and saying, This is the presumption of a religious madman and dictator,' they have bowed before Him and said, Thou art fairer than the children of men! Grace is poured into Thy lips.' He is the faithful Witness, who lays His own character and veracity as the basis of what He has to say, and has no mightier word by which to back His testimony than His own sovereign Verily! verily!'

The name bears, too, on the ground of His testimony. A faithful witness is an eye-witness. And that is what Christ claims when He witnesses about God. We speak that we do know, we testify that we have seen.' I speak that which I have seen with My Father!' There is nothing more remarkable about the oral portion of our Lord's witness than the absence of any appearance, such as marks all the wisest words of great men, of having come to them as the result of patient thought. We never see Him in the act of arriving at a truth, nor detect any traces of the process of forming opinions in Him. He speaks as if He had seen, and His tone is that of one who is not thinking out truth or grasping at it, but simply narrating that which lies plain and clear ever before His eyes. I do not ask you what that involves, but I quote His own statement of what it involves: No man hath ascended up into Heaven save He that came down from Heaven, even the Son of man which is in Heaven.'

There have been plenty of great and gracious words about God, and there have been plenty of black and blasphemous thoughts of Him. They rise in our own hearts, and they come from our brothers' tongues. Men have worshipped gods gracious, gods loving, gods angry, gods petulant, gods capricious; but God after the fashion of the God whom Jesus Christ avouches to us, we have nowhere else, a God of absolute love, who so loved the world'--that is, you and me--that He gave His only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in Him should not perish.'

And now I ask, is there not grace and peace brought to us all from that faithful Witness, and from His credible testimony? Surely the one thing that the world wants is to have the question answered whether there really is a God in Heaven that cares anything about me, and to whom I can trust myself wholly; believing that He will lift me out of all my meannesses and sins, and make me clean and pure and blessed like Himself. Surely that is the deepest of all human needs, howsoever little men may know it. And sure I am that none of us can find the certitude of such a Father unless we give credence to the message of Jesus Christ our Lord.

This day needs that witness as much as any other; sometimes in our unbelieving moments, we think more than any other. There is a wave--I believe it is only a wave--passing over the cultivated thought of Europe at present which will make short work of all belief in a God that does not grip fast to Jesus Christ. As far as I can read the signs of the times, and the tendency of modern thinking, it is this:--either an absolute Silence, a Heaven stretching above us, blue and clear, and cold, and far away, and dumb; or else a Christ that speaks--He or none! The Theism that has shaken itself loose from Him will be crushed, I am sure, in the encounter with the agnosticism and the materialism of this day. And the one refuge is to lay fast hold of the old truth:--The only begotten Son which is in the bosom of the Father, He hath declared Him.'

Oh! you orphan children that have forgotten your Father, and have turned prodigals and rebels; you that have begun to doubt if there is any one above this low earth that cares for you; you that have got bewildered and befogged amidst the manifold denials and controversies of this day; come back to the one voice that speaks to us in tones of confident certainty as from personal knowledge of a Father. He that hath seen Me hath seen the Father,' says Jesus to us all: hearken unto Me, and know God, whom to know in Me is eternal life.' Listen to Him. Without His testimony you will be the sport of fears, and doubts, and errors. With it in your hearts you will be at rest. Grace and peace come from the faithful Witness.

II. We Have Grace And Peace From The Conqueror Of Death.

The first begotten from the dead' does not precisely convey the idea of the original, which would be more accurately represented by the first born from the dead'--the resurrection being looked upon as a kind of birth into a higher order of life. It is, perhaps, scarcely necessary to observe that the accuracy of this designation, the first born from the dead,' as applied to our Lord, is not made questionable because of the mere fact that there were others who rose from the dead before His resurrection, for all of these died again. What a strange feeling that must have been for Lazarus and the others, to go twice through the gates of death; twice to know the pain and the pang of separation! But these all have been gathered to the dust, and He now waiting the adoption, that is the resurrection of the body.' But this Man, being raised, dieth no more, death hath no more dominion over Him. And how is it that grace and peace come to us from the risen Witness? Two or three words may be said about that.

Think how, first of all, the resurrection of Jesus Christ is the confirmation of His testimony. In it the Father, to whom He hath borne witness in His life and death, bears witness to Christ, that His claims were true and His work well-pleasing. He is declared to be the Son of God by the resurrection from the dead.' If our Lord did not rise from the dead, as all Christendom to-day! has been declaring its faith that He did, then, as it seems to me, there is an end to His claims to be Son of God, and Son of Man, or anything other than a man like the rest of us. If He be no more and naught else than a man, altogether like the rest of us, then there is an end to any special revelation of the Divine nature, heart, purposes, and will, in His works and character. They may still be beautiful, they may still reveal God in the same sense in which the doings of any good man suggest a fontal source of goodness from which they flow, but beyond that they are nothing. So all the truth, and all the peace, all the grace and hope which flow to us from the witness of Jesus Christ to the Father, are neutralised and destroyed unless we believe in the resurrection from the dead. His words may still remain gracious, and true in a measure, only all dashed with the terrible mistake that He asserted that He would rise again, and rose not. But as for His life, it ceases to be in any real sense, because it ceases to be in any unique sense, the revelation to the world of the character of God.

And therefore, as I take it, it is no exaggeration to say that the whole fabric of Christianity, and all Christ's worth as a witness to God, stand or fall with the fact of His resurrection. If you pull out that keystone, down comes the arch. There may still be fair carving on some of the fallen fragments, but it is no longer an arch that spans the great gulf, and has a firm pier on the other side. Strike away the resurrection and you fatally damage the witness of Jesus. You cannot strike the supernatural out of Christianity, and keep the natural. The two are so inextricably woven together that to wrench away the one lacerates the other, and makes it bleed, even to death. If Christ be not risen we have nothing to preach, and you have nothing to believe. Our preaching and your faith are alike vain: ye are yet in your sins. Grace and peace come from faith in the first begotten from the dead?

And that is true in another way too. Faith in the resurrection gives us a living Lord to confide in--not a dead Lord, whose work we may look back upon with thankfulness; but a living one, who works now upon us, and by whose true companionship and real affection strength and help are granted to us every day. The cold frost of death has not congealed that stream of love that poured from His heart while He lived on earth; it flows yet for each of us, for all of us, for the whole world.

My brother, we cannot do without a living Christ to stand beside us, to sympathise, to help, to love. We cannot do without a living Christ with whom we may speak, who will speak to us. And that communion which is blessedness, that communication of power and righteousness which is life, are only possible, if it be true that His death was not the end of His relationship to us, or of His work in the world, but was only a transition from one stage of that work to another. We have to look to Christ, the faithful Witness,' the Witness who witnessed when He died; but we have to look to Him that is risen again and takes His place at the right hand of God. And the grace and peace flow to us not only from the contemplation of the past witness of the Lord, but are showered upon us from the open hands of the risen and living Christ.

In still another way do grace and peace reach us, from the first begotten from the dead,' inasmuch as in Him and in His resurrection-life we are armed for victory over that foe whom He has conquered. If He be the first born, He will have many brethren.' The first' implies a second. He has been raised from the dead, therefore death is not the destruction of conscious life. He has been raised from the dead, therefore any other man may be. Like another Samson, He has come forth from the prison-house, with the bars and gates upon His mighty shoulders, and has carried them away up there to the hill-top where He is. And the prison-house door stands gaping wide, and none so weak but he can pass out through the ever open portals. Christ has risen, and therefore if we will trust Him we have conquered that last and grimmest foe. And so for ourselves, when we are trembling, as we all do with the natural shrinking of flesh from the thought of that certain death; for ourselves, in our hours of lonely sorrow, when the tears come or the heart is numbed with pain; for ourselves when we lay ourselves down in our beds to die, grace and peace, like the dove that fell on His sacred head as it rose from the water of the baptism--will come down from His hands who is not only the faithful Witness,' but the first begotten from the dead.'

III. Lastly, We Have Grace And Peace From The King Of Kings.

The series of aspects of Christ's work here is ranged in order of time, in so far as the second follows the first, and the third flows from both, though we are not to suppose that our Lord has ceased to be the faithful Witness when He has ascended His Sovereign Throne. His own saying, I have declared Thy name, and will declare it,' shows us that His witness is perpetual, and carried on from His seat at the right hand of God.

He is the Prince of the kings of the earth,' just because He is' the faithful Witness.' That is to say: --His dominion is the dominion of the truth; His dominion is a kingdom over men's wills and spirits. Does He rule by force? No! Does He rule by outward means? No! By terror? No! but because, as He said to the astonished Pilate, He came to bear witness to the truth'; therefore is He the King not of the Jews only but of the whole world. A kingdom over heart and conscience, will and spirit, is the kingdom which Christ has founded, and His rule rests upon His witness.

And not only so, He is the Prince of the kings of the earth' because in that witness He dies, and so becomes a martyr' to the truth--the word in the original conveying both ideas. That is to say, His dominion rests not only upon truth. That would be a dominion grand as compared with the kingdom of this world, but still cold. His dominion rests upon love and sacrifice. And so His Kingdom is a kingdom of blessing and of gentleness; and He is crowned with the crowns of the universe, because He was first crowned with the crown of thorns. His first regal title was written upon His Cross, and from the Cross His Royalty ever flows. He is the King because He is the sacrifice.

And He is the Prince of the kings of the earth because, witnessing and slain, He has risen again; His resurrection has been the step midway, as it were, between the humiliation of earth and death, and the loftiness of the Throne. By it He has climbed to His place at the right hand of God. He is King and Prince, then, by right of truth, love, sacrifice, death, resurrection.

And King to what end? That He may send grace and peace. Is there no peace for a man's heart in feeling that the Brother that loves him and died for him rules over all the perplexities of life, the confusions of Providence, the sorrows of a world, and the corruptions of his own nature? Is it not enough to drive away fears, to anodyne cares, to disentangle perplexities, to quiet disturbances, to make the coward brave, and the feeble strong, and the foolish wise, and the querulous patient, to think that my Christ is king; and that the hands which were nailed to the Cross wield the sceptre, and that He who died for me rules the universe and rules me?

Oh, brethren! there is no tranquillity for a man anywhere else but in the humble, hearty recognition of that Lord as his Lord. Crown Him with your reverence, with your loyal obedience, with your constant desires; crown Him with your love, the most precious of all the crowns that He wears, and you will find that grace and peace come to you from Him.

Such, then, is the vision that this seer in Patmos had of his Lord. It was to him a momentary opening of the heavens, which showed him his throned Lord; but the fact which was made visible to his inward eye for a moment is an eternal fact. To-day as then, to-morrow as to-day, for Asiatic Greeks and for modern Englishmen, for past centuries, for the present, and for all the future, for the whole world for ever, Jesus Christ is the only witness whose voice breaks the awful silence and tells us of a Father; the only Conqueror of Death who makes the life beyond a firm, certain fact; the King whose dominion it is life to obey. We all need Him. Your hearts have wants which only His grace can supply, your lives have troubles which only His peace can still. Sin and sorrow, change and trial, separation and death, are facts in every man's experience. They are ranked against us in serried battalions. You can conquer them all if you will seek shelter and strength from Him who has died for you, and lives to succour and to save. Trust Him! Let your faith grasp the past fact of the Cross whose virtue never grows old, and the present fact of the Throne from which He bends down with hands full of grace; and on His lips the tender old words: Peace I leave with you, My peace give I unto you!'

Maclaren: Rev 1:5

Christ's Present Love And Past Loosing From Sins

"Unto Him that loved us, and washed us from our sins in His own blood."--Rev. 1:5.

The Revised Version rightly makes two slight but important changes in this verse, both of which are sustained by preponderating authority. For loved' it reads loveth,' and for washed' it reads loosed'; the whole standing Unto Him that loveth us, loosed us from our sins by His blood.' Now the first of these changes obviously adds much to the force and richness of the representation, for it substitutes for a past a present and timeless love. The second of them, though it seems greater, is really smaller, for it makes no change in the meaning, but only in the figure under which the meaning is represented. If we read washed,' the metaphor would be of sin as a stain; if we read loosed,' the metaphor is of sin as a chain.' Possibly the context may somewhat favour the alteration, inasmuch as there would then be the striking contrast between the condition of captives or bondsmen, and the dignity of kings and priests unto God,' into which Jesus brings those whom He has freed from the bondage. Taking, then, these changes, and noting the fact that our text is the beginning of a doxology, we have here three points, the present love of Christ, the great past act which is its outcome and proof, and the praise which should answer that great love.

I. We Have Here That Great Thought Of The Present Love Of Christ.

The words seem to me to become especially beautiful, if we remember that they come from the lips of him whose distinction it was that he was the disciple whom Jesus loved.' It is as if he had said, I share my privilege with you all. I was no nearer Him than you may be. Every head may rest on the breast where mine rested. Having the sweet remembrance of that early love, these things write I unto you that ye also may have fellowship with me in that which was my great distinction. I, the disciple whom Jesus loved, speak to you as the disciples whom Jesus loves.'

Mark that he is speaking of One who had been dead for half a century, and that he is speaking to people, none of whom had probably ever seen Jesus in His lifetime, and most of whom had not been born when He died. Yet to them all he turns with that profound and mighty present tense, and says, He loveth us.' He was speaking to all generations, and telling all the tribes of men of a love which is in active operation towards each of them, not only at the moment when John spoke to Asiatic Greeks, but at the moment when we Englishmen read his words, Christ that loveth us.'

Now that great thought suggests two things, one as to the permanence, and one as to the sweep of Christ's love. With regard to the permanence, we have here the revelation of One whose relation to life and death is altogether unique. For though we must believe that the dead do still cherish the love that lighted earth for them, we cannot suppose that their love embraces those whom on earth they did not know, or that for those who are still held in its grasp it can be a potence in active operation to bless them and to do them good. But here is a Man, to the exercise of whose love, to the clearness of whose apprehension and knowledge, to the outgoing of whose warm affection, the active energy of that affection life or death make no difference. The cold which stays the flow of all other human love, like frost laid upon the running streams which it binds in fetters, has no power over the flow of Christ's love, which rolls on, unfrozen and unaffected by it. But not only does Christ's present love require that He should be lifted above death as it affects the rest of us, but it also demands for its explanation that we shall see in Him true Divinity. For this loveth' is the timeless present of that Divine nature, of which we cannot properly say either that it was or that it will be, but only that it for ever is, and the outgoings of His love are like the outgoings of that Divine energy of which we cannot properly say that it did or that it will do, but only that it ever does. His love, if I might use such a phrase, is lifted above all tenses, and transcends even the bounds of grammar. He did love. He does love. He will love. All three forms of speech must be combined in setting forth the ever present, because timeless and eternal, love of the Incarnate Word.

Then let me remind you too that this present love of Christ is undiminished by the glory to which He is exalted. We find clear and great differences between the picture of Jesus Christ in the four gospels and the picture of Him drawn in that magnificent vision of this chapter. But the differences are surface, and the identity is deep-lying. The differences affect position much rather than nature, and as we look upon that revelation which was given to the seer in his rocky Patmos, and with him in the Spirit' behold the things that are,' we carry into all the glory the thought He loveth us'; and the breast girded with the golden girdle is as loving as that upon which John's happy head lay, and the hand that holds the seven stars is as tender as when it was laid on little children in blessing or on lepers in cleansing; or as when it held up the sinking Apostle, or lifted the sick from their couches, or as when it was stretched on the Cross and pierced with the nails; and the face,' which is as the sun shineth in his strength,' is as gracious as when it beamed in pity upon wanderers and sorrowful ones, and drew by its beauty and its sweetness the harlots and publicans to His pity. The exalted Christ loves as did the lowly Christ on earth.

How different this prosaic, worried present would be if we could carry with us, as we may if we will, into all its trivialities, into all its monotony, into all its commonplace routine, into all its little annoyances and great sorrows, that one lambent thought as a source of light and strength and blessing, He loveth us.' Ah! brethren, we lose tremendously of what we might all possess, because we think so of He loved.' and travel back to the Cross for its proof, and think so comparatively seldom' He loveth,' and feel the touch of His hand on our hearts for its token.

But here we have not only the present and permanent love, but we have the sweep and extent of it. He loveth us.' And though John was speaking primarily about a little handful of people scattered through some of the seaboard towns of Asia Minor, the principle upon which he could make the assertion in regard to them warrants us in extending the assertion not only to men that respond to the love, and believe in it, but right away over all the generations and all the successive files of the great army of humanity, down to the very ends of time, He loveth us.'

That universality, wonderful as it is, and requiring for its basis the same belief in Christ's Divine nature which the present energy of His love requires, has to be translated by each of us into an individualising love which is poured upon each single soul, as if it were the sole recipient of the fulness of the heart of Christ. When we extend our thoughts or our sympathies to a crowd, we lose the individual. We generalise, as logicians say, by neglecting the particular instances. That is to say, when we look at the forest we do not see the trees. But Jesus Christ sees each tree, each stem, each branch, each leaf, just as when the crowd thronged Him and pressed Him, He knew when the tremulous finger, wasted and shrunken to skin and bone, was timidly laid on the hem of His garment; as there was room for all the five thousand on the grass, and no man's plenty was secured at the expense of another man's penury, so each of us has a place in that heart; and my abundance will not starve you, nor your feeding full diminish the supplies for me. Christ loves all, not with the vague general philanthropy with which men love the mass, but with the individualising knowledge and special direction of affection towards the individual which demands for its fulness a Divine nature to exercise it. And so each of us may have our own rainbow, to each of us the sunbeam may come straight from the sun and strike upon our eye in a direct line, to each of us the whole warmth of the orb may be conveyed, and each of us may say, He loved me, and gave Himself for me.' Is that your conception of your relation to Jesus Christ, and of Christ's to you?

II. Notice The Great Proof And Outcome Of This Present Love.

Because it is timeless love, and has nothing to do with the distinction of past, present, and future, John lays hold of a past act as the manifestation of a present love. If we would understand what that love is which is offered to each of us in the present, we must understand what is meant and what is involved in that past act to which John points: He loosed us from our sins by His own blood.' Christ is the Emancipator, and the instrument by which He makes us free is His own blood.'

Now there underlies that thought the sad metaphor that sin is captivity. There may be some kind of allusion in the Apostle's mind to the deliverance from Egyptian bondage; and that is made the more probable if we observe that the next clause, hath made us kings and priests unto God,' points back to the great charter of Israel's national existence which was given immediately after the Exodus. But, be that as it may, the notion of bondage underlies this metaphor of loosing a fetter. If we would be honest with ourselves, in our account of our own inward experiences, that bondage we all know. There is the bondage of sin as guilt, the sense of responsibility, the feeling that we have to answer for what we have done, and to answer --as I believe and as I think men's consciences for the most part force them to believe--not only here but hereafter, when we appear before the judgment-seat of Christ. Guilt is a chain. And there is the bondage of habit, which ties and holds us with the cords of our sins, so as that, slight as the fetter may seem at first it has an awful power of thickening and becoming heavier and more pressing, till at last it holds a man in a grip that he cannot get away from. I know of nothing in human life more mystically awful than the possible influence of habit. And you cannot break these fetters yourselves, brethren, any more than a man in a dungeon, shackled to the wall, can file through his handcuffs and anklets with a pin or a broken penknife. You can do a great deal, but you cannot deal with the past fact of guilt, and you can only very partially deal with the present fact of tyranny which the evil habit exercises on you.

He loosed us from our sins by His own blood.' This is not the place to enter upon theological speculations, but I, for my part, believe that, although I may not get to the bottom of the bottomless, nor speak about the Divine nature with full knowledge of all that it is, Scripture is pledged to the fact that the death of Jesus Christ is the Sacrifice for the world's sin. I admit that a full theory is not within reach, but I do not admit that therefore we are to falter in declaring that Christ's death is indispensable in order that a man's sin may be forgiven, and the fetters broken, in so far as guilt and condemnation and Divine disapprobation are concerned.

But that is only one side of the truth. The other, and in some aspects a far more important one, is that that same blood which shed delivers them that trust in Jesus Christ from the guilt of their sin, imparted to men, delivers them from the power of their sin. The blood is the life,' according to the simple physiology of the Old and of the New Testament. When we read in Scripture that the blood of Jesus Christ cleanses from all sin, as I believe we are intended to understand that word, the impartation of Christ's life to us purifies our nature, and makes us, too, in our degree, and on condition of our own activity, and gradually and successively free from all evil. So as regards both aspects of the thraldom of sin, as guilt and as habit: He has loosed us from our sins in His own blood.'

That is the great token and manifestation of His love. If we do not believe that, how else can we have any real conviction and proof of anything worth calling love as being in the heart of Jesus Christ to any of us? To me it seems that unless a man accepts that great thought, He loved me, and gave Himself for me,' and is daily working in my nature to make it and me more like Himself, he has no real proof that Jesus Christ cares a jot for him, or knows anything about him. But I, for my part, venture to say that looking on Christ and His past as this text does, we can look up to Christ in the present as the seer did, and, behold, enthroned by the side of the glory, the Man, the Incarnate Word, who loves with timeless love every single soul of man.

III. So, Lastly, Let Me Point You To The Praise Which Should Answer This Present Love And Emancipation.

Unto Him,' says John, be'--or is--glory and dominion for ever and ever.' That present love, and that great past act which is its vindication and manifestation, are the true glory of God. For His glory lies, not in attributes, as we call them, that distinguish Him from the limitations of humanity, such as Omniscience and Omnipresence and Eternal Being and the like; all these are great, but they are not the greatest. The divinest thing in God is His love, and the true glory is the glory that rays out from Him whom we behold full of grace and truth,' full of love, and dying on the Cross. When we look at that weak man there yielding to the last infirmity of humanity, and yet in yielding to it manifesting His dominion over it, there we see God as we do not see Him anywhere besides. To Him is the glory for His love, and His loosing' manifest the glory, and from His love and His loosing accrue to Him glory beyond all other revenue of praise which comes to Him from creative and sustaining acts.

Unto Him be dominion,' for His rule rests on His sacrifice and on His love. The crown of thorns prepared for the many crowns' of heaven, the sceptre of reed was the prophecy of the sceptre of the universe. The Cross was the footstool of His Throne. He is King of men because He has loved us perfectly, and given everything for us.

And so, brethren, the question of questions for each of us is, Is Jesus Christ my Emancipator? Do I see in Him He that looses me from my sins, and makes me free indeed, because the Son has made me free and a son? Do I render to Him the love which such a love requires? Do I find in Him my ever-present Lover and Friend, and is His love to me as a stimulus for all service, an amulet against every temptation, a breakwater in all storms, a light in every darkness, the pledge of a future heaven, and the beginning of a heaven even upon earth? I beseech you, recognise your fetters, and do not say we were never in bondage to any man.' Recognise your Liberator, put your trust in Him; and then you will be able to join, even here on earth, and more perfectly hereafter, in that great storm and chorus of praise which is in heaven and on the earth, and under the earth, and such as are in the sea, and all that are in them, saying, Blessing and honour and glory and power be unto Him that sitteth on the Throne and to the Lamb for ever and ever.'

Kings And Priests

"He hath made us kings and priests unto God."--Rev. 1:5.

There is an evident reference in these words to the original charter of the Jewish nation, which ran,' If ye will indeed obey My voice and keep My covenant, then shall ye be to Me a kingdom of priests.' That reference is still more obvious if we follow the reading of our text in the Revised Version, which runs,' He made us to be a kingdom, to be priests.' Now it is unquestionable that, in the original passage, Israel is represented as being God's kingdom, the nation over which He reigned as King. But in John's use of the expression there seems to be a slight modification of meaning, as is obvious in the parallel passage to this, which occurs in a subsequent chapter, where we read in addition, They shall reign with Him for ever.' That is to say, in our text we should rather translate the word kingship' than kingdom,' for it means rather the Royal dominion of the Christian community than its subjection to the reign of God.

So the two dignities, the chief in the ancient world, which as a rule were sedulously kept apart, lest their union should produce a grinding despotism from which there was no appeal, are united in the person of the humblest Christian, and that not merely at some distant future period beyond the grave, but here and now; for my text says, not will make,' but hath made.' The coronation and the consecration are both past acts, they are the sequel, certain to follow upon the previous act: He hath loosed us from our sins in His own blood.' The timeless love of Christ, of which that loosing' was the manifestation and the outcome, is not content with emancipating the slaves; it enthrones and hallows them. He lifts the beggar from the dunghill to set him among princes.' He hath loosed us from our sins,' He hath therein made us kings and priests to God.'

I. So, Then, We Have To Consider, First, The Royalty Of The Christian Life.

Now as I have already observed, that royalty has two aspects, a present and a future, and therein the representation coincides with the whole strain of the New Testament, which never separates the present from the future condition of Christian people, as if they were altogether unlike, but lays far more emphasis upon the point in which they coincide than on the points in which they differ, and represents that future as being but the completion and the heightening to a more lustrous splendour, of that which characterises Christian life in the present. So there is a present dominion, notwithstanding all the sorrows and limitations and burdens of life; and there is a future one, which is but the expansion and the superlative degree of that which is enjoined in the present. What, then, is the present royalty of the men that have been loosed from their sins?

Well, I think that the true kingship, which comes as the consequence of Christ's emancipation of us from the guilt and power of sin, is dominion over ourselves. That is the real royalty, to which every man, whatever his position, may aspire, and may exercise. Our very nature shows that we are not, if I might so say, a republic or a democracy, but a monarchy, for there are parts of every one of us that are manifestly intended to be subjected and to obey, and there are parts that are as manifestly intended to be authoritative and to command. On the one side are the passions and the desires that inhere in our fleshly natures, and others, more refined and sublimated forms of the same, and on the other, there is will, reason, conscience. And these, being themselves the authoritative and commanding parts of our nature, observe a subordination also. For the will which impels all the rest is but a blind giant unless it be illumined by reason. And will anal reason alike have to bow to the dictates of that conscience which is the vicegerent of God in every man.

But there is rebellion in the monarchy, as we all know, a revolt that spreads widely. And there is no power that will enable my will to dominate my baser part, and no power that will enthrone my reason above my will, and no power that will give to the empty voice of conscience force to enforce its decrees, except the power of Him that has loosed us from our sins in His own blood.' When we bow to Him, then, and, as I believe in its perfect measure, only then, shall we realise the dominion over the anarchic, rebellious self, which God means every man to exercise. Christ, and Christ alone, makes us fit to control all our nature. And He does it by pouring into us His own Spirit, which will subdue, by strengthening all the motives which should lead men to obedience, by setting before them the perfect pattern in Himself, and by the communication of His own life, which is symbolised by His blood cleansing us from the tyranny under which we have been held. We were slaves, He makes us free, and making us free He enthrones us. He that is king over himself is the true king.

Again, the present royalty of the Christian man is found in his sovereignty over the world. He commands the world who despises it. He is lord of material things who bends them to the highest use, the development of his own nature, and the formation in him of a God-pleasing and Christlike character. He is king of the material who uses it as men use the leaping-bars and other apparatus in a gymnasium, for the strengthening of the frame, and the bringing out of the muscles. He is the king of the world to whom it is all a mirror that shows God, a ladder by which we can climb to Him. And this domination over things visible and material is possible to us in its superlative degree only in the measure in which we are united by faith and obedience to Him who declared, with almost His dying breath, I have overcome the world,' and bade us therefore be of good cheer.' This is the victory that overcometh the world, even our faith,' and He is the master of all who has submitted himself to the monarchy of Jesus Christ. And so the royalty which begins with ruling my own nature goes on to be master of all things around me, according to that great saying, the depth of which can be realised only by experience, All things are yours, and ye are Christ's.'

There is another department in which the same kingship is at present capable of being exercised by us all, and that is that we may become, by faith in Jesus Christ, independent of men, and lords over them, in the sense that we shall take no orders from them, nor hang upon their approbation or disapprobation, nor depend upon their love for our joy, nor be frightened or bewildered by their hate, but shall be able to say, We are the servants of Christ, therefore we are free from men.' The King's servant is everybody else's master. In the measure in which we hold ourselves in close union with that Saviour we are set free from all selfish dependence on, and regard to, the judgments of perishable and fallible creatures like ourselves.

But the passage to which I have already referred as determining the precise meaning of the ambiguous expression in my text goes a little further. It not only speaks of being kings and priests here and now, but it adds they shall reign with Him,' and so points us onward to a dim future, in which all that is tendency here, and an imperfect kingship, shall be perfectly realised hereafter. I do not dwell upon that, for we see that future but through a glass darkly'; only I remind you of such sayings as have thou authority over ten cities,' and the other phrase in one of the letters to the seven churches, in which authority over the nations' and ruling them with a rod of iron' is promised to Christ's servants. These are promises as dim as they are certain, but they, at least, teach us that they who here, in lowly dependence on the King of kings, have bowed themselves to Him, and, emancipated by Him, have been made to share in some measure in His royalty here, shall hereafter, according to the depth of His own wonderful promise, sit with Him on His Throne, as He also hath sat down with the Father on His Throne.'

For indeed this kingship of all Christ's children, like the priesthood with which it is associated in my text, is but one case of the general principle that, by faith in Jesus Christ, we are so united with Him as that where He is, and what He is, there and that we shall be also.' He has become like us that we might become like Him. He has taken part of the flesh and blood of which the children are partakers, that they might take part of the Spirit of which He is the Lord. He is the Son, has become the Son of Man that sons of men might in Him become the sons of God. The branches partake of the fatness' of the vine; and the King who is Priest makes all to trust Him, not only sons but kings through Himself.

II. We Have Here The Priesthood Of The Christian Life.

Now that idea is but a symbolical way of putting some very great and wondrous thoughts, for what are the elements that go to make up the idea of a priest.

First, direct access to God, and that is the prerogative of every Christian. All of us, each of us, may pass into the secret place of the Most High, and stand there with happy hearts, unabashed and unafraid, beneath the very blaze of the light of the Shekinah. And we can do that, because Jesus Christ has come to us with these words upon His lips, I am the Way; no man cometh to the Father but by Me.' The path into that Divine Presence is for every sinful soul blocked by an immense black rock, its own transgressions; but He has blasted away the rock, and the path is patent for all our feet. By His death we have the way made open into the holiest of all. And so we can come, come with lowly hearts, come with childlike confidence, come with the whole burden of our weaknesses and wants and woes, and can spread them all before Him, and nestle to the great heart of God the Father Himself. We are priests to God, and our prerogative is to pass within the veil by the new and living Way which Christ is for us.

Again, another idea in the conception of the priest is that he must have somewhat to offer; and we Christian people are in that sense priests. Christ has offered the one Sacrifice for sins for ever,' and there is no addition to that possible or requisite. But after the offering of the expiatory sacrifice, the ancient Ritual taught us a deep truth when it appointed that following it there should be the sacrifice of thanksgiving. And these are what we are to bring. You remember the words, I beseech you, brethren, by the mercies of God, that ye present '--and that word is the technical one for the offering of sacrifice--your bodies a living sacrifice, acceptable unto God.' You remember Peter's use of this same expression, Ye are a royal priesthood,' and his description of their function to offer up spiritual sacrifices.' You remember the other words of the great sacerdotal book of the New Testament, the Epistle to the Hebrews, which claims for Christians all that seemed to be disappearing with the dying Jewish economy, and says, By Him, therefore, let us offer the sacrifice of praise unto God … that is the fruit of our lips, giving thanks to His Name, and to do good, and to communicate forget not, for with such sacrifices God is well-pleased.' So the sacrifice of myself, moved by the mercies of God as a great thank-offering, and in detail the sacrifice of praise, of good gifts and good deeds, and a life devoted to Him, these are the sacrifices which we have to bring.

I need not remind you of yet another aspect in which the sacrificial idea inheres in the very notion of the Christian life, and that is not only access to God, and the offering of sacrifice, but mediation with man. For the function is laid upon all Christian people by Jesus Christ Himself, that they should represent God and Him in the world, and beseech men, in Christ's stead, to be reconciled to God. And so the priesthood and the kingship both belong to the ideal of the Christian life.

III. In The Last Place, Just A Word Or Two As To The Practical Conclusions From This Idea.

The first of them is one on which I touch very lightly, but which I cannot well omit, and that is the bearing of this thought on the relations of the members of the Christian community to one another. The New Testament knows of two kinds of priesthood, and no third. It knows of Christ as the High Priest who, by His great sacrifice for the sins of the world, has made all other expiation antiquated and impertinent, and has swept away the whole fabric of ceremonial and sacrificial worship; and it knows of the derived priesthood which belongs to every member of Christ's Church. But it stops there; and there is not a word in the New Testament which warrants any single member of that universal priesthood monopolising the title to himself, and so separating himself from the community of his brethren. I do not wish to elaborate that point, or to bring any mere controversial elements into my sermon, but I am bound to say that if that name of priest be given to a class, you elevate the class and you degrade the mass of believers. You take away from the community what you concentrate on the individual. And historically it has always been the case that wherever the name of priest has been allotted to the officials, the ministers of the Church, there the priesthood of the community has tended to be forgotten.

I do not dwell upon the other great error which goes along with that name as applied to an officer in any Christian community. But a priest must have a sacrifice, and you cannot sustain the sacerdotal idea except by the help of the sacramentarian idea which, I venture to say, travesties the simple memorial rite of the Lord's Supper into what it is called in Roman Catholic phraseology, the tremendous sacrifice.'

Brethren, the hand of the priest paralyses the life of the Church; and politically, intellectually, socially, and above all religiously, it blights whatsoever it touches. You free Churchmen have laid upon you this day the imperative duty of witnessing for the two things, the sole priesthood of Jesus Christ, and the universal priesthood of all His people.

Let me say again, these thoughts bear upon our individual duty. It is idle, as some of us are too apt to do, to use them as a weapon to fight ecclesiastical assumptions with, unless they regulate our own lives. Be what you are is what I would say to all Christian men. You are a king; see that you rule yourself and the world. You are a priest; see that the path into the Temple is worn by your continual feet. See that you offer yourselves sacrifices to God in the daily work and self-surrender of life. See that you mediate between God and man, in such brotherly mediation as is possible to us.

Above all, dear friends, let us all begin where Christ begins, where my text begins, and go to Him to have ourselves loosed from our sins in His own blood.' Then the king's diadem and the priest's mitre will meet on our happy heads. In plain English, if we want to govern ourselves and the world, we must let Christ govern us, and then all things will be our servants. If we would draw near to God--and to be distant from Him is misery; and if we would offer to Him the sacrifices--to refrain from offering which is sin and sorrow--we must begin with going to Jesus Christ, and trusting in Him as our Redeemer from sin. And then, so trusting, He will give us here and now, amid the sorrows and imperfections of life, and more perfectly amid the glories and unknown advances in power and beauty in the heavens, a share in His Royalty and His unchangeable Priesthood.

MHCC: Rev 1:1-3

This book is the Revelation of Jesus Christ; the whole Bible is so; for all revelation comes through Christ, and all relates to him. Its principal subject is to discover the purposes of God concerning the affairs of the church, and of the nations as connected therewith, to the end of the world. These events would surely come to pass; and they would begin to come to pass very shortly. Though Christ is himself God, and has light and life in himself, yet, as Mediator between God and man, he receives instructions from the Father. To him we owe the knowledge of what we are to expect from God, and what he expects from us. The subject of this revelation was, the things that must shortly come to pass. On all who read or hear the words of the prophecy, a blessing is pronounced. Those are well employed who search the Bible. It is not enough that we read and hear, but we must keep the things that are written, in our memories, in our minds, in our affections, and in practice, and we shall be blessed in the deed. Even the mysteries and difficulties of this book are united with discoveries of God, suited to impress the mind with awe, and to purify the soul of the reader, though he may not discern the prophetic meaning. No part of Scripture more fully states the gospel, and warns against the evil of sin.

MHCC: Rev 1:4-8

There can be no true peace, where there is not true grace; and where grace goeth before, peace will follow. This blessing is in the name of God, of the Holy Trinity, it is an act of adoration. The Father is first named; he is described as the Jehovah who is, and who was, and who is to come, eternal, unchangeable. The Holy Spirit is called the seven spirits, the perfect Spirit of God, in whom there is a diversity of gifts and operations. The Lord Jesus Christ was from eternity, a Witness to all the counsels of God. He is the First-born from the dead, who will by his own power raise up his people. He is the Prince of the kings of the earth; by him their counsels are overruled, and to him they are accountable. Sin leaves a stain of guilt and pollution upon the soul. Nothing can fetch out this stain but the blood of Christ; and Christ shed his own blood to satisfy Divine justice, and purchase pardon and purity for his people. Christ has made believers kings and priests to God and his Father. As such they overcome the world, mortify sin, govern their own spirits, resist Satan, prevail with God in prayer, and shall judge the world. He has made them priests, given them access to God, enabled them to offer spiritual and acceptable sacrifices, and for these favours they are bound to ascribe to him dominion and glory for ever. He will judge the world. Attention is called to that great day when all will see the wisdom and happiness of the friends of Christ, and the madness and misery of his enemies. Let us think frequently upon the second coming of Christ. He shall come, to the terror of those who wound and crucify him by apostacy: he shall come, to the astonishment of the whole world of the ungodly. He is the Beginning and the End; all things are from him and for him; he is the Almighty; the same eternal and unchanged One. And if we would be numbered with his saints in glory everlasting, we must now willing submit to him receive him, and honour him as a saviour, who we believe will come to be our Judge. Alas, that there should be many, who would wish never to die, and that there should not be a day of judgment!

Matthew Henry: Rev 1:1-2

Here we have,

I. What we may call the pedigree of this book. 1. It is the revelation of Jesus Christ. The whole Bible is so; for all revelation comes through Christ and all centres in him; and especially in these last days God has spoken to us by his Son, and concerning his Son. Christ, as the king of his church, has been pleased thus far to let his church know by what rules and methods he will proceed in his government; and, as the prophet of the church, he has made known to us the things that shall be hereafter. 2. It is a revelation which God gave unto Christ. Though Christ is himself God, and as such has light and life in himself, yet, as he sustains the office of Mediator between God and man, he receives his instructions from the Father. The human nature of Christ, though endowed with the greatest sagacity, judgment, and penetration, could not, in a way of reason, discover these great events, which not being produced by natural causes, but wholly depending upon the will of God, could be the object only of divine prescience, and must come to a created mind only by revelation. Our Lord Jesus is the great trustee of divine revelation; it is to him that we owe the knowledge we have of what we are to expect from God and what he expects from us. 3. This revelation Christ sent and signified by his angel. Observe here the admirable order of divine revelation. God gave it to Christ, and Christ employed an angel to communicate it to the churches. The angels are God's messengers; they are ministering spirits to the heirs of salvation. They are Christ's servants: principalities and powers are subject to him; all the angels of God are obliged to worship him. 4. The angels signified it to the apostle John. As the angels are the messengers of Christ, the ministers are the messengers of the churches; what they receive from heaven, they are to communicate to the churches. John was the apostle chosen for this service. Some think he was the only one surviving, the rest having sealed their testimony with their blood. This was to be the last book of divine revelation; and therefore notified to the church by the last of the apostles. John was the beloved disciple. He was, under the New Testament, as the prophet Daniel under the Old, a man greatly beloved. He was the servant of Christ; he was an apostle, an evangelist, and a prophet; he served Christ in all the three extraordinary offices of the church. James was an apostle, but not a prophet, nor an evangelist; Matthew was an apostle and evangelist, but not a prophet; Luke was an evangelist, but neither a prophet nor an apostle; but John was all three; and so Christ calls him in an eminent sense his servant John. 5. John was to deliver this revelation to the church, to all his servants. For the revelation was not designed for the use of Christ's extraordinary servants the ministers only, but for all his servants, the members of the church; they have all a right to the oracles of God, and all have their concern in them.

II. Here we have the subject-matter of this revelation, namely, the things that must shortly come to pass. The evangelists give us an account of the things that are past; prophecy gives us an account of things to come. These future events are shown, not in the clearest light in which God could have set them, but in such a light as he saw most proper, and which would best answer his wise and holy purposes. Had they been as clearly foretold in all their circumstances as God could have revealed them, the prediction might have prevented the accomplishment; but they are foretold more darkly, to beget in us a veneration for the scripture, and to engage our attention and excite our enquiry. We have in this revelation a general idea of the methods of divine providence and government in and about the church, and many good lessons may be learned hereby. These events (it is said) were such as should come to pass not only surely, but shortly; that is, they would begin to come to pass very shortly, and the whole would be accomplished in a short time. For now the last ages of the world had come.

III. Here is an attestation of the prophecy, Rev 1:2. It was signified to John, who bore record of the word of God, and of the testimony of Jesus Christ, and of all things that he saw. It is observable that the historical books of the Old Testament have not always the name of the historian prefixed to them, as in the books of Judges, Kings, Chronicles; but in the prophetical books the name is always prefixed, as Isaiah, Jeremiah, etc. So in the New Testament, though John did not prefix his name to his first epistle, yet he does to this prophecy, as ready to vouch and answer for the truth of it; and he gives us not only his name, but his office. He was one who bore record of the word of God in general, and of the testimony of Jesus in particular, and of all things that he saw; he was an eye-witness, and he concealed nothing that he saw. Nothing recorded in this revelation was his own invention or imagination; but all was the record of God and the testimony of Jesus; and, as he added nothing to it, so he kept back no part of the counsels of God.

Matthew Henry: Rev 1:3-8

We have here an apostolic benediction on those who should give a due regard to this divine revelation; and this benediction is given more generally and more especially.

I. More generally, to all who either read or hear the words of the prophecy. This blessing seems to be pronounced with a design to encourage us to study this book, and not be weary of looking into it upon account of the obscurity of many things in it; it will repay the labour of the careful and attentive reader. Observe, 1. It is a blessed privilege to enjoy the oracles of God. This was one of the principal advantages the Jews had above the Gentiles. 2. It is a blessed thing to study the scriptures; those are well employed who search the scriptures. 3. It is a privilege not only to read the scriptures ourselves, but to hear them read by others, who are qualified to give us the sense of what they read and to lead us into an understanding of them. 4. It is not sufficient to our blessedness that we read and hear the scriptures, but we must keep the things that are written; we must keep them in our memories, in our minds, in our affections, and in practice, and we shall be blessed in the deed. 5. The nearer we come to the accomplishment of the scriptures, the greater regard we shall give to them. The time is at hand, and we should be so much the more attentive as we see the day approaching.

II. The apostolic benediction is pronounced more especially and particularly to the seven Asian churches, Rev 1:4. These seven churches are named in Rev 1:11, and distinct messages sent to each of them respectively in the chapters following. The apostolic blessing is more expressly directed to these because they were nearest to him, who was now in the isle of Patmos, and perhaps he had the peculiar care of them, and superintendency over them, not excluding any of the rest of the apostles, if any of them were now living. Here observe,

1. What the blessing is which he pronounces on all the faithful in these churches: Grace and peace, holiness and comfort. Grace, that is, the good-will of God towards us and his good work in us; and peace, that is, the sweet evidence and assurance of this grace. There can be no true peace where there is not true grace; and, where grace goes before, peace will follow.

2. Whence this blessing is to come. In whose name does the apostle bless the churches? In the name of God, of the whole Trinity; for this is an act of adoration, and God only is the proper object of it; his ministers must bless the people in no name but his alone. And here, (1.) The Father is first named: God the Father, which may be taken either essentially, for God as God, or personally, for the first person in the ever-blessed Trinity, the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ; and he is described as the Jehovah who is, and who was, and who is to come, eternal, unchangeable, the same to the Old Testament church which was, and to the New Testament church which is, and who will be the same to the church triumphant which is to come. (2.) The Holy Spirit, called the seven spirits, not seven in number, nor in nature, but the infinite perfect Spirit of God, in whom there is a diversity of gifts and operations. He is before the throne; for, as God made, so he governs, all things by his Spirit. (3.) The Lord Jesus Christ. He mentions him after the Spirit, because he intended to enlarge more upon the person of Christ, as God manifested in the flesh, whom he had seen dwelling on earth before, and now saw again in a glorious form. Observe the particular account we have here of Christ, Rev 1:5. [1.] He is the faithful witness; he was from eternity a witness to all the counsels of God (Joh 1:18), and he was in time a faithful witness to the revealed will of God, who has now spoken to us by his Son; upon his testimony we may safely depend, for he is a faithful witness, cannot be deceived and cannot deceive us. [2.] He is the first-begotten or first-born from the dead, or the first parent and head of the resurrection, the only one who raised himself by his own power, and who will by the same power raise up his people from their graves to everlasting honour; for he has begotten them again to a lively hope by his resurrection from the dead. [3.] He is the prince of the kings of the earth; from him they have their authority; by him their power is limited and their wrath restrained; by him their counsels are over-ruled, and to him they are accountable. This is good news to the church, and it is good evidence of the Godhead of Christ, who is King of kings and Lord of lords. [4.] He is the great friend of his church and people, one who has done great things for them, and this out of pure disinterested affection. He has loved them, and, in pursuance of that everlasting love, he has, First, Washed them from their sins in his own blood. Sins leave a stain upon the soul, a stain of guilt and of pollution. Nothing can fetch out this stain but the blood of Christ; and, rather than it should not be washed out, Christ was willing to shed his own blood, to purchase pardon and purity for them. Secondly, He has made them kings and priests to God and his Father. Having justified and sanctified them, he makes them kings to his Father; that is, in his Father's account, with his approbation, and for his glory. As kings, they govern their own spirits, conquer Satan, have power and prevalency with God in prayer, and shall judge the world. He hath made them priests, given them access to God, enabled them to enter into the holiest and to offer spiritual and acceptable sacrifices, and has given them an unction suitable to this character; and for these high honours and favours they are bound to ascribe to him dominion and glory for ever. [5.] He will be the Judge of the world: Behold, he cometh, and every eye shall see him, Rev 1:7. This book, the Revelation, begins and ends with a prediction of the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. We should set ourselves to meditate frequently upon the second coming of Christ, and keep it in the eye of our faith and expectation. John speaks as if he saw that day: " Behold, he cometh, as sure as if you beheld him with your eyes. He cometh with clouds, which are his chariot and pavilion. He will come publicly: Every eye shall see him, the eye of his people, the eye of his enemies, every eye, yours and mine."He shall come, to the terror of those who have pierced him and have not repented and of all who have wounded and crucified him afresh by their apostasy from him, and to the astonishment of the pagan world. For he comes to take vengeance on those who know not God, as well as on those that obey not the gospel of Christ. [6.] This account of Christ is ratified and confirmed by himself, Rev 1:8. Here our Lord Jesus justly challenges the same honour and power that is ascribed to the Father, Rev 1:4. He is the beginning and the end; all things are from him and for him; he is the Almighty; he is the same eternal and unchangeable one. And surely whoever presumes to blot out one character of this name of Christ deserves to have his name blotted out of the book of life. Those that honour him he will honour; but those who despise him shall be lightly esteemed.

Barclay: Rev 1:1-3

This book is called sometimes the Revelation and sometimes the Apocalypse. It begins with the words "The revelation of Jesus Christ," which mean not the revelation about Jesus Christ but the revelation given by Jesus Christ. The Greek word for revelation is apokalupsis (602) which is a word with a history.

(i) Apokalupsis (602) is composed of two parts. Apo (575) means "away from" and kalupsis (compare 2572) "a veiling." Apokalupsis (602), therefore, means an unveiling, a revealing. It was not originally a specially religious word; it meant simply the disclosure of any fact. There is an interesting use of it in Plutarch (How to tell a Flatterer from a Friend, 32). Plutarch tells how once Pythagoras severely rebuked a devoted disciple of his in public and the young man went out and hanged himself. "From that time on Pythagoras never admonished anyone when anyone else was present. For error should be treated as a foul disease, and all admonition and disclosure (apokalupsis, 602) should be in secret." But apokalupsis (602) became specially a Christian word.

(ii) It is used for the revealing of God's will to us for our actions. Paul says that he went up to Jerusalem by apokalupsis (602). He went because God told him he wanted him to go (Gal 2:2).

(iii) It is used of the revelation of God's truth to men. Paul received his gospel, not from men, but by apokalupsis (602) from Jesus Christ (Gal 1:12). In the Christian assembly the message of the preacher is an apokalupsis (602) (1Co 14:6).

(iv) It is used of God's revealing to men of his own mysteries, especially in the incarnation of Jesus Christ (Rom 16:25; Eph 3:3).

(v) It is specially used of the revelation of the power and the holiness of God which is to come at the last days. That will be an unveiling of judgment (Rom 2:5); but for the Christian it will be an unveiling of praise and glory (1Pe 1:7); of grace (1Pe 1:13); of joy (1Pe 4:13).

Before we remind ourselves of the more technical use of apokalupsis (602), we may note two things.

(i) This revelation is connected specially with the work of the Holy Spirit (Eph 1:17).

(ii) We are bound to see that here we have a picture of the whole of the Christian life. There is no part of it which is not lit by the revelation of God. God reveals to us what we must do and say; in Jesus Christ he reveals himself to us, for he who has seen Jesus has seen the Father (Joh 14:9); and life moves on to the great and final revelation in which there is judgment for those who have not submitted to God but grace and glory and joy for those who are in Jesus Christ. Revelation is no technical theological idea; it is what God is offering to all who will listen.

Now we look at the technical meaning of apokalupsis (602), for that meaning is specially connected with this book.

The Jews had long since ceased to hope that they would be vindicated as the chosen people by human means. They hoped now for nothing less than the direct intervention of God. To that end they divided all time into two ages--this present age, wholly given over to evil; and the age to come, the age of God. Between the two there was to be a time of terrible trial. Between the Old and the New Testaments the Jews wrote many books which were visions of the dreadful time before the end and of the blessedness to come. These books were called Apokalypses; and that is what the Revelation is. Although there is nothing like it in the New Testament, it belongs to a class of literature which was common between the Testaments. All these books are wild and unintelligible, for they are trying to describe the indescribable. The very subject with which the Revelation deals is the reason why it is so difficult to understand.

Barclay: Rev 1:1-3

This short section gives us a concise account of how revelation comes to men.

(i) Revelation begins with God, the fountain of all truth. Every truth which men discover is two things--a discovery of the human mind and a gift of God. But it must always be remembered that men never create the truth; they receive it from God. We must also remember that that reception comes in two ways. It comes from earnest seeking. God gave men minds and it is often through our minds that he speaks to us. Certainly he does not grant his truth to the man who is too lazy to think. It comes from reverent waiting. God sends his truth to the man who not only thinks strenuously, but waits quietly in prayer and in devotion. But it must be remembered that prayer and devotion are not simply passive things. They are the dedicated listening for the voice of God.

(ii) God gives this revelation to Jesus Christ. The Bible never, as it were, makes a second God of Jesus; rather it stresses his utter dependence on God. "My teaching," said Jesus, "is not mine, but his who sent me" (Joh 7:16). "I do nothing on my own authority but speak thus as the Father taught me" (Joh 8:28). "I have not spoken on my own authority; the Father who sent me has himself given me commandment what to say and what to speak" (Joh 12:49). It is God's truth that Jesus brings to men; and that is precisely why his teaching is unique and final.

(iii) Jesus sends that truth to John through his angel (Rev 1:1). Here the writer of the Revelation was a child of his day. At this time in history men were specially conscious of the transcendence of God. That is to say, they were impressed above all things with the difference between God and man. So much so that they felt direct communication between God and man was impossible and that there must always be some intermediary. In the Old Testament story Moses received the Law directly from the hands of God (Exo 19-20); but twice in the New Testament it is said that the Law was given by angels (Act 7:53; Gal 3:19).

(iv) Finally, the revelation is given to John. It is most uplifting to remember the part men play in the coming of God's revelation. God must find a man to whom he can entrust his truth and whom he can use as his mouthpiece.

(v) Let us note the content of the revelation which comes to John. It is the revelation of "the things which must quickly happen" (Rev 1:1). There are two important words here. There is must. History is not haphazard; it has purpose. There is quickly. Here is the proof that it is quite wrong to use the Revelation as a kind of mysterious timetable of what is going to happen thousands of years from now. As John sees it, the things it deals with are working themselves out immediately. The Revelation must be interpreted against the background of its own time.

Barclay: Rev 1:1-3

Twice the word servant appears in this passage. God's revelation was sent to his servants and it was sent through his servant John. In Greek the word is doulos (1401) and in Hebrew 'ebed (05650). Both are difficult fully to translate. The normal translation of doulos (1401) is slave. The real servant of God is, in fact, his slave. A servant can leave his service when he likes; he has stated hours of work and stated hours of freedom; he works for a wage; he has a mind of his own and can bargain as to when and for what he will give his labour. A slave can do none of these things; he is the absolute possession of his owner, with neither time nor will of his own. Doulos (1401) and 'ebed (05650) bring out how absolutely we must surrender life to God.

It is of the greatest interest to note to whom these words are applied in Scripture.

Abraham is the servant of God (Gen 26:24; Psa 105:26; Dan 9:11). Jacob is the servant of God (Isa 44:1-2; Isa 45:4; Eze 37:25). Caleb and Joshua are the servants of God (Num 14:24; Jos 24:29; Jdg 6:49; 2Ch 24:6; Neh 1:7; Neh 10:29; Psa 105:26; Dan 9:11). Jacob is the servant of God (Isa 44:1-2; Isa 45:4; Eze 37:25). Caleb and Joshua are the servants of God (Num 14:24; Jos 24:29; Jdg 2:8). David is second only to Moses as characteristically the servant of God (Psa 132:10; Psa 144:10; 1Ki 8:66; 1Ki 11:36; 2Ki 19:34; 2Ki 20:6; 1Ch 17:4; in the titles of Ps 18 and Ps 36 ; Psa 89:3; Eze 34:24). Elijah is the servant of God (2Ki 9:36; 2Ki 10:10). Isaiah is the servant of God (Isa 20:3). Job is the servant of God (Job 1:8; Job 42:7). The prophets are the servants of God (2Ki 21:10; Amo 3:7). The apostles are the servants of God (Phi 1:1; Tit 1:1; Jam 1:1; Jud 1:1; Rom 1:1; 2Co 4:5). A man like Epaphras is the servant of God (Col 4:12). All Christians are the servants of God (Eph 6:6).

Two things emerge from this.

(i) The greatest men regarded as their greatest honour the fact that they were servants of God.

(ii) We must note the width of this service. Moses, the law-giver; Abraham, the adventurous pilgrim; David, shepherd boy, sweet singer of Israel, king of the nation; Caleb and Joshua, soldiers and men of action; Elijah and Isaiah, prophets and men of God; Job, faithful in misfortune; the apostles, who bore to men the story of Jesus; every Christian--all are servants of God. There is none whom God cannot use, if he will submit to his service.

Barclay: Rev 1:1-3

This passage ends with a threefold blessing.

(i) The man who reads these words is blessed. The reader here mentioned is not the private reader, but the man who publicly reads the word in the presence of the congregation. The reading of Scripture was the centre of any Jewish service (Luk 4:16; Act 13:15). In the Jewish synagogue scripture was read to the congregation by seven ordinary members of the congregation, although if a priest or levite was present he took precedence. The Christian Church took much of its service from the synagogue order and the reading of scripture remained a central part of the service. Justin Martyr gives the earliest account of what a Christian service was like; and it includes the reading of "the memoirs of the apostles (i.e. the Gospels), and the writings of the prophets" (Justin Martyr 1: 67). Reader became in time an official office in the Church. One of Tertullian's complaints about the heretical sects was the way in which a man could too speedily arrive at office without any training for it. He writes: "And so it comes to pass that today one man is their bishop, and tomorrow another; today he is a deacon who tomorrow is a reader" (Tertullian, On Prescription against Heretics, 41).

(ii) The man who hears these words is blessed. We do well to remember how great a privilege it is to hear the word of God in our own tongue, a privilege which was dearly bought. Men died to give it to us; and the professional clergy sought for long to keep it to themselves. To this day the task of giving men the Scriptures in their own language goes on.

(iii) The man who keeps these words is blessed. To hear God's word is a privilege; to obey it is a duty. There is no real Christianity in the man who hears and forgets or deliberately disregards.

That is all the more true because the time is short. The time is near (Rev 1:3). The early church lived in vivid expectation of the coming of Jesus Christ and that expectation was "the ground of hope in distress and constant heed to warning." Apart altogether from that, no man knows when the call will come to take him from this earth, and in order to meet God with confidence he must add the obedience of his life to the listening of his ear.

We may note that there are seven blesseds in the Revelation.

(i) There is the blessed we have just studied. We may call it the blessedness of reading, hearing and obeying the Word of God.

(ii) Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord henceforth (Rev 14:13). We may call it the blessedness in heaven of Christ's friends on earth.

(iii) Blessed is he who is awake, keeping his garments (Rev 16:15). We may call it the blessedness of the watchful pilgrim.

(iv) Blessed are those who are invited to the marriage supper of the Lamb (Rev 19:9). We may, call it the blessedness of the invited guests of God.

(v) Blessed is he who shares in the first resurrection (Rev 20:6). We may call it the blessedness of the man whom death cannot touch.

(vi) Blessed is he who keeps the words of the prophecy of this book (Rev 22:7). We may call it the blessedness of the wise reader of God's Word.

(vii) Blessed are those who do his commandments (Rev 22:14). We may call it the blessedness of those who hear and obey.

Such blessedness is open to every Christian.

Barclay: Rev 1:4-6

The Revelation is a letter, written to the seven Churches which are in Asia. In the New Testament Asia is never the continent but always the Roman province. Once the kingdom of Attalus the Third, he had willed it to the Romans at his death. It included the western sea-coast of Asia Minor, on the shores of the Mediterranean, with Phrygia, Mysia, Caria and Lycia in the hinterland; and its capital was the city of Pergamum.

The seven Churches are named in Rev 1:11--Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, Laodicea. These were by no means the only Churches in Asia. There were Churches at Colossae (Col 1:2); Hierapolis (Col 4:13); Troas (2Co 2:12; Act 20:5); Miletus (Act 20:17); Magnesia and Tralles, as the letters of Ignatius, the Bishop of Antioch, show. Why did John single out only these seven? There can be more than one reason for his selection.

(i) These Churches might be regarded as the centres of seven postal districts, being all on a kind of ring road which circled the interior of the province. Troas was off the beaten track. But Hierapolis and Colossae were within walking distance of Laodicea; and Tralles, Magnesia and Miletus were close to Ephesus. Letters delivered to these seven cities would easily circulate in the surrounding areas; and since every letter had to be hand-written, each letter would need to be sent where it would reach most easily the greatest number of people.

(ii) Any reading of the Revelation will show John's preference for the number seven. It occurs fifty-four times. There are seven candle-sticks (Rev 1:12), seven stars (Rev 1:16), seven lamps (Rev 4:5), seven seals (Rev 5:1), seven horns and seven eyes (Rev 5:6), seven thunders (Rev 10:3), seven angels, plagues and bowls (Rev 15:6-8). The ancient peoples regarded seven as the perfect number, and it runs all through the Revelation.

From this certain of the early commentators drew an interesting conclusion. Seven is the perfect number because it stands for completeness. It is, therefore, suggested that, when John wrote to seven Churches, he was, in fact, writing to the whole Church. The first list of New Testament books, called the Muratorian Canon, says of the Revelation: "For John also, though he wrote in the Revelation to seven Churches, nevertheless speaks to them all." This is all the more likely when we remember how often John says: "He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the Churches" (Rev 2:7; Rev 2:11, Rev 2:17; Rev 2:29; Rev 3:6; Rev 3:13; Rev 3:22).

(iii) Although the reasons we have adduced for the choice of these seven Churches may be valid, it may be still more valid that he chose them because in them he had a special authority. They were in a special sense his Churches, and by speaking to them he sent a message first to those who knew and loved him best, and then through them to every Church in every generation.

Barclay: Rev 1:4-6

He begins by sending them the blessing of God.

He sends them grace, and this means all the undeserved gifts of the wondrous love of God. He sends them peace, which R. C. Charles finely describes as "the harmony restored between God and man through Christ." But there are two extra-ordinary things in this greeting.

(i) John sends blessings from him who is and who was and who is to come. That is in itself a common title for God. In Exo 3:14the word of God to Moses is "I am who I am." The Jewish Rabbis explained that by saying that God meant: "I was; I still am; and in the future I will be." The Greeks spoke of "Zeus who was, Zeus who is, and Zeus who will be." The Orphic worshippers said: "Zeus is the first and Zeus is the last; Zeus is the head and Zeus is the middle; and from Zeus all things come." This is what in Hebrews so beautifully became: "Jesus Christ is the same yesterday, today and for ever" (Heb 13:8).

But to get the full meaning of this we must look at it in the Greek, for John bursts the bonds of grammar to show his reverence for God. We translate the first phrase from him who is; but that is not what the Greek says. A Greek noun is in the nominative case when it is the subject of a sentence, but, when it is governed by a preposition it changes its case and its form. It is so in English. He is the subject of a sentence; him is the object. When John says that the blessing comes from him who is he should have put him who is in the genitive case after the preposition; but quite ungrammatically he leaves it in the nominative. It is as if we said in English from he who is, refusing to change he into him. John has such an immense reverence for God that he refuses to alter the form of his name even when the rules of grammar demand it.

John is not finished with his amazing use of language. The second phrase is from him who was. Literally, John says from the he was. The point is that who was would be in Greek a participle. The odd thing is that the verb eimi (1510) (to be) has no past participle. Instead there is used the participle genomenos from the verb gignomai, which means not only to be but also to become. Becoming implies change and John utterly refuses to apply any word to God that will imply any change; and so he uses a Greek phrase that is grammatically impossible and that no one ever used before.

In the terrible days in which he was writing John stayed his heart on the changelessness of God and used defiance of grammar to underline his faith.

Barclay: Rev 1:4-6

Anyone who reads this passage must be astonished at the form of the Trinity which we meet here. We speak of Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Here we have God the Father and Jesus Christ the Son but instead of the Holy Spirit we have the seven Spirits who are before his throne. These seven Spirits are mentioned more than once in the Revelation (Rev 3:1; Rev 4:5; Rev 5:6). Three main explanations have been offered of them.

(i) The Jews talked of the seven angels of the presence, whom they beautifully called "the seven first white ones" (I Enoch 90:21). They were what we call the archangels, and "they stand and enter before the glory of the Lord" (Tob 12:15). Their names are not always the same but they are often called Uriel, Rafael, Raguel, Michael, Gabriel, Saiquael and Jeremiel. They had the care of the elements of the world--fire, air and water--and were the guardian angels of the nations. They were the most illustrious and the most intimate servants of God. Some think that they are the seven Spirits mentioned here. But that cannot be; great as the angels were, they were still created beings.

(ii) The second explanation connects them with the famous passage in Isa 11:2; as the Septuagint, the Greek version of the Old Testament, has it: "The spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him, the spirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit of counsel and might, the spirit of knowledge and piety; by this spirit he shall be filled with the fear of God." This passage is the basis of the great conception of the sevenfold gifts of the Spirit.

Come, Holy Ghost, our souls inspire

And lighten with celestial fire;

Thou the anointing Spirit art,

Who dost thy sevenfold gifts impart.

The Spirit, as Beatus said, is one in name but sevenfold in virtues. If we think of the sevenfold gift of the Spirit, it is not difficult to think of the Spirit as seven Spirits, each giving great gifts to men. So it is suggested that the conception of the sevenfold gifts of the Spirit gave rise to the idea of the seven Spirits before the throne of God.

(iii) The third explanation connects the idea of the seven Spirits with the fact of the seven Churches. In Heb 2:4we read of God giving "gifts of the Holy Spirit." The word translated gifts is merismos (3311), and it really means shares, as if the idea was that God gives a share of his Spirit to every man. So the idea here would be that the seven Spirits stand for the share of the Spirit which God gave to each of the seven Churches. It would mean that no Christian fellowship is left without the presence and the power and the illumination of the Spirit.

Barclay: Rev 1:4-6

In this passage three great titles are ascribed to Jesus Christ.

(i) He is the witness on whom we can rely. It is a favourite idea of the Fourth Gospel that Jesus is a witness of the truth of God. Jesus said to Nicodemus: "Truly, truly, I say to you, we speak of what we know, and bear witness to what we have seen" (Joh 3:11). Jesus said to Pilate: "For this I have come into the world, to bear witness to the truth" (Joh 18:37). A witness is essentially a person who speaks from first-hand knowledge. That is why Jesus is God's witness. He is uniquely the person with first-hand knowledge about God.

(ii) He is the first-born of the dead. The word for first-born is prototokos (4416). It can have two meanings. (a) It can mean literally first-born. If it is used in this sense, the reference must be to the Resurrection. Through his Resurrection Jesus gained a victory over death, which all who believe in him may share. (b) Since the first-born was the son who inherited his father's honour and power, prototokos (4416) comes to mean one with power and honour, one who occupies the first place, a prince among men. When Paul speaks of Jesus as the first-born of all creation (Col 1:15), he means that to him the first place of honour and glory belongs. If we take the word in this sense--and probably we should--it means that Jesus is Lord of the dead as he is Lord of the living. There is no part of the universe, in this world or in the world to come, and nothing in life or in death of which Jesus Christ is not Lord.

(iii) He is the ruler of kings on earth. There are two things to note here. (a) This is a reminiscence of Psa 89:27"I will make him the first-born, the highest of the kings of the earth." That was always taken by Jewish scholars to be a description of the coming Messiah; and, therefore, to say that Jesus is the ruler of kings on earth is to claim that he is the Messiah. (b) Swete very beautifully points out the connection between this title of Jesus and the temptation story. In that story the devil took Jesus up into a high mountain and showed him all the kingdoms of the earth and their glory and said: "All these I will give you, if you will fall down and worship me" (Mat 4:8-9; Luk 4:6-7). It was the devil's claim that the kingdoms of the earth were delivered into his power (Luk 4:6); and it was his suggestion that, if Jesus would strike a bargain with him, he would give him a share in them. The amazing thing is that what the devil promised Jesus--and could never have given him--Jesus won for himself by the suffering of the Cross and the power of the Resurrection. Not compromise with evil, but the unswerving loyalty and the unfailing love which accepted the Cross brought Jesus his universal lordship.

Barclay: Rev 1:4-6

Few passages set down with such splendour what Jesus did for men.

(i) He loves us and he set us free from our sins at the cost of his own blood. The King James Version is in error here. It reads: "Unto him that loved us and washed us from our sins in his own blood." The words "to wash" and "to set free" are in Greek very alike. "To wash" is louein (3068); "to set free" is luein (3089); and they are pronounced exactly in the same way. But there is no doubt that the oldest and best Greek manuscripts read luein (3089). Again "in his own blood" is a mistranslation. The word translated "in" is en (1722) which, indeed, can mean "in"; but here it is a translation of the Hebrew word "be-" (the e is pronounced very short as in "the"), which means "at the price of."

What Jesus did, as John sees it, is that he freed us from our sins at the cost of his own blood. This is exactly what he says later on when he speaks of those who were ransomed for God by the blood of the Lamb (Rev 5:9). It is exactly what Paul meant when he spoke of us being redeemed from the curse of the Law (Gal 3:13); and when he spoke of redeeming those who were under the Law (Gal 4:5). In both cases the word used is exagorazein (1805), which means to buy out from, to pay the price of buying a person or a thing out of the possession of him who holds that person or thing in his power.

This is a very interesting and important correction of the King James Version. It is made in all the newer translations and it means that the well-worn phrases which speak of being "washed in the blood of the Lamb" have little scriptural authority. These phrases convey a staggering picture; and it must come to many with a certain relief to know that what John said was that we are set free from our sins at the cost of the blood, that is, at the cost of the life of Jesus Christ.

There is another very significant thing here. We must carefully note the tenses of the verbs. John says that Jesus loves us and set us free. Loves is the present tense and it means that the love of God in Christ Jesus is something which is continuous. Set us free is the past tense, the Greek aorist, which tells of one act completed in the past and it means that in the one act of the Cross our liberation from sin was achieved. That is to say, what happened on the Cross was one availing act in time which was an expression of the continuous love of God.

(ii) Jesus made us a kingdom, priests to God. That is a quotation of Exo 19:6"You shall be to me a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation." Jesus has done two things for us.

(a) He has given us royalty. Through him we may become the true sons of God; and, if we are sons of the King of kings, we are of lineage than which there can be none more royal.

(b) He made us priests. The point is this. Under the old way, only the priest had the right of access to God. When a Jew entered the Temple, he could pass through the Court of the Gentiles, the Court of the Women, the Court of the Israelites--but there he must stop; into the Court of the Priests he could not go; no nearer the Holy of Holies could he come. In the vision of the great days to come Isaiah said: "You shall be called the priests of the Lord" (Isa 61:6). In that day every one of the people would be a priest and have access to God. That is what John means; because of what Jesus Christ did access to the presence of God is now open to every man. There is a priesthood of all believers. We can come boldly to the throne of grace (Heb 4:16), because for us there is a new and living way into the presence of God (Heb 10:19-22).

Constable: Rev 1:1-4

A. The Agent of God's Final Revelation 1:1-4

The writer began his epistle with an affirmation of Jesus Christ's greatness to introduce his readers to his subject. This section is one sentence in the Greek text. It contrasts God's old revelation with the new, specifically by presenting God's Son as superior to all other previous modes of revelation.

"It would be misleading to think of vv. 1-4 as stating a thesis to be proved, or as giving a précis of the following argument. The author proceeds rather by an interweaving of themes, as in musical composition."²⁰

"The literary structure of the exordium [vv. 1-4] exhibits a concentric symmetry (A [vv. 1-2a] B [v. 2b] C [v. 2c] C' [v. 3a-b] B' [v. 3c] A' [v. 4]): the conceptual correspondence of vv 1 and 4 serves to frame the several statements concerning the Son in vv 2 and 3 . . ."

"The core of the exordium (B C C' B') describes Jesus in an arresting way as the royal Son, divine Wisdom, and the royal Priest."²¹

1:1-2a "It is significant that the subject of the first verb is God,' for God is constantly before the author; he uses the word sixty-eight times, an average of about once every seventy-three words all through his epistle. Few NT books speak of God so often."²²

God gave many revelations of Himself to Old Testament believers, "fathers" being a shorthand way of referring to them (cf. v. 2).²³ He did so in many periods of history. He did this by various means and in various ways ("in many portions and in many ways"). For example, His means included visions, dreams, and face to face communication (cf. Num. 12:6-8). His ways included supernatural interventions into history as well as natural phenomena such as storms, plagues, and other historical events. They also included people, namely, the prophets, through whom He spoke (cf. 2 Tim. 3:16; 2 Pet. 1:21). The writer probably used the Greek words polymeros ("portions") and polytropos ("ways") partially for their alliterative value.

God's most recent revelation had come through His own Son. The writer was not denying divine revelation to the apostles. He was stressing the culminating character of God's revelation in Jesus Christ compared with what He had given the Old Testament prophets. His statement establishes the fact of progressive revelation and strongly suggests the cessation of revelation in the apostolic age.²⁴ Man has not taken the initiative to discover God, but God has taken the initiative to reveal Himself to man.

The translators have supplied the word "His" (v. 2a). Its absence in the original text stresses the character of "Son" as a vehicle of revelation. God's own Son is a superior revelation compared to "the prophets" (v. 1). There are seven references to Jesus Christ as the Son in Hebrews (1:2, 5, 8; 3:6; 4:14; 5:8; 6:6; 7:28; 10:29) plus others in some of the Old Testament passages the writer quoted.²⁵

1:2b-3 Seven facts in these verses stress the Son's unique greatness and the culminating character of His revelation. For the writer's original Jewish readers the number seven connoted a complete work of God, as in the Creation.

1. He is the "heir of all things." All things will fall under His authority. The writer introduced the concept of inheritance here and proceeded to develop it in this epistle (cf. Ps. 2:8; Heb. 2:5-9). The believer's inheritance is a major theme in Hebrews.

2. He "made the world" (Gr. aiones, lit. "ages," i.e., the whole created universe of time and space). The Son was God's agent in creation (John 1:3; Col. 1:16). He created both matter and history; both ideas are in view here.²⁶ However the emphasis is on the various dispensations through which the world has passed, is passing, and will pass.²⁷ Jesus Christ is not a created being, as Jehovah's Witnesses and some others claim. He is the Creator of all.

3. He is "the radiance of His glory." The Greek word apaugasma, translated "radiance," refers to what shines out from the source of light. Jesus Christ revealed the glory of God in a veiled way during His incarnation.

4. He is "the exact representation of His nature." The Greek word charakter, translated "representation," occurs only here in the New Testament. Greek writers used it to describe the emperor's picture on Roman coins. It did not express a general likeness but an exact duplication of its die. Jesus Christ let humankind know exactly what the nature of God, whom no one has seen, is like.

5. He "upholds all things by the word of His power" (i.e., His mighty, enabling word). The idea is not so much that Jesus upholds the universe as a dead weight similar to Atlas shouldering the world. Rather He carries all things forward (Gr. pheron) on their appointed course (Col. 1:17). Jesus Christ's word has tremendous power and authority. It is the greatest force in the universe (cf. Gen. 1:3; et al.).

6. He "made purification of sins" as no one else could. He did so by His self-sacrifice as a sin and trespass offering on the Cross and by His work as the ultimate priest. The Greek word katharismos, translated "purification," means both removal and cleansing (cf. Mark 1:44; 2 Pet. 1:9). "Sin" (hamartia) is a very common word in Hebrews occurring 25 times.²⁸

"Hebrews views sins and their remedy in cultic terms. The purification of sins by Christ's sacrifice is related, on the one hand, to the establishment of a new order of relationships between God and mankind, and on the other hand to obedience (10:1-18, especially vv. 8-10) and moral effort (12:1-4). Apart from passing references to adultery and the love of money (13:4f.), Hebrews says little about individual sins, and contains no list of vices comparable to Rom. 1:29-31; Gal. 5:19-21; or 1 Pet. 4:3. The fundamental sin for Hebrews is that of unfaithfulness to God, which may superficially appear as neglect or lassitude (amelesantes, 2:3; or nothroi, 5:11), but which in essence is rebellion against God's will, and more specifically apostasy (2:1-4; 3:7-19; 6:4-6; 10:26-31)."²⁹

7. He "sat down at the right hand of the Majesty on high" when He returned to heaven after His ascension. He took the choice place of honor and authority in relation to God the Father (cf. Eph. 4:10; Phil. 2:9; Luke 22:69). Here the writer introduced his key text, Psalm 110, which he proceeded to elaborate on in the chapters to follow.

Note that the writer referred to the place where Jesus now sits ruling as the Father's right hand in heaven. This is not the same as the Davidic throne, which will be on earth in the future (Isa. 9:6-7; Dan. 2:44; 7:13-14; et al.). Jesus will begin His rule over Israel on earth as the Davidic Messiah after He returns to the earth at His second advent (Rev. 20:1-6). Presently He rules over the church and the angelic host in heaven (Eph. 4:15; Col. 1:18; 2:10).³⁰

"The concept of enthronement at God's right hand would convey to contemporaries an impression of the Son's royal power and unparalleled glory."³¹

Each one of these seven actions points to the full deity of Jesus Christ. The original Jewish audience faced with temptation to abandon discipleship of Jesus for return to Judaism received a strong reminder of His deity at the very outset of this epistle. The writer also presented Him as Creator, Prophet, Priest, and King.

1:4 These seven facts also reveal clearly the Son's superiority to any other of God's messengers, even the angels. This superiority is clear too in the fact that His name is Son (singular) rather than sons (collectively). The Old Testament writers called angels sons of God (e.g., Job 2:1; 38:7). Jesus Christ "inherited" that name before creation (v. 2, cf. 5:8).

This is the first of the writer's 13 uses of the word "better" (Gr. kreitton) all of which contrast Jesus Christ and His order with what preceded Him (6:9; 7:7, 19, 22; 8:6 [twice]; 9:23; 10:34; 11:16, 35, 40; 12:24).³² The writer used many comparatives (e.g., "more excellent," "lesser," "better," "more," "greater," et al.) to support his argument that the new Christian order is superior to the old Jewish order.³³ This is also the first "signpost passage" in which a brief statement (in this case "much better than the angels") identifies a main subject the writer planned to develop (cf. 2:17; 5:9-10; 10:36-39; 12:11?).³⁴ "Angel" (Gr. angelos) is another of this writer's favorite words. It, too, appears 13 times in Hebrews.

"Opinions differ as to what is meant here by the name.' Some take this to mean that in his whole character and personality Christ was superior to any angel. Others think the reference is simply to the name Son,' which is a better name than angel' because it denotes superiority in character and personality. Either interpretation is possible."³⁵

The writer introduced several concepts in the prologue that he developed more fully later. These include the distinctive quality of the Son's revelation, the superiority of His sacrifice, and His greatness compared with the angels.

The differences in the beginning of this epistle compared with the beginnings of other New Testament epistles are striking. There is no introduction of the writer, no mention of the original readers, and no benediction, all of which were common features of letters in the first century. These omissions make the introduction even more striking. The writer obviously wanted his readers to give their full attention to the greatness of Jesus Christ. Some students of Hebrews have concluded that the writer did not identify himself or his readers because he wanted to make Jesus Christ primary in the readers' thinking throughout this epistle. I think this is very likely.

"In 1:1-4 the writer gave christological precision to a cluster of ideas derived from hellenistic Judaism. He boldly applied the categories of Wisdom to a historical figure, Jesus. The writer to the Hebrews was a creative theologian who brought together wisdom motifs and priestly motifs in a tightly formulated statement concerning the dignity and achievement of the Son of God. The opening paragraph establishes a firm christological foundation for all that the writer has to say concerning the character and demands of the revelation mediated by the Son. The joining together of wisdom and priestly notes in the carefully orchestrated presentation of the Son provides the readers with the assurance of Jesus' sustained concern for them and his ability to strengthen and vindicate the people of God when they become objects of contempt in a hostile world."³⁶

Constable: Rev 1:1-20

I. THE PREPARATION of the prophet ch. 1

The first chapter contains a prologue to the book, which is similar to the one in John 1:1-18, the prologue to John's Gospel (cf. 1 John 1:1-4). It also relates a vision that God gave John that prepared him for what follows. This presentation has the effect of showing that Jesus Christ is the culminating figure in human history (cf. Heb. 1), and it prepares the reader for the revelation of His future acts that constitutes the bulk of this book.

Constable: Rev 1:1-3

1. The preface 1:1-3

The Apostle John wrote these opening verses to introduce to his readers the main subject dealt with in this book and his purpose for writing it.

1:1 "The revelation of Jesus Christ" is the subject of this book. "Revelation" means unveiling or disclosure and is a translation of the Greek word apokalypsis the transliteration of which is an alternative title for the book (i.e., the Apocalypse). Jesus Christ was the giver of this revelation (cf. Matt. 11:27; John 1:18; 5:19-23; 12:49; 17:8), and He is its main subject.⁹

"It will be vain to become occupied with sevens,' hundred-forty-four-thousands,' six-sixty-sixes,' the restoration of the Roman Empire, the person of the antichrist, the two wild beasts, the millennium,' or even the new Jerusalem; unless, along with God the Father, who has subjected all things unto Him, Christ is ever before our eyes!"¹⁰

God wanted the bond-servants of Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 2:18; 22:6) to have this revelation of things that will happen soon.

"If we are having difficulty with this blessed closing book of God's holy Word, let us surrender ourselves to Jesus Christ as His servants. The book was written to bondservants."¹¹

The idea behind the Greek words translated "shortly" (en tachei) is probably that the events to be revealed will appear soon rather than speedily.

". . . the view that sees en tachei meaning soon' and thereby focuses on the imminence of the predicted events is impressive. A major thrust of Revelation is its emphasis upon the shortness of time before the fulfillment. In the midst of persecution God's people do not have long to wait for relief to come. To say that the relief will come suddenly' offers no encouragement, but to say that it will come soon' does. . . .

"The presence of en tachei in 1:1 shows that for the first time the events predicted by Daniel and foreseen by Christ stood in readiness to be fulfilled. Therefore, John could speak of them as imminent, but earlier prophets could not."¹²

There are many similarities between how John wrote Revelation and how Daniel wrote the book that bears his name. Both prophecies deal with God's sovereign rule over the world.

Jesus Christ communicated this revelation to an angel (Gabriel? cf. Dan. 8:16; 9:21-22; Luke 1:26-31) who passed it on to the Apostle John.¹³ John used the traditional title of bond-servant (slave) to describe his relationship to Jesus Christ as did all the other apostles (cf. Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1; James 1:1; 2 Peter 1:1; Jude 1).

1:2 Forty-four times in this book John wrote "I saw" (1:12-13; 4:1, 4; 5:1, 2, 6, 11; 6:1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12; 7:1, 2, 9; 8:2, 13; 9:1, 17; 10:1; 13:1, 3, 11; 14:1, 6, 14; 15:1, 2, 5; 16:13; 17:3; 18:1; 19:11, 17, 19; 20:1, 4, 11, 12; 21:1, 2, 8). He saw many things and passed this revelation ("all that he saw") on to the church. By the time the original recipients of this book had read it, the visions that he had seen, which the book describes, were in the past. John regarded the book as an inspired word from God, specifically from Jesus Christ (cf. v. 1).

"No other book in the Bible is so strongly supported as to its divine inspiration."¹⁴

The "word of God" may refer to God the Father's word to Jesus Christ. "The testimony of Jesus" probably refers to the Lord Jesus' faithful communication of God's word to John who passed it on to his readers.

Verses 1 and 2 summarize the contents of the Book of Revelation and present them as testimony that Jesus Christ bore.

1:3 Those who read, hear, and obey this prophecy will receive a special blessing from God. John put himself on a par with the Old Testament prophets (cf. 10:8-11) and distinguished this book from Jewish apocalyptic literature.¹⁵ This is the first of seven blessings that John mentioned in Revelation (14:13; 16:15; 19:9; 20:6; 22:7, 14; cf. Luke 11:28).¹⁶ The Greek word translated "time" (kairos) describes a period of time rather than a point in time. The time when God will fulfill these prophecies was "near" when John wrote this book. "Near" is the translation of the Greek word eggus meaning at hand. It means relatively near in God's timetable in which a thousand years are as a day (2 Pet. 3:8).

"A revelation' of the end of history is given not for the satisfaction of curiosity, but to inspire living in accordance with the reality unveiled."¹⁷

Constable: Rev 1:4-6

2. The address and doxology 1:4-6

"As is true of NT epistles in general, the address of Revelation contains three elements: the writer, the addressees, and the greeting."¹⁸

1:4 John sent this letter to the seven churches mentioned in chapters 2 and 3, which were in the Roman province of Asia.¹⁹ The province of Asia lay in Asia Minor (modern western Turkey).

Since this book deals mainly with future events, John described the divine Author as God (the Father) who is, was, and is to come. This title occurs nowhere else in the Bible except in Revelation (4:8; cf. 11:17; 16:5; Exod. 3:14-15). This description stresses the continuity of God's dealings with humankind.

The phrase "seven Spirits" probably refers to seven principle angelic messengers (cf. v. 20; 8:2, 6; 15:1; 1 Kings 22:19-21; Heb. 1:14).²⁰ Another view is that the phrase refers to the Holy Spirit (cf. Isa. 11:2-3).²¹ If so, this title fills out a reference to the Trinity in this sentence (cf. 3:1, 4:5; and 5:6).

1:5 John described Jesus Christ as the "faithful witness (cf. 3:14; Ps. 89:37)."²²

"Jesus Christ is of the seed of David and will sit on the Davidic throne that will endure forever as the sun (Ps. 89:16)."²³

"Faithful witness" is Jesus Christ's present ministry of revealing what follows. John also called Him the "first-born from the dead" (cf. Ps. 89:27; Acts 2:29-32; 4:2; 26:23; Rom. 1:4; 1 Cor. 15:23). This title looks at the culmination of His past ministry when God raised Him to new life at His resurrection. He also referred to Him as the "ruler of the kings of the earth" (Ps. 89:27) That is His future ministry following His second coming (Matt. 2:6). The New Testament speaks much of believers entering into their rights as first-born sons of God and ruling with Jesus Christ in His millennial kingdom. This will be the privilege of faithful, obedient Christians (cf. 2 Tim. 2:12).²⁴

". . . the origination of all three expressions from Psalm 89 reflects a major authorial intent to direct attention to the fulfillment of the promises made to David regarding an eternal kingdom in 2 Samuel 7."²⁵

John ascribed eternal glory and dominion to Jesus Christ who is the subject and object of this revelation. He described Him as the One who always loves us and who loosed us from the bondage of our sins by His death.²⁶

1:6 Jesus Christ also has made us a kingdom (corporately) and priests (individually; cf. 5:10; 20:6; Exod. 19:6; Isa. 61:6; 1 Pet. 2:5, 9) to His God and Father, another evidence of His present love for us.²⁷ We are such now, but in the future faithful Christians, His bond-servants, will also reign with Jesus Christ on the earth (cf. 5:10).

"Amen" means "So be it!" Here it signifies the writer's assent to the truthfulness of these affirmations about Jesus Christ (cf. 1:7; 5:14; 7:12 [twice]; 19:4; 22:20)

It is interesting that John, the apostle of love, would emphasize God's love in this first doxology as the dominating divine emotion (cf. Deut. 4:37).

College: Rev 1:1-20

REVELATION 1

I. PROLOGUE (1:1-20)

Revelation begins with a Prologue (1:1-20) in which John relates how the risen Christ appeared to him on the island of Patmos, bringing an apocalyptic vision of the present and future. In describing this vision, John organizes the book according to the standard first century Hellenistic letter form. For further discussion of the Structure of Revelation, see Part V of the Introduction.

A. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROPHECY (1:1-3)

¹ The revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him to show his servants what must soon take place. He made it known by sending his angel to his servant John, ² who testifies to everything he saw-that is, the word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ. ³ Blessed is the one who reads the words of this prophecy, and blessed are those who hear it and take to heart what is written in it, because the time is near.

1:1 The revelation of Jesus Christ

The author's title for his book is "The Revelation of Jesus Christ." Old Testament prophets place similar titles at the beginning of their writings. By imitating such men, John places himself in their company as an authoritative spokesman for God. He describes Revelation as "words of prophecy" in 1:3 and himself as a "brother of the prophets" in 22:9.

In the first words of the book, John tells us the nature of his prophecy. It is a "revelation" (ajpokavluyi" , apokalypsis ), which was a recognized type of literature most popular from the second century B.C. through the second century A.D. Apocalyptic writings reflect a certain type of theology, or understanding of God and his dealings with the world. They communicate that theology in a distinctive manner by, for example, making heavy use of symbolism. They also focus on the future - on "what must soon take place" as God moves human history toward the goal of his kingdom rule. The Revelation of John probably represents the first Christian adaptation of the apocalyptic form. For a detailed discussion of these matters, see Parts I and III of the Introduction.

In Greek, the initial phrase (ajpokavluyi" =Ihsou' Cristou' , apokalypsis Içsou Christou ) may mean either "the revelation about Jesus Christ" (genitive of description) or "the revelation from Jesus Christ" (ablative of source). John probably means it in the second sense because the rest of verse 1 focuses on the source of John's apocalyptic prophecy.

which God gave him [i.e., Jesus] to show his servants what must soon take place. He made it known by sending his angel to his servant John,

Ultimately the message comes from God, but notice the chain of revelation involved: God gives the revelation to Jesus, who passes it on to an angel, who delivers it to John, who communicates it to the churches ("his servants"). John plays the role of a "servant" prophet, who brings a revelation from God to others. An angel is involved, but John does not seem to place as much importance on the mediating role of angels as do other apocalyptists. In this book, Jesus often bypasses the angel and speaks to John directly.

In the chain of revelation, Jesus stands between God and his creation. John's Apocalypse is theocentric, or "God-centered." The book reveals what God says and what God does, but Jesus is the one through whom God speaks and through whom God carries out his will. John emphasizes this mediating role of Jesus throughout the book.

He made it known

The Greek term translated "made known" is shmaivnw (sçmainô ), which is the verb form of the noun shmei'on (sçmeion ). A sçmeion is a "sign" that points beyond itself to some deeper reality, some deeper truth. For example, a traffic sign picturing a truck on a steep grade points beyond itself to a real hill. In the same way, the Gospel of John describes a number of miraculous "signs" (sçmeion ) performed by Jesus. The healing of the man born blind (John 9) points beyond the miracle itself to the truth that Jesus is "the light of the world." The resuscitation of Lazarus (John 11) points to Jesus as "the resurrection and the life."

John says that the Revelation was "signed" to him. If we view John's kaleidoscope of symbols only on the surface, then we miss a major portion of what the Lord intends to "reveal" to us. Revelation was never meant to be read literally - it is an apocalypse . The symbols point beyond themselves to deeper realities. We will try to uncover those truths as we work our way through the book.

1:2 who testifies to everything he saw-

In contrast to many Old Testament prophets who heard the word of the Lord, the revelation to John was largely an optical experience - an apocalyptic vision . As G.B. Caird writes, "Much of the New Testament is written for those who have ears to hear, but this book is written for those who have eyes to see."

that is, the word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ.

Since the Revelation comes ultimately from God through his mediator Christ (see above), John calls it "the word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ." The fact that John shares "the word of God," rather than the word of a mere human being, is extremely significant. We humans may say, "Let this pig sprout wings and fly," but our speaking the words will not make it happen. However, when the sovereign God speaks a word, then whatever he says is done. This is called "performance language" - language that accomplishes what it says. We see it, for example, in Genesis 1:3, where "God said, 'Let there be light,' and there was light." The same idea appears in Isaiah 55:10-11:

As the rain and the snow

come down from heaven,

and do not return to it

without watering the earth

and making it bud and flourish,

so that it yields seed for the sower and bread for the eater,

so is my word that goes out from my mouth:

It will not return to me empty,

but will accomplish what I desire

and achieve the purpose for which I sent it.

Jesus is called "the Word of God" (e.g., in John 1) because he "performs" or accomplishes God's will. In like manner, John calls Revelation "the word of God," which means that what God says in this book concerning the present and the future is reality. It will be accomplished.

1:3 Blessed is the one who reads the words of this prophecy, and blessed are those who hear it and take to heart what is written in it, because the time is near.

John expects the Revelation to be read aloud in the churches' assemblies (compare 1 Tim 4:13), just as the Jewish Scriptures were read aloud in the synagogues (see Acts 13:15). So he prays a blessing - a good gift from God - on "the one who reads," the one who shares God's word with others. The prophet also pronounces a blessing not on those who merely "hear" the word, but on those who "hear it and take [it] to heart ." Those who allow the Revelation to penetrate their minds and hearts so that it reshapes their lives - they are the ones who will be blessed.

Reader, this blessing is available for you as the time of Christ's return grows "near." However, the verse also contains an implicit warning - a warning that the person who refuses to hear, who refuses to act on God's word, will not be blessed.

B. SENDER (1:4a)

1:4 John,

The author identifies himself simply as "John." The Early Church Fathers provide significant evidence - but not conclusive evidence - that the author is John the son of Zebedee, one of the original Twelve Apostles of Jesus. For a more detailed discussion of authorship, see Parts IV.A.1 and IV.B.1 of the Introduction.

C. RECIPIENTS (1:4b)

To the seven churches in the province of Asia:

In verse 4 John addresses the Apocalypse "to the seven churches in the province of Asia." The Roman province of Asia made up the western third of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). In verse 11, John locates the seven churches in the cities of "Ephesus [the provincial capital], Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea." The Revelation may be intended for these seven congregations alone. However, since "seven" often symbolizes "completeness" in apocalyptic literature, the seven churches of Asia probably represent the entire body of Christian believers in that part of the Roman world. For further discussion of the recipients and their circumstances, see Part IV of the Introduction, along with the Commentary on Revelation 2-3.

D. PRESCRIPT (1:4c-5a)

Grace and peace to you from him who is, and who was, and who is to come, and from the seven spirits before his throne, ^{a 5} and from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth.

^a 4 Or the sevenfold Spirit

1:4c Grace and peace to you

"Grace" (cavri" , charis ) was the common greeting used by Greeks or Gentiles (non-Jews) in the first-century Roman world. The term meant "goodwill," so the greeting was simply a way of expressing positive feelings toward another person. In Christian circles, however, "grace" took on added meaning as the "goodwill" God has shown toward sinners, particularly by sending Christ to die as the sacrifice for sins (see, e.g., Rom 5:1-2; Eph 2:8). In a culture where the deities were often seen as wrathful gods, who must be constantly appeased through sacrifice, the message that God actually had "goodwill" toward his creatures was "good news" or "gospel" (eujaggevlion , euangelion ).

"Peace" (Greek, eijrhvnh [eirçnç ], Hebrew, shalom ) was the common greeting used by Jews. In Christian circles, the word became a technical term for the peaceful reconciliation to God and to one another that believers enjoy through the cross of Christ (see, e.g., Rom 5:1; Eph 4:3).

Combining "grace" and "peace" creates a universal greeting that takes in both Jews and Gentiles. In this greeting, the threefold God (see below) offers "grace and peace" to the entire world - to "every nation, tribe, people and language" (see Rev 7:9).

from him who is, and who was, and who is to come,

John describes God, both here and in verse 8, as "him who is, and who was, and who is to come." On one level, the author is simply saying that God is eternal - that he has always existed and will always exist, that he has no beginning and no end. Greeks would affirm the same about their gods. For example, Pausanias writes, "Zeus was, Zeus is, Zeus shall be; O mighty (megavlh , megalç ) Zeus." In this way, he expresses the god's eternity and immutability.

Yet John has more in mind than God's eternal existence . John's God is a God who also acts - he will "come." The prophet is thinking within his apocalyptic framework: God "was" - that is, he existed prior to "the beginning," when he acted to "create the heavens and the earth" (see Gen 1:1). God "is" - that is, he has continued to be alive and present during world history, when Adam's sin launched the "present evil age," but God acted through Christ to redeem his fallen creation. God will one day "come," in the person of Christ, to consummate his eternal kingdom. God's being and his actions embrace all of time and eternity. He shapes all and he directs all.

John communicates similar truths about God in verse 8, where the Lord calls himself "the Alpha and the Omega" and "the Almighty." Alpha and Omega are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet. (The English equivalent would be for the Lord to say, "I am the A and the Z.") The fuller formula appears in Revelation 22:13 (cf. 21:6):

I am the Alpha and the Omega,

the First and the Last,

the Beginning and the End.

God is our "Alpha and Omega," our "First and Last," our "Beginning and End," in the sense that he gives his creation both its origin (creation) and its goal (God's kingdom).

The Greek term translated "the Almighty" is pantokravtwr (pantokratôr ), a combination of pa'" ( pas , "all") and kratevw (krateô , "power"). God is "all powerful" or "almighty" in the sense that he holds ultimate power over all of creation for all of time and eternity. You exist right now, at this moment, reading this commentary, only because God - right now - actively wills it and sustains his creation! And what is the attitude of this God toward us - this God "who is, and who was, and who is to come," the "Alpha and the Omega," the "Almighty"? In verse 4 he wishes all nations "grace and peace."

and from the seven spirits before his throne,

The same greeting comes "from the seven spirits before his throne." Here in Revelation 1:4 (and again in 3:1) John speaks of "seven spirits" - that is, the Spirit of God in his fullness and completeness.

In 4:5 he writes: "Before the throne, seven lamps were blazing. These are the seven spirits of God." John uses seven lamps as a symbol for the sevenfold Spirit of God - that is, the Spirit of God in his fullness as one who "enlightens" like a lamp.

In 5:6 John speaks of Jesus' having "seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth." The "horn" is an ancient symbol for power. Picturing God's Spirit as "seven horns" speaks of his omnipotence, or his having all power. Portraying God's Spirit as "seven eyes . . . sent out into all the earth" speaks of his omniscience, his being all seeing and all knowing.

Much of this symbolism echoes Zechariah 4, where the prophet speaks of the Holy Spirit (v. 6) in the context of a lampstand with seven lights (v. 2) that represent the seven "eyes of the Lord which range throughout the earth" (v. 10). When we view John's Spirit imagery as a whole, it becomes clear that the "seven spirits" in Revelation 1:4 symbolize God the Holy Spirit, in the fullness of his omniscience and omnipotence, present and active throughout all the earth.

1:5 and from Jesus Christ,

Finally, the greeting of "grace and peace" comes to the readers "from Jesus," whom John identifies as the "Christ." This title has its roots in a long series of Old Testament promises regarding the Messiah as a descendant of David the king. John refers to these promises again and again in his Apocalypse. In order to gain the necessary scriptural background for understanding Revelation, we will examine several key texts.

The foundational passage appears in 2 Samuel, chapter 7. At this point in his life, David has conquered his enemies and his kingdom is secure. So David decides that he wants to build a great house, a great temple for the Lord. However, God has other plans. He speaks to David through the prophet Nathan and says, "No, you will not build me a house. Instead, I will build you a house." Yet God is not thinking of a house of wood or stone. He intends to build for David a royal "house," a kingly dynasty:

^' The LORD declares to you that the LORD himself will establish a house for you: When your days are over and you rest with your fathers, I will raise up your offspring to succeed you, who will come from your body, and I will establish his kingdom. He is the one who will build a house for my Name, and I will establish the throne of his kingdom forever (2 Sam 7:11b-13).

Solomon was the particular "offspring" of David who built a temple at Jerusalem, but the Lord's words do not concern Solomon alone. God also promises to establish a royal "house," or dynasty of kings descended from David through Solomon. Since they are blood descendants of David, we refer to these rulers as "Davidic kings." The Lord describes how he will treat Solomon and the other Davidic kings in verses 14-16:

I will be his father, and he will be my son. When he does wrong, I will punish him with the rod of men, with floggings inflicted by men. But my love will never be taken away from him, as I took it away from Saul, whom I removed from before you. Your house and your kingdom will endure forever before me; your throne will be established forever.

This prophecy contains several specific promises of great importance: First, in verse 12 God says he will "raise up" David's "offspring" - blood descendants who will come from David's "own body." Each Davidic king will be, then, a "son of David." Second, in verse 14 God promises: "I will be his father, and he will be my son." Each king descended from David will be a "son of God," receiving his heavenly "Father's" love and (if necessary) his discipline. In contrast to other ancient Near Eastern peoples who considered their kings to be literal blood descendants of gods, we will see that the Jewish people considered kings from David's line to be adopted "sons of God." Third, verses 12, 13, and 18 say that these "sons of God," these descendants of David, will rule as kings and their kingdom will never end.

These divine promises shaped the way that the Jewish people viewed David and his heirs for centuries. One place we see that influence is in the Book of Psalms. The Psalter served as the "hymnbook" for the Jewish people. The songs it contains were used in their worship services at the temple and elsewhere. Some of these songs are called "Royal Psalms" because they were sung at the coronation ceremonies when David's descendants were placed on the Jewish throne at Jerusalem. They include Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 72, 101, 110, and perhaps others. We will briefly examine three such Psalms, beginning with Psalm 2.

King David and some of his heirs conquered their Gentile neighbors (e.g., the Moabites and Ammonites) and compelled them to pay tribute or provide forced labor for the Jewish kingdom. When a Davidic king died and his son took the throne, these surrounding nations hoped for a weak ruler so that they could break free from his influence. Psalm 2 warns subject peoples against such rebellion. The first part of the Psalm was sung by the people or the worship leaders:

Why do the nations conspire / and the peoples plot in vain? / The kings of the earth take their stand / and the rulers gather together / against the LORD [i.e., God] / and against his Anointed One [i.e., the Davidic king]. / "Let us break their chains," they say, / "and throw off their fetters."

The One enthroned in heaven laughs; / the Lord scoffs at them. / Then he rebukes them in his anger / and terrifies them in his wrath, saying, / "I have installed my king / on Zion, my holy hill [a reference to the Jews's capital city, Jerusalem, which King David established on a hill called 'Zion']."

At this point in the coronation service, the newly-crowned Davidic king stepped forward and sang:

I will proclaim the decree of the LORD: / He said to me, "You are my Son; / today I have become your Father. / Ask of me, / and I will make the nations your inheritance, / the ends of the earth your possession. / You will rule them with an iron scepter; / you will dash them to pieces like pottery."

And then the people joined in again:

Therefore, you kings, be wise; / be warned, you rulers of the earth. / Serve the LORD with fear / and rejoice with trembling. / Kiss the Son, lest he be angry / and you be destroyed in your way, / for his wrath can flare up in a moment. / Blessed are all who take refuge in him.

This "Royal Psalm" offers several important insights concerning the Jews' understanding of David's dynasty: First, in verse 2, the Davidic king is called the Lord's "Anointed One." At his coronation, the Jewish king was anointed with oil as a symbol of God's setting him apart for a special work. The oil represented the Holy Spirit, whom God would send upon the king in order to empower him to carry out his duties as ruler and shepherd of God's people. The Hebrew word here translated "anointed one" is "messiah." The Greek equivalent is "christ." All the Davidic kings were called "the Lord's anointed one" or "messiah" or "christ" for this reason.

Second, the Psalm refers to the Davidic king as God's "son." In verse 7 the king says: "I will proclaim the decree of the LORD: He said to me, 'You are my Son.'" This proclamation of divine sonship simply repeats the promise of 2 Samuel 7:14, where God says to David: "I will be his father, and he will be my son." Notice that the Davidic king was not considered to be the "son of God" from birth. The Lord says, "Today" - that is, on this coronation day - "I have become your Father." The Jews viewed the Davidic king as the adopted "son of God" - adopted on the day he took the throne.

Third, God gives his "son," the Davidic king, authority to rule over the "nations." The Greek word rendered "nations" is e[qnh (ethnç ), from which we get the English term "ethnic groups." In the Bible, the word is often translated "Gentiles." Jews tended to think of themselves as God's covenant people and all other ethnic groups as outsiders - as the other "nations." Therefore the term "nations" or "Gentiles" refers to non-Jews. Psalm 2 shows that God had made the king descended from David ruler - at least in theory - over not only Israel, but over all other nations as well. "Ask of me, and I will make the nations your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession."

Psalm 110, another "Royal Psalm," also sheds light on the Jewish understanding of the Davidic kings. For our purposes, we will examine only verse 1:

The LORD [i.e., God ( Yahweh in Hebrew or kyrios in the Greek Septuagint)] says to my Lord [i.e., the Davidic King ( adonai in Hebrew or kyrios in Greek )]: "Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet."

Note, first of all, that God seats the Davidic king at his right hand, the place of the second in command under the king. God allows David's heir to rule over all nations as God's "vicar," God's representative, God's "right hand man." Note also that, in the Greek version used by most early Christians, both God and the Davidic King are called "Lord" ( kyrios ). Using the same title for the earthly ruler that is used for the heavenly ruler shows that the Davidic king bears the authority of God himself. How long will the Davidic king reign? Until God makes his enemies "a footstool for his feet" - until God subdues them all, bringing them under his "son's" kingly authority.

Psalm 72 - another "Royal Psalm" - contains many of the same ideas described above. For example, the author calls the Davidic king "the royal son" ( v. 1) and declares that "all nations will serve him" ( v. 11). However, verse 17 introduces a new concept: "All nations will be blessed through him, and they will call him blessed." The Psalmist here identifies the Davidic king as the one through whom God's promise to Abraham would be fulfilled: ". . . all peoples on earth will be blessed through you" (Gen 12:3).

We have seen that God's promises to David in 2 Samuel 7, together with the "Royal Psalms" that interpret those promises, describe the Davidic kings as persons "raised up" by God; offspring or descendants of David; and kings who sit at the right hand of God, ruling over all nations in a kingdom that lasts forever. They are "lords" who exercise the authority of God himself. They are "anointed ones" - "messiahs" or "christs" - on whom God's Spirit rests. Finally, they are adopted "sons of God," whom the Deity treats as his own and disciplines as needed. These promises form the beginnings and foundation of the Jewish expectation of " the Messiah" - the hope that one of David's descendants would not require God's discipline, but would fully realize his promise of a universal kingdom under a godly ruler.

There were many descendants of David, and many of them ruled over Israel, and many of them fulfilled the biblical promises - or fit the description of the "messiah" - to one extent or another. However, the first Christians saw for themselves that there is only one descendant of David who fulfills these promises completely - namely, Jesus of Nazareth. Jesus "full-fills" the Scriptures both in the sense of accomplishing what the biblical writers predict and also in the sense of "filling" the words of Scripture "full" of new meaning not grasped before his coming. In light of what Jesus said and did, the early Christians gained a new understanding of the Old Testament prophecies.

For example, they knew that Jesus was born to Mary, a descendant of David, and belonged to the family of Joseph, also a descendant of David. On both counts, Jesus was a "son of David" and a possible heir to David's throne (see the genealogies in Matt 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-37).

Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit of God and born to the virgin Mary, so that he lacked a human father (see Matt 1:18-25; Luke 1:26-35). This made him Deity, the "Son of God" in a fuller sense than any other Davidic king. Indwelt by the Spirit of God from his conception, Jesus was also the "Anointed One," the "Messiah," and the "Christ" in the deepest sense. His public anointing at his baptism simply confirmed this fact (see Matt 3:16-17; Luke 3:21-22).

The first disciples were present at the "Last Supper" when Jesus explained that his death on the cross would establish a "new covenant" offering eternal life to both Jews and Gentiles. This new covenant, based on faith in Christ as Lord, is the "blessing" for all nations promised to Abraham (see Gal 3:6-9).

The first Christians were witnesses to Jesus' death and then to his victorious emergence from the tomb. Not only was this descendant of David "raised up" by God in history (2 Sam 7:12); he was "raised up" from the dead to eternal life.

The first disciples also saw Jesus ascend into heaven, where he sat down at the right hand of God and began ruling over all nations as God's representative (see, e.g., Acts 7:56 where Stephen saw Jesus at God's right hand as he was being stoned). In other words, Jesus inaugurated the kingdom of God - not a temporary, earthly, Jewish kingdom, but a kingdom that includes people from all nations and that lasts forever and ever.

In view of these experiences, it is no wonder that the first disciples called Jesus "Lord," which refers both to his deity and his kingly authority. It is no wonder that they called Jesus "the Anointed One," "the Messiah," "the Christ." It is no wonder that they called him the "Son of David" and the "Son of God." These titles are abbreviated ways of referring to the entire complex of ideas surrounding God's promises to David. They have a very specific meaning and content grounded in the Old Testament promises. When John calls Jesus the "Christ" in Revelation 1:5, he is identifying Jesus as the ultimate Davidic King.

Christ, who is the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth.

In these titles, John reflects language and imagery from Psalm 89 in order to communicate certain truths about Jesus. Concerning the Davidic king the Psalmist writes:

I will sing of the LORD's great love forever; / with my mouth I will make your faithfulness known through all generations. / I will declare that your love stands firm forever, / that you established your faithfulness in heaven itself. / You said, "I have made a covenant with my chosen one, / I have sworn to David my servant, / 'I will establish your line forever / and make your throne firm through all generations'" [a reference to the promises God gives to David in 2 Samuel 7]. . . .

Once you spoke in a vision, / to your faithful people you said: / "I have bestowed strength on a warrior; / I have exalted a young man from among the people. / I have found David my servant; / with my sacred oil I have anointed him. / My hand will sustain him; / surely my arm will strengthen him. / No enemy will subject him to tribute; / no wicked man will oppress him. / I will crush his foes before him / and strike down his adversaries. / My faithful love will be with him, / and through my name his horn will be exalted. / I will set his hand over the sea, / his right hand over the rivers. / He will call out to me, 'You are my Father, / my God, the Rock my Savior.' / I will also appoint him my firstborn, / the most exalted of the kings of the earth. / I will maintain my love to him forever, / and my covenant with him will never fail. / I will establish his line forever, his throne as long as the heavens endure.

"If his sons forsake my law / and do not follow my statutes, / if they violate my decrees / and fail to keep my commands, / I will punish their sin with the rod, / their iniquity with flogging; / but I will not take my love from him, / nor will I ever betray my faithfulness. / I will not violate my covenant / or alter what my lips have uttered. / Once for all, I have sworn by my holiness- / and I will not lie to David- / that his line will continue forever / and his throne endure before me like the sun; / it will be established forever like the moon, / the faithful witness in the sky" (vv. 1-4, 19-37).

In Revelation 1:5 John first calls Jesus the "Christ" (Greek) - that is, the "Messiah" (Hebrew) or "Anointed One" (English). The title "Christ" identifies Jesus as the one who fulfills God's promises to David regarding the king who rules over an eternal kingdom (see above). The idea of the "Christ" appears in Psalm 89:20, where the writer describes David himself as "anointed" with "sacred oil."

Second, Psalm 89:27 says that God will appoint David and his descendants "the most exalted of the kings of the earth." In very similar fashion, John calls Jesus "the ruler of the kings of the earth." In doing so, he again ties Jesus to the Davidic prophecies. He also exalts Christ over Caesar as the true Lord of all.

Third, Psalm 89:27 says that God will appoint the Davidic king his "firstborn" son, exalting him over the other "kings of the earth." John likewise calls Jesus "firstborn," but he alters the title slightly by referring to him as "the firstborn from the dead". He is the one whom God has "raised up" (2 Samuel 7:12) to eternal life as the first participant in the eschatological age, the inaugurator of the kingdom of God.

Finally, John introduces Jesus as "the faithful witness." The language comes from Psalm 89:37 (cf. Isa 55:3-4), where the moon is called "the faithful witness in the sky." John borrows this phrase from Scripture, but fills it with new content.

The Greek word here translated "witness" is mavrtu" ( martys ), the noun form of the verb marturevw (martyreô) . It means "one who gives testimony" as in a court of law. Jesus was a "witness" in the sense that he testified concerning who God is (Creator and Lord) and what he is doing in the world (establishing his eternal kingdom or rule). That witness resulted in his death (see, e.g., John 18:37; 1 Tim 6:13). Jesus was "faithful" in his "witness" even to the point of death. He is "the faithful witness."

The first readers of John's Apocalypse face similar circumstances. They are called to be "witnesses," to testify to the world that Jesus Christ - not the Roman Caesar - is the true King of kings and Lord of lords. The only way that John's readers are able to faithfully carry out that witness in the face of Roman emperor worship is by dying like Jesus did. Martys (from which we get the word "martyr") is on its way to becoming a technical term for Christians who die in the process of carrying out their witness to the Lord. John's readers, in many cases, are being called upon to follow in the footsteps of Jesus by dying because of their testimony to him. By calling Jesus "the faithful witness," John reminds his readers that Jesus is not asking them to do anything that he himself has not already done.

E. PROEM (1:5b-6)

To him who loves us and has freed us from our sins by his blood, ⁶ and has made us to be a kingdom and priests to serve his God and Father-to him be glory and power for ever and ever! Amen.

1:5b-6 In his proem, or word of praise to God, John describes what Christ has done for his people. First, he "loves us." The term translated "love" is ajgavph (agapç), which is the selfless, giving kind of love Christ commands his disciples to show to one another (see John 13:34-35), to their neighbors (see Matt 19:19), and even to their enemies (see Matt 5:44-48). How has Christ demonstrated his own agapç love for us? The Lord "has freed us from our sins by his blood" and given us a place in God's eternal "kingdom" (compare Rev 1:9). For further discussion of Christ's sacrificial death and its relationship to the coming kingdom of God, see Part III.B.2.c.(4) of the Introduction, as well as the discussion of "Christ as 'Overcomer'" in the Commentary on Revelation 2-3.

John also says that Christ has made us "priests to serve his God and Father." He does not elaborate on just how Christians function as "priests" beyond saying that we "serve" God. However, there are many ways in which believers resemble priests. For example, we enter into God's presence through the death of Christ. We represent God to the world, testifying to who he is and his eternal purpose. Furthermore, we offer to the creator the worship from his creation that is rightfully his. It is with this kind of worship that John ends his poem in verse 6: "To him be glory and power for ever and ever! Amen."

F. PROPHETIC PRONOUNCEMENT (1:7)

⁷ Look, he is coming with the clouds,

and every eye will see him,

even those who pierced him;

and all the peoples of the earth will mourn because of him.

So shall it be! Amen.

1:7 Here we have a sort of prophetic pronouncement in which the prophet John introduces the Lord who speaks through him. He borrows language from two Old Testament passages - namely, Daniel 7:13 and Zechariah 12:10. Jesus himself combines these two texts in Matthew 24:30.

John proclaims that Jesus is "coming with the clouds," which is a reference to his imminent Second Coming. When the Lord returns, " every eye will see him," for there will be a universal revelation of Christ. That will be a day of victory and vindication for Christ's faithful servants. However, in this verse, John focuses on the defeat of Christ's enemies. "Those who pierced him" and "all the peoples of the earth will mourn because of him."

G. THE LORD'S SELF-INTRODUCTION (1:8)

⁸"I am the Alpha and the Omega," says the Lord God, "who is, and who was, and who is to come, the Almighty."

1:8 John introduces Christ to the readers in verse 7. Here in verse 8 the Lord, who speaks through the prophet, identifies himself. For analysis of "the Alpha and the Omega" and the other divine titles, see the comments on Revelation 1:4.

H. JOHN'S VISION OF THE LORD (1:9-20)

Revelation 1:9-20 describes the circumstances in which John receives his revelation from the Lord. In verses 9-11 John describes his own situation, and then in verses 12-20 he focuses on the words and appearance of the risen Christ.

1. John's Circumstances (1:9-11)

⁹ I, John, your brother and companion in the suffering and kingdom and patient endurance that are ours in Jesus, was on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus. ¹⁰ On the Lord's Day I was in the Spirit, and I heard behind me a loud voice like a trumpet, ¹¹ which said: "Write on a scroll what you see and send it to the seven churches: to Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea."

1:9 I, John, your brother and companion in the suffering and kingdom and patient endurance that are ours in Jesus

In describing the circumstances of himself and his fellow Christians in Asia, John says that they are "in Jesus" (ejn =Ihsou', en Iēsou ). The only real parallel to this expression is found in Revelation 14:12-13, where John speaks of persons who are "in the Lord" (ejn kurivw/ , en kyriô ):

This calls for patient endurance on the part of the saints who obey God's commandments and remain faithful to Jesus.

Then I heard a voice from heaven say, "Write: Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord from now on."

The context shows that, for John, to be "in the Lord" or "in Jesus" means to "obey God's commandments," to "remain faithful to Jesus," and to be a "saint" - that is, a person devoted to the Lord even to the point of "death." In other words, when John talks about people who are "in Jesus," he is simply talking about committed Christians.

John indicates that, "in Jesus," he and his fellow Christians are "companions" (literally "sharers," sugkoinwnov" , synkoinônos ) in three kinds of experiences - namely, "suffering and kingdom and patient endurance." The Greek word translated "suffering" is qlivyi" ( thlipsis ) (cf. 2:9,10,22). Elsewhere in the New International Version, this term is translated "tribulation." For example, Revelation 7:13-14 reads:

Then one of the elders asked me, "These in white robes-who are they, and where did they come from?"

I answered, "Sir, you know."

And he said, "These are they who have come out of the great tribulation [ thlipsis ]; they have washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb."

For John and other apocalyptic writers, thlipsis ("suffering" or "tribulation") is a technical term for the "labor pains," the time of intense suffering and persecution of God's people that immediately precedes the consummation of God's kingdom. This period of hardship begins with the First Coming of Christ and ends with his Second Coming. In other words, it is the period when the kingdom of God and kingdom of Satan coexist - the "overlap" of the ages.

Some interpreters of Revelation claim that a great "Tribulation" will come upon the world sometime in the future . Some even say that Christians will be "raptured" out of the world so that they will not have to endure the Tribulation. In Revelation 1:9 we find John's view: The "tribulation" is present . It is already under way in A.D. 95 or 96. Christians are not immune to it any more than Christ himself was immune to suffering. Christians are right in the middle of the tribulation, "sharing" in suffering together.

Believers are also "companions" or "sharers" in "patient endurance." The Greek term is uJpomonhv (hypomonç ), a key word in Revelation that is translated either "patient endurance" or "perseverance" (see Rev 2:2,3,19; 3:10; 13:10; 14:12). Hypomonç is the attitude that John encourages Christians to adopt in the face of the "tribulation" or "suffering" of the "labor pains." It is more than just stoicism - more than just "gritting your teeth and bearing it." It is persisting in faithfulness to God because we know that he is in control and his kingdom will ultimately prevail.

John and his fellow Christians are also participating in the "kingdom" (basileiva , basileia ) of God as they live their lives "in Jesus," or under the rule of God in Christ. Note that, for John, both the "labor pains" and the "kingdom" occur simultaneously in the present . What we have here is John expressing the Christian apocalyptic idea of the "overlap" of the two ages - the "present evil age" and the "eschatological age." As Christ was crucified under a placard proclaiming him king (see John 19:19), so do Christians - for the moment - "reign" from the "cross."

was on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus.

Here John describes his own individual "suffering" during the "labor pains." John is a "martyr," a "witness" to Christ. (See the comment on Jesus as the "faithful witness" in Rev 1:5.) As a result of his "witness," John is being forced to "patiently endure" banishment on Patmos, one of the Southern Sporades islands off the southwestern coast of Asia Minor. He fears that his Christian brothers and sisters in Asia may have to endure worse than that.

1:10a On the Lord's Day

John receives his apocalyptic revelation from Christ "on the Lord's Day." This term most probably refers to Sunday, the first day of the week. Even as early as the 50s, Sunday was the customary day of Christian worship in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ. The designation, "the Lord's Day," may have been patterned after the practice in Asia Minor of referring to the first day of the month as "Emperor's Day." Revelation 1:10 marks the first occurrence of this term in Christian literature.

I was in the Spirit,

The phrase "in the Spirit" occurs four times in the Revelation (1:10; 4:2; 17:3; 21:10). On each occasion it refers to John's exercising his prophetic gift. God always initiates this activity; John does not prophesy at will. God is the primary actor behind John's Revelation.

1:10b-11 and I heard behind me a loud voice like a trumpet, which said: "Write on a scroll what you see and send it to the seven churches: to Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea."

John first hears a voice. (On the sound of the voice, see the comment on 1:12.) He then turns around and, beginning in verse 12, receives a vision of the risen Christ. John describes what he sees in the language of Scripture. He bombards us with Scripture, leading the person who is familiar with God's word to think of passage after passage, promise after promise, prophecy after prophecy.

2. John's Vision (1:12-20)

a. Christ's Voice and His Appearance (1:12-16)

¹² I turned around to see the voice that was speaking to me. And when I turned I saw seven golden lampstands, ¹³ and among the lampstands was someone "like a son of man," ^a dressed in a robe reaching down to his feet and with a golden sash around his chest. ¹⁴ His head and hair were white like wool, as white as snow, and his eyes were like blazing fire. ¹⁵ His feet were like bronze glowing in a furnace, and his voice was like the sound of rushing waters. ¹⁶ In his right hand he held seven stars, and out of his mouth came a sharp double-edged sword. His face was like the sun shining in all its brilliance.

^a 13 Daniel 7:13

1:10,12 a loud voice like a trumpet . . . the voice that was speaking to me

John describes the Lord's voice using language from the Septuagint version of Exodus 19:16-19. This passage describes what Israel saw and heard at Mount Sinai when the nation received the Ten Commandments from God:

And it came to pass on the third day, as the morning drew nigh, there were voices and lightnings and a dark cloud on mount Sina[i]: the voice of the trumpet sounded loud , and all the people in the camp trembled. And Moses led the people forth out of the camp to meet God, and they stood by under the camp. The mount of Sina[i] was altogether on a smoke, because God had descended upon it in fire; and the smoke went up as the smoke of a furnace, and the people were exceedingly amazed. And the [voices (Brenton has "sounds")] of the trumpet were waxing very much louder. Moses spoke, and God answered him with a voice .

The meaning of the symbol of the "loud voice like a trumpet" is that, when John turns around and sees Jesus, he is in the presence of God, hearing the voice of God speaking the words of God.

1:13 And among the lampstands was someone "like a son of man"

John describes the Lord as "someone 'like a son of man'" (cf. 14:14). This symbol is capable of carrying several different shades of meaning: First, this language identifies Jesus as a human being. In Jewish idiom, the phrase "son of . . ." can express the idea of nature . To illustrate, Jesus calls James and John "sons of thunder" (Mark 3:17). Apparently their loud and boisterous personalities - or perhaps their fiery tempers - remind Jesus of characteristics of thunder. "Son of . . ." can also communicate function . For example, Jesus refers to young men in charge of a wedding celebration as "sons of the bride chamber" (Matt 9:15). Such language may also communicate destiny . For example, John 17:12 and 2 Thessalonians 2:3 speak of the "son of perdition" - that is, the person whose end is destruction. By calling Jesus a "son of man," John identifies him as a human, as one bearing human nature. Yet he is not quite the same as other humans - he is one " like a son of man." Jesus is human, but at the same time he is set apart from all other humans.

Second, the title "son of man" is a common designation in apocalyptic literature for the Messiah (e.g., in 1 Enoch 37:71, part of which is quoted below in the discussion of Jesus' hair and head). John may intend for the phrase "son of man" to carry messianic overtones as well.

Third, the Old Testament passage that the phrase "like a son of man" immediately brings to mind is in Daniel 7. In this passage, Daniel receives a vision of four great beasts, the last of which has a little horn that speaks "boastfully." Verses 9-14 tell what happens to this beast and its horn:

As I looked,

thrones were set in place,

and the Ancient of Days took his seat.

His clothing was as white as snow;

the hair of his head was white like wool.

His throne was flaming with fire,

and its wheels were all ablaze.

A river of fire was flowing,

coming out from before him.

Thousands upon thousands attended him;

ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him.

The court was seated,

and the books were opened.

Then I continued to watch because of the boastful words the horn was speaking. I kept looking until the beast was slain and its body destroyed and thrown into the blazing fire. (The other beasts had been stripped of their authority, but were allowed to live for a period of time.)

In my vision at night I looked, and there before me was one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven. He approached the Ancient of Days and was led into his presence. He was given authority, glory and sovereign power; all peoples, nations and men of every language worshiped him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion that will not pass away, and his kingdom is one that will never be destroyed.

In the rest of the chapter, Daniel receives the interpretation of this vision. The four beasts represent a succession of four world empires. The "one like a son of man" represents "the saints of the Most High" (see vv. 18,22,27). The first readers no doubt understood these "saints" to be righteous, Law-keeping Jews, who are faithful to the Mosaic Covenant. According to the vision, these Jewish saints are hated and persecuted by world rulers (one of which is represented by the "little horn"), but they will be vindicated by God, caused to enter his presence, highly exalted, and then given the everlasting kingdom of God. By using the language of Daniel 7 to describe Jesus as one "like a son of man," John may be representing Jesus as the embodiment of righteous Israel, ideal Israel, the one who fulfills everything that God intended Israel to be. Jesus is the first of many "saints of the Most High" to be raised and exalted to the kingdom.

By describing Jesus as "someone 'like a son of man,'" John invites his readers to think of Jesus' humanity, his messiahship, and his identity as the one who embodies God's hopes for Israel. Which is the correct interpretation of this symbol? In the case of Jesus, all three meanings apply equally well, and so John may intend for the symbol to communicate all three truths simultaneously. If so, this image serves as a very fine illustration of how apocalyptic symbols function. Eugene Boring states it well: "Revelation's symbols are tensive, evocative and polyvalent." They are "evocative" in that they draw forth, or elicit from the reader's mind, a number of different mental images from the Old Testament, apocalyptic literature, and/or Greco-Roman life. They are "tensive" in the sense that they create a tension in the mind, forcing the reader to reflect on the various possible interpretations and the relationship between them. In other words, the symbols force the reader to meditate on the meaning of the apocalyptic vision. The symbols are "polyvalent" in that they are able to communicate multiple meanings at the same time.

dressed in a robe reaching down to his feet

The Greek word translated "a robe reaching down to his feet" is podhvrh" (podçrçs ). In the Greek Old Testament and Apocrypha, this term is used to describe only one kind of garment - namely, the garments worn by the Jewish priests, and notably the High Priest. A person familiar with the Scriptures would read this verse in Revelation and immediately realize that Jesus is being pictured as the High Priest. That is the point of the symbol: Jesus is the Great High Priest, the Mediator through whom we approach God and through whom God deals with us. The Hebrews writer communicates this truth through didactic language (see Heb 2:14-18; 4:14- 10:18). John, in Revelation, communicates that same truth through apocalyptic symbolism.

a golden sash around his chest

How would John's first readers have interpreted the Lord's "golden sash"? They may have viewed it as a royal garment. In Joseph and Aseneth 10:10 (a Jewish "romance novel" dating somewhere from the second century B.C. to A.D. 200), the Egyptian princess Aseneth wears such a sash when she weds Joseph.

They may have linked it with John's identification of Jesus as "someone 'like a son of man'" (see above). Daniel 10:5 uses similar (but not identical) language to describe a golden belt worn by "the likeness of a son of man" (v. 16). However, in this text, "the likeness of a son of man" does not represent "the saints of the Most High," as in Daniel 7. Instead, he appears to be some sort of heavenly being - perhaps an archangel - in the company of the archangel Michael.

Christians in Asia may have linked the "golden sash" with John's identification of Jesus as the Great High Priest (see the comment on Christ's robe given above). In Exodus 39:5 the High Priest wears a similar (but not identical) garment around his waist.

The "golden sash" adds to the overall majesty of Jesus' appearance, and the symbol may carry some of these other connotations as well.

1:14 His head and hair were white like wool, as white as snow

This language is like that in Daniel 7:9, which is part of the vision of the four beasts and the "one like a son of man" discussed above. In Daniel, the Person with hair as white as wool is God himself, whom Daniel refers to as the "Ancient of Days." The prophet writes:

As I looked, thrones were set in place, and the Ancient of Days took his seat. His clothing was as white as snow; the hair of his head was white like wool.

The same sort of language appears in 1 Enoch 46:1-4. This passage resembles Daniel 7 inasmuch as God and the Son of Man are discussed together. It differs in that Daniel 7 uses the title "Son of Man" to refer to righteous Israelites, while 1 Enoch 46 uses the title "Son of Man" to refer to one particular righteous Israelite - the Messiah.

At that place, I saw the One [God] to whom belongs the time before time [i.e., he is preexistent, existing prior to creation]. And his head was white like wool [the mark of extreme old age, of an eternity], and there was with him another individual, whose face was like that of a human being. His countenance was full of grace like that of one among the holy angels. And I asked the one - from among the angels - who was going with me, and who had revealed to me all the secrets regarding the One who was born of human beings, "Who is this, and from whence is he who is going as the prototype of the Before-Time?" [The Messiah is a human, "born of human beings," but at the same time he is "like" the angels. Furthermore, he is "the prototype of the Before Time" - the very image of God.] And he answered me and said to me, "This is the Son of Man, to whom belongs righteousness, and with whom righteousness dwells. And he will open all the hidden storerooms; for the Lord of the Spirits [i.e., God] has chosen him, and he is destined to be victorious before the Lord of the Spirits in eternal uprightness. This Son of Man whom you have seen is the One who would remove the kings and the mighty ones from their comfortable seats and the strong ones from their thrones. He shall loosen the reigns of the strong and crush the teeth of the sinners. [In other words, he executes the eschatological judgment of God.] He shall depose the kings from their thrones and kingdoms. For they do not extol and glorify him, and neither do they obey him, the source of their kingship [In the language of Revelation, the Messiah is "King of the kings and Lord of the lords."] (1 Enoch 46:1-4).

By describing Jesus' "head and hair" as "white like wool" and "white as snow," John communicates the fact that Jesus is "Ancient of Days," eternal and preexistent. He is "the Alpha and the Omega, the First and the Last, the Beginning and the End" (see the comment on Rev 1:4). He is God.

1:14b,16 his eyes were like blazing fire. His feet were like bronze glowing in a furnace . . . . His face was like the sun shining in all its brilliance.

These symbols together speak of an intensely bright light radiating from the Lord. The Greek term for such light is dovx a ( doxa ), which is usually translated "glory." The term also carries connotations of "honor," for ancient peoples associated radiant light with honor. To illustrate, they placed many-pointed gold or silver crowns on the heads of kings. As the sun reflected off these crowns, it would create a "halo" of glory around the rulers' heads, signifying the honor associated with their position.

In the Old Testament and apocalyptic literature, basically three kinds of persons are described as "glorious." First, heavenly beings, such as the "archangel" (see v. 13) in Daniel 10:4-6, display this glorious radiance:

On the twenty-fourth day of the first month, as I was standing on the bank of the great river, the Tigris, I looked up and there before me was a man dressed in linen, with a belt of the finest gold around his waist. His body was like chrysolite, his face like lightning, his eyes like flaming torches, his arms and legs like the gleam of burnished bronze, and his voice like the sound of a multitude.

The "cherubim" (see 10:20) of Ezekiel 1 also emit this heavenly glory.

Second, Jewish writers often describe God himself as "glorious." Psalm 104:1-2 illustrates this point:

Praise the LORD, O my soul. / O LORD my God, you are very great; / you are clothed with splendor and majesty. / He wraps himself in light as with a garment . . . .

Exodus 24:15-17 also speaks of God's radiant glory:

When Moses went up on the mountain, the cloud covered it, and the glory of the LORD settled on Mount Sinai. For six days the cloud covered the mountain, and on the seventh day the LORD called to Moses from within the cloud. To the Israelites the glory of the LORD looked like a consuming fire on top of the mountain.

Another example comes from Ezekiel 1:26-28 (cf. 8:2), which describes "the likeness of the glory of the LORD":

Above the expanse over their heads [i.e., the heads of the four living creatures] was what looked like a throne of sapphire, and high above on the throne was a figure like that of a man. I saw that from what appeared to be his waist up he looked like glowing metal, as if full of fire, and that from there down he looked like fire; and brilliant light surrounded him. Like the appearance of a rainbow in the clouds on a rainy day, so was the radiance around him. This was the appearance of the likeness of the glory of the LORD.

Third, Jewish writers - particularly apocalyptic writers - use "glory" language to describe persons who have been raised from the dead to eschatological life in the kingdom of God. These theologians employ many adjectives to characterize the resurrection body, but the three ideas that appear most often are immortality, exaltation, and glory. Whereas our current bodies are subject to sickness, disease, aging, and death, the resurrection body will be immortal. Resurrection life will also be exalted - that is, a better, higher form of existence than what we have experienced thus far. Finally, the resurrection body will be characterized by "glory" ( doxa ), both in the sense of radiance and in the sense of the honor it signifies. The most detailed description of the resurrection body in Jewish apocalyptic appears in 2 Baruch 51. The most detailed description in first-century Christian literature appears in 1 Corinthians 15:39-44a:

Not all flesh is alike, but there is one kind for men, another for animals, another for birds, and another for fish. There are celestial bodies and there are terrestrial bodies; but the glory of the celestial is one [a bright light], and the glory of the terrestrial is another [a dimmer light]. There is one glory of the sun, and another glory of the moon, and another glory of the stars; for star differs from star in glory.

So is it with the resurrection of the dead. What is sown is perishable, what is raised is imperishable [i.e., immortal]. It is sown in dishonor, it is raised in glory. It is sown in weakness, it is raised in power. It is sown a physical body, it is raised a spiritual body (RSV).

When John, in Revelation 1:14-16, describes Jesus as having a "glorious" body, the symbolism communicates several truths: First, the Lord is a heavenly, supernatural being. Second, he is a divine being, the manifestation of the glory of God on earth. Third, he is a person who has already been raised from the dead to glorious eschatological life in the kingdom of God.

1:15 His voice was like the sound of rushing waters

This beautiful symbol comes from the prophecy of Ezekiel and concerns the temple of the Lord. Patterned after the tabernacle of Exodus, Solomon's temple in Jerusalem was divided into two rooms separated by a curtain. In the inner room, the "Most Holy Place," stood the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark was a wooden box, covered with gold, that held the tablets engraved with the Ten Commandments. Its lid was also made of gold and featured two golden cherubim with their wings overshadowing the Ark. This lid was called the "Atonement Cover." Over the Atonement Cover, the glory of the Lord hovered. This bright light signified the presence of the invisible God with his people Israel. The Psalmist refers to God's radiant glory in Psalm 80:1: "You who sit enthroned between the cherubim, shine forth."

In 587 B.C. the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and the temple and took most of the Jews into exile. Among their number was the prophet Ezekiel. In Ezekiel 10 the prophet receives a vision of the "glory of the Lord" departing from over the Ark of the Covenant. This symbolizes God removing his presence from his people because of their sin and idolatry. However, in Ezekiel 43 the prophet sees another vision of the Lord's glory returning to the temple. This latter vision shows that, in spite of their sin, God will not abandon his people forever. Verses 1-5 describe the Lord's return:

Then the man brought me to the gate facing east, and I saw the glory of the God of Israel coming from the east. His voice was like the roar of rushing waters [cf. 1:24], and the land was radiant with his glory. The vision I saw was like the vision I had seen when he came to destroy the city and like the visions I had seen by the Kebar River, and I fell facedown. The glory of the LORD entered the temple through the gate facing east. Then the Spirit lifted me up and brought me into the inner court, and the glory of the LORD filled the temple.

Echoing Ezekiel, John describes Jesus in Revelation 1:15 as having a voice "like the sound of rushing waters." Through this symbol, he communicates the idea that Jesus is the "glory of God" - the visible manifestation of God's presence on earth.

1:16 Out of his mouth came a sharp double-edged sword

The sword symbolizes the fact that Christ speaks the word of God (the gospel of the kingdom), which is both a word of salvation to those who serve God and - at the same time - a word of judgment to those who oppose him. The primary evidence for this interpretation appears in Revelation 19:11-16:

I saw heaven standing open and there before me was a white horse, whose rider is called Faithful and True. With justice he judges and makes war. His eyes are like blazing fire, and on his head are many crowns. He has a name written on him that no one knows but he himself. He is dressed in a robe dipped in blood, and his name is the Word of God. The armies of heaven were following him, riding on white horses and dressed in fine linen, white and clean. Out of his mouth comes a sharp sword with which to strike down the nations [i.e., the nations who oppose God and his Messiah - see the context of the following quote from Psalm 2:9, which is discussed above in the comment on the title "Christ" in Rev 1:5]. "He will rule them with an iron scepter." He treads the winepress of the fury of the wrath of God Almighty. On his robe and on his thigh he has this name written: KING OF KINGS AND LORD OF LORDS.

Note that, in verse 13, the Lord is identified as "the Word of God." Out of his mouth - where words are formed - comes a "sword," which apparently represents the words of God. With this "sword," Christ executes God's wrath against his enemies.

1:12-13,16,20 . . . And when I turned I saw seven golden lampstands, and among the lampstands was someone "like a son of man" . . . . In his right hand he held seven stars . . . . "The mystery of the seven stars that you saw in my right hand and of the seven golden lampstands is this: The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands are the seven churches."

In many apocalypses, God assigns a different angel responsibility for each nation. Evil angels, who have rebelled against God, direct their corresponding nations in evil paths. Good angels, who remain faithful to God, discharge their duties according to God's will. Each angel is rewarded or punished according to how he carries out his responsibility over his corresponding nation. In this way, apocalyptic writers communicate at least two theological truths: First, God is sovereign over all. He rules over the nations through his servants, the angels. Second, there is a spiritual world beyond the physical world. This spiritual world, which has been partially corrupted by sin, influences the physical world.

We find an example of this kind of thinking in Daniel 10:12-14. Here the archangel, who brings God's revelation to Daniel, explains that he has been delayed in his coming by demonic resistance:

Then he continued, "Do not be afraid, Daniel. Since the first day that you set your mind to gain understanding and to humble yourself before your God, your words were heard, and I have come in response to them. But the prince of the Persian kingdom [i.e., the fallen angel who has charge over Persia - which explains why Persia persecutes God's people, the Jews] resisted me twenty-one days. Then Michael, one of the chief princes [the archangel who has charge over the nation of Israel], came to help me, because I was detained there with the king of Persia. Now I have come to explain to you what will happen to your people in the future, for the vision concerns a time yet to come."

The Apostle Paul expresses the same sort of an idea in Ephesians 6:10-12, where he reminds Christians that they are dealing with more than just the realities that can be seen:

Finally, be strong in the Lord and in his mighty power. Put on the full armor of God so that you can take your stand against the devil's schemes. For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms.

Against this background, we can now understand the meaning of the symbolism in Revelation 1. The Lord explains that the seven golden lampstands represent the seven churches of Asia. The symbol of the lampstands carries connotations of "witness." Compare Isaiah 42:6, where the Servant of the Lord serves as "a light for the Gentiles," and Matthew 5:16, where Jesus instructs his disciples to "Let your light shine before men." By picturing them as lampstands, John indicates that the churches function as witnesses for Christ.

Note that Christ is "among the lampstands." He is not far away from the churches, but close at hand and present with them. Jesus expresses the same truth in a different manner in his Great Commission: "And surely I will be with you always, to the very end of the age" (Matt 28:20).

The "seven stars" are seven angels who direct the churches of Asia. These angels are in Christ's right hand, which means that Christ is in control of the churches' angels, and thus in control of the churches. We will see him exercise this lordship in chapters 2 and 3 as he addresses words of commendation and rebuke to the seven angels and, through them, to the churches themselves.

The image of the seven stars in Christ's right hand would have also spoken to the people of John's time in other ways. First, this is an antiastrology message. The stars do not control our destiny and are not to be feared. Christ is the Lord who holds the stars in his hand. Second, the symbol of the stars challenges the divine claims of certain Roman Caesars. To illustrate, the young son of the Emperor Domitian died in A.D. 83. Domitian proclaimed the child a god and minted coins picturing his mother, Domitia, as queen of heaven, and the child holding the stars in his hands. In Revelation 1, John removes the stars from human hands and places them where they rightfully belong - in the hand of Christ. He thus declares the Roman Caesars to be false imitations of the true cosmic ruler, who is Christ the Lord.

b. Christ's Words (1:17-20)

¹⁷ When I saw him, I fell at his feet as though dead. Then he placed his right hand on me and said: "Do not be afraid. I am the First and the Last. ¹⁸ I am the Living One; I was dead, and behold I am alive for ever and ever! And I hold the keys of death and Hades.

^19" Write, therefore, what you have seen, what is now and what will take place later. ²⁰ The mystery of the seven stars that you saw in my right hand and of the seven golden lampstands is this: The seven stars are the angels ^a of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands are the seven churches.

^a 20 Or messengers

1:17 When I saw him, I fell at his feet as though dead.

This is a typical response of persons who encounter the Deity. (Compare, for example, Daniel 8:17-18 [LXX]; Ezekiel 1:28; Luke 5:8.) As such, the action itself serves to highlight the divine nature of Christ.

Then he placed his right hand on me and said: "Do not be afraid. I am the First and the Last.

See the comment on "him who is, and who was, and who is to come" in Revelation 1:4.

1:18 I am the Living One; I was dead, and behold I am alive for ever and ever! And I hold the keys of death and Hades.

Jesus endured a painful death for his "faithful witness" to God, but then God raised him up to eschatological life. Where Christ once was, John's readers are now. The suffering Christians of Asia may be facing death, but John lays before them the certainty that - like Jesus - they will be raised up to victorious new life.

Why will they escape from death? Because Jesus holds "the keys of death and Hades." In Hellenistic mythology, "Hades" was the grave, the place of the dead. It is the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew "Sheol." Even if John's readers are dragged before the authorities and put to death for their faith, Jesus has the power to unlock the gates of the grave and set them free - forever.

1:19 "Write, therefore, what you have seen, what is now and what will take place later.

Christ promises to give John a revelation of the present ("what is now") and a revelation of the future ("what will take place later"). The revelation of the present appears in chapters 2-3, while the revelation of the future is found in 3:1-22:6. For further discussion of the Structure of Revelation, see Part V of the Introduction.

1:20 The mystery of the seven stars that you saw in my right hand and of the seven golden lampstands is this: The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands are the seven churches."

See the comments given above on Revelation 1:12-13,16,20.

c. Summary: John's Portrait of Christ in Revelation 1:9-20

In Revelation 1:9-20 John presents a striking portrait of Christ in apocalyptic symbolism. We have searched out the literary and cultural roots of these symbols in an effort to discern the truths they would have communicated to John's first readers in Asia. Who, then, is Jesus? Who is this person who will speak to us through the Revelation?

According to chapter 1, Jesus is divine . He is the presence of God himself with his spokesman John. As such, he is eternal ("head and hair white as wool, as white as snow"), preexistent or "ancient of days" ("head and hair white as wool, as white as snow"), and glorious ("eyes like blazing fire," "feet like glowing bronze," "face like the sun shining in its brilliance"). Christ is the visible manifestation of God's presence among his people ("voice like the sound of rushing waters"). He speaks with the voice of God ("a loud voice like a trumpet"), pronouncing the words of God, which are words of salvation for his people and words of judgment for those who oppose him ("out of his mouth came a sharp double-edged sword").

At the same time, Jesus is human ("someone 'like a son of man'"). As a human being, Jesus was susceptible to death ("I was dead"). However, he is the first of the "saints of the Most High" to be raised and exalted to glorious eschatological life in the kingdom of God ("someone 'like a son of man,'" "face like the sun shining in its brilliance," "alive for ever and ever"). Christ is the embodiment of righteous Israel - everything God wanted his covenant people to be ("someone 'like a son of man'").

Jesus is also the Messiah or "Anointed One" ("someone 'like a son of man'"). As Messiah, he functions as a prophet inasmuch as he speaks the words of God ("a loud voice like a trumpet"). He also serves as High Priest, as the Mediator between God and human beings ("a robe reaching down to his feet"), the person through whom we approach God and through whom God relates to us. He is also the ultimate Davidic King ("a golden sash around his chest"). He is sovereign over heaven and earth. He is sovereign over the churches, holding our lives and our destiny in his hand ("in his right hand he held seven stars"). He is sovereign over life and death ("I hold the keys of death and Hades").

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

Commentary -- Other

Critics Ask: Rev 1:4

REVELATION 1:4 —How can the Holy Spirit be seven spirits if He is one person?

PROBLEM: According to the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit is one person, the third person of the triune Godhead. Jesus referred to the Holy Spirit as “He” (singular). But John referred to “the seven Spirits who are before His [God’s] throne” ( Rev. 1:4 ), which many commentators see as a reference to the Holy Spirit. But how can the Holy Spirit be seven spirits?

SOLUTION: The Book of Revelation contains a good bit of symbolism, and this is only one example. There is similar symbolism in other portions of this book. For instance, most agree that Revelation 12:3 speaks about Satan, but he is called a “great red dragon” with “seven heads and ten horns.” Here, the seven heads and ten horns are attributed to one individual, Satan. Also, speaking of the beast from the sea, Revelation 13:1 says that he has “seven heads and ten horns.” The number seven symbolizes completeness, as there are seven days in a complete week.

Other symbols are used of the Holy Spirit in Scripture. For instance, He is spoken of as a dove in Mark 1:10 and is likened to the “wind” in John 3:8 and water in John 4:14 . He is also portrayed as “tongues as of fire” in Acts 2:3 . And Ephesians 1:13 says we are “sealed” by the Holy Spirit, signifying God’s ownership of us and the security of our salvation.

Many Bible students believe the sevenfold nature of the Holy Spirit may derive from the reference in Isaiah 11:2 where He is called the Spirit of the Lord, the Spirit of wisdom, of understanding, of counsel, of might, of knowledge, and of thefear of the Lord —seven different characteristics of one and the same Spirit.   

Introduction / Outline

Robertson: Revelation (Book Introduction)

THE REVELATION OF JOHN

ABOUT a.d. 95

By Way of Introduction

Difficulty in the Problem

Perhaps no single book in the New Testament presents so many and so formidable problems as the Apocalypse of John. These difficulties concern the authorship, the date, the apocalyptic method, the relation to the other Johannine books, the purpose, the historical environment, the reception of the book in the New Testament canon, the use and misuse of the book through the ages, etc. In the eastern churches the recognition of the Apocalypse of John was slower than in the west, since it was not in the Peshitta Syriac Version. Caius of Rome attributed the book to Cerinthus the Gnostic, but he was ably answered by Hippolytus, who attributed it to the Apostle John. The Council of Laodicea (about a.d. 360) omitted it, but the third Council of Carthage (a.d. 397) accepted it. The dispute about millenarianism led Dionysius of Alexandria (middle of the third century, a.d.) to deny the authorship to the Apostle John, though he accepted it as canonical. Eusebius suggested a second John as the author. But finally the book was accepted in the east as Hebrews was in the west after a period of doubt.

Poor State of the Text

There are only five uncials that give the text of John’s Apocalypse (Aleph A C P Q). Of these Aleph belongs to the fourth century, A and C to the fifth, Q (really B2 , B ending with Heb_9:13, both in the Vatican Library) to the eighth, P to the ninth. Only Aleph A Q (= B2 ) are complete, C lacking Rev_1:1, 3:19-5:14, Rev_7:14-17, 8:5-9:16, 10:10-11:3, 14:13-18:2, 19:5-21, P lacking Rev 16:12 - 17:1, 19:21-20:9, 22:6-21. Both C and P are palimpsests. In the 400 verses of the book " over 1,600 variants have been counted" (Moffatt). Erasmus had only one cursive (of the twelfth century numbered Ir) for his first edition, and the last six verses of the Apocalypse, save Rev_22:20, were a translation from the Vulgate. The result is that the versions are of special importance for the text of the book, since in no single MS. or group of MSS. do we have a fairly accurate text, though Aleph A C and A C Vulgate are the best two groups.

The Apocalyptic Style

The book claims to be an apocalypse (Rev_1:1) and has to be treated as such. It is an unveiling ( apokalupsis , from apokaluptō ) or revelation of Jesus Christ, a prophecy, in other words, of a special type, like Ezekiel, Zechariah, and Daniel in the Old Testament. There was a considerable Jewish apocalyptic literature by this time when John wrote, much of it b.c., some of it a.d., like the Book of Enoch, the Apocalypse of Baruch, the Book of Jubilees, the Assumption of Moses, the Psalms of Solomon, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Sibylline Oracles, some of them evidently " worked over by Christian hands" (Swete). Jesus himself used the apocalyptic style at times (Mark 13; Matt 24, 25; Luke 21). Paul in 1 Cor 14 spoke of the unpremeditated apocalyptic utterances in the Christian meetings and suggested restraints concerning them. " The Revelation of John is the only written apocalypse, as it is the only written prophecy of the Apostolic age.... The first Christian apocalypse came on the crest of this long wave of apocalyptic effort" (Swete). The reason for this style of writing is usually severe persecution and the desire to deliver a message in symbolic form. The effort of Antiochus Epiphanes, who claimed to be " a god manifest," to hellenize the Jews aroused violent opposition and occasioned many apocalypses to cheer the persecuted Jews.

Emperor Worship as the Occasion for John’s Apocalypse

There is no doubt at all that the emperor cult (emperor worship) played a main part in the persecution of the Christians that was the occasion for this great Christian apocalypse. The book itself bears ample witness to this fact, if the two beasts refer to the Roman power as the agent of Satan. It is not possible to single out each individual emperor in the graphic picture. Most would take the dragon to be Satan and the first and the second beasts to be the imperial and provincial Roman power. The Roman emperors posed as gods and did the work of Satan. In particular there were two persecuting emperors (Nero and Domitian) who were responsible for many martyrs for Christ. But emperor worship began before Nero. Julius Caesar was worshipped in the provinces. Octavius was called Augustus ( Sebastos , Reverend). The crazy Emperor Caius Caligula not simply claimed to be divine, but actually demanded that his statue be set up for worship in the Holy of Holies in the Temple in Jerusalem. He was killed in January a.d. 41 before he could execute his dire purpose. But the madcap Nero likewise demanded worship and blamed in a.d. 64 the burning of Rome on the Christians, though guilty of it himself. He set the style for persecuting Christians, which slumbered on and burst into flames again under Domitian, who had himself commonly termed Dominus ac Deus noster (Our Lord and God). The worship of the emperor did not disturb the worshippers of other gods save the Jews and the Christians, and in particular the Christians were persecuted after the burning of Rome when they were distinguished from the Jews. Up till then Christians were regarded (as by Gallio in Corinth) as a variety of Jews and so entitled to tolerance as a religio licita , but they had no standing in law by themselves and their refusal to worship the emperor early gave offence, as Paul indicates in 1Co_12:3. It was Kurios Iēsous or Kurios Kaisar . On this very issue Polycarp lost his life. The emperors as a rule were tolerant about it, save Nero and Domitian, who was called Nero redivivus , or Nero back again. Trajan in his famous letter to Pliny advised tolerance except in stubborn cases, when the Christians had to be put to death. After Nero it was a crime to be a Christian and all sorts of slanders about them were circulated. We have seen already in 2Th_2:3., the man of sin who sets himself above God as the object of worship. We have seen also in 1Jo_2:18, 1Jo_2:22; 1Jo_4:3; 2Jo_1:7 the term antichrist applied apparently to Gnostic heretics. One may wonder if, as Beckwith argues, in the Apocalypse the man of sin and the antichrist are united in the beast.

The Author

The writer calls himself John (Rev_1:1, Rev_1:4, Rev_1:9; Rev_22:8). But what John? The book can hardly be pseudonymous, though, with the exception of the Shepherd of Hermas, that is the rule with apocalypses. There would have been a clearer claim than just the name. The traditional and obvious way to understand the name is the Apostle John, though Dionysius of Alexandria mentions John Mark as held by some and he himself suggests another John, like the so-called Presbyter John of Papias as quoted by Eusebius. The uncertain language of Papias has raised a deal of questioning. Swete thinks that the majority of modern critics ascribe the Apocalypse to this Presbyter John, to whom Moffatt assigns probably 2 John and 3 John. Irenaeus represents the Apostle John as having lived to the time of Trajan, at least to a.d. 98. Most ancient writers agree with this extreme old age of John. Justin Martyr states expressly that the Apostle John wrote the Apocalypse. Irenaeus called it the work of a disciple of Jesus. In the ninth century lived Georgius Hamartolus, and a MS. of his alleges that Papias says that John the son of Zebedee was beheaded by the Jews and there is an extract in an Oxford MS. of the seventh century which alleges that Papias says John and James were put to death by the Jews. On the basis of this slim evidence some today argue that John did not live to the end of the century and so did not write any of the Johannine books. But a respectable number of modern scholars still hold to the ancient view that the Apocalypse of John is the work of the Apostle and Beloved Disciple, the son of Zebedee.

Relation to the Fourth Gospel

Here scholars divide again. Many who deny the Johannine authorship of the Fourth Gospel and the Epistles accept the apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse, Baur, for instance. Hort, Lightfoot, and Westcott argued for the Johannine authorship on the ground that the Apocalypse was written early (time of Nero or Vespasian) when John did not know Greek so well as when the Epistles and the Gospel were written. There are numerous grammatical laxities in the Apocalypse, termed by Charles a veritable grammar of its own. They are chiefly retention of the nominative case in appositional words or phrases, particularly participles, many of them sheer Hebraisms, many of them clearly intentional (as in Rev_1:4), all of them on purpose according to Milligan ( Revelation in Schaff’s Pop. Comm.) and Heinrici ( Der Litterarische Charakter der neutest. Schriften , p. 85). Radermacher ( Neutestamentliche Grammatik , p. 3) calls it " the most uncultured literary production that has come down to us from antiquity," and one finds frequent parallels to the linguistic peculiarities in later illiterate papyri. J. H. Moulton ( Grammar , Vol. II, Part I, p. 3) says: " Its grammar is perpetually stumbling, its idiom is that of a foreign language, its whole style that of a writer who neither knows nor cares for literary form." But we shall see that the best evidence is for a date in Domitian’s reign and not much later than the Fourth Gospel. It is worth noting that in Act_4:13 Peter and John are both termed by the Sanhedrin agrammatoi kai idiōtai (unlettered and unofficial men). We have seen the possibility that 2 Peter represents Peter’s real style or at least that of a different amanuensis from Silvanus in 1Pe_5:12. It seems clear that the Fourth Gospel underwent careful scrutiny and possibly by the elders in Ephesus (Joh_21:24). If John wrote the Apocalypse while in Patmos and so away from Ephesus, it seems quite possible that here we have John’s own uncorrected style more than in the Gospel and Epistles. There is also the added consideration that the excitement of the visions played a part along with a certain element of intentional variations from normal grammatical sequence. An old man’s excitement would bring back his early style. There are numerous coincidences in vocabulary and style between the Fourth Gospel and the Apocalypse.

The Unity of the Apocalypse

Repeated efforts have been made to show that the Apocalypse of John is not the work of one man, but a series of Jewish and Christian apocalypses pieced together in a more or less bungling fashion. Spitta argued for this in 1889. Vischer was followed by Harnack in the view there was a Jewish apocalypse worked over by a Christian. Gunkel ( Creation and Chaos , 1895) argued for a secret apocalyptic tradition of Babylonian origin. In 1904 J. Weiss carried on the argument for sources behind the Apocalypse. Many of the Jewish apocalypses do show composite authorship. There was a current eschatology which may have been drawn on without its being a written source. It is in chapter Rev 12 where the supposed Jewish source is urged more vigorously about the woman, the dragon, and the man child. There are no differences in language (vocabulary or grammar) that argue for varied sources. The author may indeed make use of events in the reign of Nero as well as in the reign of Domitian, but the essential unity of the book has stood the test of the keenest criticism.

The Date

There are two chief theories, the Neronic, soon after Nero’s death, the other in the reign of Domitian. Irenaeus is quoted by Eusebius as saying expressly that the Apocalypse of John was written at the close of the reign of Domitian. This testimony is concurred in by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, by Eusebius, by Jerome. In harmony with this clear testimony the severity of the persecutions suit the later date better than the earlier one. There is, besides, in Rev_17:11. an apparent reference to the story that Nero would return again. The fifth king who is one of the seven is an eighth. There was a Nero legend, to be sure, that Nero either was not dead but was in Parthia, or would be redivivus after death. Juvenal termed Domitian " a bald Nero" and others called Domitian " a second Nero." But in spite of all this Hort, Lightfoot, Sanday, Westcott have argued strongly for the Neronic era. Peake is willing to admit allusions to the Neronic period as Swete is also, but both consider the Domitianic date the best supported. Moffatt considers any earlier date than Domitian " almost impossible."

The Visions

No theory of authorship, sources, or date should ignore the fact that the author claims to have had a series of visions in Patmos. It does not follow that he wrote them down at once and without reflection, but it seems hardly congruous to think that he waited till he had returned from exile in Patmos to Ephesus before writing them out. In fact, there is a note of sustained excitement all through the book, combined with high literary skill in the structure of the book in spite of the numerous grammatical lapses. The series of sevens bear a relation to one another, but more in the fashion of a kaleidoscope than of a chronological panorama. And yet there is progress and power in the arrangement and the total effect. There is constant use of Old Testament language and imagery, almost a mosaic, but without a single formal quotation. There is constant repetition of words and phrases in true Johannine style. Each of the messages to the seven churches picks out a metaphor in the first picture of Christ in chapter 1 and there are frequent other allusions to the language in this picture. In fact there is genuine artistic skill in the structure of the book, in spite of the deflections from ordinary linguistic standards. In the visions and all through the book there is constant use of symbols, as is the fashion in apocalypses like the beasts, the scorpions, the horses, etc. These symbols probably were understood by the first readers of the book, though the key to them is lost to us. Even the numbers in the book (3 ½, 7, 3, 4, 12, 24, 1000) cannot be pressed, though some do so. Even Harnack called the Apocalypse the plainest book in the New Testament, by using Harnack’s key for the symbols.

Theories of Interpretation

They are literally many. There are those who make the book a chart of Christian and even of human history even to the end. These divide into two groups, the continuous and the synchronous. The continuous historical theory takes each vision and symbol in succession as an unfolding panorama. Under the influence of this theory there have been all sorts of fantastic identifications of men and events. The synchronous theory takes the series of sevens (seals, trumpets, bowls) as parallel with each other, each time going up to the end. But in neither case can any satisfactory program be arranged. Another historical interpretation takes it all as over and done, the preterist theory. This theory again breaks into two, one finding the fulfilment all in the Neronic period, the other in the Domitianic era. Something can be said for each view, but neither satisfies the whole picture by any means. Roman Catholic scholars have been fond of the preterist view to escape the Protestant interpretation of the second beast in chapter Rev 13 as papal Rome. There is still another interpretation, the futurist, which keeps the fulfilment all in the future and which can be neither proved nor disproved. There is also the purely spiritual theory which finds no historical allusion anywhere. This again can be neither proved nor disproved. One of the lines of cleavage is the millennium in chapter Rev_20:1-15. Those who take the thousand years literally are either pre-millennialists who look for the second coming of Christ to be followed by a thousand years of personal reign here on earth or the postmillennialists who place the thousand years before the second coming. There are others who turn to 2Pe_3:8 and wonder if, after all, in a book of symbols this thousand years has any numerical value at all. There seems abundant evidence to believe that this apocalypse, written during the stress and storm of Domitian’s persecution, was intended to cheer the persecuted Christians with a view of certain victory at last, but with no scheme of history in view.

A Practical Purpose

So considered, this vision of the Reigning Christ in heaven with a constant eye on the suffering saints and martyrs is a guarantee of certain triumph in heaven and ultimate triumph on earth. The picture of Christ in heaven is a glorious one. He is the Lamb that was slain, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Word of God, the Victor over his enemies, worshipped in heaven like the Father, the Light and Life of men. Instead of trying to fit the various symbols on particular individuals one will do better to see the same application to times of persecution from time to time through the ages. The same Christ who was the Captain of salvation in the time of Domitian is the Pioneer and Perfecter of our faith today. The Apocalypse of John gives glimpses of heaven as well as of hell. Hope is the word that it brings to God’s people at all times.

The Readers of the Book

The whole book is sent to the seven churches in Asia (Rev_1:4). There is a special message to each of the seven (chapters Rev 2; 3), suited to the peculiar needs of each church and with a direct reference to the geography and history of each church and city, so Ramsay holds ( The Letters to the Seven Churches ). The book is to be read aloud in each church (Rev_1:3). One can imagine the intense interest that the book would arouse in each church. Children are charmed to hear the Apocalypse read. They do not understand the symbols, but they see the pictures in the unfolding panorama. There were other churches in the Province of Asia besides these seven, but these form a circle from Ephesus where John had lived and wrought. They do present a variety of churches, not necessarily all types, and by no means a chart of seven dispensations of Christian history.

Vincent: Revelation (Book Introduction)

The Revelation

This document has given rise to voluminous controversy as to its author, its origin, its purpose, and its interpretation. It has been held to be a forgery in the name of John; to have been composed by another writer in the apostle's name, not in order to deceive, but in order to record an oral revelation of John; or to have been the work of another John. Some who deny that John wrote the Gospel, have attributed Revelation to him, and the authenticity of the latter is maintained by some prominent rationalistic critics.

The Apostle John was banished to the Island of Patmos, probably by the Emperor Domitian, a.d. 95 or 96, and the book, composed either during his exile, or, as is more likely, after his return to Ephesus, contains the revelation given him there in a series of visions. It is directly addressed to the Seven Churches of Proconsular Asia; the number seven being representative, and not including all the Asiatic Churches. Its design was to encourage the Church during that trying period, predicted by Jesus himself, between the close of direct revelation and the second coming of the Lord. This encouragement centers in the return of Jesus to give His people eternal life and to trample down His foes. As related to the progress of doctrine in the New Testament, it represents the final consummation in the redeemed Church, the heavenly Jerusalem, which is foreshadowed in the rise and growth of the Apostolic Church.

The style is figurative and symbolical. It deals with principles rather than with particular events. To the neglect of this characteristic, and the corresponding attempt to link the symbols and prophecies with specific historical incidents or personages, are due most of the extravagances of interpretation. No satisfactory argument against its authenticity can be drawn from its contents as related to the other writings of John. It proclaims the same eternal truths which are asserted and vindicated in the Gospel and in the Epistles - the sovereignty of God, the conflict of sin with righteousness, the temporary triumph of evil, and the final, decisive victory of holiness. As in the other writings, Christ is the central figure, the conqueror of sin and death, the crowning joy of the redeemed, and the object of their adoration. It emphasizes the divine hatred of sin and the certainty of the divine judgment of the wicked and of the future bliss of believers in Jesus. The main idea of the Gospel and of Revelation is the same - that of a decisive conflict between the powers of good and evil.

The symbolism of Revelation is Jewish, and not Greek or Roman. It is pervaded with the style and imagery of the Old Testament, and is molded by its historical and prophetical books. " The book," says Professor Milligan, " is absolutely steeped in the memories, the incidents, the thoughts, and the language of the Church's past. To such an extent is this the case that it may be doubted whether it contains a single figure not drawn from the Old Testament, or a single complete sentence not more or less built up of materials brought from the same source.... It is a perfect mosaic of passages from the Old Testament, at one time quoted verbally, at another referred to by distinct allusion; now taken from one scene in Jewish history, and now again from two or three together." Thus the heresy of the Nicolaitanes is the heresy of Balaam (Rev 2:14): the evil in the Church of Thyatira is personified in Jezebel (Rev 2:20): the angelic captain in the war against the dragon is the Michael of Daniel (Rev 7:7): Jerusalem, Mount Zion, Babylon, the Euphrates, Sodom, and Egypt are symbols of the holy bliss of the saints, of the transgressors against God, and of the judgment of the wicked (Rev 21:2; Rev 14:1; Rev 16:19; Rev 9:14; Rev 11:8). The battle of Har-Magedon carries us back to the great slaughters in the plain of Megiddo (Jdg 5:19; Psa 83:9; 2Ki 23:29). The promises to the churches are given under the figure of the tree of life, the hidden manna, the white stone, the iron scepter, the pillar in the temple of God (Rev 2:7, Rev 2:17, Rev 2:27, Rev 2:28; Rev 3:5, Rev 3:12, Rev 3:20). Heaven is described under the image of the tabernacle in the wilderness (Rev 11:1, Rev 11:19; Rev 6:9; Rev 8:3; Rev 4:6). The plagues of Rev 8:1-13 are the plagues of Egypt: the crossing of the Red Sea and the destruction of Korah are blended in the representation of the deliverance of God's people (Rev 12:15, Rev 12:16). Of the Prophets, Haggai contributes the earthquake of chapter 6, and Joel the sun changed into the blackness of sackcloth and the moon into blood: Isaiah the falling stars, the fig tree casting her untimely fruit, and the heavens departing as a scroll: Ezekiel the scorpions of chapter 9, the description of the New Jerusalem in chapter 21, the roll in Rev 5:1-14, and the little book in Rev 10:1-11 : Zechariah the opening of the seals in chapter 6 and the olive trees in chapter 11. The vision of the glorified Redeemer (Rev 1:12-20) is combined from Exodus, Zechariah Daniel, Ezekiel, Isaiah, and the Psalms.

Along with these coincidences there are certain contrasts, notably as respects the doctrine of Christ's coming, which, in the Gospel and Epistles lies in the background, while it is the main theme of Revelation. Revelation treats the impending judgment as external, the Gospel as spiritual. Revelation describes the triumph of Christianity under the imagery of Judaism; the consummation being an ideal Jerusalem and an ideal worship; while in the Gospel, Judaism appears in opposition to Christ, " standing without, isolated and petrified, and not taken up with it, quickened and glorified."

The symbols of the book are drawn from objects familiar to the writer - the locusts, the eagles, the millstone, the olive and palm and vine.

The principal objection urged against the common authorship of the Gospel and Revelation, is the difference in language and style. This difference must be frankly admitted. " The language," says Dr. Davidson, " departs materially from the usual Greek of the New Testament, presenting anomalies, incorrectnesses, peculiar constructions, and awkward dispositions of words, which have no parallel.... The language is so thoroughly Hebraistic as to neglect the usual rules of Greek." By many eminent critics these differences are regarded as irreconcilable on the assumption of a common authorship.

On the other hand, it may be urged that these differences are largely intentional; that the author departs from common usage under the peculiar demands of his subject, arising from the conditions under which he writes, and his intent to conform to the Old Testament style of address; and further, that his familiarity with correct usage is shown by other passages in the same book. Revelation, moreover, contains many of the words which are peculiar to the Gospel and Epistles, such as to witness , to tabernacle , to keep , to overcome , to name as the expression of character, true (ἀληθινός ) in the sense of real; and the figures of hungering and thirsting , the manna , the living water , the shepherd and the sheep . It is, indeed, answered that, where the same words occur, they are used in a different sense; but many of these alleged differences disappear upon closer examination. The Hebrew character is only superficially different from that of the Gospel, which is Hebrew in spirit, though the Greek is much purer, and " the absence of solecisms arises from the avoidance of idiomatic expressions."

JFB: Revelation (Book Introduction)

AUTHENTICITY.--The author calls himself John (Rev 1:1, Rev 1:4, Rev 1:9; Rev 2:8). JUSTIN MARTYR [Dialogue with Trypho, p. 308] (A.D. 139-161) quotes from the Apocalypse, as John the apostle's work, the prophecy of the millennium of the saints, to be followed by the general resurrection and judgment. This testimony of JUSTIN is referred to also by EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 4.18]. JUSTIN MARTYR, in the early part of the second century, held his controversy with TRYPHO, a learned Jew, at Ephesus, where John had been living thirty or thirty-five years before: he says that "the Revelation had been given to John, one of the twelve apostles of Christ." MELITO, bishop of Sardis (about A.D. 171), one of the seven churches addressed, a successor, therefore, of one of the seven angels, is said by EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 4.26] to have written treatises on the Apocalypse of John. The testimony of the bishop of Sardis is the more impartial, as Sardis is one of the churches severely reproved (Rev 3:1). So also THEOPHILUS OF ANTIOCH (about A.D. 180), according to EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 4.26], quoted testimonies from the Apocalypse of John. EUSEBIUS says the same of Apollonius, who lived in Asia Minor in the end of the second century. IRENÆUS (about A.D. 180), a hearer of POLYCARP, the disciple of John, and supposed by ARCHBISHOP USHER to be the angel of the Church of Smyrna, is most decided again and again in quoting the Apocalypse as the work of the apostle John [Against Heresies, 4.20.11; 4.21.3; 4.30.4; 5.36.1; 5.30.3; 5.35.2]. In [5.30.1], alluding to the mystical number of the beast, six hundred sixty-six (Rev 13:18), found in all old copies, he says, "We do not hazard a confident theory as to the name of Antichrist; for if it had been necessary that his name should be proclaimed openly at the present time, it would have been declared by him who saw the apocalyptic vision; for it was seen at no long time back, but almost in our generation, towards the end of Domitian's reign." In his work Against Heresies, published ten years after Polycarp's martyrdom, he quotes the Apocalypse twenty times, and makes long extracts from it, as inspired Scripture. These testimonies of persons contemporary with John's immediate successors, and more or less connected with the region of the seven churches to which Revelation is addressed, are most convincing. TERTULLIAN, of North Africa (about A.D. 220), [Against Marcion, 3.14], quotes the apostle John's descriptions in the Apocalypse of the sword proceeding out of the Lord's mouth (Rev 19:15), and of the heavenly city (Rev. 21:1-27). Compare On the Resurrection of the Flesh [27]; A Treatise on the Soul, [8, 9, &c.]; The Prescription Against Heretics, [33]. The MURATORI fragment of the canon (about A.D. 200) refers to John the apostle writing to the seven churches. HIPPOLYTUS, bishop of Ostia, near Rome (about A.D. 240) [On Antichrist, p. 67], quotes Rev. 17:1-18, as the writing of John the apostle. Among HIPPOLYTUS' works, there is specified in the catalogue on his statue, a treatise "on the Apocalypse and Gospel according to John." CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA (about A.D. 200) [Miscellanies, 6.13], alludes to the twenty-four seats on which the elders sit as mentioned by John in the Apocalypse (Rev 4:5); also, [Who Is the Rich Man Who Shall Be Saved? 42], he mentions John's return from Patmos to Ephesus on the death of the Roman tyrant. ORIGEN (about A.D. 233), [Commentary on Matthew, in EUSEBIUS Ecclesiastical History, 6.25], mentions John as the author of the Apocalypse, without expressing any doubts as to its authenticity; also, in Commentary on Matthew, [16.6], he quotes Rev 1:9, and says, "John seems to have beheld the Apocalypse in the island of Patmos." VICTORINUS, bishop of Pettau in Pannonia, who suffered martyrdom under Diocletian in A.D. 303, wrote the earliest extant commentary on the Apocalypse. Though the Old Syriac Peschito version does not contain the Apocalypse, yet EPHREM THE SYRIAN (about A.D. 378) frequently quotes the Apocalypse as canonical, and ascribes it to John.

Its canonicity and inspiration (according to a scholium of ANDREAS OF CAPPADOCIA) are attested by PAPIAS, a hearer of John, and associate of POLYCARP. PAPIAS was bishop of Hierapolis, near Laodicea, one of the seven churches. WORDSWORTH conjectures that a feeling of shame, on account of the rebukes of Laodicea in Revelation, may have operated on the Council of Laodicea, so as to omit Revelation from its list of books to be read publicly (?). The Epistle of the churches of Lyons and Vienne to the churches of Asia and Phrygia (in EUSEBIUS, [Ecclesiastical History, 5.1-3]), in the persecution under Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 77) quotes Rev 1:5; Rev 3:14; Rev 14:4; Rev 22:11, as Scripture. CYPRIAN (about A.D. 250) also, in Epistle 13, quotes Rev 2:5 as Scripture; and in Epistle 25 he quotes Rev 3:21, as of the same authority as the Gospel. (For other instances, see ALFORD'S Prolegomena, from whom mainly this summary of evidence has been derived). ATHANASIUS, in his Festival Epistle, enumerates the Apocalypse among the canonical Scriptures, to which none must add, and from which none must take away. JEROME [Epistle to Paulinus] includes in the canon the Apocalypse, adding, "It has as many mysteries as words. All praise falls short of its merits. In each of its words lie hid manifold senses." Thus an unbroken chain of testimony down from the apostolic period confirms its canonicity and authenticity.

The ALOGI [EPIPHANIUS, Heresies, 51] and CAIUS the Roman presbyter [EUSEBIUS, Ecclesiastical History, 3.28], towards the end of the second and beginning of the third century, rejected John's Apocalypse on mere captious grounds. CAIUS, according to JEROME [On Illustrious Men], about A.D. 210, attributed it to Cerinthus, on the ground of its supporting the millennial reign on earth. DIONYSIUS OF ALEXANDRIA mentions many before his time who rejected it because of its obscurity and because it seemed to support Cerinthus' dogma of an earthly and carnal kingdom; whence they attributed it to Cerinthus. This DIONYSIUS, scholar of ORIGEN, and bishop of Alexandria (A.D. 247), admits its inspiration (in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 7.10]), but attributes it to some John distinct from John the apostle, on the ground of its difference of style and character, as compared with John's Gospel and Epistle, as also because the name John is several times mentioned in the Apocalypse, which is always kept back in both the Gospel and Epistle; moreover, neither does the Epistle make any allusion to the Apocalypse, nor the Apocalypse to the Epistle; and the style is not pure Greek, but abounds in barbarisms and solecisms. EUSEBIUS wavers in opinion [Ecclesiastical History, 24.39] as to whether it is, or is not, to be ranked among the undoubtedly canonical Scriptures. His antipathy to the millennial doctrine would give an unconscious bias to his judgment on the Apocalypse. CYRIL OF JERUSALEM (A.D. 386), [Catechetical Lectures, 4.35,36], omits the Apocalypse in enumerating the New Testament Scriptures to be read privately as well as publicly. "Whatever is not read in the churches, that do not even read by thyself; the apostles and ancient bishops of the Church who transmitted them to us were far wiser than thou art." Hence, we see that, in his day, the Apocalypse was not read in the churches. Yet in Catechetical Lectures, 1.4 he quotes Rev 2:7, Rev 2:17; and in Catechetical Lectures, 1; 15.13 he draws the prophetical statement from Rev 17:11, that the king who is to humble the three kings (Dan 7:8, Dan 7:20) is the eighth king. In Catechetical Lectures, 15 and 27, he similarly quotes from Rev 12:3-4. ALFORD conjectures that CYRIL had at some time changed his opinion, and that these references to the Apocalypse were slips of memory whereby he retained phraseology which belonged to his former, not his subsequent views. The sixtieth canon (if genuine) of the Laodicean Council in the middle of the fourth century omits the Apocalypse from the canonical books. The Eastern Church in part doubted, the Western Church, after the fifth century, universally recognized, the Apocalypse. CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA [On Worship, 146], though implying the fact of some doubting its genuineness, himself undoubtedly accepts it as the work of St. John. ANDREAS OF CÆSAREA, in Cappadocia, recognized as genuine and canonical, and wrote the first entire and connected commentary on, the Apocalypse. The sources of doubt seem to have been, (1) the antagonism of many to the millennium, which is set forth in it; (2) its obscurity and symbolism having caused it not to be read in the churches, or to be taught to the young. But the most primitive tradition is unequivocal in its favor. In a word, the objective evidence is decidedly for it; the only arguments against it seem to have been subjective.

The personal notices of John in the Apocalypse occur Rev 1:1, Rev 1:4, Rev 1:9; Rev 22:8. Moreover, the writer's addresses to the churches of Proconsular Asia (Rev 2:1) accord with the concurrent tradition, that after John's return from his exile in Patmos, at the death of Domitian, under Nerva, he resided for long, and died at last in Ephesus, in the time of Trajan [EUSEBIUS, Ecclesiastical History, 3.20,23]. If the Apocalypse were not the inspired work of John, purporting as it does to be an address from their superior to the seven churches of Proconsular Asia, it would have assuredly been rejected in that region; whereas the earliest testimonies in those churches are all in its favor. One person alone was entitled to use language of authority such as is addressed to the seven angels of the churches--namely, John, as the last surviving apostle and superintendent of all the churches. Also, it accords with John's manner to assert the accuracy of his testimony both at the beginning and end of his book (compare Rev 1:2-3, and Rev 22:8, with Joh 1:14; Joh 21:24; 1Jo 1:1-2). Again, it accords with the view of the writer being an inspired apostle that he addresses the angels or presidents of the several churches in the tone of a superior addressing inferiors. Also, he commends the Church of Ephesus for trying and convicting "them which say they are apostles, and are not," by which he implies his own undoubted claim to apostolic inspiration (Rev 2:2), as declaring in the seven epistles Christ's will revealed through him.

As to the difference of style, as compared with the Gospel and Epistle, the difference of subject in part accounts for it, the visions of the seer, transported as he was above the region of sense, appropriately taking a form of expression abrupt, and unbound by the grammatical laws which governed his writings of a calmer and more deliberate character. Moreover, as being a Galilean Hebrew, John, in writing a Revelation akin to the Old Testament prophecies, naturally reverted to their Hebraistic style. ALFORD notices, among the features of resemblance between the styles of the Apocalypse and John's Gospel and Epistle: (1) the characteristic appellation of our Lord, peculiar to John exclusively, "the Word of God" (Rev 19:13; compare Joh 1:1; 1Jo 1:1). (2) the phrase, "he that overcometh" (Rev 2:7, Rev 2:11, Rev 2:17; Rev 3:5, Rev 3:12, Rev 3:21; Rev 12:11; Rev 15:2; Rev 17:14; Rev 21:7; compare Joh 16:33 1Jo 2:13-14; 1Jo 4:4; 1Jo 5:4-5). (3) The Greek term (alethinos) for "true," as opposed to that which is shadowy and unreal (Rev 3:7, Rev 3:14; Rev 6:10; Rev 15:3; Rev 16:7; Rev 19:2, Rev 19:9, Rev 19:11; Rev 21:5; Rev 22:6). This term, found only once in Luke (Luk 16:11), four times in Paul (1Th 1:9; Heb 8:2; Heb 9:24; Heb 10:22), is found nine times in John's Gospel (Joh 1:9; Joh 4:23, Joh 4:37; Joh 6:32; Joh 7:28; Joh 8:16; Joh 15:1 Joh 17:3; Joh 19:3, Joh 19:5), twice in John's First Epistle (1Jo 2:8; 1Jo 5:20), and ten times in Revelation (Rev 3:7, Rev 3:14; Rev 6:10; Rev 15:3; Rev 16:7; Rev 19:2, Rev 19:9, Rev 19:11; Rev 21:5 Rev 22:6). (4) The Greek diminutive for "Lamb" (arnion, literally, "lambkin") occurs twenty-nine times in the Apocalypse, and the only other place where it occurs is Joh 21:15. In John's writings alone is Christ called directly "the Lamb" (Joh 1:29, Joh 1:36). In 1Pe 1:19, He is called "as a lamb without blemish," in allusion to Isa 53:7. So the use of "witness," or "testimony" (Rev 1:2, Rev 1:9; Rev 6:9; Rev 11:7, &c.; compare Joh 1:7-8, Joh 1:15, Joh 1:19, Joh 1:32; 1Jo 1:2; 1Jo 4:14; 1Jo 5:6-11). "Keep the word," or "commandments" (Rev 3:8, Rev 3:10; Rev 12:17; compare Joh 8:51, Joh 8:55; Joh 14:15). The assertion of the same thing positively and negatively (Rev 2:2, Rev 2:6, Rev 2:8, Rev 2:13; Rev 3:8, Rev 3:17-18; compare Joh 1:3, Joh 1:6-7, Joh 1:20; 1Jo 2:27-28). Compare also 1Jo 2:20, 1Jo 2:27 with Rev 3:18, as to the spiritual anointing. The seeming solecisms of style are attributable to that,inspired elevation which is above mere grammatical rules, and are designed to arrest the reader's attention by the peculiarity of the phrase, so as to pause and search into some deep truth lying beneath. The vivid earnestness of the inspired writer, handling a subject so transcending all others, raises him above all servile adherence to ordinary rules, so that at times he abruptly passes from one grammatical construction to another, as he graphically sets the thing described before the eye of the reader. This is not due to ignorance of grammar, for he "has displayed a knowledge of grammatical rules in other much more difficult constructions" [WINER]. The connection of thought is more attended to than mere grammatical connection. Another consideration to be taken into account is that two-fifths of the whole being the recorded language of others, he moulds his style accordingly. Compare TREGELLES' Introduction to Revelation from Heathen Authorities.

TREGELLES well says [New Testament Historic Evidence], "There is no book of the New Testament for which we have such clear, ample, and numerous testimonies in the second century as we have in favor of the Apocalypse. The more closely the witnesses were connected with the apostle John (as was the case with IRENÆUS), the more explicit is their testimony. That doubts should prevail in after ages must have originated either in ignorance of the earlier testimony, or else from some supposed intuition of what an apostle ought to have written. The objections on the ground of internal style can weigh nothing against the actual evidence. It is in vain to argue, a priori, that John could not have written this book when we have the evidence of several competent witnesses that he did write it."

RELATION OF THE APOCALYPSE TO THE REST OF THE CANON.--GREGORY OF NYSSA [tom. 3, p. 601], calls Revelation "the last book of grace." It completes the volume of inspiration, so that we are to look for no further revelation till Christ Himself shall come. Appropriately the last book completing the canon was written by John, the last survivor of the apostles. The New Testament is composed of the historical books, the Gospels and Acts, the doctrinal Epistles, and the one prophetical book, Revelation. The same apostle wrote the last of the Gospels, and probably the last of the Epistles, and the only prophetical book of the New Testament. All the books of the New Testament had been written, and were read in the Church assemblies, some years before John's death. His life was providentially prolonged that he might give the final attestation to Scripture. About the year A.D. 100, the bishops of Asia (the angels of the seven churches) came to John at EPHESUS, bringing him copies of the three Gospels, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, and desired of him a statement of his apostolical judgment concerning them; whereupon he pronounced them authentic, genuine, and inspired, and at their request added his own Gospel to complete the fourfold aspect of the Gospel of Christ (compare MURATORI [Fragment on the Canon of Scripture]; EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 3.24]; JEROME [Commentary on Matthew]; VICTORINUS on the Apocalypse; THEODORET [Ecclesiastical History, 39]). A Greek divine, quoted in ALLATIUS, calls Revelation "the seal of the whole Bible." The canon would be incomplete without Revelation. Scripture is a complete whole, its component books, written in a period ranging over one thousand five hundred years, being mutually connected. Unity of aim and spirit pervades the entire, so that the end is the necessary sequence of the middle, and the middle of the beginning. Genesis presents before us man and his bride in innocence and blessedness, followed by man's fall through Satan's subtlety, and man's consequent misery, his exclusion from Paradise and its tree of life and delightful rivers. Revelation presents, in reverse order, man first liable to sin and death, but afterwards made conqueror through the blood of the Lamb; the first Adam and Eve, represented by the second Adam, Christ, and the Church. His spotless bride, in Paradise, with free access to the tree of life and the crystal water of life that flows from the throne of God. As Genesis foretold the bruising of the serpent's head by the woman's seed (Gen 3:15), so Revelation declares the final accomplishment of that prediction (Rev. 19:1-20:15).

PLACE AND TIME OF WRITING.--The best authorities among the Fathers state that John was exiled under Domitian (IRENÆUS [Against Heresies, 5; 30]; CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA; EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 3.20]). VICTORINUS says that he had to labor in the mines of Patmos. At Domitian's death, A.D. 95, he returned to Ephesus under the Emperor Nerva. Probably it was immediately after his return that he wrote, under divine inspiration, the account of the visions vouchsafed to him in Patmos (Rev 1:2, Rev 1:9). However, Rev 10:4 seems to imply that he wrote the visions immediately after seeing them. Patmos is one of the Sporades. Its circumference is about thirty miles. "It was fitting that when forbidden to go beyond certain bounds of the earth's lands, he was permitted to penetrate the secrets of heaven" [BEDE, Explanation of the Apocalypse on chap. 1]. The following arguments favor an earlier date, namely, under Nero: (1) EUSEBIUS [Demonstration of the Gospel] unites in the same sentence John's banishment with the stoning of James and the beheading of Paul, which were under Nero. (2) CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA'S'S story of the robber reclaimed by John, after he had pursued, and with difficulty overtaken him, accords better with John then being a younger man than under Domitian, when he was one hundred years old. Arethas, in the sixth century, applies the sixth seal to the destruction of Jerusalem (A.D. 70), adding that the Apocalypse was written before that event. So the Syriac version states he was banished by Nero the Cæsar. Laodicea was overthrown by an earthquake (A.D. 60) but was immediately rebuilt, so that its being called "rich and increased with goods" is not incompatible with this book having been written under the Neronian persecution (A.D. 64). But the possible allusions to it in Heb 10:37; compare Rev 1:4, Rev 1:8; Rev 4:8; Rev 22:12; Heb 11:10; compare Rev 21:14; Heb 12:22-23; compare Rev 14:1; Heb 8:1-2; compare Rev 11:19; Rev 15:5; Rev 21:3; Heb 4:12; compare Rev 1:16; Rev 2:12, Rev 2:16; Rev 19:13, Rev 19:15; Heb 4:9; compare Rev 20:1-15; also 1Pe 1:7, 1Pe 1:13; 1Pe 4:13, with Rev 1:1; 1Pe 2:9 with Rev 5:10; 2Ti 4:8, with Rev 2:26-27; Rev 3:21; Rev 11:18; Eph 6:12, with Rev 12:7-12; Phi 4:3, with Rev 3:5; Rev 13:8; Rev 17:8; Rev 20:12, Rev 20:15; Col 1:18, with Rev 1:5; 1Co 15:52, with Rev 10:7; Rev 11:15-18, make a date before the destruction of Laodicea possible. Cerinthus is stated to have died before John; as then he borrowed much in his Pseudo-Apocalypse from John's, it is likely the latter was at an earlier date than Domitian's reign. See TILLOCH'S Introduction to Apocalypse. But the Pauline benediction (Rev 1:4) implies it was written after Paul's death under Nero.

TO WHAT READERS ADDRESSED.--The inscription states that it is addressed to the seven churches of Asia, that is, Proconsular Asia. John's reason for fixing on the number seven (for there were more than seven churches in the region meant by "Asia," for instance, Magnesia and Tralles) was doubtless because seven is the sacred number implying totality and universality: so it is implied that John, through the medium of the seven churches, addresses in the Spirit the Church of all places and ages. The Church in its various states of spiritual life or deadness, in all ages and places, is represented by the seven churches, and is addressed with words of consolation or warning accordingly. Smyrna and Philadelphia alone of the seven are honored with unmixed praise, as faithful in tribulation and rich in good works. Heresies of a decided kind had by this time arisen in the churches of Asia, and the love of many had waxed cold, while others had advanced to greater zeal, and one had sealed his testimony with his blood.

OBJECT.--It begins with admonitory addresses to the seven churches from the divine Son of man, whom John saw in vision, after a brief introduction which sets forth the main subject of the book, namely, to "show unto His servants things which must shortly come to pass" (the first through third chapters). From the fourth chapter to the end is mainly prophecy, with practical exhortations and consolations, however, interspersed, similar to those addressed to the seven churches (the representatives of the universal Church of every age), and so connecting the body of the book with its beginning, which therefore forms its appropriate introduction. Three schools of interpreters exist: (1) The Preterists, who hold that almost the whole has been fulfilled. (2) The Historical Interpreters, who hold that it comprises the history of the Church from John's time to the end of the world, the seals being chronologically succeeded, by the trumpets and the trumpets by the vials. (3) The Futurists, who consider almost the whole as yet future, and to be fulfilled immediately before Christ's second coming. The first theory was not held by any of the earliest Fathers, and is only held now by Rationalists, who limit John's vision to things within his own horizon, pagan Rome's persecutions of Christians, and its consequently anticipated destruction. The Futurist school is open to this great objection: it would leave the Church of Christ unprovided with prophetical guidance or support under her fiery trials for 1700 or 1800 years. Now God has said, "Surely He will do nothing, but He revealeth His secrets unto His servants the prophets" (Amo 3:7). The Jews had a succession of prophets who guided them with the light of prophecy: what their prophets were to them, that the apocalyptic Scriptures have been, and are, to us.

ALFORD, following ISAAC WILLIAMS, draws attention to the parallel connection between the Apocalypse and Christ's discourse on the Mount of Olives, recorded in Mat. 24:4-28. The seals plainly bring us down to the second coming of Christ, just as the trumpets also do (compare Rev 6:12-17; Rev 8:1, &c.; Rev 11:15), and as the vials also do (Rev 16:17): all three run parallel, and end in the same point. Certain "catchwords" (as WORDSWORTH calls them) connect the three series of symbols together. They do not succeed one to the other in historical and chronological sequence, but move side by side, the subsequent series filling up in detail the same picture which the preceding series had drawn in outline. So VICTORINUS (on Rev 7:2), the earliest commentator on the Apocalypse, says, "The order of the things said is not to be regarded, since often the Holy Spirit, when He has run to the end of the last time, again returns to the same times, and supplies what He has less fully expressed." And PRIMASIUS [Commentary on the Apocalypse], "In the trumpets he gives a description by a pleasing repetition, as is his custom."

At the very beginning, John hastens, by anticipation (as was the tendency of all the prophets), to the grand consummation. Rev 1:7, "Behold, He cometh with clouds," &c. Rev 1:8, Rev 1:17, "I am the beginning and the ending . . . the first and the last." So the seven epistles exhibit the same anticipation of the end. Rev 3:12, "Him that overcometh, I will write upon Him the name of my God, and the name of the city of my God, which is new Jerusalem, which cometh down out of heaven"; compare at the close, Rev 21:2. So also Rev 2:28, "I will give him the morning star"; compare at the close, Rev 22:16, "I am the bright and morning star."

Again, the earthquake that ensues on the opening of the sixth seal is one of the catchwords, that is, a link connecting chronologically this sixth seal with the sixth trumpet (Rev 9:13; Rev 11:13): compare also the seventh vial, Rev 16:17-18. The concomitants of the opening of the sixth seal, it is plain, in no full and exhaustive sense apply to any event, save the terrors which shall overwhelm the ungodly just before the coming of the Judge.

Again, the beast out of the bottomless pit (Rev 11:7), between the sixth and seventh trumpets, connects this series with the section, twelfth through fourteenth chapters, concerning the Church and her adversaries.

Again, the sealing of the 144,000 under the sixth seal connects this seal with the section, the twelfth through fourteenth chapters.

Again, the loosing of the four winds by the four angels standing on the four corners of the earth, under the sixth seal, answers to the loosing of the four angels at the Euphrates, under the sixth trumpet.

Moreover, links occur in the Apocalypse connecting it with the Old Testament. For instance, the "mouth speaking great things" (Dan 7:8 Rev 13:5), connects the beast that blasphemes against God, and makes war against the saints, with the little horn (Dan 7:21; Rev 13:6-7), or at last king, who, arising after the ten kings, shall speak against the Most High, and wear out the saints (Dan 7:25); also, compare the "forty-two months" (Rev 13:5), or "a thousand two hundred and threescore days" (Rev 12:6), with the "time, times, and the dividing of time," of Dan 7:25. Moreover, the "forty-two months," Rev 11:2, answering to Rev 12:6; Rev 13:5, link together the period under the sixth trumpet to the section, Rev. 12:1-14:20.

AUBERLEN observes, "The history of salvation is mysteriously governed by holy numbers. They are the scaffolding of the organic edifice. They are not merely outward indications of time, but indications of nature and essence. Not only nature, but history, is based in numbers. Scripture and antiquity put numbers as the fundamental forms of things, where we put ideas." As number is the regulator of the relations and proportions of the natural world, so does it enter most frequently into the revelations of the Apocalypse, which sets forth the harmonies of the supernatural, the immediately Divine. Thus the most supernatural revelation leads us the farthest into the natural, as was to be expected, seeing the God of nature and of revelation is one. Seven is the number for perfection (compare Rev 1:4; Rev 4:5, the seven Spirits before the throne; also, Rev 5:6, the Lamb's seven horns and seven eyes). Thus the seven churches represent the Church catholic in its totality. The seven seals (Rev 5:1), the seven trumpets (Rev 8:2), and the seven vials (Rev 17:1), are severally a complete series each in itself, fulfilling perfectly the divine course of judgments. Three and a half implies a number opposed to the divine (seven), but broken in itself, and which, in the moment of its highest triumph, is overwhelmed by judgment and utter ruin. Four is the number of the world's extension; seven is the number of God's revelation in the world. In the four beasts of Daniel (Dan 7:3) there is a recognition of some power above them, at the same time that there is a mimicry of the four cherubs of Ezekiel (Eze 10:9), the heavenly symbols of all creation in its due subjection to God (Rev 4:6-8). So the four corners of the earth, the four winds, the four angels loosed from the Euphrates, and Jerusalem lying "foursquare" (Rev 21:16), represent world-wide extension. The sevenfoldness of the Spirits on the part of God corresponds with the fourfold cherubim on the part of the created. John, seeing more deeply into the essentially God-opposed character of the world, presents to us, not the four beasts of Daniel, but the seven heads of the beast, whereby it arrogates to itself the sevenfold perfection of the Spirits of God; at the same time that, with characteristic self-contradiction, it has ten horns, the number peculiar to the world power. Its unjust usurpation of the sacred number seven is marked by the addition of an eighth to the seven heads, and also by the beast's own number, six hundred sixty-six, which in units, tens, and hundreds, verges upon, but falls short of, seven. The judgments on the world are complete in six: after the sixth seal and the sixth trumpet, there is a pause. When seven comes, there comes "the kingdom of our Lord and His Christ." Six is the number of the world given to judgment. Moreover, six is half of twelve, as three and a half is the half of seven. Twelve is the number of the Church: compare the twelve tribes of Israel, the twelve stars on the woman's head (Rev 12:1), the twelve gates of new Jerusalem (Rev 21:12, Rev 21:21). Six thus symbolizes the world broken, and without solid foundation. Twice twelve is the number of the heavenly elders; twelve times twelve thousand the number of the sealed elect (Rev 7:4): the tree of life yields twelve manner of fruits. Doubtless, besides this symbolic force, there is a special chronological meaning in the numbers; but as yet, though a commanded subject of investigation, they have received no solution which we can be sure is the true one. They are intended to stimulate reverent inquiry, not to gratify idle speculative curiosity; and when the event shall have been fulfilled, they will show the divine wisdom of God, who ordered all things in minutely harmonious relations, and left neither the times nor the ways haphazard.

The arguments for the year-day theory are as follows: Dan 9:24, "Seventy weeks are determined upon," where the Hebrew may be seventy sevens; but MEDE observes, the Hebrew word means always seven of days, and never seven of years (Lev 12:5; Deu 16:9-10, Deu 16:16). Again, the number of years' wandering of the Israelites was made to correspond to the number of days in which the spies searched the land, namely, forty: compare "each day for a year," Num 14:33-34. So in Eze 4:5-6, "I have laid up on thee the years of their iniquity, according to the number of the days, three hundred and ninety days . . . forty days: I have appointed thee each day for a year." John, in Revelation itself, uses days in a sense which can hardly be literal. Rev 2:10, "Ye shall have tribulation ten days": the persecution of ten years recorded by EUSEBIUS seems to correspond to it. In the year-day theory there is still quite enough of obscurity to exercise the patience and probation of faith, for we cannot say precisely when the 1260 years begin: so that this theory is quite compatible with Christ's words, "Of that day and hour knoweth no man" [Mat 24:36; Mar 13:32]. However, it is a difficulty in this theory that "a thousand years," in Rev 20:6-7, can hardly mean one thousand by three hundred sixty days, that is, three hundred sixty thousand years. The first resurrection there must be literal, even as Rev 20:5 must be taken literally, "the rest of the dead lived not again until the thousand years were finished" (Rev 20:5). To interpret the former spiritually would entail the need of interpreting the latter so, which would be most improbable; for it would imply that "the rest of the (spiritually) dead lived not (spiritually)" until the end of the thousand years, and then that they did come spiritually to life. 1Co 15:23, "they that are Christ's at His coming," confirms the literal view.

JFB: Revelation (Outline)

• TITLE: SOURCE AND OBJECT OF THIS REVELATION: BLESSING ON THE READER AND KEEPER OF IT, AS THE TIME IS NEAR: INSCRIPTION TO THE SEVEN CHURCHES: APOSTOLIC GREETING: KEYNOTE, "BEHOLD HE COMETH" (Compare at the close, Rev 22:20, "Surely I come quickly"): INTRODUCTORY VISION OF THE SON OF MAN IN GLORY, AMIDST THE SEVEN CANDLESTICKS, WITH SEVEN STARS IN HIS RIGHT HAND. (Rev. 1:1-20)
• EPISTLES TO EPHESUS, SMYRNA, PERGAMOS, THYATIRA. (Rev. 2:1-29)
• THE EPISTLES TO SARDIS, PHILADELPHIA, AND LAODICEA. (Rev. 3:1-22)
• VISION OF GOD'S THRONE IN HEAVEN; THE FOUR AND TWENTY ELDERS; THE FOUR LIVING CREATURES. (Rev 4:1-11)
• THE BOOK WITH SEVEN SEALS: NONE WORTHY TO OPEN IT BUT THE LAMB: HE TAKES IT AMIDST THE PRAISES OF THE REDEEMED, AND OF THE WHOLE HEAVENLY HOST. (Rev 5:1-14)
• THE OPENING OF THE FIRST SIX OF THE SEVEN SEALS. (Rev. 6:1-17)
• SEALING OF THE ELECT OF ISRAEL. THE COUNTLESS MULTITUDE OF THE GENTILE ELECT. (Rev. 7:1-17)
• SEVENTH SEAL. PREPARATION FOR THE SEVEN TRUMPETS. THE FIRST FOUR AND THE CONSEQUENT PLAGUES. (Rev 8:1-13)
• THE FIFTH TRUMPET: THE FALLEN STAR OPENS THE ABYSS WHENCE ISSUE LOCUSTS. THE SIXTH TRUMPET. FOUR ANGELS AT THE EUPHRATES LOOSED. (Rev. 9:1-21) The last three trumpets of the seven are called, from Rev 8:13, the woe-trumpets.
• VISION OF THE LITTLE BOOK. (Rev 10:1-11)
• MEASUREMENT OF THE TEMPLE. THE TWO WITNESSES' TESTIMONY: THEIR DEATH, RESURRECTION, AND ASCENSION: THE EARTHQUAKE: THE THIRD WOE: THE SEVENTH TRUMPET USHERS IN CHRIST'S KINGDOM. THANKSGIVING OF THE TWENTY-FOUR ELDERS. (Rev. 11:1-19)
• VISION OF THE WOMAN, HER CHILD, AND THE PERSECUTING DRAGON. (Rev. 12:1-17) This episode (Rev. 12:1-15:8) describes in detail the persecution of Israel and the elect Church by the beast, which had been summarily noticed, Rev 11:7-10, and the triumph of the faithful, and torment of the unfaithful. So also the sixteenth through twentieth chapters are the description in detail of the judgment on the beast, &c., summarily noticed in Rev 11:13, Rev 11:18. The beast in Rev 12:3, &c., is shown not to be alone, but to be the instrument in the hand of a greater power of darkness, Satan. That this is so, appears from the time of the eleventh chapter being the period also in which the events of the twelfth and thirteenth chapters take place, namely, 1260 days (Rev 12:6, Rev 12:14; Rev 13:5; compare Rev 11:2-3).
• VISION OF THE BEAST THAT CAME OUT OF THE SEA: THE SECOND BEAST, OUT OF THE EARTH, EXERCISING THE POWER OF THE FIRST BEAST, AND CAUSING THE EARTH TO WORSHIP HIM. (Rev. 13:1-18)
• THE LAMB SEEN ON ZION WITH THE 144,000. THEIR SONG. THE GOSPEL PROCLAIMED BEFORE THE END BY ONE ANGEL: THE FALL OF BABYLON, BY ANOTHER: THE DOOM OF THE BEAST WORSHIPPERS, BY A THIRD. THE BLESSEDNESS OF THE DEAD IN THE LORD. THE HARVEST. THE VINTAGE. (Rev. 14:1-20)
• THE LAST SEVEN VIALS OF PLAGUES: SONG OF THE VICTORS OVER THE BEAST. (Rev 15:1-8)
• THE SEVEN VIALS AND THE CONSEQUENT PLAGUES. (Rev. 16:1-21)
• THE HARLOT BABYLON'S GAUD: THE BEAST ON WHICH SHE RIDES, HAVING SEVEN HEADS AND TEN HORNS, SHALL BE THE INSTRUMENT OF JUDGMENT ON HER. (Rev. 17:1-18)
• BABYLON'S FALL: GOD'S PEOPLE CALLED OUT OF HER: THE KINGS AND MERCHANTS OF THE EARTH MOURN, WHILE THE SAINTS REJOICE AT HER FALL. (Rev. 18:1-24)
• THE CHURCH'S THANKSGIVING IN HEAVEN FOR THE JUDGMENT ON THE HARLOT. THE MARRIAGE OF THE LAMB: THE SUPPER: THE BRIDE'S PREPARATION: JOHN IS FORBIDDEN TO WORSHIP THE ANGEL: THE LORD AND HIS HOSTS COME FORTH FOR WAR: THE BEAST AND THE FALSE PROPHET CAST INTO THE LAKE OF FIRE: THE KINGS AND THEIR FOLLOWERS SLAIN BY THE SWORD OUT OF CHRIST'S MOUTH. (Rev. 19:1-21) As in the case of the opening of the prophecy, Rev 4:8; Rev 5:9, &c.; so now, at one of the great closing events seen in vision, the judgment on the harlot (described in Rev. 18:1-24), there is a song of praise in heaven to God: compare Rev 7:10, &c., toward the close of the seals, and Rev 11:15-18, at the close of the trumpets: Rev 15:3, at the saints' victory over the beast.
• SATAN BOUND, AND THE FIRST-RISEN SAINTS REIGN WITH CHRIST, A THOUSAND YEARS; SATAN LOOSED, GATHERS THE NATIONS, GOG AND MAGOG, ROUND THE CAMP OF THE SAINTS, AND IS FINALLY CONSIGNED TO THE LAKE OF FIRE; THE GENERAL RESURRECTION AND LAST JUDGMENT. (Rev 20:1-15) The destruction of his representatives, the beast and the false prophet, to whom he had given his power, throne, and authority, is followed by the binding of Satan himself for a thousand years.
• THE NEW HEAVEN AND EARTH: NEW JERUSALEM OUT OF HEAVEN. (Rev. 21:1-27)
• THE RIVER OF LIFE: THE TREE OF LIFE: THE OTHER BLESSEDNESSES OF THE REDEEMED. JOHN FORBIDDEN TO WORSHIP THE ANGEL. NEARNESS OF CHRIST'S COMING TO FIX MAN'S ETERNAL STATE. TESTIMONY OF JESUS, HIS SPIRIT, AND THE BRIDE, ANY ADDITION TO WHICH, OR SUBTRACTION FROM WHICH, SHALL BE ETERNALLY PUNISHED. CLOSING BENEDICTION. (Rev. 22:1-21)

TSK: Revelation (Book Introduction)

The obscurity of this prophecy, which has been urged against its genuineness, necessarily results from the highly figurative and symbolical language in which it is delivered, and is, in fact, a strong internal proof of its authenticity and divine original. " For it is a part of this prophecy," as Sir Isaac Newton justly remarks, " that it should not be understood before the last age of the world; and therefore it makes for the credit of the prophecy that it is not yet understood. The folly of interpreters has been to foretell times and things by this prophecy, as if God designed to make them prophets. By this rashness they have not only exposed themselves, but brought the prophecy also into contempt. The design of God was much otherwise. He gave this, and the prophecies of the Old Testament, not to gratify men’s curiosities by enabling them to foreknow things, but that, after that they were fulfilled, they might be interpreted by the event; and his own providence, not the interpreter’s, be then manifested thereby to the world. For the event of things, predicted many ages before, will then be a convincing argument that the world is governed by Providence. For, as the few and obscure prophecies concerning Christ’s first coming were for setting up the Christian religion, which all nations have since corrupted, so the many and clear prophecies concerning the things to be done at Christ’s second coming, are not only for predicting, but also for effecting a recovery and re-establishment of the long-lost truth, and setting up a kingdom wherein dwells righteousness. The event will prove the Apocalypse; and this prophecy, thus proved and understood, will open the old prophets; and all together will make known the true religion, and establish it. There is already so much of the prophecy fulfilled, that as many as will take pains in this study may see sufficient instances of God’s promise; but then, the signal revolutions predicted by all the holy prophets, will at once both turn men’s eyes upon considering the predictions, and plainly interpret them. Till then we must content ourselves with interpreting what hath already been fulfilled." And, as Mr. Weston observes, " if we were in possession of a complete and particular history of Asia, not only of great events, without person or place, names or dates, but of the exactest biography, geography, topography, and chronology, we might, perhaps, still be able to explain and appropriate more circumstances recorded in the Revelation, under the emperors of the East and the West, and in Arabia, Persia, Tartary, and Asia, the seat of the most important revolutions with which the history of Christianity has ever been interwoven and closely connected." History is the great interpreter of prophecy. " Prophecy is, as I may say," observes Bp. Newton, " history anticipated and contracted; history is prophecy accomplished and dilated; and the prophecies of Scripture contain the fate of the most considerable nations, and the substance of the most memorable transactions in the world, from the earliest to the latest times. Daniel and St. John, with regard to those latter times, are more copious and particular than the other prophets. They exhibit a series and succession of the most important events from the first of the four great empires to the consummation of all things. Their prophecies may really be said to be a summary of the history of the world; and the history of the world is the best comment upon their prophecies....and the more you know of ancient and modern times, and the farther you search into the truth of history, the more you will be satisfied of the truth of prophecy." The Revelation was designed to supply the place of that continued succession of prophets, which demonstrated the continued providence of God to the patriarchal and Jewish churches. " The majority of commentators on the Apocalypse," says Mr. Townsend, " generally acted on these principles of interpretation. They discover in this Book certain predictions of events which were fulfilled soon after they were announced; they trace in the history of later years various coincidences, which so fully agree with the various parts of the Apocalypse, that they are justly entitled to consider them as the fulfilment of its prophecies; and, by thus tracing the one God of revelation through the clouds of the dark ages, through the storms of revolutions and wars, through the mighty convulsions which at various periods have agitated the world, their interpretations, even when they are most contradictory, when they venture to speculate concerning the future, are founded on so much undoubted truth that they have materially confirmed the wavering faith of thousands. Clouds and darkness must cover the brightness of the throne of God, till it shall please him to enable us to bear the brighter beams of his glory. In the mean time, we trace his footsteps in the sea of the Gentile world, his path in the mighty waters of the ambitions and clashing passions of man. We rejoice to anticipate the day when the bondage of Rome, which would perpetuate the intellectual and spiritual slavery of man, shall be overthrown, and day-spring of united knowledge and holiness bless the world."

TSK: Revelation 1 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

Rev 1:1, The preface; Rev 1:4, John’s salutation to the seven churches of Asia; Rev 1:7, The coming of Christ; Rev 1:8, His glorious power and majesty.

MHCC: Revelation (Book Introduction)

The Book of the Revelation of St. John consists of two principal divisions. 1. Relates to " the things which are," that is, the then present state of the church, and contains the epistle of John to the seven churches, and his account of the appearance of the Lord Jesus, and his direction to the apostle to write what he beheld, Rev 1:9-20. Also the addresses or epistles to seven churches of Asia. These, doubtless, had reference to the state of the respective churches, as they then existed, but contain excellent precepts and exhortations, commendations and reproofs, promises and threatenings, suitable to instruct the Christian church at all times. 2. Contains a prophecy of " the things which shall be hereafter," and describes the future state of the church, from the time when the apostle beheld the visions here recorded. It is intended for our spiritual improvement; to warn the careless sinner, point out the way of salvation to the awakened inquirer, build up the weak believer, comfort the afflicted and tempted Christian, and, we may especially add, to strengthen the martyr of Christ, under the cruel persecutions and sufferings inflicted by Satan and his followers.

MHCC: Revelation 1 (Chapter Introduction)

(Rev 1:1-3) The Divine origin, the design, and the importance of this book.

(Rev 1:4-8) The apostle John salutes the seven churches of Asia.

(Rev 1:9-11) Declares when, where, and how, the revelation was made to him.

(Rev 1:12-20) His vision, in which he saw Christ appear.

Matthew Henry: Revelation (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The Revelation of St. John the Divine

It ought to be no prejudice to the credit and authority of this book that it has been rejected by men of corrupt minds, such as Cerdon and Marcion, and doubted of by men of a better character; for this has been the lot of other parts of holy writ, and of the divine Author of the scripture himself. The image and superscription of this book are truly sacred and divine, and the matter of it agreeable with other prophetical books, particularly Ezekiel and Daniel; the church of God has generally received it, and found good counsel and great comfort in it. From the beginning, the church of God has been blessed with prophecy. That glorious prediction of breaking the serpent's head was the stay and support of the patriarchal age; and the many prophecies there were concerning the Messiah to come were the gospel of the Old Testament. Christ himself prophesied of the destruction of Jerusalem; and, about the time in which that was accomplished, he entrusted the apostle John with this book of revelation, to deliver it to the church as a prediction of the most important events that should happen to it to the end of time, for the support of the faith of his people and the direction of their hope. It is called the Revelation, because God therein discovers those things which could never have been sifted out by the reasonings of human understanding, those deep things of God which no man knows, but the Spirit of God, and those to whom he reveals them.

Matthew Henry: Revelation 1 (Chapter Introduction)

This chapter is a general preface to the whole book, and contains, I. An inscription, declaring the original and the design of it (Rev 1:1, Rev 1:2). II. The apostolic benediction pronounced on all those who shall pay a due regard to the contents of this book (Rev 1:3-8). III. A glorious vision or appearance of the Lord Jesus Christ to the apostle John, when he delivered to him this revelation (Rev 1:9 to the end).

Barclay: Revelation (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO THE REVELATION OF JOHN

The Strange Book

When a student of the New Testament embarks upon the study of the Revelation he feels himself projected into a different world. Here is something quite unlike the rest of the New Testament. Not only is the Revelation different; it is also notoriously difficult for a modern mind to understand. The result is that it has sometimes been abandoned as quite unintelligible and it has sometimes become the playground of religious eccentrics, who use it to map out celestial time-tables of what is to come or find in it evidence for their own eccentricities. One despairing commentator said that there are as many riddles in the Revelation as there are words, and another that the study of the Revelation either finds or leaves a man mad.

Luther would have denied the Revelation a place in the New Testament. Along with James, Jude, Second Peter and Hebrews he relegated it to a separate list at the end of his New Testament. He declared that in it there are only images and visions such as are found nowhere else in the Bible. He complained that, notwithstanding the obscurity of his writing, the writer had the boldness to add threats and promises for those who kept or disobeyed his words, unintelligible though they were. In it, said Luther, Christ is neither taught nor acknowledged; and the inspiration of the Holy Spirit is not perceptible in it. Zwingli is equally hostile to the Revelation. "With the Apocalypse," he writes, "we have no concern, for it is not a biblical book.... The Apocalypse has no savour of the mouth or the mind of John. I can, if I so will, reject its testimonies." Most voices have stressed the unintelligibility of the Revelation and not a few have questioned its right to a place in the New Testament.

On the other hand there are those in every generation who have loved this book. T. S. Kepler quotes the verdict of Philip Carrington and makes it his own: "In the case of the Revelation we are dealing with an artist greater than Stevenson or Coleridge or Bach. St. John has a better sense of the right word than Stevenson; he has a greater command of unearthly supernatural loveliness than Coleridge; he has a richer sense of melody and rhythm and composition than Bach.... It is the only masterpiece of pure art in the New Testament.... Its fullness and richness and harmonic variety place it far above Greek tragedy."

We shall no doubt find this book difficult and bewildering; but doubtless, too, we shall find it infinitely worthwhile to wrestle with it until it gives us its blessing and opens its riches to us.

Apocalyptic Literature

In any study of the Revelation we must begin by remembering the basic fact that although unique in the New Testament, it is nonetheless representative of a kind of literature which was the commonest of all between the Old and the New Testaments. The Revelation is commonly called the Apocalypse, being in Greek Apokalupsis. Between the Old and the New Testaments there grew up a great mass of what is called Apocalyptic literature, the product of an indestructible Jewish hope.

The Jews could not forget that they were the chosen people of God. To them that involved the certainty that some day they would arrive at world supremacy. In their early history they looked forward to the coming of a king of Davidline who would unite the nation and lead them to greatness. There was to come forth a shoot from the stump of Jesse (Isa_11:1 , Isa_11:10 ). God would raise up a righteous branch for David (Jer_23:5 ). Some day the people would serve David their king (Jer_30:9 ). David would be their shepherd and their king (Eze_34:23 ; Eze_37:24 ). The booth of David would be repaired (Amo_9:11 ); out of Bethlehem there would come a ruler who would be great to the ends of the earth (Mic_5:2-4 ).

But the whole history of Israel gave the lie to these hopes. After the death of Solomon, the kingdom, small enough to begin with, split into two under Rehoboam and Jeroboam and so lost its unity. The northern kingdom, with its capital at Samaria, vanished in the last quarter of the eighth century B.C. before the assault of the Assyrians, never again reappeared in history and is now the lost ten tribes. The southern kingdom, with its capital at Jerusalem, was reduced to slavery and exile by the Babylonians in the early part of the sixth century B.C. It was later the subject state of the Persians, the Greeks and the Romans. History for the Jews was a catalogue of disasters from which it became clear that no human deliverer could rescue them.

The Two Ages

Jewish thought stubbornly held to the conviction of the chosenness of the Jews but had to adjust itself to the facts of history. It did so by working out a scheme of history. The Jews divided all time into two ages. There was this present age, which is wholly bad and beyond redemption. For it there can be nothing but total destruction. The Jews, therefore, waited for the end of things as they are. There was the age which is to come which was to be wholly good, the golden age of God in which would be peace, prosperity and righteousness and Godchosen people would at last be vindicated and receive the place that was theirs by right.

How was this present age to become the age which is to come? The Jews believed that the change could never be brought about by human agency and, therefore, looked for the direct intervention of God. He would come striding on to the stage of history to blast this present world out of existence and bring in his golden time. The day of the coming of God was called The Day of the Lord and was to be a terrible time of terror and destruction and judgment which would be the birthpangs of the new age.

All apocalyptic literature deals with these events, the sin of the present age, the terrors of the time between, and the blessings of the time to come. It is entirely composed of dreams and visions of the end. That means that all apocalyptic literature is necessarily cryptic. It is continually attempting to describe the indescribable, to say the unsayable, to paint the unpaintable.

This is further complicated by another fact. It was only natural that these apocalyptic visions should flame the more brightly in the minds of men living under tyranny and oppression. The more some alien power held them down, the more they dreamed of the destruction of that power and of their own vindication. But it would only have worsened the situation, if the oppressing power could have understood these dreams. Such writings would have seemed the works of rebellious revolutionaries. Such books, therefore, were frequently written in code, deliberately couched in language which was unintelligible to the outsider; and there are many cases in which they must remain unintelligible because the key to the code no longer exists. But the more we know about the historical background of such books, the better we can interpret them.

The Revelation

All this is the precise picture of our Revelation. There are any number of Jewish Apocalypses--Enoch, The Sibylline Oracles, The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, The Ascension of Isaiah, The Assumption of Moses, The Apocalypse of Baruch, Fourth Ezra. Our Revelation is a Christian Apocalypse. It is the only one in the New Testament, although there were many others which did not gain admission. It is written exactly on the Jewish pattern and follows the basic conception of the two ages. The only difference is that for the day of the Lord it substitutes the coming in power of Jesus Christ. Not only the pattern but the details are the same. The Jewish apocalypses had a standard apparatus of events which were to happen at the last time; these events all have their place in Revelation.

Before we go on to outline that pattern of events, another question arises. Both apocalyptic and prophecy deal with the events which are to come. What, then, is the difference between them?

Apocalyptic And Prophecy

The difference between the prophets and the apocalyptists was very real. There were two main differences, one of message and one of method.

(i) The prophet thought in terms of this present world. His message was often a cry for social, economic and political justice; and was always a summons to obey and serve God within this present world. To the prophet it was this world which was to be reformed and in which Godkingdom would come. This has been expressed by saying that the prophet believed in history. He believed that in the events of history Godpurpose was being worked out. In one sense the prophet was an optimist, for, however sternly he condemned things as they were, he nonetheless believed that they could be mended, if men would accept the will of God. To the apocalyptist the world was beyond mending. He believed, not in the reformation, but in the dissolution of this present world. He looked forward to the creation of a new world, when this one had been shattered by the avenging wrath of God. In one sense, therefore, the apocalyptist was a pessimist, for he did not believe that things as they were could ever be cured. True, he was quite certain that the golden age would come, but only after this world had been destroyed.

(ii) The prophetmessage was spoken; the message of the apocalyptist was always written. Apocalyptic is a literary production. Had it been delivered by word of mouth, men would never have understood it. It is difficult, involved, often unintelligible; it has to be pored over before it can be understood. Further, the prophet always spoke under his own name; all apocalyptic writings--except our New Testament one--are pseudonymous. They are put into the mouths of great ones of the past, like Noah, Enoch, Isaiah, Moses, The Twelve Patriarchs, Ezra and Baruch. There is something pathetic about this. The men who wrote the apocalyptic literature had the feeling that greatness was gone from the earth; they were too self-distrusting to put their names to their works and attributed them to the great figures of the past, thereby seeking to give them an authority greater than their own names could have given. As Julicher put it: "Apocalyptic is prophecy turned senile."

The Apparatus Of Apocalyptic

Apocalyptic literature has a pattern; it seeks to describe the things which will happen at the last times and the blessedness which will follow; and the same pictures occur over and over again. It always, so to speak, worked with the same materials; and these materials find their place in our Book of the Revelation.

(i) In apocalyptic literature the Messiah was a divine, preexistent, otherworldly figure of power and glory, waiting to descend into the world to begin his all-conquering career. He existed in heaven before the creation of the world, before the sun and the stars were made, and he is preserved in the presence of the Almighty (Enoch 48:3, 6; 62:7; 4Ezra 13:25-26). He will come to put down the mighty from their seats, to dethrone the kings of the earth, and to break the teeth of sinners (Enoch 42:2-6; 48:2-9; 62:5-9; 69:26-29). In apocalyptic there was nothing human or gentle about the Messiah; he was a divine figure of avenging power and glory before whom the earth trembled in terror.

(ii) The coming of the Messiah was to be preceded by the return of Elijah who would prepare the way for him (Mal_4:5-6 ). Elijah was to stand upon the hills of Israel, so the Rabbis said, and announce the coming of the Messiah with a voice so great that it would sound from one end of the earth to the other.

(iii) The last terrible times were known as "the travail of the Messiah." The coming of the Messianic age would be like the agony of birth. In the Gospels Jesus is depicted as foretelling the signs of the end and is reported as saying: "All these things are the beginnings of sorrows" (Mat_24:8 ; Mar_13:8 ). The word for sorrows is odinai (G5604), and it literally means birthpangs.

(iv) The last days will be a time of terror. Even the mighty men will cry bitterly (Zep_1:14 ); the inhabitants of the land shall tremble (Joe_2:1 ); men will be affrighted with fear and will seek some place to hide and will find none (Enoch 102:1,3).

(v) The last days will be a time when the world will be shattered, a time of cosmic upheaval when the universe, as men know it, will be disintegrated. The stars will be extinguished; the sun will be turned into darkness and the moon into blood (Isa_13:10 ; Joe_2:30-31 ; Joe_3:15 ). The firmament will crash in ruins; there will be a cataract of raging fire, and creation will become a molten mass (Sibylline Oracles 3: 83-89). The seasons will lose their order, and there will be neither night nor dawn (Sibylline Oracles 3: 796-806).

(vi) The last days will be a time when human relationships will be destroyed. Hatred and enmity will reign upon the earth. Every manhand will be against his neighbour (Zec_14:13 ). Brothers will kill each other; parents will murder their own children; from dawn to sunset they shall slay one another (Enoch 100:1-2). Honour will be turned into shame, and strength into humiliation, and beauty into ugliness. The man of humility will become the man of envy; and passion will hold sway over the man who once was peaceful (Bar 48:31-37).

(vii) The last days will be a time of judgment. God will come like a refinerfire, and who can endure the day of his coming? (Mal_3:1-3 ). It is by the fire and the sword that God will plead with men (Isa_66:15-16 ). The Son of Man will destroy sinners from the earth (Enoch 69:27), and the smell of brimstone will pervade all things (Sibylline Oracles 3: 58-61). The sinners will be burned up as Sodom was long ago (Jubilees 36:10-11).

(viii) In all these visions the Gentiles have their place, but it is not always the same place.

(a) Sometimes the vision is that the Gentiles will be totally destroyed. Babylon will become such a desolation that there will be no place for the wandering Arab to plant his tent among the ruins, no place for the shepherd to graze his sheep; it will be nothing more than a desert inhabited by the beasts (Isa_13:19-22 ). God will tread down the Gentiles in his anger (Isa_63:6 ). The Gentiles will come over in chains to Israel (Isa_45:14 ).

(b) Sometimes there is depicted one last gathering of the Gentiles against Jerusalem, and one last battle in which they are destroyed (Eze_38:14-23 ; Eze_39:1-16 ; Zec_14:1-11 ). The kings of the nations will throw themselves against Jerusalem; they will seek to ravage the shrine of the Holy One; they will place their thrones in a ring round the city, with their infidel people with them; but it will be only for their final destruction (Sibylline Oracles 3: 663-672).

(c) Sometimes there is the picture of the conversion of the Gentiles through Israel. God has given Israel for a light to the Gentiles, that she may be Godsalvation to the ends of the earth (Isa_49:6 ). The isles wait upon God (Isa_51:5 ); the ends of the earth are invited to look to God and be saved (Isa_45:20-22 ). The Son of Man will be a light to the Gentiles (Enoch 48:4-5). Nations shall come from the ends of the earth to Jerusalem to see the glory of God (Wis 17:34).

Of all the pictures in connection with the Gentiles the commonest is that of the destruction of the Gentiles and the exaltation of Israel.

(ix) In the last days the Jews who have been scattered throughout the earth will be ingathered to the Holy City again. They will come back from Assyria and from Egypt and will worship the Lord in his holy mountain (Isa_27:12-13 ). The hills will be removed and the valleys will be filled in, and even the trees will gather to give them shade, as they come back (Bar 5:5-9). Even those who died as exiles in far countries will be brought back.

(x) In the last days the New Jerusalem, which is already prepared in heaven with God (4Ezra 10:44-59; 4Ezra 2Baruch 4Ezra 4:2-6), will come down among men. It will be beautiful beyond compare with foundations of sapphires, and pinnacles of agate, and gates of carbuncles, on borders of pleasant stones (Isa_54:12-13 ; Tob 13:16-17). The glory of the latter house will be greater than the glory of the former (Hag 2:7-9).

(xi) An essential part of the apocalyptic picture of the last days was the resurrection of the dead. "Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt" (Dan_12:2-3 ). Sheol and the grave will give back that which has been entrusted to them (Enoch 51:1). The scope of the resurrection of the dead varied. Sometimes it was to apply only to the righteous in Israel; sometimes to all Israel; and sometimes to all men everywhere. Whichever form it took, it is true to say that now for the first time we see emerging a strong hope of a life beyond the grave.

(xii) There were differences as to how long the Messianic kingdom was to last. The most natural--and the most usual--view was to think of it as lasting for ever. The kingdom of the saints is an everlasting kingdom (Dan_7:27 ). Some believed that the reign of the Messiah would last for 400 years. They arrived at this figure from a comparison of Gen_15:13 and Psa_90:15 . In Genesis Abraham is told that the period of affliction of the children of Israel will be 400 years; the psalmistprayer is that God will make the nation glad according to the days wherein he has afflicted them and the years wherein they have seen evil. In the Revelation the view is that there is to be a reign of the saints for a thousand years; then the final battle with the assembled powers of evil; then the golden age of God.

Such were the events which the apocalyptic writers pictured in the last days; and practically all of them find their place in the pictures of the Revelation. To complete the picture we may briefly summarize the blessings of the coming age.

The Blessings Of The Age To Come

(i) The divided kingdom will be united again. The house of Judah will walk again with the house of Israel (Jer_3:18 ; Isa_11:13 ; Hos_1:11 ). The old divisions will be healed and the people of God will be one.

(ii) There will be in the world an amazing fertility. The wilderness will become a field (Isa_32:15 ), it will become like the garden of Eden (Isa_51:3 ); the desert will rejoice and blossom like the crocus (Isa_35:1 ). The earth will yield its fruit ten thousandfold; on each vine will be a thousand branches, on each branch a thousand clusters, in each cluster a thousand grapes, and each grape will give a cor (120 gallons) of wine (2 Baruch 29:5-8). There will be a plenty such as the world has never known and the hungry will rejoice.

(iii) A consistent part of the dream of the new age was that in it all wars would cease. The swords will be beaten into ploughshares and the spears into pruning-hooks (Isa_2:4 ). There will be no sword or battle-din. There will be a common law for all men and a great peace throughout the earth, and king will be friendly with king (Sibylline Oracles 3: 751-760).

(iv) One of the loveliest ideas concerning the new age was that in it there would be no more enmity between the beasts or between man and the beasts. The leopard and the kid, the cow and the bear, the lion and the falling will play and lie down together (Isa_11:6-9 ; Isa_65:25 ). There will be a new covenant between man and the beasts of the field (Hos_2:18 ). Even a child will be able to play where the poisonous reptiles have their holes and their dens (Isa_11:6-9 ; Isa 2Baruch Isa_73:6 ). In all nature there will be a universal reign of friendship in which none will wish to do another any harm.

(v) The coming age will bring the end of weariness, of sorrow and of pain. The people will not sorrow any more (Jer_31:12 ); everlasting joy will be upon their heads (Isa_35:10 ). There will be no such thing as an untimely death (Isa_65:20-22 ); no man will say: "I am sick" (Isa_33:24 ); death will be swallowed up in victory and God will wipe tears from all faces (Isa_25:8 ). Disease will withdraw; anxiety, anguish and lamentation will pass away; childbirth will have no pain; the reaper will not grow weary and the builder will not be toilworn (Bar 73:2-74:4). The age to come will be one when what Virgil called "the tears of things" will be no more.

(vi) The age to come will be an age of righteousness. There will be perfect holiness among men. Mankind will be a good generation, living in the fear of the Lord in the days of mercy (Wis 17:28-49; Wis 18:9-10).

The Revelation is the New Testament representative of all these apocalyptic works which tell of the terrors before the end of time and of the blessings of the age to come; and it uses all the familiar imagery. It may often be difficult and even unintelligible to us, but for the most part it was using pictures and ideas which those who read it would know and understand.

The Author Of The Revelation

(i) The Revelation was written by a man called John. He begins by saying that God sent the visions he is going to relate to his servant John (Rev_1:1 ). He begins the body of his book by saying that it is from John to the Seven Churches in Asia (Rev_1:4 ). He speaks of himself as John the brother and companion in tribulation of those to whom he writes (Rev_1:9 ). "I John," he says, "am he who heard and saw these things" (Rev_22:8 ).

(ii) This John was a Christian who lived in Asia in the same sphere as the Christians of the Seven Churches. He calls himself the brother of those to whom he writes; and he says he too shares in the tribulations through which they are passing (Rev_1:9 ).

(iii) He was most probably a Jew of Palestine who had come to Asia Minor late in life. We can deduce that from the kind of Greek he writes. It is vivid, powerful, and pictorial; but from the point of view of grammar it is easily the worst Greek in the New Testament. He makes mistakes which no schoolboy who knew Greek could make. Greek is certainly not his native language; and it is often clear that he is writing in Greek and thinking in Hebrew. He is steeped in the Old Testament. He quotes it or alludes to it 245 times. These quotations come from about twenty Old Testament books; his favourites are Isaiah, Daniel, Ezekiel, Psalms, Exodus, Jeremiah, Zechariah. Not only does he know the Old Testament intimately; he is also familiar with the apocalyptic books written between the Testaments.

(iv) His claim for himself is that he is a prophet, and it is on that fact that he rests his right to speak. The command of the Risen Christ to him is that he must prophesy (Rev_10:11 ). It is through the spirit of prophecy that Jesus gives his witness to the Church (Rev_19:10 ). God is the God of the holy prophets and sends his angel to show his servants what is going to happen in the world (Rev_22:6 ). The angel speaks to him of his brothers the prophets (Rev_22:9 ). His book is characteristically prophecy or the words of prophecy (Rev_22:7 , Rev_22:10 ; Rev_22:18-19 ).

It is here that Johnauthority lies. He does not call himself an apostle, as Paul does when he wishes to underline his right to speak. He has no "official" or administrative position in the Church; he is a prophet. He writes what he sees; and since what he sees comes from God, his word is faithful and true (Rev_1:11 , Rev_1:19 ).

When John was writing, the prophets had a very special place in the Church. He was writing, as we shall see, about A.D. 90. By that time the Church had two kinds of ministry. There was the local ministry; those engaged in it were settled permanently in one congregation, the elders, the deacons and the teachers. And there was the itinerant ministry of those whose sphere of labour was not confined to any one congregation. In it were the apostles, whose writ ran throughout the whole Church; and there were the prophets, who were wandering preachers. The prophets were greatly respected; to question the words of a true prophet was to sin against the Holy Spirit, the Didache says (Rev_11:7 ). The accepted order of service for the celebration of the Eucharist is laid down in the Didache, but at the end comes the sentence: "But allow the prophets to hold the Eucharist as they will" (Rev_10:7 ). The prophets were regarded as uniquely the men of God, and John was a prophet.

(v) It is not likely that he was an apostle. Otherwise he would hardly have so stressed the fact that he was a prophet. Further, he speaks of the apostles as if he was looking back on them as the great foundations of the Church. He speaks of the twelve foundations of the wall of the Holy City and then says, "and on them were the twelve names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb" (Rev_21:14 ). He would scarcely have spoken of the apostles like that if he himself was one of them.

This conclusion is rendered even more likely by the title of the book. In the King James and English Revised Versions it is called The Revelation of St. John the Divine. In the Revised Standard Version and in Moffattand in J. B. Phillipsranslations the Divine is omitted, because it is absent from the majority of the oldest Greek manuscripts; but it does go very far back. The Greek is theologos (G2312 and the word is here used in the sense in which we speak of "the Puritan divines" and means, not John the saintly but John the theologian; and the very addition of that title seems to distinguish this John from the John who was the apostle.

As long ago as A.D. 250 Dionysius, the great scholar who was head of the Christian school at Alexandria, saw that it was well nigh impossible that the same man could have written the Revelation and the Fourth Gospel, if for no other reason than that the Greek is so different. The Greek of the Fourth Gospel is simple but correct; the Greek of the Revelation is rugged and vivid, but notoriously incorrect. Further, the writer of the Fourth Gospel studiously avoids any mention of his own name; the John of the Revelation repeatedly mentions it. Still further, the ideas of the two books are different. The great ideas of the Fourth Gospel, light, life, truth and grace, do not dominate the Revelation. At the same time there are enough resemblances in thought and language to make it clear that both books come from the same centre and from the same world of thought.

The Date Of The Revelation

We have two sources which enable us to fix the date.

(i) There is the account which tradition gives to us. The consistent tradition is that John was banished to Patmos in the time of Domitian; that he saw his visions there; at the death of Domitian was liberated and came back to Ephesus; and there set down the visions he had seen. Victorinus, who wrote towards the end of the third century A.D., says in his commentary on the Revelation: "John, when he saw these things, was in the island of Patmos, condemned to the mines by Domitian the Emperor. There, therefore, he saw the revelation... When he was afterwards set free from the mines, he handed down this revelation which he had received from God." Jerome is even more detailed: "In the fourteenth year after the persecution of Nero, John was banished to the island of Patmos, and there wrote the Revelation... Upon the death of Domitian, and upon the repeal of his acts by the senate, because of their excessive cruelty, he returned to Ephesus, when Nerva was emperor." Eusebius says: "The apostle and evangelist John related these things to the Churches, when he had returned from exile in the island after the death of Domitian." Tradition makes it certain that John saw his visions in exile in Patmos; the only thing that is doubtful--and it is not important--is whether he wrote them down during the time of his banishment or when he returned to Ephesus. On this evidence we will not be wrong if we date the Revelation about A.D. 95.

(ii) The second line of evidence is the material in the book. There is a completely new attitude to Rome and to the Roman Empire.

In Acts the tribunal of the Roman magistrate was often the safest refuge of the Christian missionaries against the hatred of the Jews and the fury of the mob. Paul was proud that he was a Roman citizen and again and again claimed the rights to which every Roman citizen was entitled. In Philippi he brought the local magistrates to heel by revealing his citizenship (Act_16:36-40 ). In Corinth Gallio dismissed the complaints against him with impartial Roman justice (Act_18:1-17 ). In Ephesus the Roman authorities were careful for his safety against the rioting mob (Act_19:13-41 ). In Jerusalem the Roman tribune rescued him from what might have become a lynching (Act_21:30-40 ). When the Roman tribune in Jerusalem heard that there was to be an attempt on Paullift on the way to Caesarea, he took every possible step to ensure his safety (Act_23:12-31 ). When Paul despaired of justice in Palestine, he exercised his right as a citizen and appealed direct to Caesar (Act_25:10-11 ). When he wrote to the Romans, he urged upon them obedience to the powers that be, because they were ordained by God and were a terror only to the evil, and not to the good (Rom_13:1-7 ). Peteradvice is exactly the same. Governors and kings are to be obeyed, for their task is given them by God. It is a Christianduty to fear God and honour the emperor (1Pe_2:12-17 ). In writing to the Thessalonians it is likely that Paul points to the power of Rome as the one thing which is controlling the threatening chaos of the world (2Th_2:7 ).

In the Revelation there is nothing but blazing hatred for Rome. Rome is a Babylon, the mother of harlots, drunk with the blood of the saints and the martyrs (Rev_17:5-6 ). John hopes for nothing but her total destruction.

The explanation of this change in attitude lies in the wide development of Caesar worship which, with its accompanying persecution, is the background of the Revelation.

By the time of the Revelation Caesar worship was the one religion which covered the whole Roman Empire; and it was because of their refusal to conform to its demands that Christians were persecuted and killed. Its essence was that the reigning Roman Emperor, as embodying the spirit of Rome, was divine. Once a year everyone in the Empire had to appear before the magistrates to burn a pinch of incense to the god-head of Caesar and to say: "Caesar is Lord." After he had done that, a man might go away and worship any god or goddess he liked, so long as that worship did not infringe decency and good order; but he must go through this ceremony in which he acknowledged the Emperordivinity.

The reason was very simple. Rome had a vast heterogeneous empire, stretching from one end of the known world to another. It had in it many tongues, races and traditions. The problem was how to weld this varied mass into a self-conscious unity. There is no unifying force like that of a common religion but none of the national religions could conceivably have become universal. Caesar worship could. It was the one common act and belief which turned the Empire into a unity. To refuse to burn the pinch of incense and to say: "Caesar is Lord," was not an act of irreligion; it was an act of political disloyalty. That is why the Romans dealt with the utmost severity with the man who would not say: "Caesar is Lord." And no Christian could give the title Lord to any other than Jesus Christ. This was the centre of his creed.

We must see how this Caesar worship developed and how it was at its peak when the Revelation was written

One basic fact must be noted. Caesar worship was not imposed on the people from above. It arose from the people; it might even be said that it arose in spite of efforts by the early emperors to stop it, or at least to curb it. And it is to be noted that of all the people in the Empire only the Jews were exempt from it.

Caesar worship began as a spontaneous outburst of gratitude to Rome. The people of the provinces well knew what they owed to Rome. Impartial Roman justice had taken the place of capricious and tyrannical oppression. Security had taken the place of insecurity. The great Roman roads spanned the world; and the roads were safe from brigands and the seas were clear of pirates. The pax Romana, the Roman peace, was the greatest thing which ever happened to the ancient world. As Virgil had it, Rome felt her destiny to be "to spare the fallen and to cast down the proud." Life had a new order about it. E. J. Goodspeed writes: "This was the pax Romana. The provincial under Roman sway found himself in a position to conduct his business, provide for his family, send his letters, and make his journeys in security, thanks to the strong hand of Rome."

Caesar worship did not begin with the deification of the Emperor. It began with the deification of Rome. The spirit of the Empire was deified under the name of the goddess Roma. Roma stood for all the strong and benevolent power of the Empire. The first temple to Roma was erected in Smyrna as far back as 195 B.C. It was no great step to think of the spirit of Rome being incarnated in one man, the Emperor. The worship of the Emperor began with the worship of Julius Caesar after his death. In 29 B.C. the Emperor Augustus granted to the provinces of Asia and Bithynia permission to erect temples in Ephesus and Nicaea for the joint worship of the goddess Roma and the deified Julius Caesar. At these shrines Roman citizens were encouraged and even exhorted to worship. Then another step was taken. To provincials who were not Roman citizens Augustus gave permission to erect temples in Pergamum in Asia and in Nicomedia in Bithynia, for the worship of Roma and himself. At first the worship of the reigning Emperor was considered to be something permissible for provincial non-citizens, but not for those who had the dignity of the citizenship.

There was an inevitable development. It is human to worship a god who can be seen rather than a spirit. Gradually men began more and more to worship the Emperor himself instead of the goddess Roma. It still required special permission from the senate to erect a temple to the living Emperor, but by the middle of the first century that permission was more and more freely given. Caesar worship was becoming the universal religion of the Roman Empire. A priesthood developed and the worship was organized into presbyteries, whose officials were held in the highest honour.

This worship was never intended to wipe out other religions. Rome was essentially tolerant. A man might worship Caesar and his own god. But more and more Caesar worship became a test of political loyalty; it became, as has been said, the recognition of the dominion of Caesar over a manlife and soul. Let us, then trace the development of this worship up to, and immediately beyond, the writing of the Revelation.

(i) Augustus, who died in A.D. 14, allowed the worship of Julius Caesar, his great predecessor. He allowed non-citizens in the provinces to worship himself but he did not permit citizens to do so; and he made no attempt to enforce this worship.

(ii) Tiberius (A.D. 14-37) could not halt Caesar worship. He forbade temples to be built and priests to be appointed for his own worship; and in a letter to Gython, a Laconian city, he definitely refused divine honours for himself. So far from enforcing Caesar worship, he actively discouraged it.

(iii) Caligula (A.D. 37-41), the next Emperor, was an epileptic, a madman and a megalomaniac. He insisted on divine honours. He attempted to enforce Caesar worship even on the Jews, who had always been and who always were to remain exempt from it. He planned to place his own image in the Holy of Holies in the Temple in Jerusalem, a step which would certainly have provoked unyielding rebellion. Mercifully he died before he could carry out his plans. But in his reign we have an episode when Caesar worship became an imperial demand.

(iv) Caligula was succeeded by Claudius (A.D. 41-54) who completely reversed his insane policy. He wrote to the governor of Egypt--there were a million Jews in Alexandria--fully approving the Jewish refusal to call the Emperor a god and granting them full liberty to enjoy their own worship. On his accession to the throne, he wrote to Alexandria saying: "I deprecate the appointment of a High Priest to me and the erection of temples, for I do not wish to be offensive to my contemporaries, and I hold that sacred fanes and the like have been by all ages attributed to the immortal gods as peculiar honours."

(v) Nero (A.D. 54-68) did not take his own divinity seriously and did nothing to insist on Caesar worship. It is true that he persecuted the Christians; but this was not because they would not worship him, but because he had to find scapegoats for the great fire of Rome.

(vi) On the death of Nero there were three Emperors in eighteen months--Galba, Otto and Vitellius, and in such a time of chaos the question of Caesar worship did not arise.

(vii) The next two Emperors, Vespasian (A.D. 69-79) and Titus (A.D. 79-81), were wise rulers, who made no insistence on Caesar worship.

(viii) The coming of Domitian (A.D. 81-96) brought a complete change. He was a devil. He was the worst of all things--a cold-blooded persecutor. With the exception of Caligula, he in as the first Emperor to take his divinity seriously and to demand Caesar worship. The difference was that Caligula was an insane devil; Domitian was a sane devil, which is much more terrifying. He erected a monument to "the deified Titus son of the deified Vespasian." He began a campaign of bitter persecution against all who would not worship the ancient gods--"the atheists" as he called them. In particular he launched his hatred against the Jews and the Christians. When he arrived in the theatre with his empress, the crowd were urged to rise and shout: "All hail to our Lord and his Lady!" He enacted that he himself was a god. He informed all provincial governors that government announcements and proclamations must begin: "Our Lord and God Domitian commands..." Everyone who addressed him in speech or in writing must begin: "Lord and God."

Here is the background of the Revelation. All over the Empire men and women must call Domitian god--or die. Caesar worship was the deliberate policy; all must say: "Caesar is Lord." There was no escape.

What were the Christians to do? What hope had they? They had not many wise and not many mighty. They had no influence or prestige. Against them had risen the might of Rome which no nation had ever resisted. They were confronted with the choice--Caesar or Christ. It was to encourage men in such times that the Revelation was written. John did not shut his eyes to the terrors; he saw dreadful things and he saw still more dreadful things on the way; but beyond them he saw glory for those who defied Caesar for the love of Christ. The Revelation comes from one of the most heroic ages in all the history of the Christian Church. It is true that Domitiansuccessor Nerva (A.D. 96-98) repealed the savage laws; but the damage was done, the Christians were outlaws, and the Revelation is a clarion call to be faithful unto death in order to win the crown of life.

b The Book Worth Studying

No one can shut his eyes to the difficulty of the Revelation. It is the most difficult book in the Bible; but it is infinitely worth studying, for it contains the blazing faith of the Christian Church in the days when life was an agony and men expected the end of the heavens and the earth as they knew them but still believed that beyond the terror was the glory and above the raging of men was the power of God.

FURTHER READING

Revelation

G. B. Caird, The Revelation of Saint John the Divine (ACB; E)

R. H. Charles, Revelation (ICC; G)

T. S. Kepler, The Book of Revelation

H. B. Swete, The Apocalypse of St John (MmC; G)

Abbreviations

ACB: A. and C. Black New Testament Commentary

ICC: International Critical Commentary

MmC: Macmillan Commentary

E: English Text

G: Greek Text

Barclay: Revelation 1 (Chapter Introduction)

God's Revelation To Men (Rev_1:1-3)

The Means Of God's Revelation (Rev_1:1-3 Continued)

Servants Of God (Rev_1:1-3 Continued)

The Blessed's Of God (Rev_1:1-3 Continued)

The Message And Its Destination (Rev_1:4-6)

The Blessing And Its Source (Rev_1:4-6 Continued)

The Sevenfold Spirit (Rev_1:4-6 Continued)

The Titles Of Jesus (Rev_1:4-6 Continued)

What Jesus Did For Men (Rev_1:4-6 Continued)

The Coming Glory (Rev_1:7)

The God In Whom We Trust (Rev_1:8)

Through Tribulation To The Kingdom (Rev_1:9)

The Island Of Banishment (Rev_1:9 Continued)

In The Spirit On The Lord's Day (Rev_1:10-11)

The Divine Messenger (Rev_1:12-13)

The Picture Of The Risen Christ (Rev_1:14-18)

(1) The Titles Of The Risen Lord (Rev_1:14-18 Continued)

(2) The Titles Of The Risen Lord (Rev_1:14-18 Continued)

The Churches And Their Angels (Rev_1:20)

Constable: Revelation (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Historical background

The opening verses of the book state that "John" wrote it (1:1, 4, 9; cf. 22:8). >From the first century to the present day almost all orthodox scholars have concluded that this means the Apostle John.¹ Two noteworthy exceptions were Luther and Zwingli.² Today many scholars who accept the divine inspiration of the book believe the Apostle John wrote it.

Some of the early church fathers (Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius, Irenaeus, and Victorinus) wrote that the Apostle John experienced exile on the island of Patmos during Domitian's reign.³ They wrote that the government allowed John to return to Ephesus after this emperor died. Domitian died in A.D. 96. Consequently many conservative interpreters date the writing of this book near A.D. 95 or 96.

"Perhaps more than any other book in the NT, the Apocalypse enjoyed wide distribution and early recognition."⁴

Where did John get the revelation that he wrote down in this book? He said that he received it from Jesus Christ through angelic mediation (1:1). Most of the details of this revelation were undoubtedly new to John. However there are remarkable parallels between this revelation and the Lord Jesus' teaching in the Olivet Discourse (Matt. 24-25; Mark 13; Luke 21). The Book of Revelation clearly builds on that foundation.⁵ The apocalyptic sections of certain books of the Old Testament--particularly Daniel, Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Psalms--contain former revelation that God gave His prophets about the end times.⁶ The revelation that Jesus gave in the Olivet Discourse and later to John on Patmos supplements that earlier revelation.

"Jesus in His [Olivet] discourse was clearly anticipating what He was to show John in much greater detail more than six decades later here on the island of Patmos."⁷

Message⁸

The subject of the Book of Revelation is Jesus Christ (1:1). It is an unveiling ("revelation") of Him. What does this book reveal about Christ? The Book of Revelation is the unveiling of the person of Jesus Christ, the power of Jesus Christ, and the program of Jesus Christ.

First, it is a revelation of the person of Jesus Christ. It unveils who He is and what He is. This book is the climax of Scriptural Christology.

Notice first what the Book reveals about who Jesus Christ is. Three emphases in the book clarify His essential being.

1. He is the same human Jesus Christ who was born on earth at His first coming. He is the same Jesus on whose chest John reclined (1:1, 2, 5). He is a "son of man," possessing a full human nature (1:13). Moreover He will always be that (22:20).

2. He is also fully divine, one with the Father (1:12-18; 3:14). He reveals God fully (19:13). He will share the throne of the universe with the Father eventually (22:1, 3).

3. He is the eternal God (1:8; 21:6; 22:13).

Notice also what the book of Revelation reveals about what Jesus Christ is. Seven titles give us a fuller appreciation of His place in history.

1. In the past He proved to be the Root of David, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the promised Messiah (3:7; 5:5; 22:16). This became clear at His baptism (Matt. 3:17).

2. In the past, also at His first advent, He proved to be the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (5:6, 12-13; 6:1). This became clear at His death.

3. In the past He proved to be the First-born from the dead, the victor over death and Hades (1:5-6, 2:8). This became clear at His resurrection.

4. In the present He is the Lord of the churches (2:1; 3:1; cf. 22:20).

5. In the future He will prove to be the Judge of all mankind (2:12, 18; 3:14; 6:1; et al.). This is His primary role during the Great Tribulation.

6. In the future He will prove to be King of kings and Lord of lords (1:5; 17:14; 19:16). This is His primary role during the Millennium.

7. In the future He will prove to be the Morning Star (22:16; cf. 2:28). His second coming will signal the dawning of a new day in history. This will find its clearest revelation in the new heavens and earth. The Millennium will only be a foretaste of that day.

This book is also a revelation of the power of Jesus Christ. Individuals have various kinds of power. Jesus Christ has all kinds of power and all power of all kinds.

He has all personal power.

1. He has inherent power. We see this in His control of all other beings and forces (e.g., believers, unbelievers, Satan, the beasts, human armies, etc.). He wields the power Himself.

2. He also has acquired power. His Father has given Him this power (5:1, 6-7; cf. Matt. 28:18). He exercises all the power of the Godhead.

Second, He has all instrumental power. That is He has authority over all things as He executes His power. All things are His instruments or tools.

1. He has power over all material objects and forces. He controls the physical universe. We can see this in His using individuals, storms, earthquakes, and even the heavenly bodies to accomplish His will.

2. He also has power over all spiritual entities and authorities. He controls the angels, demons, and Satan. Every power in the universe is under His control (e.g., 13:15).

Third, He has all effectual power. That is He has power to accomplish anything. He can affect any changes He desires.

1. He has all destructive power. He can destroy anything that exists: individuals, systems (e.g., Babylonianism), objects, even the heavens and earth.

2. He also has all constructive power. He can create new human bodies (by resurrection), new systems (new religious and economic orders), and new cities (the new Jerusalem). He will even create new heavens and a new earth.

The Book of Revelation also reveals the program of Jesus Christ (1:19). It gives us much detail about God's program and how it will unfold in the future. However let me point out God's purposes that this program unveils.

Christ's immediate purpose is to defeat and destroy Satan and sin.

We see Him doing this in the church age in Revelation as He deals with believers in the seven churches (chs. 2-3). His purpose is to purify to Himself a people who will be a kingdom and priests to God (1:6).

We also see Him doing this in the Tribulation in Revelation. We see it in His judgment of those who have not believed on Him (chs. 4-18). His purpose is to pour out God's wrath on His enemies for their refusal to receive His grace (16:1).

Christ's ultimate purpose is to dwell among His people and experience intimate fellowship with them.

We see Him doing this in the Millennium to an extent never before attained in history (20:6).

We see Him doing this in the new earth perfectly and eternally (22:3-5). This has always been God's ultimate purpose (e.g., Adam, Noah, the patriarchs, Israel, the church, the Millennium). He will achieve it completely in the new earth.

The Book of Revelation then is an unveiling of Jesus Christ--His person, His power, and His program--for the rest of history. This is the message statement. We must never forget that He is the subject of this book as we seek to understand what He has revealed here.

Constable: Revelation (Outline)

Outline

I. The preparation of the prophet ch. 1

A. The prologue of the book 1:1-8

1. The preface 1:1-3

2. The address and doxology 1:4-6

3. The theme 1:7-8

B. The commission of the prophet 1:9-20

1. The first commission to write 1:9-11

2. The source of the commission 1:12-16

3. The amplification of the commission 1:17-20

II. The letters to the seven churches chs. 2-3

A. The letter to the church in Ephesus 2:1-7

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:1

2. Commendation 2:2-3

3. Rebuke 2:4

4. Exhortation 2:5-6

5. Promise 2:7

B. The letter to the church in Smyrna 2:8-11

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:8

2. Commendation 2:9

3. Exhortation 2:10a

4. Promise 2:10b-11

C. The letter to the church in Pergamum 2:12-17

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:12

2. Commendation 2:13

3. Rebuke 2:14-15

4. Exhortation 2:16

5. Promise 2:17

D. The letter to the church in Thyatira 2:18-29

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:18

2. Commendation 2:19

3. Rebuke 2:20-23

4. Exhortation 2:24-25

5. Promise 2:26-29

E. The letter to the church in Sardis 3:1-6

1. Destination and description of Christ 3:1a-b

2. Commendation and rebuke 3:1c, 2b

3. Exhortation 3:2a, 3

4. Promise 3:4-6

F. The letter to the church in Philadelphia 3:7-13

1. Destination and description of Christ 3:7

2. Commendation 3:8

3. Promise 3:9-11a, 12

4. Exhortation 3:11b, 13

G. The letter to the church in Laodicea 3:14-22

1. Destination and description of Christ 3:14

2. Rebuke 3:15-17

3. Exhortation 3:18-19

4. Promise 3:20-22

III. The revelation of the future 4:1-22:5

A. Introduction to the judgments of the Tribulation chs. 4-5

1. The throne in heaven ch. 4

2. The Lamb on the throne ch. 5

B. The first six seal judgments ch. 6

1. The first seal 6:1-2

2. The second seal 6:3-4

3. The third seal 6:5-6

4. The fourth seal 6:7-8

5. The fifth seal 6:9-11

6. The sixth seal 6:12-17

C. Supplementary revelation of salvation in the Great Tribulation ch. 7

1. The sealing of 144,000 Israelites 7:1-8

2. The salvation of the great multitude 7:9-17

D. The first six trumpet judgments chs. 8-9

1. The first four trumpet judgments ch. 8

2. The fifth and sixth trumpet judgments ch. 9

E. Supplementary revelation of John's preparation for recording the remaining judgments in the Great Tribulation ch. 10

1. The appearance of the mighty angel 10:1-4

2. The announcement of the mighty angel 10:5-7

3. The instruction of the mighty angel 10:8-11

F. Supplementary revelation of the two witnesses in the Great Tribulation 11:1-14

1. The temple in Jerusalem 11:1-2

2. The ministry of the two witnesses 11:3-6

3. The death of the two witnesses 11:7-10

4. The resurrection of the two witnesses 11:11-13

5. The end of the second woe 11:14

G. The seventh trumpet judgment 11:15-19

H. Supplementary revelation of Satan's activity in the Great Tribulation chs. 12-13

1. The activity of Satan himself ch. 12

2. The activity of Satan's agents ch. 13

I. Supplementary revelation of preparations for the final judgments in the Great Tribulation chs. 14-15

1. Judgment at the end of the Great Tribulation ch. 14

2. Preparation for the bowl judgments ch. 15

J. The seven bowl judgments ch. 16

1. The commencement of the bowl judgments 16:1

2. The first bowl 16:2

3. The second bowl 16:3

4. The third bowl 16:4

5. Ascriptions of angelic and martyr praise 16:5-7

6. The fourth bowl 16:8-9

7. The fifth bowl 16:10-11

8. The sixth bowl 16:12-16

9. The seventh bowl 16:17-21

K. Supplementary revelation of the judgment of ungodly systems in the Great Tribulation chs. 17-18

1. Religion in the Great Tribulation ch. 17

2. Commerce in the Great Tribulation ch. 18

L. The Second Coming of Christ ch. 19

1. The praise of God in heaven 19:1-10

2. The return of Christ to earth 19:11-16

3. The destruction of the wicked on earth 19:17-21

M. The millennial reign of Christ ch. 20

1. The binding of Satan 20:1-3

2. The resurrection of tribulation martyrs 20:4-6

3. The final judgment of Satan 20:7-10

4. The judgment of the wicked 20:11-15

N. The eternal state 21:1-22:5

1. The vision of the new heaven and earth 21:1

2. John's first vision of the New Jerusalem 21:2-8

3. John's second vision of the New Jerusalem 21:9-22:5

IV. The epilogue to the book 22:6-21

A. The testimony of the angel 22:6-7

B. The testimony of John 22:8-11

C. The testimony of Jesus and John's response 22:12-20

D. The final benediction 22:21

Constable: Revelation

Revelation

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Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: Revelation (Book Introduction)

THE

APOCALYPSE OF ST. JOHN,

THE APOSTLE.

INTRODUCTION.

Though some in the first ages [centuries] doubted whether this book was canonical, and who was the author of it, (see Eusebius, lib. 7, History of the Church, chap. xxv.) yet it is certain much the part of the ancient fathers acknowledged both that it was a part of the canon, and that it was written by St. John, the apostle and evangelist. See Tillemont, in his ninth note upon St. John, where he cites St. Justin Martyr, St. Irenæus, St. Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, St. Cyprian, St. Athanasius., Eusebius, St. Ambrose, St. Jerome, St. Augustine, &c. It was written in Greek to the churches in Asia [Asia Minor], under Domitian, about the year 96 or 97, long after the destruction of Jerusalem, when St. John was banished to the island of Patmos, in the Ægean Sea. It is by some called the prophecy of the New Testament, and the accomplishment of the predictions of all other prophets, by the first coming of Christ at his incarnation, and by his second coming at the end of the world. As to the time when the chief predictions should come to pass, we have no certainty, as appears by the different opinions, both of the ancient fathers, and late interpreters. Many think that most things set down from the fourth chapter to the end, will not be fulfilled till a little time before the end of the world. Others are of an opinion, that a great part of them, and particularly the fall of the wicked Babylon, happened at the destruction of paganism, by the destruction of heathen Rome, and its persecuting heathen emperors. Of these interpretations, see Alcazar in his long commentary, the learned Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, in his treatise on this book, and P. Alleman, in his notes on the same Apocalypse, tom. xii, who, in his preface, says, that this is in a great measure may be now looked upon as the opinion followed by the learned men. In fine, others think St. John's design was in a mystical way, by metaphors and allegories, to represent the attempts and persecutions of the wicked against the servants of God, the punishments that should in a short time fall upon Babylon, that is, upon all the wicked in general; the eternal happiness and reward which God had reserved for the pious inhabitants of Jerusalem, that is, for his faithful servants, after their short trials and tribulations of this mortal life. In the mean time we meet with many profitable instructions and admonitions, which we may easily enough understand; but we have no certainty, when we apply these predictions to particular events; for as St. Jerome takes notice, the Apocalypse has as many mysteries as words, or rather mysteries in every word. Apocalypsis Joannis tot habet sacramenta quot verba....parum dixi, in verbis singulus multiplices latent intelligentiæ . (Ep. ad Paulin. t. iv., p. 574. Edit. Benedict.) (Witham) --- In the first, second, and third chapters of this book are contained instructions and admonitions which St. John was commanded to write to the seven bishops of the churches in Asia. And in the following chapters, to the end, are contained prophecies of things that are to come to pass in the Church of Christ, particularly towards the end of the world, in the time of antichrist. It was written in Greek, in the island of Patmos, where St. John was in banishment by order of the cruel emperor Domitian, about sixty-four years after our Lord's ascension. (Challoner) --- This is the last in order of the sacred writings, and contains, in twenty-two chapters, revelations, as the name imports, extremely obscure, it must be acknowledged, yet undoubtedly of utmost importance to the Christian Church, if we may judge from the dignity of the author, who is the beloved disciple, or the grandeur and majesty of the ideas, which pervade every chapter of the work. Being a sealed book, or a hidden mystery, in the beginning of the Church, when nothing of this important prophecy had yet been fulfilled, it is no wonder we are deprived of the usual lights which we have hitherto followed in expounding the Scripture, viz. the works of the fathers. So little was it indeed understood at that time, that by many it was long considered as a reverie, and an extravagant composition, though the most learned always looked upon it as an inspired work. One reason, which may have led the faithful to class this among the apocryphal works, was the number of fables and illusions published by the misguided piety of the ignorant. We know at least, that on account of the heresy of Cerinthus, which was filled up with illusion and fanaticism, this book was not circulated among the faithful: a few copies were kept with care in the archives of the Churches, to be perused only by the bishop, or such as he thought not likely to abuse it. With regard to the interpretation of it, it will not be expected that it should be attempted in a work of this kind. We shall therefore only give a short account of the principal commentators, and their plans, that the enlightened reader may consult their works, if he wish to enter deeper into the subject. But it should never be forgotten, that the connection of sublime and prophetical ideas which compose this work, has at all times been a labyrinth, in which the greatest geniuses have lost themselves, and a rock on which most commentators have split, the great Sir Isaac Newton not excepted. Hence Scaliger's praise of Calvin; Calvinus sapuit, quia non scripsit in Apocalypsim. 1. The fathers living before the accomplishment of the events, have of course given us no interpretation. Those, therefore, who have written on it at all, have explained it in a mere moral sense, and drawn from it useful parables and instructions. None of them have given a regular systematic explanation. It must, however, be observed, as a circumstance of some moment, that many of them, particularly Sts. Augustine and Jerome, thought the Apocalypse contained prophecies regarding the whole time of the existence of the Church of Christ, till its triumphant state in the new Jerusalem. 2. Among the moderns we have abundant interpreters of the Apocalypse in all the reformed Churches. It has indeed grown into a mania among them, the only difference being their respective degrees of absurdity. This has been to all of them the common quarry, whence they have hewn the stones to cast at their mother Church. For to this day they have continued to disgrace themselves and Christianity, by depicting the Church of Rome as the scarlet whore of Babylon, popery the beast, and the pope antichrist. We must, however, except Grotius and Hammond, who have given historical interpretations, and some few others. 3. Among Catholic expositors stands eminently conspicuous the learned bishop of Meaux, Bosseut. This light of the Galican Church has improved upon and filled up the outlines which Grotius had only sketched. The first three chapters, according to him, regard only the Churches of Asia, to which they are addressed; the other chapters, to nineteen, have been fulfilled in the persecutions which the Church endured under the pagan emperors. The last three are merely allegorical of the triumphs which the Church finally gained over her persecutors. 4. Du Pin has taken a wider range. The last three chapters regard the final judgment, and the establishment of the Church in heaven. And all the chapters between the first three and last three, are mere general descriptions of persecutions, fall of tyrants, heresies, &c. which shall happen in the Church; represented under the various figures which the rich imagination of St. John supplied. This system certainly removes all difficulties at once, by saving the trouble of comparing each figure with corresponding historical facts; but substitutes a vague and indeterminate sense, which we do not expect in prophecy. 5. Calmet does not vary a great deal in the outlines with Bossuet; but their applications of the text to the history are in many points widely different. He conceives the intermediate chapters between the first three and last three to have been fulfilled in the general persecution begun by Diocletian, in 303, and the destruction of Rome, in 410, by Alaric. The last three chapters give the triumph of the martyrs at that period, as well as many things, which are to take place at the coming of antichrist, and the dissolution of the world. 6. Conceiving that all the above commentators had too much contracted the time for the accomplishment of the prophecy, by limiting it to the establishment of Christianity, Monsieur de la Chetardie established a new system upon the supposition that the Apocalypse includes the whole history of Christ's Church upon earth. In doing this, he had the authority of St. Augustine, and other fathers. Observing, therefore, upon an attentive perusal of this work, that there were seven seals, seven trumpets, seven vials, and that at the opening of such seals a new revelation was made, he ingeniously concluded, that the history of the whole Church was divided into seven periods or ages, and that to each period belonged one seal, one trumpet, and one vial. Six of these periods he conceives to be already accomplished, the seventh yet remains concealed in the womb of futurity. 7. Ingenious as is this system of Chetardie, it was not adopted, since Calmet, who wrote after him, preferred his own, which resembled that of Bossuet. It has, however, been renewed by this late bishop Walmsley, under the name of Signor Pastorini, who has taken up the idea and general outline from Chetardie, but illustrated the same with his own interpretation and application to historical facts. The erudition with which the latter author has clothed this system, and the striking aptness of his comparisons of the words of the prophecy to the events which have passed, have gained a very general approbation, and he is almost exclusively followed in the interpretation of this sealed book. How far he has succeeded in his explanation of the seventh age of the Church, cannot be determined by us, since it is shut up in the dark recess of futurity. Posterity will decide. To him we refer the English reader for any further information on the subject, convinced that his researches will be amply gratified, his education wonderfully improved. For, says the illustrious prelate Bossuet, "notwithstanding the obscurities of this book, we experience in its perusal an impression so sweet, and at the same time so magnificent, of the majesty of God; such sublime ideas present themselves of the mystery of Jesus Christ, such noble images of his victories and his reign, and such terrible effects of his judgment, that the soul is quite moved and penetrated. All the beauties of the Scriptures are collected in this book. Whatever there is melting, lively, and majestic in either the law or the prophets, acquires in this book an additional lustre." O truly adorable truths contained herein! of which God is the plentitude and eternal source; of which Jesus Christ is the prophet, the teacher and master; truths which have the angels for servants and ministers; the apostles and bishops for witnesses and depositaries; and all faithful souls, ver. 3. for children and disciples. Let us prepare our hearts to hear Jesus Christ arisen from the dead, discovering to us the mysteries of his kingdom, and the truths of the gospel of his glory. Let us hear his warning voice, and prepare for his speedy coming by a strict observance of every duty. Happy, thrice happy that Christian whom the death of sin, and the sleep of tepidity shall not render deaf to this voice!

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Gill: Revelation (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO REVELATION

That this book was written by the Apostle and Evangelist John, is clear not only from the express mention of his name, and from his office, a servant of Jesus Christ, Rev 1:1; but also from the character this writer gives of himself, Rev 1:2; as being an eyewitness of the essential Logos, or Word of God, and who bore a faithful record of him as such, as John did in his Gospel, in a very peculiar and remarkable manner, and from this writer's being in the isle of Patmos when he wrote, Rev 1:9; for of what other John can this be said? to which may be added the testimonies of the ancient writers, as Justin Martyr ^a, who lived within fifty years of the apostle, and Irenaeus ^b, who was the disciple of Polycarp, an hearer of this apostle, and Clemens Alexandrinus ^c, Tertullian ^d, Origen ^e, and others, who ascribe it to him. It was a most monstrously stupid notion of Caius, Dionysius of Alexandria mentions ^f, that it was written by Cerinthus the heretic, when his heresies concerning the divinity and humanity of Christ are most strongly refuted in it. What seems to have led to such a thought is, that the account of the thousand years' reign, and the descent of the new Jerusalem from heaven, seemed to favour the judaism of this man, and his carnal notions of an earthly paradise, whereas they have no such tendency. And as for its being written by another John, who is said to be presbyter at Ephesus, after the apostle, it is not certain there ever was such a man; and if there was, he must be too late to be the writer of this book; nor to him can the above characters agree. What is observed in favour of him, that the penman of this book is called, in the title, John the divine, and not the evangelist, or apostle, will do him no service; for to whom does this character so well agree, as to the Evangelist John, who wrote of divine things in so divine a manner, and particularly concerning the divinity of Christ? hence this book was sometimes called yeologia, "Divinity" ^g: besides, the title of the book is not original, but is what has been affixed to it by others, and varies; for in the Complutensian edition it runs thus,

"the Revelation of the holy Apostle and Evangelist John the Divine.''

In the Vulgate Latin version it is called the Apocalypse of the blessed John the Apostle; and in the Syriac version, the Revelation which was made to John the Evangelist; and in the Arabic version, the Vision of John, the Apostle and Evangelist, to wit, the Apocalypse. All which acknowledge the Apostle John to be the writer of it, and show the sense of the ancients concerning it. Nor is it of any moment what is alleged, that this writer makes mention of his name several times, whereas it was usual with John, both in his Gospel and epistles, to conceal his name; since there is a wide difference between writing an history and epistles to friends, and prophecy which requires the author's name, on whom the authority and truth of the prophecy greatly depend: and so likewise the disagreement of style observed in this book, with the other writings of John, has no force in it; since the prophetic style is always different from an historical and epistolary one; and yet, after all, in many things, there is an agreement; John in this, as in his other writings, speaks of Christ as the Word and Son of God and under the character of the Lamb; and likewise the following: passages may be compared together, as Rev 1:2 with Joh 19:35 and 1Jo 1:1, Rev 1:5 with 1Jo 1:7. All which being observed there no room to doubt, neither of the writer nor of the authority of this book; especially when the agreement of the doctrine contained in it with other parts of the Scripture, the majesty of its style, and above all the many prophecies of things to come to pass in it, several of which have been already fulfilled, are considered; and though it was called in question and rejected by some heretical men, because some things in it did not suit with their tenets, yet we have not the least reason to doubt of its being authentic who have lived to see so much of it already accomplished and which could come from no other but God. As for the time of its writing this is not agreed upon on all hands; the place where, seems to be the isle of Patmos, which yet some question. Some think it was written in the times of Claudius Caesar ^h, before the destruction of Jerusalem. In the title of the Syriac version, this revelation is said to be made to John in the isle of Patmos, into which he was cast by Nero Caesar. But the more commonly received opinion is, that he had this vision there, at the latter end of Domitian's reign ⁱ by whom he was there banished, about the year 95, or 96. But be this as it will, the book is certainly of divine authority, and exceeding useful and instructive; and contains in it the most momentous and important doctrines of the Gospel, concerning a trinity of persons in the Godhead, the deity and sonship of Christ, the divinity and personality of the Spirit, the offices of Christ, the state and condition of man by nature, justification, pardon, and reconciliation by the blood of Christ; and it recommends the several duties of religion, and encourages to the exercise of every grace and gives a very particular account of the rise, power, and fall of antichrist, and of the state of the church of Christ in all the periods of time to the end of the world. And though it is written in an uncommon style, yet may be understood, by the use of proper means, as by prayer and meditation, by comparing it with other prophetic writings, and the history of past times, by which many things in it will appear to have had their accomplishment; and it ought to be observed, that it is a revelation, and not a hidden thing; that it is now not a sealed book, but an open one; and that such are pronounced blessed that read and hear it, and observe the things in it, Rev 1:3; and which is no small encouragement to attempt an explanation of it.

Gill: Revelation 1 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO REVELATION 1

This chapter contains the preface and introduction to the book, and the first vision in it. The preface begins with the title of the book, in which the subject matter of it is pointed at, a Revelation; the author of it, Jesus Christ, who had it from his Father; the minister of it, an angel: the person to whom it was made known, described by his name, office, and the testimony he bore to Christ, his Gospel, and to whatever he saw; and for encouragement to persons to read, hear, and observe it, happiness is pronounced to them Rev 1:1; the inscription of the book follows, in which are the name of the writer, and the place where the churches to whom it is inscribed were, with a salutation of them; in which grace and peace are wished for them, from God the Father, from the Holy Spirit, and from Jesus Christ; who is described by characters expressing his prophetic, priestly, and kingly offices, and by the benefits, favours, and honours bestowed by him on his people, to whom a doxology or ascription of glory is made, Rev 1:4; who is further described, first by his future visible coming in the clouds, which will greatly affect the inhabitants of the earth, and then by himself, as the eternal and almighty God, Rev 1:7; and in order to introduce the vision, hereafter related in this chapter, he that saw it gives an account of himself, by his name, by his relation to the churches, and by his partnership with them in affliction, and of the place he was in; and for what, and of the time when he had the vision, and the frame he was in, and what awakened his attention to it, Rev 1:9; and how, that adverting to it he saw seven golden candlesticks, and in the midst of them one like the son of man, who is described by his clothes and girdle, by his head, hair, and eyes, by his feet and voice, by what he had in his right hand, and by what went out of his mouth, and by his face shining like the sun in its strength, Rev 1:12, next is related the effect this vision had on. John, who upon it fell down as one dead, but was comforted by Christ, laying his right hand on him, and telling him who he was, and bidding him write what he had seen, or should see, Rev 1:17; and the chapter is concluded with an interpretation of the mystery of the seven stars, and the seven candlesticks, Rev 1:20.

College: Revelation (Book Introduction)

PREFACE

This commentary on the Revelation of John has been prepared for general readers of the Bible who desire to deepen their understanding of God's inspired word. It is not a technical commentary, although it draws on the best in current biblical scholarship. It is not a devotional commentary, although the reader will find that Revelation certainly speaks to our day. My primary aim has been to provide a clear, concise explanation of what the biblical text means, showing the evidence on which my conclusions are based.

Extensive cross-referencing makes this volume a convenient reference tool for those seeking insight into a particular passage. However, I strongly recommend that users read through the entire commentary from beginning to end, considering each text in its broader context. It is particularly important to read the Introduction. There I define key terms ("kingdom of God," "labor pains," "apocalypse," etc.) and explain the historical, literary, and theological setting for John's work. Readers who truly desire to understand Revelation will find this approach most productive.

For many years I have taught Revelation at Minnesota Bible College and in other settings. Therefore most of the research for writing this commentary was already done. Nevertheless, completing this project on a tight deadline has been a major undertaking. Many people have provided assistance and support to make this book possible. MBC's President, Mr. Robert Cash, relieved me from certain duties as Vice President of Academics and Professor of New Testament so that I could make a research trip to Virginia. Dr. Mark Mangano, MBC's Professor of Old Testament and Biblical Languages, took over one of my classes to reduce my teaching load. The elders of the Meadow Park Church of Christ in Rochester, Minnesota, granted me a leave of absence from elders' duties so I could devote more time to writing. Dr. Harold Mahan, Director of the G.H. Cachiaras Memorial Library at MBC, provided research assistance. Dr. John Trotti and Mr. Roger Pittard, of Union Theological Seminary in Virginia, also provided library support. My dear wife Cathy read the entire manuscript and provided secretarial assistance. The series editors, Dr. Jack Cottrell and Dr. Tony Ash, also read the manuscript and offered helpful suggestions. Mr. John Hunter of College Press guided me through the publication process. My students and colleagues at MBC, my family members, and so many others offered help and encouragement along the way. The women of the Disciple's Prayer Life Sunday School class have bathed this entire project in prayer. To all these brothers and sisters in Christ, I offer my sincere thanks.

Christopher A. Davis

Rochester, Minnesota

July 2, 2000

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

INTRODUCTION

I. INTENDED TO REVEAL NOT TO CONCEAL

The Revelation of John is one of the most often read, but least understood books of the Bible. The first three words of the Greek text of Revelation are ajpokavluyi" =Ihsou' Cristou' (apokalypsis Içsou Christou), or "apocalypse from Jesus Christ." Apokalypsis is a combination of two Greek terms: The noun kaluvptra ( kalyptra ) refers to some sort of "covering," particularly a woman's "veil." The preposition ajpov ( apo ) communicates the idea of "movement away from" or "removing" something from one location to another. The term apokalypsis literally means, then, "the removal of that which conceals" or "the removal of the veil" (so that one may see what is under it). In English, the term is usually translated "revelation" - something that does not "conceal" or "cover," but which "unveils" or "reveals." So John's own title for his book is "Apocalypse from Jesus Christ" or "Revelation from Jesus Christ."

Beginning with the very first word of the book, the author claims to be revealing something. John expects that his Christian readers will not be puzzled, but able to comprehend his meaning. He does not intend the Revelation to be an enigma, but to be understood . For centuries, however, the book's mysterious symbolism has served to hide more than it reveals. Anyone who reads interpretations of Revelation - from Irenaeus in the second century, to Joachim of Fiore in the twelfth century, to Hal Lindsey in the twentieth century - finds very little agreement regarding what the book means. The reason is that Revelation is so unusual, so unique in the New Testament, that many Bible students simply do not know how to approach it. They lack the "key" for unlocking the secrets John intends to share.

II. APPROACH TO REVELATION

A. AN HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL APPROACH

A breakthrough has come in our own time. Before the mid-1800s, the Bible was viewed as little more than a vast collection of proof texts that could be taken apart and used to support the doctrinal systems of the various churches. No serious effort was made to understand each book as a whole or to seek insight into the meaning of the biblical books by examining the historical circumstances in which they were written. Beginning with Ferdinand Christian Baur in the mid-nineteenth century, a new group of scholars has urged a different approach to Scripture - an historical and critical approach. This is the kind of approach to Revelation adopted in this commentary.

By "critical" we do not mean mere "faultfinding." Instead, being "critical" involves asking questions, weighing evidence, and forming judgments. If we ask no questions of Revelation, then we get no answers. Since we wish to understand this word from God, we ask the same kinds of penetrating questions of it that we ask of any other piece of literature, whether it be the orations of Cicero, the plays of Shakespeare, or the novels of Mark Twain. We ask questions such as: Who wrote this book? When? Where? How? For what purpose? To what audience? In what circumstances? Using what sources? Why is the book structured in the way it is? What did the terminology used by the author mean to the readers of his time? What literary techniques does he employ?

We take an "historical" approach to Revelation because we believe that the Bible should not be studied in a vacuum as if it had no relationship to the events surrounding its writing. One of the primary convictions of the Christian faith is that God does not reveal himself in a vacuum, but in history. He is not just "God." He is the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob; the God of Moses and the Exodus; the God who made an eternal covenant with King David; the God who came among us in the person of Jesus Christ in history. For this reason, one of the best ways to gain an understanding of the Bible is to learn something about the historical settings in which it was produced.

In this commentary, we uncover the meaning of Revelation by asking an historical question: What did this book communicate to its first readers? What did Revelation reveal to the Christians for whom John wrote? How would they have understood its message? In order to answer this question, we must learn all we can about who the first readers were. We must acquaint ourselves with their time, their location, their circumstances, their language, their literature, and their culture. Only then will we be able to discern what Revelation meant to the believers for whom it was intended. Only then will we begin to work out an accurate interpretation of Revelation in its historical context. We will find that most of the truths Christ revealed to the first readers are applicable to his modern-day disciples as well.

B. RESOURCES FOR THE STUDY OF REVELATION

What resources from the ancient world assist us in our efforts to correctly understand and interpret Revelation? Primary texts include:

1. The Hebrew Old Testament

The Old Testament contains history and theological reflection regarding God's covenant relationship with the people of Israel. Christians consider the Old Testament and New Testament (see below) to be the inspired, authoritative word of God.

2. The Septuagint

The Septuagint is a Greek version of the Old Testament. This translation was begun in the third century B.C. after Alexander the Great made Greek the common language uniting his empire. According to legend, seventy Jewish scholars independently produced identical translations of the Hebrew Scriptures, thus attesting to divine inspiration of the Greek text. For this reason, "LXX" (the Roman numeral for "70") serves as the common abbreviation designating the Septuagint translation. The Septuagint was the "Bible" of most of the first Christians, who lived in the Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire. Nearly every line of Revelation contains allusions to either the Septuagint or the Hebrew Old Testament. The Septuagint also includes the Apocrypha.

3. The Old Testament Apocrypha

The Apocrypha is a collection of Jewish writings, most of which date from the second century B.C. through the first century A.D. Christians from the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox traditions consider them part of the authoritative Christian canon. Most Protestants view the Apocrypha as useful, edifying works, but do not give them a status equal to that of the Old and New Testaments.

4. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha

The Pseudepigrapha is a collection of Jewish and Christian documents, with the majority dating from the third century B.C. through the second century A.D. About one-third are called "apocalypses" because they resemble the Revelation of John in their language, style, use of symbolism, and/or shared concepts. Since they represent the same literary type, or "genre," they prove an invaluable aid to the study of John's vision (as discussed below in Part III). James H. Charlesworth has edited a two-volume collection of these writings in English.

5. Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Texts surviving from the Ancient Near East shed light on the cultural roots of ideas found in Revelation. To illustrate, the Babylonian Creation Myth offers insights into the symbolic meaning of the "sea" and the "sea monster" in John's vision. J.B. Pritchard has edited a useful collection of such texts in English translation.

6. The Dead Sea Scrolls

Called "the greatest manuscript discovery in modern times" by W.F. Albright, the Scrolls were produced by a Jewish community at Qumran on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea. Some of the texts are biblical manuscripts, while others describe the beliefs and rules of the Qumran sect. Dating from the end of third century B.C. to A.D. 70, the Dead Sea Scrolls shed light on Palestinian Judaism in the years prior to the writing of Revelation.

7. The New Testament

Written in the first century A.D., the New Testament draws together writings of the very first Christian communities. As such, it represents our earliest and most precious witness to Jesus and the church he founded.

8. Josephus

A contemporary of John, Flavius Josephus composed valuable histories of the Jewish people. He provides us, for example, with a vivid, first-hand description of the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 - an event alluded to in Revelation.

9. The New Testament Apocrypha

The New Testament Apocrypha is a collection of extracanonical Christian writings (some from Gnostic or other heretical groups) from the second century A.D. and beyond. It provides us with additional samples of early Christian apocalypses.

10. Early Christian Fathers

Writings of Christian leaders from the post-New Testament period cast light on the circumstances surrounding Revelation's composition. To illustrate, Eusebius's History of the Church (ca. A.D. 325) identifies the author and date of Revelation. Eusebius also describes two great persecutions suffered by first-century believers - events that play a role in John's vision.

11. Rabbinical Writings

Although most date to the post-New Testament period, teachings of ancient Jewish rabbis (Mishnah, Talmud, Midrashim, etc.) sometimes illuminate the biblical text. We turn to them, for example, when interpreting the symbolism of the four living creatures in Revelation 4.

12. Classical Greek and Latin Literature

Ancient Greek and Latin writers open a door to the world of the first readers of Revelation. To illustrate, Suetonius has left us biographies of the first twelve Roman emperors, some of whom play a role in Revelation. The correspondence of Governor Pliny and the Emperor Trajan explains Roman policy toward Christians in the early second century. The nearly five hundred volumes of the Loeb Classical Library (Harvard University Press) make this wealth of knowledge available to English readers.

We will utilize all these resources and more as we interpret the Revelation of John. We study other ancient writings not because we consider them to be inspired or authoritative - not because we place them on an equal level with the Bible. Rather, we study them because they help us to enter the thought world of John's first readers, so that we may understand Revelation as they understood it.

C. STRENGTHS OF THE HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL

APPROACH TO REVELATION

The weakness of alternative approaches to Revelation is seen in their failure to create a consensus regarding the meaning of the book. There have been nearly as many interpretations of Revelation as there have been interpreters. The weakness of alternative approaches is further highlighted by the erroneous predictions made on the basis of those approaches. To illustrate, when the former Soviet Union disintegrated, many scholars' interpretations of Revelation perished with it.

The strength of an historical and critical approach to Revelation is demonstrated by several facts: First, there is a great deal of agreement among historical and critical scholars regarding the meaning of John's vision. They have found the key to interpreting Revelation, while others must rely heavily on guesswork. Second, an historical and critical interpretation of Revelation makes sense today, and it would have made sense to the first-century Christians for whom the book was written. Third, an historical and critical interpretation reveals that the message of Revelation is wholly compatible and consistent with the message of the rest of the New Testament. Finally, the accuracy of an historical and critical interpretation of Revelation can be demonstrated with objective evidence drawn from other ancient writings. It does not rest on subjective speculation.

III. APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

Other New Testament writers communicate through narrative or epistle, but in Revelation John employs striking imagery and vivid symbolism. Although Revelation is unique in the New Testament, it was not at all unique in John's time. Revelation belongs to a genre, or type of literature, that was most popular in Palestine from the second century B.C. through the second century A.D. Such writings are called "apocalypses," or "apocalyptic literature," partly because they are revelatory in nature and partly because they resemble the Apocalypse of John (see Part I above).

A. JEWISH AND CHRISTIAN APOCALYPSES

The only apocalyptic writing in the Old Testament is the Book of Daniel. Some believe that Daniel is the oldest apocalypse and that later writers imitate its style. Others argue that the Book of the Watchers ( = 1 Enoch 1-36) is older. Whatever the case, Jewish theologians found apocalyptic to be a powerful tool for expressing their convictions concerning God and his dealings with the world. The most important Jewish apocalypses for our purposes are 1 Enoch (a compilation of five originally independent works dating from the second or third century B.C. to the first century A.D.), 2 Enoch (late first century A.D.), 2 Baruch (ca. A.D. 100), 3 Baruch (first to third century A.D.), 4 Ezra (ca. A.D. 100), the Apocalypse of Abraham (ca. A.D. 100), and the Apocalypse of Zephaniah (first century B.C. to first century A.D.). Beyond the apocalypses themselves, other writings from the period contain apocalyptic sections or features. Two examples are the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (second century B.C.) and the Sibylline Oracles (second century B.C. through seventh century A.D.). All of these writings are preserved in the Pseudepigrapha (described above in Part II.B.4).

Early Christian apocalypses include, for example, the Shepherd of Hermas, 5 Ezra, and the Apocalypse of Peter (all dating to the second century A.D.). The Revelation of John appears to be the first Christian apocalypse - the first Christian adaptation of the apocalyptic form. Other New Testament writings certainly contain apocalyptic ideas, but in Revelation alone do we find a fully developed apocalyptic vision. Since John's Christian apocalypse builds on the earlier Jewish apocalyptic tradition, those Jewish documents serve as one of the most valuable resources for understanding the nature and meaning of Revelation.

B. CHARACTERISTICS OF APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

But what exactly is an "apocalypse"? What sets these books apart and leads us to place them in a special class? First, Jewish apocalyptic literature is characterized by a particular kind of theology - a particular understanding of who God is and how he deals with his creation. Apocalyptic theology is rooted in the Jewish Scriptures since apocalyptic was initially a Jewish phenomenon. Christian apocalyptic writers later modified this theology in significant ways due to their encounter with Jesus Christ (see below).

Second, apocalyptic writers utilize a particular manner of communicating that theology - a distinctive form or style of writing . For example, they tend to make heavy use of symbolism.

So apocalyptic theology is a certain network of beliefs about God and the apocalyptic form is a certain means of expressing those beliefs. It is possible to have a message containing apocalyptic theology that is not communicated in the apocalyptic style. (An example would be the gospel preached by the Apostle Paul, which J. Christiaan Beker rightly describes as an "apocalyptic interpretation of the Christ-event.) However, true apocalypses - like the Revelation of John - display both apocalyptic form and apocalyptic theology.

1. Common Characteristics of the Apocalyptic Form

Some of the most common characteristics of the apocalyptic form are described below. Not every apocalypse includes every feature.

a. Visions or Revelations

Apocalypses take the form of visions or revelations from God. Whereas Old Testament prophets experience God directly ("The word of the Lord came to me" or "In the year that king Uzziah died, I saw the Lord"), the apocalyptic seers receive their revelations through an intermediary - often an angel. Their visions usually concern the future, giving apocalyptic a strong "eschatological" element.

b. Symbolism

Apocalyptic visions are filled with vivid symbolism. Over time, as various apocalyptists adopted and adapted the images used by others, a set of common symbols was developed. For example, the sea typically represents the forces of evil and chaos. Stars often represent angels. Beasts symbolize political powers opposed to God and his people. If we read Revelation alone (as so many do), then we may find John's symbolism puzzling and impenetrable. However, if we study other apocalypses as well, then we begin to see the patterns and Revelation becomes less intimidating.

c. Esoteric Elements

Apocalyptic writings are esoteric; they contain an element of mystery or secrecy. They are not meant for the general public, but for "insiders" who are acquainted, for example, with the meaning of the conventional apocalyptic symbols. John apparently considers his readers to be insiders able to grasp his meaning. By acquainting ourselves with their literature and culture, we can become insiders too.

d. Symbolic Numbers

Apocalyptic writers place symbolic meaning in numbers. Here, too, a set of conventional symbols emerge:

Two is the number of valid witness. Its Jewish roots are found in Deuteronomy 19:15 where the Lord requires at least two witnesses for a matter to be established in a court of law.

Three often relates to God. This symbol also has Old Testament roots in passages such as Isaiah 6:3 where the Lord receives the threefold worship of the seraphim: "Holy, holy, holy is the LORD Almighty." Christian writers tend to see Trinitarian connotations in this number since the Lord has revealed himself to us as God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.

Four often symbolizes the world, or God's creation. This goes back to the idea that the "four corners of the earth" (Ezek 7:2; cf. Rev 7:1), the "four quarters of the earth" (Isa 11:12), or the "four winds" (Jer 49:36; Ezek 7:9; Zech 6:5; Dan 7:2; cf. Matt 24:31//Mark 13:27; Rev 7:1) - i.e., north, south, east, and west - together encompass the whole of creation.

Five, the number of fingers on the human hand, describes a "handful" or a "few."

Ten - two "handfuls" - represents "several." Neither ten nor five should necessarily be interpreted literally in apocalyptic writings.

Seven is the number of "fullness," "completeness," "perfection." In some texts this number carries connotations of goodness or morality, for the author is thinking of persons or things being "complete" in the sense of being everything God intends them to be. However, the dominant meaning for seven is not "perfection" in the sense of being morally faultless, but "perfection" in the sense of being "complete" or "whole." We may trace the origin of this symbol to Old Testament texts such as Genesis 1-2, where seven days form a "complete" week.

Six is one less than seven; it does not "measure up" to seven or attain to the fullness of seven. Six, then, symbolizes "incompleteness," "imperfection," and sometimes evil.

Eight, in Christian apocalypses, symbolizes Jesus Christ. For an explanation, see the comments on Revelation 13:18.

Twelve tends to represent the people of God - those who love him and serve him faithfully (i.e., Law-keeping Jews in Jewish apocalypses and faithful Christians in Christian apocalypses). The idea no doubt comes from the Old Testament, where the twelve tribes of Israel together form the covenant community of God.

Multiples of these numbers typically represent the "fullness" or complete number of the thing symbolized. For example, the 144,000 (12 12 1000) in Revelation 7 represent the full number of the people of God. Other symbolic numbers used in Revelation will be explained at appropriate points in the commentary.

e. Pseudonymity

Rather than writing in their own names, apocalyptists typically employ pseudonyms, or false names. They attribute their works to an ancient hero such as Abraham, Jacob, or Ezra. What is the reason for this practice? Various theories have been put forward.

Many apocalypses (including Revelation) were composed in times of persecution. Some suggest that the pseudonyms and mysterious symbols are aimed at hiding the author's identity and message from hostile political authorities. One may question how successful this tactic would have been. Could any of John's neighbors read his description of the Whore of Babylon (Revelation 17) without seeing in it a criticism of Rome?

Apocalyptic literature became popular during the first and second centuries B.C., as Jewish prophecy declined and the Old Testament canon was being finalized. At the same time, Greco-Roman society tended to devalue the present and glorify the past. All of these factors would have made it difficult for newer theologians to gain a hearing. Perhaps they attributed their works to respected ancient luminaries in order to deceive their readers and add authority to their message. They pretended to predict events leading up to their own time, and thereby added credibility to their real predictions concerning the readers' future. The difficulty with this theory is that it assumes a great deal of gullibility on the part of the readers. Would many people really believe that writings of Enoch, the seventh descendant of Adam (Gen 5:18-24), had suddenly appeared in the second century B.C.?

It seems more likely that pseudonymity was openly used as a literary device. In other words, the readers knew very well that the writer was not Jacob or Moses or Ezra. Attributing a book to one of these Jewish heroes was a way of saying: What you are about to read is an apocalypse, so read and understand it as such. The "pen name" was chosen according to the subject matter of the apocalypse. For example, Baruch was the secretary of the prophet Jeremiah, who interprets the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in the sixth century B.C. (Jer 32:12-16; 36; 43:1-6; 45:1-2). Similarly, the author of the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch writes of the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in A.D. 70. He presents himself as a "second Baruch" helping his readers understand why God again allowed the holy city to fall.

Whereas most apocalypses are pseudonymous, Revelation proves the exception to the rule. As we will see below (Part IV), John writes in his own name.

2. Common Features of Apocalyptic Theology

In addition to sharing a distinctive form of writing, Jewish and Christian apocalyptists tend to hold a number of common convictions concerning God and his ways with the world. This distinctive apocalyptic theology, or worldview, is rooted in the Old Testament. At the risk of oversimplifying a complex matter, we will trace the historical development of the apocalyptic worldview through three primary, overlapping stages: the Old Testament period, the intertestamental period, and the New Testament period.

a. Roots of Apocalyptic Theology in the Old Testament Period

(1) Genesis 1-5. Several key elements of apocalyptic theology appear in the opening chapters of Genesis, the foundational book of the Old Testament. First, God exists and he is the creator of all that is, including human beings. "In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth" (Gen 1:1). God made humankind, both male and female, in his own image and his own likeness (Gen 1:26-27).

Second, by virtue of the fact that he is creator, God is also the owner, the king, the sovereign Lord over all creation. This truth is implicit in Genesis but is made explicit elsewhere in the Old Testament. For example, the Psalms proclaim that

The earth is the LORD's, and everything in it, the world, and all who live in it; for he founded it upon the seas and established it upon the waters (Ps 24:1-2).

God is the King of all the earth (Ps 47:7).

As creator and king, God alone has the right to decide what his world should be - what he considers "good" in his creation and what he considers "evil."

Third, as sovereign Lord, God created the world good. "God saw all that he had made, and it was very good" (Gen 1:31) - that is, pleasing to God, perfectly conforming to his will.

Fourth, Genesis does not state that human beings are immortal by nature. Instead, the first humans, Adam and Eve, were created mortal and their lives were sustained only by God's provision. God placed the tree of life in the center of the garden so that, by eating its fruit, the man and the woman could potentially live forever (Gen 2:9; 3:22). Life is the gift of God and is sustained by God alone at his good pleasure.

Fifth, God's creatures have rebelled against his sovereign will, thus introducing "sin" or "evil" into God's "good" creation. According to Genesis 2:16-17, God issued one command to Adam:

You are free to eat from any tree in the garden; but you must not eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, for when you eat of it you will surely die.

Chapter 3 describes how one of God's creatures, the serpent (discussed below), tempted Eve to sin - that is, to "be like God" by deciding good and evil for herself (Gen 3:5). (Note that the Book of Genesis implies a rebellion against God on the part of the serpent that preceded the rebellion of Adam and Eve.) As a result, she and Adam disobeyed God, ate the forbidden fruit, and thus introduced sin into the human race (Gen 3:6).

Sixth, God has responded to the sin of his creatures by pronouncing several terrible judgments: He cursed the serpent and promised that the woman's "offspring" would crush its head and thereby destroy it (Gen 3:14-15). He condemned the woman to pains in childbearing and domination by her husband (Gen 3:16). He cursed the ground so that it would resist Adam's efforts to cultivate it and would bear fruit only through painful toil (Gen 3:17-19). Finally, God kept the promise made in Genesis 2:17 by condemning Adam and Eve to death. Genesis 3:22-24 reads:

And the LORD God said, "The man has now become like one of us, knowing good and evil. He must not be allowed to reach out his hand and take also from the tree of life and eat, and live forever." So the LORD God banished him from the Garden of Eden to work the ground from which he had been taken. After he drove the man out, he placed on the east side of the Garden of Eden cherubim and a flaming sword flashing back and forth to guard the way to the tree of life.

Separated from the tree of life, "nature" took its course: Adam and Eve - and their descendants after them - eventually died (see Gen 5:5-31).

Note that, within the framework of Genesis, death is the destruction of God's creation. Furthermore, it is God's penalty for sin, for the idolatrous effort to be one's own "god" by deciding good and evil for oneself. Human beings die as a result of their own sin (e.g., Adam and Eve themselves) and/or as a result of their ancestor's sin (Adam and Eve's descendants - including, for example, innocent babies who sometimes die not because they have rebelled against God on their own, but because they have been cut off from the tree of life due to the sin of their ancestors) and as a result of the serpent's sin (since the serpent played a role in the fall of Adam and Eve, which led to their death and that of their descendants). As the Apostle Paul would later phrase it, "the wages of sin is death" (Rom 6:23).

(2) Promised Salvation from Sin and Death. However, throughout the Old Testament, God, in his grace and mercy, declares that he will not allow sin and death to have the last word. For example, he vows that Adam and Eve's "offspring" will crush the serpent's head (Gen 3:14-15). He swears to the nomad Abraham that "all people on earth will be blessed through you" (Gen 12:3). He promises King David that, "when your days are over and you rest with your fathers, I will raise up your offspring to succeed you, who will come from your own body, and I will establish his kingdom . . . forever" (2 Sam 7:12-13). To the prophet Isaiah God reveals his future plans: "Behold, I will create new heavens and a new earth. The former things will not be remembered, nor will they come to mind" (Isa 65:17).

b. Development of Jewish Apocalyptic Theology in the Intertestamental Period

(1) Rebellion in Heaven . In reading the Old Testament and attempting to discern the truths contained in it, Jewish apocalyptists draw the logical conclusion that the serpent of Genesis 3 must have been an angel who rebelled against God. After all, the Scripture says that, "in the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth" (Gen 1:1). The "heavens and earth" include everything that exists - both the natural, "earthly" realities and the supernatural, "heavenly" realities. Therefore the serpent must have been some sort of creature of God.

This talking "serpent" was certainly unlike other serpents; it apparently did not belong to the natural sphere. Therefore it must have been some sort of supernatural creature - a heavenly or angelic being.

Genesis states that " all that [God] had made" was "very good" (Gen 1:31), and yet the serpent reveals itself to be very evil by tempting humans to sin. Apparently, the "serpent" was an angel who had fallen away from God - a heavenly creature who had surrendered its original goodness and rebelled against the creator. Jewish apocalyptists conclude, then, that the "serpent" must have been a supernatural, angelic being (known to Christians as the "devil" or "Satan"), and that rebellion against God in the heavenly sphere must have preceded Adam and Eve's rebellion against God in the earthly sphere.

This type of interpretation of the Genesis story is found, for example, in 2 Enoch, a Jewish apocalypse dating to the late first century A.D.:

But [Satanail] from the order of the archangels deviated, together with the division [of angels] that was under his authority. He thought up the impossible idea, that he might place his throne higher than the clouds which are above the earth, and that he might become equal to my [i.e., God's] power.

And I hurled him out from the height, together with his angels [to the earthly sphere] . . . . And he will become a demon, because he fled from heaven; Sotona, because his name was Satanail. In this way he did become different from the angels. His nature did not change, [but] his thought did, since his consciousness of righteous and sinful things changed. And he became aware of his condemnation and of the sin which he sinned previously. And that is why he thought up the scheme against Adam. In such a form he entered paradise, and corrupted Eve (2 Enoch 29:4-5 and 31:4-6 [J]).

This passage from 2 Enoch also illustrates another important aspect of apocalyptic theology: While there was a rebellion against God in the heavenly sphere, this rebellion did not succeed. The rebels were put down and God maintained his sovereignty. Apocalyptic writers often express this conviction by speaking of God binding the devil and his angels in prison (e.g., 1 Enoch 10:4-6; cf. 18:12-19:1; 21:1-6; Test. Levi 18:12; Mark 3:26-27; 2 Pet 2:4; Jude 6) or casting them out of heaven onto the earth (as in the passage quoted above). Defeated on the supernatural plane, they continue their warfare on the natural plane by inciting human beings to join their fight against God.

(2) The Present Evil Age and the Kingdom of Satan . As noted above, Genesis 3 attributes pains in childbearing, painful toil, and human death to God's judgment against the sin of Adam and Eve. Jewish apocalyptists read the Scripture, consider the outcome of the Fall, and draw this conclusion: The sin of Adam and Eve caused the world to be afflicted not only with the judgments mentioned above, but with all manner of evils. To illustrate, 2 Baruch (ca. A.D. 100) maintains that

When [Adam] transgressed, untimely death came into being, mourning was mentioned, affliction was prepared, illness was created, labor accomplished, pride began to come into existence, the realm of death began to ask to be renewed with blood, the conception of children came about, the passion of the parents was produced, the loftiness of men was humiliated, and goodness vanished (2 Apoc. Bar. 56 @ :6).

Realizing that the entire human race has been adversely affected by Adam's sin, the author of 4 Ezra (ca. A.D. 100) comes close to despair:

It would have been better if the earth had not produced Adam, or else, when it had produced him, had restrained him from sinning. . . . O Adam, what have you done? For though it was you who sinned, the fall was not yours alone, but ours also who are your descendants (4 Ezra 7:46[116], 48[118]).

Yet Adam does not shoulder the whole blame for warping God's creation. All creatures (both human and angelic) who choose evil over the good, who ally themselves with Satan against God, contribute toward the ruin of God's handiwork. Second Baruch declares:

. . . although Adam sinned first and has brought death upon all who were not in his own time, yet each of them who has been born from him has prepared for himself the coming torment [i.e., the coming judgment/punishment for sin]. . . . Adam is, therefore, not the cause [of "destruction," or "retribution"], except only for himself, but each of us has become our own Adam (2 Apoc. Bar. 54:15a, 19).

Jewish apocalyptists and other writers of their era refer to this world corrupted with evils, this world marred by death, this world fallen away from its original goodness, using a number of different terms. For example, they call it "the present evil age" - they claim that the "present age" is characterized by "evil." They describe this fallen world as the "kingdom of Satan" - that is, a world where Satan and his allies (both human and angelic) exercise a degree of "kingdom" or "kingship" or "rule," a degree of power and influence. Human beings have collaborated with Satan to transform God's good creation into the "present evil age," the "kingdom of Satan," a world twisted and ruined by evil and death.

(3) The Eschatological Age and the Kingdom of God . The Jewish apocalyptists are hardheaded realists who see more clearly than most the nature and pervasiveness of evil in the created order. Still, they do not despair, for they believe the Old Testament promises of redemption. Though extremely pessimistic about the ability of human beings to purge the world of evil, they are extremely optimistic that God will prove true to his word. They trust that God will someday break into history and radically transform the cosmos, that he will "create new heavens and a new earth" through his promised Redeemer. Then sickness and death will be no more. No more will the untamed forces of nature maim and destroy. God will wipe away all tears and restore broken relationships. He will put an end to sin and evil and demonic activity in the world. Death will give way to eternal life. Now evil is tolerated, but then God will suffer evil no more. Now we are living in the "present evil age," but then God will inaugurate a "new age" or "last age" or "eschatological age" (from the Greek term e[scato" [ eschatos ], which means "last"). Now we know only the perversion of creation, but then God will make a "new creation." Now the world is the "kingdom of Satan," but then he will transform it into the "kingdom of God."

(4) The Shift of the Ages. Through what sequence of events will this radical reconfiguration of all things come about? In general, the Jewish apocalyptists anticipate that the world will first undergo a time of terrible "distress" or "tribulation" as Satan and his allies make one last attempt to overcome God and his people. They liken this period of turmoil to the "woes" or "birth pains" that a woman endures in childbirth. In their minds, this time of suffering for God's people will be the "labor pains" preceding the "birth" of the "new creation."

Second, God will send the promised Savior and Redeemer, the Messiah and Christ, the Son of David and Son of Abraham.

Third, they predict that the "labor pains" and the coming of the Messiah will be followed by a great day (sometimes called the "day of the Lord") in which God will suddenly raise the dead (either all the dead or only the servants of God, depending on the writer) to new life.

Fourth, the Messiah will carry out God's final judgment against all his enemies. In other words, God, through his Messiah, will set all wrongs right and put an end to the evil that pollutes his creation. Satan, his angels, and humans allied with them will either be annihilated or forced to suffer an eternal punishment (depending on the writer).

The end result will be a "new age" or "new creation" in which every aspect will conform to God's good and perfect will - the "consummation" of the kingdom of God, or the coming of God's sovereign rule in its fullness.

Who will participate in this new world? Virtually all the Jewish apocalyptists agree that only righteous, covenant-keeping Jews who obey the Law of Moses (not Gentiles) will inherit a place in the consummated kingdom of God.

These sorts of expectations are characteristic features of Jewish apocalyptic theology - common elements of the apocalyptists' understanding of God and his dealings with the world. To illustrate, most are found in two passages from the book of Daniel, a Jewish apocalypse included in the Christian canon.

In Daniel 2, King Nebuchadnezzar has a dream in which he sees an enormous statue with a head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of bronze, legs of iron, and feet made partly of iron and partly of baked clay. As the king watches, a rock "cut out, but not by human hands" (i.e., cut out by God) strikes the statue and shatters it to dust. Then the rock becomes a huge mountain that fills the whole earth (see Dan 2:31-35). In verses 36-45 Daniel interprets the vision, telling Nebuchadnezzar:

. . . You, O king, are the king of kings. . . . You are that head of gold.

After you, another kingdom will rise, inferior to yours. Next, a third kingdom, one of bronze, will rule over the whole earth. Finally, there will be a fourth kingdom, strong as iron - for iron breaks and smashes everything - and as iron breaks things to pieces, so it will crush and break all the others. Just as you saw that the feet and toes were partly of baked clay and partly of iron, so this will be a divided kingdom; yet it will have some of the strength of iron in it, even as you saw iron mixed with clay. . . .

In the time of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed, nor will it be left to another people. It will crush all those kingdoms and bring them to an end, but it will itself endure forever.

Daniel predicts that a series of temporal, human kingdoms (represented by the statue) will be replaced (on the "day of the Lord" at the "final judgment") by the eternal kingdom of God (represented by the rock).

Other common elements of Jewish apocalyptic theology appear in Daniel 12:1-3:

At that time [the archangel] Michael, the great prince who protects your people [ = the Jews], will arise. There will be a time of distress such as has not happened from the beginning of nations until then [ = the period of "labor pains"]. But at that time your people - everyone whose name is found written in the book - will be delivered. Multitudes who sleep in the dust of the earth will awake [ = the resurrection]: some to everlasting life, others to shame and everlasting contempt [ = the division made between the righteous and unrighteous at the final judgment]. Those who are wise will shine like the brightness of the heavens, and those who lead many to righteousness [ = obedience to the Mosaic Law], like the stars for ever and ever.

(5) Apocalyptic Transcendence, Dualism, and Pessimism. We have seen that the Jewish apocalyptists hold a transcendent worldview. They believe that beyond the visible, material, earthly, physical realities, there lie invisible, immaterial, heavenly, spiritual realities. Spiritual powers influence the material universe in significant ways. The apocalyptic worldview makes room for the supernatural.

Since some angels and some humans oppose God, apocalyptic theology also includes a strong element of dualism. In other words, there are two opposing powers in the world - the evil and the good. What we are witnessing in history is a struggle between the forces of good (God, his angels, his righteous servants) and the forces of evil (Satan, demonic powers, unrighteous persons who do not submit to the Lord). Apocalyptists do not believe in an absolute dualism, for the power of Satan and his allies is not equal to that of the creator and Lord of all. However, evil powers do exercise a degree of influence in the world because the sovereign God - for the time being - permits it. One of the reasons the righteous suffer is that they are being attacked and persecuted by the enemies of God, both human and demonic.

Most apocalypses come out of communities experiencing such persecution firsthand. Their prolonged struggle with evil has led them to a certain kind of pessimism. The Old Testament prophets look for God's good purposes to be worked out within the historical process - in the world as we know it. In contrast, Jewish apocalyptists do not expect the world to improve. They doubt that human beings will ever overcome evil to build a good, just, and godly society on their own.

(6) Apocalyptic Optimism, Determinism, and Triumph. Although they are pessimistic about humanity's ability to redeem a fallen world, the apocalyptists are optimistic that God will do just that. From the Old Testament, they know that God is good, just, powerful, and true. If he is good, then he will not allow evil to stand forever. If he is just, then he will punish the wicked and reward the righteous. If he is powerful, then he can do it; and if he can do it, then he will do it. But if this is so, then why do so many of God's faithful servants suffer hardship, poverty, and even violent death? If this is so, then why do so many of the wicked live prosperous lives and then die peacefully in bed? With remarkable faith, apocalyptic writers conclude that God will be true to himself and true to his promises. He will punish evildoers and vindicate his holy people - if not before death then after death, if not in this life then in another, if not in this world then in a new world created just for them. History has a goal predetermined by God: The Sovereign Lord will redeem his fallen creation, purging it from evil and bringing every detail into conformity with his good and perfect will. The Lord will indeed triumph; his kingdom will come.

c. Development of Christian Apocalyptic Theology in the New Testament Period

Against this background, we now turn our attention to the New Testament period. When the German theologian Ernst Käsemann identifies Jewish apocalyptic as "the mother of Christian theology," he is not far off the mark. When Jesus of Nazareth arrives on the scene, he confirms that much of the apocalyptists' interpretation of the Old Testament is correct. Influenced by Jesus and the first disciples taught by him, New Testament writers introduce many elements of Jewish apocalyptic theology into the Christian Bible. Some elements they adopt wholesale; others they modify or transform as their insight into God's purpose - enacted through Christ - surpasses that of their predecessors. Christian theology, then, is largely apocalyptic theology.

(1) Supernatural Forces of Evil . New Testament writers share the apocalyptists' belief in both the earthly and heavenly, the natural and supernatural spheres. Behind the evils plaguing this world - behind the deeply rooted systemic wickedness, behind the sophisticated lies that have for centuries held entire civilizations captive under false worldviews - lies an intelligence, a power beside and beyond that of mere human beings. As Paul says,

Our struggle is not against flesh and blood [i.e., human beings - creatures of the earthly, natural sphere], but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly [supernatural] realms (Eph 6:12).

(2) Adam and the Present Evil Age. New Testament writers also hold to the notion of the "kingdom of Satan" or "present evil age" - an era marred by sin and death that begins with the rebellion of Adam and ends with the consummation of God's kingdom. To illustrate, Paul maintains that

. . . sin entered the world through one man [Adam], and death through sin, . . . many died by the trespass of the one man . . . . The judgment [of God] followed one sin and brought condemnation . . . . by the trespass of the one man, death reigned through that one man . . . (Rom 5:12,15,16,17).

The creation waits in eager expectation for the sons of God to be revealed [at the resurrection]. For the creation was subjected to frustration, not by its own choice, but by the will of the one who subjected it, in hope that the creation itself will be liberated from its bondage to decay [including death] and brought into the glorious freedom [from decay] of the children of God (Rom 8:19-21).

(3) The Kingdom of God and the Ministry of Jesus . Working from within this kind of apocalyptic worldview, New Testament writers show that Jesus - in his words and even more so in his deeds - claimed to be the promised Messiah, the one sent by God to annihilate the kingdom of Satan and inaugurate the kingdom of God. As 1 John 3:8 words it, "The reason the Son of God appeared was to destroy the devil's work."

That this was Jesus' purpose and mission is seen in every aspect of his ministry. For example, the coming of God's kingdom was the subject of Jesus' preaching, as shown by the summary of his message found in Mark 1:14-15:

After John [the Baptist] was put in prison, Jesus went into Galilee, proclaiming the good news [or "gospel"] of God. "The time has come," he said. "The kingdom of God is near. Repent and believe the good news!"

Note that the "gospel" message, according to Jesus, is the proclamation of the "good news" - the apocalyptic promise - that God will soon annihilate evil and transform the entire cosmos to conform to his will.

God's coming kingdom was also the focus of Jesus' teaching. For example, in teaching his disciples to pray, Jesus tells them:

This, then, is how you should pray: "Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name, your kingdom come, your will be done on earth as it is in heaven" (Matt 6:9-10).

When Jesus calls on people to repent and "leave your life of sin" (John 8:11), he is urging them to turn away from evil - to renounce their alliance with Satan (whether conscious or unconscious) and conform their lives to the coming "kingdom" or "rule" or "Lordship" of God. When Jesus forgives sins as only God can (see, e.g., Luke 5:17-26), he shows that God - through his Messiah Jesus - is in the process of doing away with evil, in the process of wiping away the sin that has corrupted his creation for so long. When Jesus gathers disciples to himself and commands them to "love each other as I have loved you" (see, e.g., John 15:12), then he is beginning to form the community of the "eschatological age," when men and women from all nations will live together in peace forever under the beneficent kingship of God.

Jesus' miracles also proclaim the "good news" of God's emerging kingdom. They show that, in the person of Jesus the Christ, God has entered into his sinful, fallen, perverted creation in order to set things right - to reestablish his kingdom rule over it. For example, by healing the sick, Jesus shows that God is going to put an end to the pain and suffering and misery that have warped his good creation. This is why Jesus, in Luke 10:8-9, gives these instructions to his disciples when he sends them out with authority to preach and heal in his name:

When you enter a town and are welcomed, eat what is set before you. Heal the sick who are there and tell them, "The kingdom of God is near you" (italics added for emphasis here and throughout the commentary).

He says, when you heal the sick, you must not forget to tell them what it means - what it signifies. The healings are intended to show that the kingdom or lordship of God is near - that it is becoming a reality through the Messiah Jesus (here working through his disciples).

When Jesus exorcises demons, he shows that God is in the process of destroying the kingdom of Satan and establishing the kingdom of God. To illustrate, Luke 11:14-20 recounts how, on one occasion,

Jesus was driving out a demon that was mute. When the demon left, the man who had been mute spoke, and the crowd was amazed. But some of them said, "By Beelzebub [another name for Satan], the prince of demons, he is driving out demons." Others tested him by asking for a sign from heaven.

Jesus knew their thoughts and said to them: "Any kingdom divided against itself will be ruined, and a house divided against itself will fall. If Satan is divided against himself, how can his kingdom stand? I say this because you claim that I drive out demons by Beelzebub. Now if I drive out demons by Beelzebub, by whom do your followers drive them out? So then, they will be your judges. But if I drive out demons by the finger of God [i.e., by the power of God], then the kingdom of God has [already] come to you."

When Jesus calms the storm and walks on water (see Matt 14:22-33; Mark 6:45-52; John 6:16-21), he shows that even the forces of nature - all God's creation - will be brought under his lordship so that they bend to his will and no longer hurt and destroy. When Jesus resuscitates the dead (e.g., Lazarus in John 11), he points forward to the day when all God's people will be raised up to eternal life in his consummated kingdom.

(4) The Kingdom of God and the Death of Jesus . What is the relationship between Jesus' death on the cross and the kingdom of God? During the Old Testament period, covenants - i.e., formal relationships between two parties - were established or sealed through animal sacrifices. To illustrate, Exodus 24:1-11 describes how God established a covenant with the people of Israel that was mediated by Moses (the so-called "Mosaic Covenant"). The Law of the Lord was read to the people, specifying the behavior that would be required of them in their new relationship with God. Israel then "responded with one voice, 'Everything the Lord has said we will do'" ( vv. 3,7). They agreed to enter into the type of covenantal relationship with God described by the Law. Next, animals were sacrificed and Moses sealed the covenant with blood: He "took the blood, sprinkled it on the people and said, 'This is the blood of the covenant that the Lord has made with you'" ( v. 8) - i.e., the sacrificial blood that seals or establishes the Mosaic Covenant. Finally, the elders of Israel, on behalf of the entire nation, ascended Mount Sinai, saw God, and ate and drank with him. They shared a "covenant meal" celebrating the new relationship with God Israel now enjoyed through the blood sacrifices.

During his last meal with his disciples - on the evening before his crucifixion - Jesus took simple bread and a cup of wine, and he used them to offer the most detailed explanation of his death in the Gospels:

When the hour came, Jesus and his apostles reclined at the table. And he said to them, "I have eagerly desired to eat this Passover with you before I suffer. For I tell you, I will not eat it again until it finds fulfilllment in the kingdom of God."

After taking the cup, he gave thanks and said, "Take this and divide it among you. For I tell you I will not drink again of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God comes."

And he took bread, gave thanks and broke it, and gave it to them, saying, "This is my body given for you; do this in remembrance of me."

In the same way, after the supper he took the cup, saying, "This cup is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you" (Luke 22:14-20).

Jesus says, "This is my body given for you (uJpeÉr uJmw'n, hyper hymôn) . . . . my blood, which is poured out for you (hyper hymôn)." Although not readily apparent in English translation, this is sacrificial language from the Greek version of the Old Testament. Jesus is saying that his impending death will be a sacrifice. But what kind of sacrifice? The Lord tells them: "This cup is the new covenant in my blood." He uses language nearly identical to that employed in Exodus 24:8 ("This is the blood of the covenant") to identify his death precisely as the kind of sacrifice that establishes a covenant. What covenant? Not the Mosaic Covenant, but a "new covenant." What, then, is the significance of the ritual meal of bread and wine - the "Eucharist" or "Lord's Supper" Jesus commands his disciples to observe "in remembrance of me"? It is the "covenant meal" celebrating the establishment of the "new covenant" through Jesus' sacrifice. Who participates in this "new covenant"? God, who sent Jesus to establish the covenant, and Jesus' disciples - those from "all nations" (see Matt 28:19), Jews and Gentiles alike , who accept God's lordship over their lives as exercised through his Messiah. In other words, those persons to whom the "covenant meal" is offered. Finally, when may Jesus' disciples participate in this "new covenant" relationship with God? The answer is: Both now and, more completely, in the future. The "new covenant" was established in the past by Jesus' sacrificial death. It is in place now, in the present , so that Jesus' disciples - who were once "God's enemies" - are now at "peace with God" and "reconciled to him through the death of his Son" (Rom 5:1,10). Yet disciples of Christ will experience this new relationship with God on an even deeper, more intimate level, in the future - when they are raised from the dead, when they "see him as he is" (1 John 3:2), when the new covenant "finds fulfilllment in the [consummated] kingdom of God."

Who participates in the Kingdom of God - the coming "new creation" in which every detail will conform to the will of God? All those who share in the "new covenant." And who participates in the "new covenant"? All those who choose to be disciples of Jesus. All those who conform to the will of God as he makes that will known through his Messiah. All those who embrace God's kingdom rule over their lives in Christ. In essence, Jesus offers "all nations" a place in the kingdom of God now in the form of the "new covenant" established by his sacrificial death. This truth is extremely important: Jesus' death on the cross forgives sins not merely in the sense that, through it, God pardons wrong deeds. (The sinner receiving such a pardon would still be trapped in a fallen world and doomed to death.) Jesus' death forgives sins in the sense that it provides an escape from the "present evil age" - and entrance into the emerging kingdom of God - in the form of a "new covenant" relationship with God. By his sacrificial death, Jesus shattered the kingdom of Satan, the powers of sin and death, and thus established the kingdom of God. The New Testament writers testify to this wonderful truth:

. . . the Lord Jesus Christ . . . gave himself for our sins to rescue us from the present evil age, according to the will of our God and Father . . . (Gal 1:3-4).

Since the children have flesh and blood, he too shared in their humanity so that by his death he might destroy him who holds the power of death - that is, the devil - and free those who all their lives were held in slavery by their fear of death (Heb 2:14-15).

[God] has rescued us from the dominion of darkness and brought us into the kingdom of the Son he loves, in whom we have redemption, the forgiveness of sins (Col 1:13-14).

. . . our Savior, Christ Jesus, . . . has destroyed death and has brought life and immortality to light through the gospel (2 Tim 1:10).

Since death came through a man [Adam], the resurrection of the dead comes also through a man [Jesus Christ] (1 Cor 15:21).

Jesus is the full realization of the Old Testament and apocalyptic hopes. He is the "son of Adam" who crushes the serpent's head for his disciples by dying to make a place for them in God's kingdom. He is the "Son of Abraham" who offers this blessing to "all people on earth." He is the "Son of David" who rules over an eternal Kingdom - not through military force, but by dying as a sacrifice for his people. He is the promised one who freely offers "new heavens and a new earth" to all who desire it - to everyone willing to live as his disciple, willing to accept the beneficent rule of God over his or her life.

(5) The Kingdom of God and the Resurrection of Jesus . Jesus died on the cross, and on the third day - much to the surprise of his disciples - God raised him from the dead. What is the meaning and significance of his resurrection? Many answers to that question are found in the New Testament, but we shall mention only four: First, the fact that Jesus was raised from the dead means that he is our contemporary, that he continues to live and work among us. His Spirit is continuously present with us today in accordance with the promise he gave to his first disciples: "Surely I am with you always, to the consummation of the age" (Matt 28:20).

Second, Jesus' return from the grave shows that life after death is possible. Furthermore, such life takes the form of resurrection, by which the biblical writers mean transformed, bodily existence in the eschatological age . Resurrection is a bodily form of existence in the sense that, like the risen Jesus, raised persons possess bodies (sw'ma, sôma). They are not ghosts or disembodied spirits. Like Jesus, they also retain their memories, their personalities, their identities - everything that made them who they were before death, everything that made them some body . (The Greek idea of the sôma includes both the "body" in the sense of the "physical frame" and the "body" in the sense of the "person.") Resurrection is a transformed kind of existence in the sense that, like Jesus, raised persons enjoy a better, higher, more glorious, more exalted, more lasting form of existence than they knew before death. Resurrection is existence in the eschatological age in the sense described below.

Third, the resurrection of Jesus marks the beginning of the general resurrection of the righteous anticipated by the apocalyptists. Thus Paul calls Christ "the firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep" (1 Cor 15:20) and "the firstborn from among the dead" (Col 1:18) - that is, the first of many to rise from death to eternal life. This is why Christ's resurrection was more than an anomaly, why it gives Christians sure hope for their own resurrection. Jesus' emergence from the tomb shows that the apocalyptists' hopes were not misplaced - that there is indeed such a thing as the resurrection, that it has begun, and that we should expect for many more to be raised in the future. When will this "general resurrection" take place? Jesus indicated that it would occur at his "Second Coming" or "Parousia" (from the Greek term parousiva for "coming," "arrival" or "appearing"), when he returns to carry out the final judgment and consummate the kingdom of God. Paul describes this event in 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18:

Brothers, we do not want you to be ignorant about those who fall asleep, or to grieve like the rest of men, who have no hope. We believe that Jesus died and rose again and so we believe that God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him. According to the Lord's own word, we tell you that we who are still alive, who are left till the coming [ parousia ] of the Lord, will certainly not precede those who have fallen asleep. For the Lord himself will come down from heaven, with a loud command, with the voice of the archangel and with the trumpet call of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. After that, we who are still alive and are left will be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air. And so we will be with the Lord forever. Therefore encourage each other with these words (1 Thess 4:13-18).

From that time forward, "there will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away" (Rev 21:4).

Fourth, the resurrection of Jesus marks the beginning of the eschatological age and the kingdom of God. The Jewish apocalyptists had predicted that the resurrection of the dead would announce the coming of God's kingdom (see above). The resurrection of Jesus, "the firstborn from among the dead," showed his first disciples that the anticipated event had begun - that God was beginning to fulfilll his eschatological promises, that the kingdom of God had arrived. At the same time, the fact that sin and evil continued to mar the world, the fact that human beings continued to die, demonstrated to first century Christians that the kingdom of Satan had not yet entirely passed away. In light of these two undeniable realities (the continued presence of evil in the world and the eschatological event of Christ's resurrection), they concluded that God's intention must be to establish his kingdom more gradually than the Jewish apocalyptists had anticipated. In other words, the "present evil age" and the "eschatological age" would coexist - or "overlap" - for a time.

Day of the

Sin of Adam Lord

& Eve

PRESENT EVIL AGE

(Kingdom of Satan)

Eternal life for

"Labor pains" righteous Jews and Gentiles

Rebellion ("overlap" of the ages)

in heaven

ESCHATOLOGICAL AGE

(Kingdom of God)

Creation Messiah comes Messiah returns

Resurrection

Final Judgment

Fig. 2. The Shape of Christian Apocalyptic Theology

In the recent past, the kingdom of God had invaded the kingdom of Satan with the coming, the ministry, the death, and the resurrection of the Messiah. In the present (which becomes the period of "labor pains" in Christian theology - see below), God is allowing the two kingdoms, the two realities, to coexist. The "new covenant" is in place and Christians are embracing the kingdom of God over their lives; but death, the "last enemy," has not yet been completely "destroyed." In the future, however, Christ will return a second time to annihilate the kingdom of Satan and consummate the kingdom of God. In this way, Jesus' resurrection from the dead gave Christian theology its distinctive shape as compared to Jewish apocalyptic theology (compare Fig. 2 with Fig. 1).

Romans 13:11-14 shows that the Apostle Paul arrived at this understanding of God's actions in Christ. In this text, he compares the kingdom of Satan to the darkness or nighttime and the kingdom of God to the light or daytime:

And do this [i.e., live as kingdom people by obeying Christ's command to "love one another"], understanding the present time [oJ nu'n kairov" ( ho nyn kairos ), Paul's technical term for the "overlap" of the ages]. The hour has come for you to wake up from your slumber [i.e., act as if the daytime/kingdom of God has arrived and the nighttime/kingdom of Satan has ended], because our salvation [i.e., our resurrection to eternal life in the consummated kingdom of God] is nearer now than when we first believed. The night is nearly over [i.e., the kingdom of Satan has not entirely ended, but its days are numbered]; the day is almost here [i.e., the kingdom of God has not yet completely arrived, but it has "dawned"]. So let us put aside the deeds of darkness and put on the armor of light. Let us behave decently, as in the daytime [i.e., as if God's kingdom rule had already fully come], not in orgies and drunkenness, not in sexual immorality and debauchery, not in dissension and jealousy. Rather, clothe yourselves with the Lord Jesus Christ, and do not think about how to gratify the desires of the sinful nature.

That the "overlap" of the ages was Jesus' own understanding of God's plan is shown by his masterful Parable of the Weeds:

Jesus told them another parable: "The kingdom of heaven [ = the kingdom of God - the sovereignty God exercises from the heavenly sphere, rather than any human sovereignty exercised from the earthly sphere] is like a man who sowed good seed in his field. But while everyone was sleeping, his enemy came and sowed weeds among the wheat, and went away. When the wheat sprouted and formed heads, then the weeds also appeared.

"The owner's servants came to him and said, 'Sir, didn't you sow good seed in your field? Where then did the weeds come from?'

"'An enemy did this,' he replied.

"The servants asked him, 'Do you want us to go and pull them up?'

"'No,' he answered, 'because while you are pulling the weeds, you may root up the wheat with them. Let both grow together [ = the "overlap" of the ages when the kingdom of Satan and kingdom of God coexist - see the interpretation of the parable given below] until the harvest. At that time I will tell the harvesters: First collect the weeds and tie them in bundles to be burned; then gather the wheat and bring it into my barn.'"

Then he left the crowd and went into the house. His disciples came to him and said, "Explain to us the parable of the weeds in the field."

He answered, "The one who sowed the good seed is the Son of Man [i.e., Jesus, the Messiah, who inaugurates the kingdom of God by preaching the gospel and dying as the sacrifice that makes it possible for people to become disciples/participants in the "new covenant"/"sons of the kingdom"]. The field is the world, and the good seed stands for the sons of the kingdom. The weeds are the sons of the evil one, and the enemy who sows them is the devil. The harvest is the end of the age [i.e., the final judgment when a division is made between the wicked and the righteous, when the "present evil age" is ended and the "eschatological age" comes in its fullness], and the harvesters are angels.

"As the weeds are pulled up and burned in the fire, so it will be at the end of the age. The Son of Man will send out his angels, and they will weed out of his kingdom everything that causes sin and all who do evil. [Note that Jesus considers the field/world to be his kingdom. God has never surrendered his good creation to the evil one, but at the final judgment will root out and destroy his evil works.] They will throw them into the fiery furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth [i.e., eschatological condemnation for the wicked]. Then the righteous will shine like the sun [i.e., the radiant glory of the resurrection body] in the kingdom of their Father. He who has ears, let him hear" (Matt 13:24-30,36-43).

d. Major Differences between Jewish and Christian Apocalyptic Theology

Jewish apocalyptic is indeed "the mother of Christian theology." The first Christians interpret Jesus in apocalyptic terms, as the Lord himself taught them to do. However, while Jesus does fulfill apocalyptic expectations, he does not do it in the way most Jews expect. Consequently, their first-hand experience with God's Messiah leads the early Christians to recast apocalyptic theology in several significant ways (again, compare Fig. 1 with Fig. 2).

(1) Identity of the Messiah . Christian apocalyptic writers name Jesus of Nazareth as the promised Messiah who destroys the kingdom of Satan and establishes the kingdom of God. Non-Christian Jewish apocalyptists do not, of course, make that identification.

(2) The Coming of God's Kingdom. From the point of view of Jewish apocalyptists, the coming of God's kingdom rule lies in the future, at the long-anticipated "Day of the Lord." In contrast, Jesus' first disciples see the kingdom as both a present and a future reality. They proclaim not that God has made promises that he will someday fulfill, but that he has made promises that he has already begun to fulfill in their own lifetime. The kingdom of God has begun to appear with the first coming of Jesus. With his Second Coming it will reach its sudden and swift consummation. In other words, for Jewish apocalyptists the kingdom of God comes suddenly in the future. For Christian apocalyptists it comes more gradually, in two stages.

Scholars sometimes refer to this idea as "the already, but not yet" of Christian theology. The kingdom of God has already broken into history with the coming of Jesus, but it has not yet come in its fullness. Another way of saying this is that Christian theology contains a strong element of "realized eschatology." This is the belief that many of the eschatological events (e.g., the "labor pains," the coming of the Messiah, the resurrection, the coming of God's kingdom) are already, to some extent, being "realized" or experienced in the present.

(3) The "Labor Pains." Jewish apocalyptists view the period immediately preceding the consummation of God's kingdom as the "labor pains" - a time of intense suffering and persecution for God's people. Christian writers agree that the "labor pains" precede the consummation. However, they differ from their predecessors by identifying the "labor pains" with the period between Christ's first and second comings - the "overlap" of the ages.

(4) Participants in God's Kingdom . Both Jewish and Christian apocalyptists agree that resurrection to eternal life in the consummated kingdom of God is for the "righteous" - that is, for covenant-keepers. They disagree regarding which covenant leads to this salvation. Jewish apocalyptists reserve resurrection to life for persons who participate in the Mosaic covenant and obey the Mosaic Law. In most cases, this limits salvation to Jews, since the Mosaic Law was given to the Jewish people. Christian apocalyptists believe that salvation comes to those who share in the new covenant established by Christ's sacrificial death. This new covenant is based not on Jewish descent, but on "faith" or commitment to God/Christ as Lord. It therefore opens the way for both Jews and Gentiles to enter the rule of God.

(5) Expectation and Fulfillment. The gap between Jewish expectation and the actual fulfilllment of God's promises proved a stumbling block to many Jews of the first century. Luke shows that even John the Baptist was bewildered by the way in which Jesus carried out his messianic mission:

John's disciples told him about all these things [Jesus was doing]. Calling two of them, he sent them to the Lord to ask, "Are you the one who was to come, or should we expect someone else?"

When the men came to Jesus, they said, "John the Baptist sent us to you to ask, 'Are you the one who was to come, or should we expect someone else?'"

At that very time Jesus cured many who had diseases, sicknesses and evil spirits, and gave sight to many who were blind. So he replied to the messengers, "Go back and report to John what you have seen and heard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosy are cured, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good news is preached to the poor. [As we have seen, all these activities are manifestations of the end of Satan's rule and the coming of God's rule through Jesus the Messiah.] Blessed is the man who does not fall away on account of me" (Luke 7:18-23//Matt 11:2-6).

In other words, blessed is the one who does not miss the coming of the Messiah and God's kingdom because Jesus does not fulfill the apocalyptic prophecies in the way that most Jews expect.

The Revelation of John is an expression of Christian apocalyptic theology in the apocalyptic form. For this reason, its message goes far beyond that of non-Christian apocalypses. Christian theology is rooted in Jewish apocalyptic theology, but Jesus Christ transforms apocalyptic expectation in significant ways.

IV. AUTHOR, DATE, PLACE OF WRITING,

OCCASION, AND FIRST READERS

Before examining the message of Revelation, we must first address several important introductory questions concerning this book: Who is the author? When was the book written? Where was the author when he wrote the book? To whom was Revelation written? What occasion or situation does the author address? In seeking answers to these questions, we will examine both internal evidence (i.e., answers found within Revelation itself) and external evidence (i.e., clues to the origin of Revelation from outside the book).

A. INTERNAL EVIDENCE

In the first chapter of Revelation, the author provides us with important information concerning himself and his intended readers:

John,

To the seven churches in the province of Asia: (Rev 1:4)

I, John, your brother and companion in the suffering and kingdom and patient endurance that are ours in Jesus, was on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus. On the Lord's Day I was in the Spirit, and I heard behind me a loud voice like a trumpet, which said: "Write on a scroll what you see and send it to the seven churches: to Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea" (Rev 1:9-11).

1. First Readers

The author identifies his audience as "the seven churches in the province of Asia" - specifically the Christian congregations in the cities of "Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea." The Roman "province of Asia" made up the western third of Asia Minor (modern Turkey), with Ephesus serving as the provincial capital. The churches here had historical ties to the Apostle Paul, who established several congregations in this region during the late 40s and early 50s. For two or three years, Paul used Ephesus as his base of operations for training leaders and evangelizing the whole province (see Acts 19:8-10). John's "seven churches" may refer to seven literal churches. However, since the number "seven" tends to symbolize "completeness" in apocalyptic literature, these churches probably represent the whole of the Christian community in Asia.

The Asian churches were mixed bodies of Gentile and Jewish believers, reflecting the ethnic diversity of the province. By the late first century, about one million Jews made their homes in Asia Minor where they established more than fifty synagogues. Some had migrated to Asia from Palestine after the Jewish revolt against Rome in A.D. 66-73. Jewish Christians from Palestine would have been familiar with apocalyptic, for many apocalypses were produced in Palestine during this period.

2. Author

The author's name is "John." He calls himself a "brother" - that is, a Christian. He functions as a prophet or spokesman for God.

Revelation contains several indications that the author was a Palestinian Jew: First, the name "John" (=Iwavnnh", Iôannçs), a Greek form of the Hebrew "Johanan" (meaning "the LORD is gracious"), was common among first century Jews. Second, the structure and phrasing of Revelation suggest that the author thought in Hebrew (the original language of the Jewish Scriptures) and/or Aramaic (the closely related language spoken by ethnic Jews in Palestine). He spoke Greek only as a second language. Third, through over one hundred allusions to the Scriptures, the author demonstrates extensive knowledge of the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, as well as the Greek. Fourth, John writes in the apocalyptic genre, which was most popular in Jewish circles in Palestine. Finally, symbols such as Armageddon (Rev 16:16), the new Jerusalem (21:2), and the temple (11:1-2) are based on actual places located in Palestine (although such knowledge could have been drawn not from firsthand exposure but from the Old Testament). It may be, then, that the author of Revelation was one of the Jewish Christians who moved to Asia from Palestine due to the war with Rome. Who this "John" was cannot be determined from the book of Revelation in itself.

3. Occasion and Place of Writing

John identifies with his readers by describing himself as their "companion in suffering . . . and patient endurance." John himself has been exiled to the island of Patmos, just off the western coast of Asia, "because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus." Other portions of Revelation (particularly the letters to the seven churches in chs. 2-3) show that at least some of John's readers are also being persecuted for their faith. To Ephesus and Smyrna the Lord writes:

You have persevered and have endured hardships for my name, and have not grown weary (Rev 2:3).

I know your afflictions and your poverty - yet you are rich! I know the slander of those who say they are Jews and are not, but are a synagogue of Satan. Do not be afraid of what you are about to suffer. I tell you, the devil will put some of you in prison to test you, and you will suffer persecution for ten days. Be faithful, even to the point of death, and I will give you the crown of life (Rev 2:9-10).

Christ mentions past afflictions, hardships, poverty, and slanders from Jews. When he speaks of "what you are about to suffer," he anticipates still more difficulties to come - persecution, imprisonment, and perhaps even death.

The Lord addresses these words to the church in Pergamum:

I know where you live - where Satan has his throne. Yet you remain true to my name. You did not renounce your faith in me, even in the days of Antipas, my faithful witness, who was put to death in your city - where Satan lives (Rev 2:13).

At the time when John writes Revelation, Christians in Asia are under intense pressure to renounce their faith in Christ. At least one martyrdom (Antipas) has already occurred.

Philadelphia and Laodicea receive these assurances:

I know your deeds, your love and faith, your service and perseverance, and that you are now doing more than you did at first (Rev 2:19).

I know your deeds. See, I have placed before you an open door that no one can shut. I know that you have little strength, yet you have kept my word and have not denied my name. I will make those who are of the synagogue of Satan, who claim to be Jews though they are not, but are liars - I will make them come and fall down at your feet and acknowledge that I have loved you. Since you have kept my command to endure patiently, I will also keep you from the hour of trial that is going to come upon the whole world to test those who live on the earth (Rev 3:8-10).

Again we see pressure to deny Christ, troubles with Jews, and an expectation of further hardships to come ("the hour of trial that is going to come upon the whole world").

The vision of the fifth seal describes multiple Christian martyrs, whose numbers will continue to grow:

When he opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar the souls of those who had been slain because of the word of God and the testimony they had maintained. They called out in a loud voice, "How long, Sovereign Lord, holy and true, until you judge the inhabitants of the earth and avenge our blood?" Then each of them was given a white robe, and they were told to wait a little longer, until the number of their fellow servants and brothers who were to be killed as they had been was completed (Rev 6:9-11).

John later sees a woman symbolizing Rome, with a golden cup, "drunk with the blood of the saints, the blood of those who bore testimony to Jesus" (Rev 17:6). She has not merely sipped from her gruesome cup; she has gorged herself with the blood of God's people to the point of intoxication. Numerous Christians are being murdered for their loyalty to Christ.

4. Summary

Internal evidence suggests that Revelation was written by a Jewish Christian from Palestine named "John." John received the Revelation on the island of Patmos, where he had been banished for witnessing to Christ. The book addresses all the churches in the Roman province of Asia. Together with John, these believers are being harassed and persecuted because of their commitment to Christ - some to the point of death. At the time of writing, the author expects the suffering to continue and the number of martyrs to grow.

B. EXTERNAL EVIDENCE

Revelation itself gives us a good start in discovering the origins of this book. Yet important questions remain unanswered: When was Revelation written? Precisely why were the first readers being persecuted and killed? Who is John? For insights into these issues, we turn to "external evidence" from outside the New Testament.

1. Author

Regarding the identity of "John," three possibilities seem most likely: First, the author could be John the Apostle, brother of James and son of Zebedee, one of the original Twelve disciples of Jesus (see Matt 10:2). Second, he could be someone writing in the name of John the Apostle, in which case Revelation would be pseudonymous like so many other apocalypses. Third, the writer could be some other person named "John" writing in his own name.

a. "John" a Pseudonym?

Of these three possibilities, we may eliminate the second immediately. Revelation is certainly not pseudonymous - not because such a practice would be unthinkable in a Christian apocalypse, but because the evidence makes this theory untenable. The author of Revelation never gives any indication that he is an Apostle. He simply calls himself a "servant" of God (21:1) and "your brother" (21:9). He recounts no stories or sayings from the ministry of Jesus, nor does he give any other indication that he had known Jesus during his earthly ministry. Many scholars (this writer not included) think that the author actually distinguishes himself from the Apostles in Revelation 21:14: "The wall of the city had twelve foundations, and on them were the names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb" - that is, the past founders of the people of God.

If the author of Revelation is someone other than John the Apostle, then this easily explains why he does not identify himself as the Apostle. If the author actually is John the Apostle, then we could attribute his silence to modesty. (The author of the Gospel and letters attributed to John displays similar modesty, being more interested in telling others about Jesus than in telling them about himself.) However, if what we have in Revelation is someone who wants to present himself as John the Apostle, then he fails miserably by never clearly identifying himself as that hero of the faith. The theory of pseudonymity seems quite implausible in the case of Revelation.

b. Evidence from the Early Christian Fathers

We are left, then, with two possibilities: Is the author of Revelation John the Apostle, or is he some other "John" entirely? Perhaps the Early Christian Fathers can help us with this question. As leaders of the Church in the postapostolic period, they were certainly closer to John in time and space than we are. What do they tell us regarding the origin of Revelation?

(1) Timeline. Before we put the Fathers on the "witness stand," we should acquaint ourselves with the time period in question. Revelation - like all New Testament books - was written during the first century A.D. Thirteen Roman emperors reigned during that century, as outlined below:

Augustus (30 B.C.-A.D 14) was emperor at the time of Jesus' birth (which took place in 4-6 B.C. - see Luke 2:1) and also during his boyhood.

Tiberius (A.D. 14-37) ruled throughout the period of Jesus' adulthood, his public ministry (see Luke 3:1), and his death and resurrection (which occurred in A.D. 33).

Caligula, Claudius (mentioned in Acts 11:28

Caligula (37-41) and 18:2), and Nero reigned during the period when the Apostle Paul carried out

Claudius (41-54) his mission to the Gentiles and Christianity spread across the Mediterranean world.

Nero (54-68) According to the Church Fathers, both Peter and Paul died under a persecution of Christians sparked by Nero.

Galba, Otho, and Vitellius (68-69) held power only briefly as the Empire suffered through a period of murder, intrigue, and civil war.

Vespasian (69-79) was the Roman general charged with putting down the Jewish revolt that began in A.D. 66. When his forces defeated Vitellius and made him emperor, Vespasian left the siege of Jerusalem to return to Rome.

Titus (79-81), the son of Vespasian, took over his father's command and destroyed Jerusalem in A.D. 70. He later succeeded his father as emperor.

Domitian (81-96) According to the Church Fathers, Domitian (another son of Vespasian), Nerva, and Trajan

Nerva (96-98) played a role in the events surrounding the writing of Revelation (see below).

Trajan (98-117)

Against this background, what do the Church Fathers tell us about "John" and the writing of Revelation? Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Eusebius prove particularly helpful to our inquiry.

(2) The Testimony of Justin Martyr. Our earliest evidence that Revelation was written by John the Apostle comes from Justin Martyr, a teacher of the church at Rome in the mid-second century. In his Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, Justin recalls:

. . . a man among us [Christians] named John, one of Christ's Apostles, received a revelation and foretold that the followers of Christ would dwell in Jerusalem for a thousand years, and that afterwards the universal and, in short, everlasting resurrection and judgment would take place. (Justin refers to John's vision in Rev 20:4-22:5.)

As we will see, some of Justin's fellow believers agree that the Apostle wrote Revelation, while others have their doubts.

(3) The Testimony of Irenaeus. During the late second century, Irenaeus served as bishop of Lyons in what is now France. In Against Heresies (ca. 180), a refutation of Gnosticism, he defends the apostolic origin of the Christian gospel. In the process, he provides details concerning the later life of John the Apostle.

For we learned the plan of our salvation from no others than from those through whom the gospel came to us. They first preached it abroad, and then later by the will of God handed it down to us in Writings, to be the foundation and pillar of our faith. For it is not right to say that they preached before they had come to perfect knowledge, as some [Gnostics] dare to say, boasting that they are the correctors of the apostles. For after our Lord had risen from the dead, and they were enclothed with the power from on high when the Holy Spirit came upon them, they were filled with all things and had perfect knowledge. They went out to the ends of the earth, preaching the good things that come to us from God, and proclaiming peace from heaven to men, all and each of them equally being in possession of the gospel of God. So Matthew among the Hebrews issued a Writing of the gospel in their own tongue, while Peter and Paul were preaching the gospel at Rome, and founding the Church. After their decease Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, also handed down to us in writing what Peter had preached. Then Luke, the follower of Paul, recorded in a book the gospel as it was preached by him. Finally John, the disciple of the Lord, who had also lain on his breast, published the Gospel, while he was residing at Ephesus in Asia. All of these handed down to us that there is one God, maker of heaven and earth, proclaimed by the Law and the Prophets, and one Christ the Son of God. If anyone does not agree with them he despises the companions of the Lord, he despises Christ the Lord himself, he even despises the Father, and he is self-condemned, resisting and refusing his own salvation, as all the heretics do.

Note that, according to Irenaeus, the Fourth Gospel was written by the Apostle John (whom he identifies with the "disciple whom Jesus loved," who reclined next to the Lord at the "Last Supper" - see John 13:23). The bishop also identifies John's home at the time of the writing as Ephesus in the Roman province of Asia.

Elsewhere in Against Heresies , Irenaeus writes:

The church in Ephesus also, which was founded by Paul, and where John survived until the time of Trajan, is a true witness of the tradition of the apostles.

Here the writer again locates John at Ephesus. Furthermore, he dates John's death to the reign of Trajan (A.D. 98-117). If John was as young as fifteen when called to be Jesus' disciple in about A.D. 30, then the Apostle would have been eighty-three years old when Trajan's reign began in A.D. 98. The Apostle John could have been in his nineties - or even one hundred years old - when he died (hence the rumors that he would not die mentioned in John 21).

(4) The Testimony of Eusebius, Origen, and Papias. Eusebius was bishop of Caesarea in Palestine and a confidant of Constantine, the first Christian emperor of Rome. After Constantine legalized Christianity, Eusebius wrote a History of the Church from its origins with Jesus and the Apostles to his own time in A.D. 325. In constructing this history, he used a number of sources, including the writings of Origen (Christian teacher in Caesarea active during the first half of the third century) and Papias (a bishop from Phyrgia who lived in the early second century). In several passages, Eusebius discusses the authorship of Revelation.

Meanwhile the holy apostles and disciples of our Saviour were scattered over the whole world. Thomas, tradition tells us, was chosen for Parthia, Andrew for Scythia, John for Asia, where he remained till his death at Ephesus. Peter seems to have preached in Pontus, Galatia and Bithynia, Cappadocia and Asia, to the Jews of the Dispersion. Finally, he came to Rome where he was crucified, head downwards at his own request. What need be said of Paul, who from Jerusalem as far as Illyricum preached in all its fulness the gospel of Christ, and later was martyred in Rome under Nero? This is exactly what Origen tells us in Volume III of his Commentary on Genesis.

Note that Peter and Paul were martyred at Rome during the reign of Nero, who persecuted Christians there. Furthermore, Eusebius - like Irenaeus - places John's death at Ephesus.

Elsewhere Eusebius describes a later persecution carried out against Christians by another emperor after Nero:

Many were victims of Domitian's appalling cruelty. At Rome great numbers of men distinguished by birth and attainments were executed without a fair trial, and countless other eminent men were for no reason at all banished from the country and their property confiscated. Finally, he showed himself the successor of Nero in enmity and hostility to God. He was, in fact, the second to organize persecution against us, though his father Vespasian had had no mischievous designs against us.

There is ample evidence that at that time the apostle and evangelist John was still alive, and because of his testimony to the word of God was sentenced to confinement on the island of Patmos. Writing about the number of the name given to antichrist in what is called the Revelation of John, Irenaeus has this to say about John in Book V of his Heresies Answered :

Had there been any need for his name to be openly announced at the present time, it would have been stated by the one who saw the actual revelation. For it was seen not a long time back, but almost in my own lifetime, at the end of Domitian's reign. . . .

After fifteen years of Domitian's rule Nerva succeeded to the throne. By vote of the Roman senate Domitian's honours were removed, and those unjustly banished returned to their homes and had their property restored to them. This is noted by the chroniclers of the period. At that time too the apostle John, after his exile on the island, resumed residence at Ephesus, as early Christian tradition records.

According to Eusebius, Domitian carried out an organized persecution against Christians involving confiscation of property, banishment, and executions. He was the second Roman emperor to persecute Christians after Nero. During this time, John the Apostle was exiled to the island of Patmos. There he wrote the Revelation "at the end of Domitian's reign" (i.e., A.D. 95-96). After Domitian's death and during the reign of Nerva (A.D. 96-98), John was released from Patmos and allowed to return to his home at Ephesus.

The author of Revelation identifies himself as "John" (Rev 1:1,4, 9). Eusebius quotes Irenaeus, who suggests that this was probably ("ample evidence") the same John who wrote the Fourth Gospel - that is, John the Apostle. Irenaeus also says that the "antichrist" mentioned in Revelation refers to Domitian, and that his identity would have been clear to anyone living at that time.

If Eusebius' information is correct, then we have the author, date, occasion, and an important key to understanding the book of Revelation here in his History of the Church . We will see, however, that Eusebius and other Christians of his time were not certain that this tradition was entirely accurate.

The bishop continues:

Now let me indicate the unquestioned writings of this apostle [John]. Obviously his gospel, recognized as it is by all the churches in the world, must first be acknowledged. . . .

Of John's writings, besides the gospel, the first of the epistles has been accepted as unquestionably his by scholars both of the present and of a much earlier period: the other two are disputed. As to the Revelation, the views of most people to this day are evenly divided.

Note that, by A.D. 325 (when Eusebius writes his History ), the fourth Gospel and 1 John are generally considered compositions of John the Apostle. However, the authorship of 2-3 John and Revelation are still disputed. Many Christians doubt the "ample evidence" given by Irenaeus and the other Church Fathers.

Eusebius therefore suggests an alternative theory:

Papias has left us five volumes entitled The Sayings of the Lord Explained . These are mentioned by Irenaeus as the only works from his pen:

To these things Papias, who had listened to John and was later a companion of Polycarp, and who lived at a very early date, bears written testimony in the fourth of his books; he composed five.

That is what Irenaeus says; but Papias himself in the preface of his work makes it clear that he was never a hearer or eyewitness of the holy apostles, and tells us that he learnt the essentials of the Faith from their former pupils:

I shall not hesitate to furnish you, along with the interpretations, with all that in days gone by I carefully learnt from the presbyters and have carefully recalled, for I can guarantee its truth. Unlike most people, I felt at home not with those who had a great deal to say, but with those who taught the truth; not with those who appeal to commandments from other sources but with those who appeal to the commandments given by the Lord to faith and coming to us from truth itself. And whenever anyone came who had been a follower of the presbyters, I inquired into the words of the presbyters, what Andrew or Peter had said, or Philip or Thomas or James or John or Matthew, or any other disciple of the Lord, and what Aristion [the reputed author of the present ending of the Second Gospel - i.e., Mark 16:9-20] and the presbyter John, disciples of the Lord, were still saying. For I did not imagine that things out of books would help me as much as the utterances of a living and abiding voice.

Here it should be observed that he twice includes the name of John. The first John he puts in the same list as Peter, James, Matthew, and the rest of the apostles, obviously with the evangelist in mind; the second, with a changed form of expression, he places in a second group outside the number of the apostles, giving precedence to Aristion and clearly calling John a presbyter. He thus confirms the truth of the story that two men in Asia had the same name, and that there were two tombs in Ephesus, each of which is still called John's. This is highly significant, for it is likely that the second - if we cannot accept the first - saw the Revelation that bears the name of John. Papias, whom we are now discussing, owns that he learnt the words of the apostles from their former followers, but says that he listened to Aristion and the presbyter John with his own ears. Certainly he often mentions them by name, and reproduces their teachings in his writings.

Eusebius raises the possibility that there were two Christian leaders, living in Ephesus, who shared the name "John" - namely, John the Apostle and John the Presbyter. He suggests that perhaps John the Presbyter is the "John" who was exiled to Patmos and who wrote the Revelation.

c. Conclusions

We possess significant external evidence from the Early Christian Fathers that John the Apostle wrote Revelation. Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Origen, Papias, and others, together suggest that, later in life, the Apostle moved from Palestine to Ephesus in the Roman province of Asia. There he wrote the fourth Gospel and three New Testament epistles (1-3 John). During the persecution carried out by Domitian, he was exiled to the island of Patmos, where he received the Revelation. After Domitian's death, during the reign of Nerva, John returned to Ephesus. He died during the reign of Trajan after living an unusually long life. The external evidence meshes well with internal evidence suggesting that the author was a Palestinian Jew, exiled to Patmos, writing to Christians in Asia during a time of severe persecution. That John the Apostle wrote Revelation has been the traditional view of the church for centuries.

However, we have seen that - even in ancient times - there were many Christians who doubted this conclusion. As late as A.D. 325, when Eusebius wrote his History of the Church , opinions regarding the apostolic origin of Revelation were "evenly divided." As far back as A.D. 250, Dionysius of Alexandria questioned whether the same person who composed the simple yet profound language of the fourth Gospel and Johannine Epistles could have written the complicated prose of Revelation. (Of course, some of the differences must be attributed to the radically different genre of an apocalypse.) The controversy over whether or not Revelation should be included in the Christian canon was not finally settled until the Councils of Hippo (A.D. 393) and Carthage (A.D. 397).

Did early Church Fathers, such as Justin and Irenaeus, attribute the Revelation to John because they had solid, reliable information that the Apostle did indeed write the book? Or were they making an intelligent (but not necessarily correct) guess based on what evidence they had? For example, did they say that the Apostle John moved to Asia because they knew that he did? Or did they assume that the "John" who wrote Revelation was the Apostle, take note that this "John" was in Asia, and therefore assume that John the Apostle moved to Asia?

The fact that the authorship of Revelation was still heavily debated in Eusebius's time indicates that the early Church lacked solid proof one way or the other. For this reason, we must acknowledge the very real possibility that Revelation was written by someone other than John the Apostle - perhaps by John the Presbyter. We possess very good evidence that Revelation was written by John the Apostle, but not conclusive evidence.

2. Date

According to Irenaeus (see above), John wrote Revelation at the end of Domitian's reign - that is, about A.D. 95 or 96. This date is almost certainly accurate for the reasons given below.

We have already seen that Revelation was written at a time when Christians were beginning to be persecuted and killed by Roman authorities in Asia. The author expected the harassment and killings to escalate. We have also seen that, according to the Church Fathers, second century Christians possessed an historical recollection of two great persecutions during the first century. The earliest occurred during the reign of Nero in A.D. 64 or 65. At that time there was a great fire in Rome. Rumor had it that Nero wanted to build some new buildings, so he had the fire started in order to burn down a lower class part of town to make room for new construction. The fire burned out of control and destroyed a large portion of the city. Nero first tried to use the Jews as scapegoats. When that tactic failed, he blamed the Christians. Large numbers were executed with tortures that sickened even the Romans. Tacitus, a Roman historian writing about fifty years later, describes that terrible time:

But neither human help, nor imperial munificence, nor all the modes of placating Heaven, could stifle scandal or dispel the belief that the fire had taken place by order [of Nero]. Therefore, to scotch the rumor, Nero substituted as culprits, and punished with the utmost refinements of cruelty, a class of men, loathed for their vices, whom the crowd styled Christians. Christus, the founder of the name, had undergone the death penalty in the reign of Tiberius, by sentence of the procurator Pontius Pilate, and the pernicious superstition was checked for a moment, only to break out once more, not merely in Judaea, the home of the disease, but in the capital itself, where all things horrible or shameful in the world collect and find a vogue. First, then, the confessed members of the sect were arrested; next, on their disclosures, vast numbers were convicted, not so much on the count of arson as for hatred of the human race. And derision accompanied their end: they were covered with wild beasts' skins and torn to death by dogs; or they were fastened on crosses, and, when daylight failed were burned to serve as lamps by night. Nero had offered his Gardens for the spectacle, and gave an exhibition in his Circus, mixing with the crowd in the habit of a charioteer, or mounted on his car[riage]. Hence, in spite of a guilt which had earned the most exemplary punishment, there arose a sentiment of pity, due to the impression that they were being sacrificed not for the welfare of the state but to the ferocity of a single man.

Christians remembered Nero as a bloodthirsty "beast" from this time forward.

The second systematic persecution of Christians occurred late in the reign of Domitian, in A.D. 95-96. Roman historians leave no clear record of Domitian himself ever ordering such a persecution. However, church leaders such as Irenaeus and Eusebius testify to at least a localized persecution, in the province of Asia, carried out in Domitian's name (see above). The question, then, is which persecution prompted the writing of Revelation?

Revelation was probably written during the persecution of Domitian, rather than during the persecution of Nero, for the following reasons: First, John (like the authors of 1 Peter, 4 Ezra, and 2 Baruch) uses "Babylon" as a symbol for Rome. He views Rome as a second "Babylon" because, just as Babylon had destroyed Jerusalem and the temple in 587 B.C., so did Rome destroy Jerusalem and its temple in A.D. 70. At the time of Nero's reign (A.D. 54-68) the temple was still standing, so Rome had not yet become "Babylon." However, by Domitian's rule (A.D. 81-96), this potent symbol had become available to John.

Second, Revelation contains many allusions to Roman emperor worship (discussed below in Part 3). As we shall see, such worship was much more prevalent during the reign of Domitian than it was during the reign of Nero.

Third, Revelation frequently portrays Roman political authorities as Nero redivivus ("Nero revivified" or "Nero come back to life") because, like Nero before them, they persecute Christ's church. If he speaks of "Nero come back to life," then John must be writing after Nero's death rather than during the persecution he instigated. Nero redivivus imagery, then, is a symbolic way of referring to Domitian and his deadly agents. (For a fuller explanation of the Nero redivivus idea in Revelation, see the comments on 13:3.)

Finally, the Church Fathers say that John wrote Revelation late in the reign of Domitian (see above), which dates John's Apocalypse to A.D. 95-96.

3. Occasion: Persecution Related to

Emperor Worship in Asia Minor

Domitian's persecution of the church was partly due to the Christians' refusal to engage in emperor worship. What were the issues at stake in this practice, and how did believers respond to it?

a. Historical Background

Although worshiping kings as deities had a long history in the east, the practice did not enter the western world until the time of Alexander the Great (late fourth century B.C.). As the young ruler won victory after victory over Babylonia, Persia, and other eastern lands, the conquered peoples began to proclaim him a god. Alexander encouraged such worship because he thought it would help to unify the diverse peoples making up his empire.

Following his assassination on March 15, 44 B.C., Julius Caesar was declared a god by the Roman Senate. Afterwards it became customary to honor dead emperors in this way. On his deathbed Vespasian announced sarcastically, "I am already becoming a god!"

Tiberius and Claudius discouraged worship of living emperors. However, Nero, Vespasian, and Titus tolerated the practice for its political benefits. Caligula, who suffered from mental illness, was the first emperor who actually believed himself divine.

Domitian insisted on being worshiped as a god during his lifetime, which scandalized his biographer Suetonius:

When [Domitian] became emperor, he did not hesitate to boast in the senate that he had conferred their power on both his father (Vespasian) and his brother (Titus), and that they had but returned him his own; nor on taking back his wife after their divorce, that he had "recalled her to his divine couch." He delighted to hear the people in the amphitheatre shout on his feast day: "Good Fortune attend our Lord [ Dominus ] and Mistress.". . . With no less arrogance he began as follows in issuing a circular letter in the name of his procurators, "Our Master [ Dominus ] and our God [ Deus ] bids that this be done." And so the custom arose of henceforth addressing him in no other way even in writing or in conversation. He suffered no statues to be set up in his honour in the Capitol, except of gold and silver and of a fixed weight. He erected so many and such huge vaulted passage-ways and arches in the various regions of the city, adorned with chariots and triumphal emblems, that on one of them someone wrote in Greek: "It is enough."

During Domitian's reign, at least three of the seven cities to which John addressed the Revelation had temples dedicated to the worship of Caesar - namely, Ephesus, Smyrna and Pergamum. Since 29 B.C., Pergamum (called "the place where Satan has his throne" in Rev 2:13) had been the official center of emperor worship in Asia.

b. Emperor Worship in Daily Life

By the late first century, emperor worship touched many aspects of Roman life, embracing the political, the economic, and the social. Civic events and legal transactions included pledges of allegiance to Caesar as "Lord" and "God" (i.e., dominus and deus in Latin, or kuvrio" ( kyrios ) and qeov" ( theos ) in Greek - the biblical titles Christians used for God the Creator and his Son Jesus Christ). As they entered the theater, sporting competitions, gladiatorial games, or public festivals, citizens tossed a pinch of incense on a small altar as a sacrifice to the "divine Caesar." When animals were slaughtered to provide meat for the marketplace, a small portion was set aside as a sacrifice for the gods. Collegia (private men's clubs) and trade guilds (similar clubs made up of people who practiced the same vocation) held banquets honoring the emperor and their patron gods as silent guests.

Such practices were not necessarily taken seriously as major religious events. Rather, they were expressions of patriotism, national unity, and gratitude for the benevolent rule of the Roman emperor. They were the equivalent of saluting the flag or removing one's hat at the playing of the national anthem. However, refusal to participate called into question one's loyalty to the emperor, and this could lead to the most severe of consequences.

c. Exemptions for Jews and Christians

The only groups really troubled by such practices were Jews and Christians, who were monotheists believing in one God alone. To them, honoring Caesar (a mere man) as "Lord and God" was idolatry. To avoid this sin, Jews of the first century B.C. worked out an agreement that convinced the Romans of their loyalty to the empire: They agreed to pray for the emperor, but not to him. In the temple at Jerusalem they offered sacrifices for the benefit of Caesar, but not to Caesar. This arrangement satisfied the Romans that the Jews were not dangerous rebels, and it was preferable to fighting a war against irrational religious zealots. So Jews were exempted from worship of the Roman gods - including the emperor - and permitted to practice their own religion. Titus instituted a two-drachma tax on each Jew for continuing this special privilege.

At first, the Romans viewed Christians as simply another variety of Jew - messianic Jews. Christians therefore enjoyed the same exemption from emperor worship given to other Jews. Over time, several events altered their status: First, through the successful missionary activity of Paul and others, Christianity became a predominantly Gentile faith. Second, when Jews rebelled against Rome in A.D. 66-73, Christians began to distinguish themselves from that group in order to keep themselves out of trouble. Finally, after the war, Judaism closed ranks and expelled "heretics" such as Christians from the synagogues. Jews quit saying that the Christians were part of their community, which removed the churches' exemption from emperor worship.

d. Christian Responses to the Emperor Cult

How did Christians respond to this situation? Some favored acknowledging the emperor as "Lord," offering sacrifice to his image, and eating with the collegia as harmless expressions of patriotism. After all, they could hail Caesar as "god," giving him that title of honor, without really believing that he was a deity in the literal sense. Did not Jesus himself command us to "Give to Caesar what is Caesar's, and to God what is God's" (Matt 22:21)? Did not our beloved Apostle Paul teach us to "Submit to the governing authorities" (Rom 13:1)? Should we give up our social life, invite financial ruin, and even risk death over a pinch of incense that means nothing?!

Others argued that confessing Caesar as "Lord and god," and offering sacrifice to the "divine Caesar," was rank idolatry. And did not Christ also say, "Worship the Lord your God, and serve him only" (Matt 4:10)? Did not Paul also say that "for us there is but one God ( theos ) . . . and there is but one Lord ( kyrios )"? John belonged to this latter camp that wanted nothing to do with worshiping the emperor or the other Roman gods. He has harsh words for compromisers in Revelation 2-3.

To avoid committing idolatry, Christians tended to withdraw from much of the social life of the city. Over time, they gained a reputation for being a rather strange and suspicious group, antisocial and lacking community spirit. Eventually the gossip mill started up, and vicious rumors spread:

These Christians are so unpatriotic! They refuse to honor the emperor! And what do they do in those secret meetings of theirs? You don't suppose they are plotting some sort of rebellion, do you? Hmmm . . . wasn't their own leader, Christos, crucified for claiming to be a king?

I heard that those "love feasts" of theirs are incestuous orgies. They say Christos taught them to love their "brothers" and "sisters"!

It's even worse! I heard them talking about eating the flesh and drinking the blood of the "Son." They are sacrificing babies and practicing cannibalism!

These "Christ people" are impious atheists! They say idols are not real and refuse to worship any of our gods.

As their neighbors turned against them, Christians became subject to social and economic discrimination, pressures and harassment, unofficial mob violence, and the plundering of their property. Later books of the New Testament mention these kinds of persecution (see, e.g., Heb 10:34; 13:3; 1 Pet 4:14-16; 5:9).

Tensions focused on Christians' refusal to worship the emperor, for this was not simply a religious infraction but apparent political subversion. Domitian, who had once said, "Not good is a number of rulers," prosecuted this crime without mercy. A possible reference to Christians being punished for such transgressions appears in Dio Cassius' Roman History :

. . . the same year (i.e., A.D. 95) Domitian slew, along with many others, Flavius Clemens the consul, although he was a cousin and had to wife Flavia Domitilla, who was also a relative of the emperor's. The charge brought against them both was that of atheism (i.e., refusal to worship the Roman gods - including the emperor?), a charge on which many others who drifted into Jewish ways (i.e., many Christians?) were condemned . Some of these were put to death, and the rest were at least deprived of their property. Domitilla was merely banished to [the island of] Pandateria.

Note that Dio describes events of the year 95, the very time period in which John wrote Revelation. Note also the kinds of penalties Domitian prescribed for "atheism" - namely, confiscation of property, banishment to an island (as John was exiled to Patmos), and death (as Antipas was killed in Pergamum).

There were political, social, and economic benefits to be gained by turning Christians over to the Roman authorities. For example, if there were two silversmiths in a city, and one was a Christian, then the other could eliminate his competitor by accusing the "disloyal" Christian. Jews could purge their synagogues of "heretics" by reporting that Christians were not true Jews and therefore not entitled to exemption from emperor worship. One's social or political rivals could be removed by posting an anonymous notice exposing them as Christians. The emperor cult handed a deadly weapon to anyone with a grudge or petty jealousy against any Christian.

e. The Correspondence of Pliny and Trajan

Unfortunately, we have no historical documents from Domitian's reign detailing governmental policy toward Christians in Asia. However, we do possess a series of official letters exchanged by Pliny Secundus, the Roman governor of Bithynia, and the Emperor Trajan. Bithynia was just north of Asia, and the letters were written only fifteen or sixteen years after Revelation, in A.D. 111-112. So this correspondence may offer a glimpse into the kinds of pressures faced by Christians during John's time.

Pliny to the Emperor Trajan

It is my custom to refer all my difficulties to you, Sir, for no one is better able to resolve my doubts and to inform my ignorance.

I have never been present at an examination of Christians. Consequently, I do not know the nature or the extent of the punishments usually meted out to them, nor the grounds for starting an investigation and how far it should be pressed. Nor am I at all sure whether any distinction should be made between them on the grounds of age, or if young people and adults should be treated alike; whether a pardon ought to be granted to anyone retracting his beliefs, or if he has once professed Christianity, he shall gain nothing by renouncing it; and whether it is the mere name of Christian which is punishable, even if innocent of crime, or rather the crimes associated with the name.

For the moment this is the line I have taken with all persons brought before me on the charge of being Christians. I have asked them in person if they are Christians, and if they admit it, I repeat the question a second and third time, with a warning of the punishment awaiting them. If they persist, I order them to be led away for execution; for, whatever the nature of their admission, I am convinced that their stubbornness and unshakeable obstinacy ought not to go unpunished. There have been others similarly fanatical who are Roman citizens. I have entered them on the list of persons to be sent to Rome for trial.

Now that I have begun to deal with this problem, as so often happens, the charges are becoming more widespread and increasing in variety. An anonymous pamphlet has been circulated which contains the names of a number of accused persons. Among these I considered that I should dismiss any who denied that they were or ever had been Christians when they had repeated after me a formula of invocation to the gods and had made offerings of wine and incense to your statue (which I had ordered to be brought into court for this purpose along with the images of the gods), and furthermore had reviled the name of Christ: none of which things, I understand, any genuine Christian can be induced to do.

Others, whose names were given to me by an informer, first admitted the charge and then denied it; they said that they had ceased to be Christians two or more years previously, and some of them even twenty years ago. They all did reverence to your statue and the images of the gods in the same way as the others, and reviled the name of Christ. They also declared that the sum total of their guilt or error amounted to no more than this: they had met regularly before dawn on a fixed day to chant verses alternately among themselves in honour of Christ as if to a god, and also to bind themselves by oath, not for any criminal purpose, but to abstain from theft, robbery and adultery, to commit no breach of trust and not to deny a deposit when called upon to restore it. After this ceremony it had been their custom to disperse and reassemble later to take food of an ordinary, harmless kind; but they had in fact given up this practice since my edict, issued on your instructions, which banned all political societies. This made me decide it was all the more necessary to extract the truth by torture from two slave-women, whom they call deaconesses. I found nothing but a degenerate sort of cult carried to extravagant lengths. I have therefore postponed any further examination and hastened to consult you. The question seems to me to be worthy of your consideration, especially in view of the number of persons endangered; for a great many individuals of every age and class, both men and women, are being brought to trial, and this is likely to continue. It is not only the towns, but villages and rural districts too which are infected through contact with this wretched cult. I think though that it is still possible for it to be checked and directed to better ends, for there is no doubt that people have begun to throng the temples which had been almost entirely deserted for a long time; the sacred rites which had been allowed to lapse are being performed again, and flesh of sacrificial victims is on sale everywhere, though up till recently scarcely anyone could be found to buy it. It is easy to infer from this that a great many people could be reformed if they were given an opportunity to repent.

Trajan's Reply to Pliny

You have followed the right course of procedure, my dear Pliny, in your examination of the cases of persons charged with being Christians, for it is impossible to lay down a general rule to a fixed formula. These people must not be hunted out; if they are brought before you and the charge against them is proved, they must be punished, but in the case of anyone who denies that he is a Christian, and makes it clear that he is not by offering prayers to our gods, he is to be pardoned as a result of his repentance however suspect his past conduct may be. But pamphlets circulated anonymously must play no part in any accusation. They create the worst sort of precedent and are quite out of keeping with the spirit of our age.

The Pliny/Trajan correspondence illustrates that, if Christians were hauled before a Roman magistrate, they were required to prove their patriotism in three basic ways: They must sacrifice wine and incense to images of Caesar and the other Roman gods. They must declare Kyrios Kaisaros ("Caesar is Lord," an exact counterpart to the basic Christian confession "Jesus is Lord"). They must "repent" of their faith and curse Christ. If they refused, they would be executed.

f. The Christians' Choice

In such a terrible circumstance, what choices did Christians have? Dr. Boring summarizes them nicely: They could surrender their faith in Christ, but for John this would be to surrender "the crown of life" (see Rev 2:10). They could lie about their loyalty to Christ, but John reserves a place in the "fiery lake of burning sulfur" for liars (see Rev 21:8). They could try to change the laws, but this was not possible since Rome was not a democracy and Domitian would never accept a rival "Lord." They could fight the Roman government, but this was not practical. They could "adjust" by confessing Caesar as "god" without meaning it, but John rejects even feigned idolatry as unworthy of Christ. Finally, they could die, as Jesus himself had died. John affirms death for Christ's sake as the only truly "Christian" response. There is no other way.

He who has an ear, let him hear: If anyone is to go into captivity, into captivity he will go. If anyone is to be killed with the sword, with the sword he will be killed. Here is the patient endurance and the faithfulness of the saints. (Rev 13:10)

This is the challenge faced by the churches of Asia when John writes Revelation. It is a terribly hard book for terribly hard times.

V. THE STRUCTURE OF REVELATION

In Part III of the Introduction we identify Revelation as a Christian apocalypse - probably the first Christian apocalypse. Such writings often incorporate elements of other genres. For example, Daniel 1-6 consists largely of a narrative prologue to the apocalypse proper found in chapters 7-12. In the case of Revelation, John's apocalyptic vision is presented within the framework of a first-century letter.

A. THE FIRST CENTURY HELLENISTIC

LETTER FORM IN REVELATION

Letters written today generally bear certain standard features that conform to cultural norms (e.g., the name and address of the sender and receiver, a greeting formula such as "Dear Sir," and a closing formula such as "Sincerely yours"). New Testament epistles likewise conform to the standard Hellenistic letter form used in the Roman world of the first century A.D. The elements of this common letter form are listed below, along with examples of each element from Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians and his Letter to Philemon:

The name of the sender(s) (see 1 Cor 1:1; Phlm 1a)

The name of the recipient(s) (see 1 Cor 1:2; Phlm 1b-2)

The prescript , which is a greeting formula (see 1 Cor 1:3; Phlm 3)

The proem , which is a word of thanks, praise, or petition to a god (see 1 Cor 1:4-9; Phlm 4-7).

The introductory formula , which serves as the transition into the primary subject matter of the letter (see 1 Cor 1:10; Phlm 8-9).

The main body of the letter (see 1 Cor 1:11-16:18; Phlm 10-22)

Greetings (see 1 Cor 16:19-20; Phlm 23-24)

Benedictory wishes in the sender's own hand (rather than that of a secretary, if used), which serve to personalize the letter (see 1 Cor 16:21-24; Phlm 25)

Revelation bears most of the features of a first century Hellenistic letter, as shown below. This observation is important because it explains why certain elements appear in Revelation and why they are arranged as they are. John is simply following the conventions of his culture.

Name of Sender (Rev 1:4a):

John

Name of Recipient(s) (Rev 1:4b):

To the seven churches in the province of Asia:

Prescript (Rev 1:4c-5a):

Grace and peace to you from him who is, and who was, and who is to come, and from the seven spirits before his throne, and from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth.

Proem (Rev1:5b-6): In this part of the letter, a pagan would often call upon the gods to grant good health and prosperity to the addressee(s). John Christianizes this portion of the standard letter form and transforms it into a doxology of praise to God:

To him who loves us and has freed us from our sins by his blood, and has made us to be a kingdom and priests to serve his God and Father - to him be glory and power for ever and ever! Amen.

Introductory Formula (Rev 1:9):

I, John, your brother and companion in the suffering and kingdom and patient endurance that are ours in Jesus, was on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus.

Main Body of the Letter (Rev 1:10-22:20)

Greetings are not found in Revelation.

Benedictory Wishes in the Sender's Own Hand (Rev 22:21):

The grace of the Lord Jesus be with God's people. Amen.

B. THE STRUCTURE OF JOHN'S VISION

Within the Hellenistic letter form, John structures Revelation in four main parts, as a careful examination clearly shows. The book begins with a Prologue (1:1-20) in which the author describes how Christ commissioned him to deliver a revelation to the seven churches of Asia. Near the end of this Prologue, in 1:19, the Lord summarizes the contents of the revelation itself:

Write, therefore, what you have seen, what is now and what will take place later.

Notice that the vision contains two main elements: First, there is a revelation of the present - a revelation of "what is now." The "present," of course, refers to "what is now" from John's perspective. Christ offers John a vision of the late first century A.D. in Asia. Second, the Lord promises a revelation of the future - a vision of "what will take place later." Again, this is the "future" from John's point of view - the period from A.D. 95-96 through Christ's return and the consummation of the kingdom of God.

Which part of the book reveals John's "present" and which part reveals the "future"? John treats these two subjects in the order in which they are mentioned. His discussion of the "present" appears in 2:1-3:22 and takes the form of seven letters to the churches of Asia. This part of the vision describes the "present" circumstances of the Asian churches from Christ's point of view.

The Lord's revelation of the "future" appears in 4:1-22:6, as the structure of the passage makes clear. The first verse of this section (4:1) reads:

After this I looked, and there before me was a door standing open in heaven. And the voice I had first heard speaking to me like a trumpet said, "Come up here, and I will show you what must take place after this."

The initial phrase "After this," in and of itself, marks a transition - the end of one discussion and the beginning of another. Christ then introduces the next major portion of the book when he says, "I will show you what must take place after this" - that is, "after" the "present" described in chapters 2 and 3. Revelation 4:1 marks the beginning of the promised vision of "what will take place later."

Where does the vision of the future end? After a long series of images we come to Revelation 22:6:

The angel said to me, "These words are trustworthy and true. The Lord, the God of the spirits of the prophets, sent his angel to show his servants the things that must soon take place ."

This verse marks the end of John's discussion of the future. The remainder of the book (22:7-21) consists of a short Epilogue.

By far the largest portion of Revelation describes John's vision of the future (4:1-22:6). How has the author structured this important part of the book? The revelation of "what will take place later" begins with an introduction (4:1-5:14) in which John describes his new vantage point in heaven ("Come up here , and I will show you"). The prophet will see the future from God's point of view.

The rest of the section (6:1-22:6) contains the revelation of the future itself. However, a careful reading shows that John does not receive one long, sequential vision of the future. Instead, he receives three separate revelations of the complete future from John's time through the consummation of the kingdom of God . John describes how the future unfolds in 6:1-8:1. Then he starts over and describes the same period again in 8:2-11:19. Then he reviews the same period a third time in 12:1-22:6. The approach is cyclical, with each vision examining the future from a slightly different angle, and the third vision offering the most detail.

In view of these considerations, we outline Revelation as follows. The Commentary is structured accordingly.

I. Prologue (1:1-20)

II. The Revelation of "What Is Now" (2:1-3:22)

III. The Revelation of "What Will Take Place Later" (4:1-22:6)

A. Introduction: John's Heavenly Vantage Point (4:1-5:14)

B. The First Vision of the Future (6:1-8:1)

C. The Second Vision of the Future (8:2-11:19)

D. The Third Vision of the Future (12:1-22:6)

IV. Epilogue (22:7-21)

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

Barr, J. "Jewish Apocalyptic in Recent Scholarly Study." Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 58 (1975): 9-35.

Charlesworth, James H., ed. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Volume 1 - Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments . Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983.

Collins, John J., ed. "Apocalypse: The Morphology of a Genre." Semeia 14. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1979.

. The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to the Jewish Matrix of Christianity . 2 ^nd ed. The Biblical Resource Series. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.

. "Apocalyptic Literature." In Early Judaism and Its Modern Interpreters. Eds. Robert A. Kraft and George W.E. Nickelsburg, 345-370. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986.

Collins, John J., and James H. Charlesworth, eds. Mysteries and Revelations: Apocalyptic Studies Since the Uppsala Colloquium. Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Supplement Series, 9. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991.

Funk, Robert W., ed. Journal for Theology and the Church 6 (1969) [issue on "Apocalypticism"].

Hanson, Paul D. The Dawn of Apocalyptic . Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1975.

. Old Testament Apocalyptic . Interpreting Biblical Texts. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1987.

Hellholm, David, ed. Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean World and the Near East: Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Apocalypticism, Uppsala, August 12-17, 1979. Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1983.

Koch, Klaus. The Rediscovery of Apocalyptic: A Polemical Work on a Neglected Area of Biblical Studies and Its Damaging Effects on Theology and Philosophy . Studies in Biblical Theology, Second Series, 22. London: SCM Press Ltd, 1972.

Marcus, Joel, and Marion L. Soards, eds. Apocalyptic and the New Testament: Essays in Honor of J. Louis Martyn . Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series, 24. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989.

Minear, Paul S. New Testament Apocalyptic . Interpreting Biblical Texts. Nashville: Abingdon, 1981.

Morris, Leon. Apocalyptic . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972.

Murphy, Frederick J. "Apocalypses and Apocalypticism: The State of the Question." Currents in Research: Biblical Studies 2 (1994): 147-179.

Rowley, H.H. The Relevance of Apocalyptic: A Study of Jewish and Christian Apocalypses from Daniel to the Revelation . New York: Association Press, 1964.

Russell, D.S. Divine Disclosure: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992.

. The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic: 200 B.C.-A.D. 100. The Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1964.

Yarbro-Collins, Adela, ed. Early Christian Apocalypticism: Genre and Social Setting . Semeia 36. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986.

THE APOCALYPSE OF JOHN

Aune, David. Revelation . 3 Vols. Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word, 1997-98.

Barclay, William. Letters to the Seven Churches . New York: Abingdon Press, 1957.

. The Revelation of John . 2 Vols. The Daily Bible Study Series. Rev. ed. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1976.

Bauckham, Richard. The Theology of the Book of Revelation . New Testament Theology. Cambridge: University Press, 1993.

Boring, M. Eugene. Revelation . Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1989.

Caird, G.B. The Revelation of St. John the Divine . Harper's New Testament Commentaries. New York and Evanston: Harper & Row, 1966.

Hemer, Colin J. The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting . Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series, 11. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1986.

Murphy, Frederick J. "The Book of Revelation." Currents in Research: Biblical Studies 2 (1994): 181-225.

Pilch, John J. What Are They Saying about the Book of Revelation? New York: Paulist Press, 1978.

Ramsay, W.M. The Letters to the Seven Churches . Updated ed. Edited by Mark W. Wilson. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

College: Revelation (Outline)

OUTLINE

I. PROLOGUE - 1:1-20

A. Introduction to the Prophecy - 1:1-3

B. Sender - 1:4a

C. Recipients - 1:4b

D. Prescript - 1:4c-5a

E. Proem - 1:5b-6

F. Prophetic Pronouncement - 1:7

G. The Lord's Self-Introduction - 1:8

H. John's Vision of the Lord - 1:9-20

1. John's Circumstances - 1:9-11

2. John's Vision - 1:12-20

a. Christ's Voice and His Appearance - 1:12-16

b. Christ's Words - 1:17-20

c. Summary: John's Portrait of Christ in Revelation - 1:9-20

II. THE REVELATION OF "WHAT IS NOW" - 2:1-3:22

A. The Seven Churches

B. The Structure of the Letters to the Seven Churches

1. Addressed to the Angels of the Seven Churches

2. A Renewal of the New Covenant

a. Typical Elements of Covenants

b. Covenantal Elements in the Letters to the Seven Churches

c. The Letter to Ephesus - 2:1-7

d. The Letter to Smyrna - 2:8-11

e. The Letter to Pergamum - 2:12-17

f. The Letter to Thyatira - 2:18-29

g. The Letter to Sardis - 3:1-6

h. The Letter to Philadelphia - 3:7-13

i. The Letter to Laodicea - 3:14-22

C. Pressures and Opposition in Asia

1. Pressures and Opposition from Within the Christian Community

a. False Apostles and the Nicolaitans - 2:2,6

b. The Teaching of Balaam - 2:14

c. The Sins of Jezebel - 2:20-25

d. Assessment

2. Pressures and Opposition from Outside the Christian Community

D. "Overcomers" in Revelation

1. Satan as "Overcomer"

2. Christ as "Overcomer"

a. Whom Jesus "Overcomes"

b. How Jesus "Overcomes"

c. The Results of Jesus' "Overcoming"

3. Christians as "Overcomers"

a. Whom Christians "Overcome"

b. How Christians "Overcome"

c. The Result of Christians' "Overcoming"

E. Christ's Promises to "Him Who Overcomes"

1. The Tree of Life - 2:7

2. Escape from the Second Death - 2:11

3. The Hidden Manna, White Stone, and Secret Name - 2:17

a. The Hidden Manna, the Messianic Banquet, Behemoth and Leviathan

b. The White Stone

c. The Secret Name

4. Authority over the Nations and the Morning Star - 2:26-28

5. White Garments and the Book of Life - 3:4-5

6. A Pillar in God's Temple - 3:12

7. A Place on Christ's Throne - 3:21

III. THE REVELATION OF "WHAT WILL TAKE PLACE LATER - 4:1-22:6

A. Introduction: John's Heavenly Vantage Point - 4:1-5:14

1. Transition to the Threefold Vision of the Future - 4:1

2. The Throne of God and the Twenty-Four Elders - 4:2-6a

3. The Four Living Creatures - 4:6b-8

4. The Heavenly Worship - 4:9-11

5. The Scroll with Seven Seals - 5:1

6. The Lion of Judah and the Root of David - 5:2-5

7. The Lamb Who Was Slain - 5:6-14

B. The First Vision of the Future - 6:1-8:1

1. The "Labor Pains:" Seals One through Five - 6:1-11

a. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse - 6:1-8

b. The Souls of the Martyrs - 6:9-11

2. The Final Judgment: Seal Six - 6:12-17

3. Summary of Revelation 6 (Seals 1-6) and Comparison with Matthew 24

4. Interlude: The 144,000 Sealed for Salvation - 7:1-17

a. The Sealing of the 144,000 - 7:1-8

b. A Song of Salvation - 7:9-17

5. The Consummation of God's Kingdom: Seal Seven - 8:1

6. Summary: John's First Vision of the Future - 6:1-8:1

C. The Second Vision of the Future - 8:2-11:19

1. The Structure of the Second Vision

a. Seven Trumpets versus Seven Seals

b. Major Elements of the Vision

c. The Dominant Image: God's Coming Kingdom as a "Second Exodus" for His People

d. Subordinate Imagery in Revelation 8:2-9:21

2. The "Present Evil Age/Labor Pains": Trumpets One through Six - 8:2-9:21

a. Hail, Blood, Bitter Waters, Darkness, Locusts, and Death: The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as Eschatological "Plagues"

1) Present Evils as "Plagues"

2) The First Trumpet - 8:6-7

3) The Second Trumpet - 8:8-9

4) The Third Trumpet - 8:10-11

5) The Fourth Trumpet - 8:12

6) The Fifth Trumpet - 8:13-9:12

7) The Sixth Trumpet - 9:13-21

8) Heightened Imagery Portraying Eschatological Events

9) Partial Destruction versus Total Destruction

b. Earth, Trees, Grass, Springs, Rivers, Sea, and Sea Creatures: The Effect of the "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" on the Natural World

c. The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as God's Judgment on Sin and Call to Repentance

d. The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as a Source of Hope and a Call to Perseverance

e. The Blazing Mountain, Falling Stars, Wormwood, Demon Locusts from the Abyss, Abaddon, Apollyon, and a Demon Army: The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as God's Unleashing Demonic Forces on the Earth

f. Fire from the Altar: The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as an Answer to Prayer

g. The Sounding of Seven Trumpets: The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as the Announcement of the Day of the Lord

h. The Eagle and the Three "Woes"

3. Interlude: The Mighty Angel and the Two Witnesses - 10:1-11:14

a. The Mighty Angel with the Little Scroll - 10:1-11

1) The Angel's Appearance

2) The Angel's Voice

3) The Little Scroll

4) Comparison with Daniel 12

b. The Measuring of the Temple and the Two Witnesses - 11:1-14

1) A Note on the "Rapture"

2) A Note on the "Protection" of the "New Israel" from the "Plagues"

4. The Final Judgment and Consummation of God's Kingdom: Trumpet Seven - 11:15-19

5. Summary: John's Second Vision of the Future - 8:2-11:19

D. The Third Vision of the Future - 12:1-22:6

1. The Structure of the Third Vision

2. The "Labor Pains": The Dragon's War against the Saints - 12:1-13:18

a. The Dragon, the Woman, and the Male Child - 12:1-17

1) The Identity of the Male Child

2) The Identity of the Red Dragon

3) Five Theories Regarding the Identity of the Woman

4) A Sixth Theory: John's Adaptation of the Apollo Myth

5) Interpretation of Revelation 12

b. The Beast from the Sea - 13:1-10

c. The Beast from the Land - 13:11-18

d. Satan's Parody of Christ

e. Summary of Revelation 12-13: The "Labor Pains"

3. The Final Judgment and Consummation of God's Kingdom - 14:1-22:6

a. The Relationship between Salvation and Condemnation, Final Judgment and Consummation

b. The Structure of Revelation 14:1-22:6

c. Announcement of the Final Judgment - 14:1-13

1) The 144,000 - 14:1-5

2) Threefold Announcement of the Judgment - 14:6-13

d. The Harvest of the Earth - 14:14-20

e. The Seven Last Plagues or Seven Bowls of God's Wrath - 15:1-16:21

1) The Structure of Revelation 15-16

2) The Sea of Glass and Fire - 15:1-4

3) The Heavenly Tabernacle - 15:5-8

4) The Meaning of the Seven Bowls of God's Wrath - 16:1

5) The First Bowl of Wrath - 16:2

6) The Second Bowl of Wrath - 16:3

7) The Third Bowl of Wrath - 16:4-7

8) The Fourth Bowl of Wrath - 16:8-9

9) The Fifth Bowl of Wrath - 16:10-11

10) The Sixth Bowl of Wrath - 16:12-14,16

11) Interlude - 16:15

12) The Seventh Bowl of Wrath - 16:17-21

f. God's Final Judgment against Babylon - 17:1-19:4

1) The Great Prostitute - 17:1-18

2) The Scarlet Beast - 17:1-18

3) The Fall of Babylon - 18:1-19:4

g. Announcement of the Wedding Supper of the Lamb - 19:5-10

1) The Wedding of the Lamb - 19:5-9

2) The Testimony of Jesus - 19:10

h. The Victorious Christ - 19:11-21

1) The King of Kings - 19:11-16

2) The Great Supper of God - 19:17-21

i. Deliverance from Babylonian Captivity - 20:1-22:6

1) Element One: The Binding of Satan - 20:1-3

2) Element Two: The Resurrection of Christian Martyrs - 20:4a

3) Element Three: The Millennial Reign of Christ - 20:4b-6

4) Element Four: God's Judgment of Gog and Magog - 20:7-15

5) Element Five: The New Jerusalem - 21:1-22:5

6) Comparison of Revelation 20:1-22:5 with Ezekiel 37-48

7) Conclusions Regarding the Meaning of Revelation 20:1-22:5

8) Climax: The Consummated Kingdom of God - 21:1-22:5

9) Conclusion of the Third Vision of the Future - 22:6

IV. EPILOGUE - 22:7-21

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV