Text -- Revelation 1:1-16 (NET)

The Prologue

1:1 The revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him to show his servants what must happen very soon. He made it clear by sending his angel to his servant John, 1:2 who then testified to everything that he saw concerning the word of God and the testimony about Jesus Christ. 1:3 Blessed is the one who reads the words of this prophecy aloud, and blessed are those who hear and obey the things written in it, because the time is near! 1:4 From John, to the seven churches that are in the province of Asia: Grace and peace to you from “he who is,” and who was, and who is still to come, and from the seven spirits who are before his throne, 1:5 and from Jesus Christ– the faithful witness, the firstborn from among the dead, the ruler over the kings of the earth. To the one who loves us and has set us free from our sins at the cost of his own blood 1:6 and has appointed us as a kingdom, as priests serving his God and Father– to him be the glory and the power for ever and ever! Amen. 1:7 (Look! He is returning with the clouds, and every eye will see him, even those who pierced him, and all the tribes on the earth will mourn because of him. This will certainly come to pass! Amen.) 1:8 “I am the Alpha and the Omega,” says the Lord God– the one who is, and who was, and who is still to come– the All-Powerful! 1:9 I, John, your brother and the one who shares with you in the persecution, kingdom, and endurance that are in Jesus, was on the island called Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony about Jesus. 1:10 I was in the Spirit on the Lord’s Day when I heard behind me a loud voice like a trumpet, 1:11 saying: “Write in a book what you see and send it to the seven churches– to Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea.” 1:12 I turned to see whose voice was speaking to me, and when I did so, I saw seven golden lampstands, 1:13 and in the midst of the lampstands was one like a son of man. He was dressed in a robe extending down to his feet and he wore a wide golden belt around his chest. 1:14 His head and hair were as white as wool, even as white as snow, and his eyes were like a fiery flame. 1:15 His feet were like polished bronze refined in a furnace, and his voice was like the roar of many waters. 1:16 He held seven stars in his right hand, and a sharp double-edged sword extended out of his mouth. His face shone like the sun shining at full strength.

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Robertson: Rev 1:1

The Revelation ( apokalupsis ).

Late and rare word outside of N.T. (once in Plutarch and so in the vernacular Koiné ), only once in the Gospels (Luk 2:32), but in lxx and common in the Epistles (2Th 1:7), though only here in this book besides the title, from apokaluptō , old verb, to uncover, to unveil. In the Epistles apokalupsis is used for insight into truth (Eph 1:17) or for the revelation of God or Christ at the second coming of Christ (2Th 1:7; 1Pe 1:7). It is interesting to compare apokalupsis with epiphaneia (2Th 2:8) and phanerōsis (1Co 12:7). The precise meaning here turns on the genitive following.

Robertson: Rev 1:1

Of Jesus Christ ( Iēsou Christou ).

Hort takes it as objective genitive (revelation about Jesus Christ), but Swete rightly argues for the subjective genitive because of the next clause.

Robertson: Rev 1:1

Gave him ( edōken autoi ).

It is the Son who received the revelation from the Father, as is usual (Joh 5:20-23f., Joh 5:26, etc.).

Robertson: Rev 1:1

To shew ( deixai ).

First aorist active infinitive of deiknumi , purpose of God in giving the revelation to Christ.

Robertson: Rev 1:1

Unto his servants ( tois doulois autou ).

Believers in general and not just to officials. Dative case. God’ s servants (or Christ’ s).

Robertson: Rev 1:1

Must shortly come to pass ( dei genesthai en tachei ).

Second aorist middle infinitive of ginomai with dei . See this same adjunct (en tachei ) in Luk 18:8; Rom 16:20; Rev 22:6. It is a relative term to be judged in the light of 2Pe 3:8 according to God’ s clock, not ours. And yet undoubtedly the hopes of the early Christians looked for a speedy return of the Lord Jesus. This vivid panorama must be read in the light of that glorious hope and of the blazing fires of persecution from Rome.

Robertson: Rev 1:1

Sent and signified ( esēmanen aposteilas ).

"Having sent"(first aorist active participle of apostellō , Mat 10:16 and again in Rev 22:6 of God sending his angel) "signified"(first aorist active indicative of sēmainō , from sēma , sign or token, for which see Joh 12:33; Act 11:28). See Rev 12:1 for sēmeion , though sēmainō (only here in the Apocalypse) suits admirably the symbolic character of the book.

Robertson: Rev 1:1

By his angel ( dia tou aggelou autou ).

Christ’ s angel as Christ is the subject of the verb esēmanen , as in Rev 22:16 Christ sends his angel, though in Rev 22:6 God sends.

Robertson: Rev 1:1

Unto his servant John ( tōi doulōi autou Iōanei ).

Dative case. John gives his name here, though not in Gospel or Epistles, because "prophecy requires the guarantee of the individual who is inspired to utter it"(Milligan). "The genesis of the Apocalypse has now been traced from its origin in the Mind of God to the moment when it reached its human interpreter"(Swete). "Jesus is the medium of all revelation"(Moffatt).

Robertson: Rev 1:2

Bare witness ( emarturēsen ).

First aorist active indicative of martureō , which, along with martus and marturia , is common in all the Johannine books (cf. Rev 22:18, Rev 22:20), usually with peri or hoti , but with cognate accusative as here in Rev 22:16, Rev 22:20; 1Jo 5:10. Epistolary aorist here, referring to this book.

Robertson: Rev 1:2

The word of God ( ton logon tou theou ).

Subjective genitive, given by God. The prophetic word as in Rev 1:9; Rev 6:9; Rev 20:4, not the personal Word as in Rev 19:14.

Robertson: Rev 1:2

The testimony of Jesus Christ ( tēn marturian Iēsou Christou ).

Subjective genitive again, borne witness to by Jesus Christ.

Robertson: Rev 1:2

Even of all the things that he saw ( hosa eiden ).

Relative clause in apposition with logon and marturian .

Robertson: Rev 1:3

Blessed ( makarios ).

As in Mat 5:3. This endorses the book as a whole.

Robertson: Rev 1:3

He that readeth ( ho anaginōskōn ).

Present active singular articular participle of anaginōskō (as in Luk 4:16). Christians in their public worship followed the Jewish custom of public reading of the Scriptures (2Co 3:14.). The church reader (anagnōstēs , lector) gradually acquired an official position. John expects this book to be read in each of the seven churches mentioned (Rev 1:4) and elsewhere. Today the public reading of the Bible is an important part of worship that is often poorly done.

Robertson: Rev 1:3

They that hear ( hoi akouontes ).

Present active plural articular participle of akouō (the audience).

Robertson: Rev 1:3

And keep ( kai tērountes ).

Present active participle of tēreō , a common Johannine word (1Jo 2:4, etc.). Cf. Mat 7:24. "The content of the Apocalypse is not merely prediction; moral counsel and religious instruction are the primary burdens of its pages"(Moffatt).

Robertson: Rev 1:3

Written ( gegrammena ).

Perfect passive participle of graphō .

Robertson: Rev 1:3

For the time is at hand ( ho gar kairos eggus ).

Reason for listening and keeping. On kairos see Mat 12:1, time of crisis as in 1Co 7:29. How near eggus (at hand) is we do not know any more than we do about en tachei (shortly) in Rev 1:1.

Robertson: Rev 1:4

To the seven churches which are in Asia ( tais hepta ekklēsiais tais en tēi Asiāi ).

Dative case as in a letter (Gal 1:1). John is writing, but the revelation is from God and Christ through an angel. It is the Roman province of Asia which included the western part of Phrygia. There were churches also at Troas (Act 20:5.) and at Colossal and Hierapolis (Col 1:1; Col 2:1; Col 4:13) and possibly at Magnesia and Tralles. But these seven were the best points of communication with seven districts (Ramsay) and, besides, seven is a favorite number of completion (like the full week) in the book (Rev 1:4, Rev 1:12, Rev 1:16; Rev 4:5; Rev 5:1, Rev 5:6; Rev 8:2; Rev 10:3; Rev 11:13; Rev 12:3; Rev 13:1; Rev 14:6.).

Robertson: Rev 1:4

From him which is ( apo ho ōn ).

This use of the articular nominative participle of eimi after apo instead of the ablative is not due to ignorance or a mere slip (lapsus pennae ), for in the next line we have the regular idiom with apo tōn hepta pneumatōn . It is evidently on purpose to call attention to the eternity and unchangeableness of God. Used of God in Exo 3:14.

Robertson: Rev 1:4

And which was ( kai ho ēn ).

Here again there is a deliberate change from the articular participle to the relative use of ho (used in place of hos to preserve identity of form in the three instances like Ionic relative and since no aorist participle of eimi existed). The oracle in Pausanias X. 12 has it: Zeus ēn , Zeus esti , Zeus essetai (Zeus was, Zeus is, Zeus will be).

Robertson: Rev 1:4

Which is to come ( ho erchomenos ).

"The Coming One,"futuristic use of the present participle instead of ho esomenos . See the same idiom in Rev 1:8; Rev 4:8 and (without ho erchomenos ) in Rev 11:17; Rev 16:5.

Robertson: Rev 1:4

From the seven spirits ( apo tōn hepta pneumatōn ).

A difficult symbolic representation of the Holy Spirit here on a par with God and Christ, a conclusion borne out by the symbolic use of the seven spirits in Rev 3:1; Rev 4:5; Rev 5:6 (from Zec 4:2-10). There is the one Holy Spirit with seven manifestations here to the seven churches (Swete, The Holy Spirit in the N.T. , p. 374), unity in diversity (1Co 12:4).

Robertson: Rev 1:4

Which are ( tōn article Aleph A, ha relative P).

Robertson: Rev 1:4

Before his throne ( enōpion tou thronou autou ).

As in Rev 4:5.

Robertson: Rev 1:5

Who is the faithful witness ( ho martus ho pistos ).

"The witness the faithful,"nominative in apposition like prōtotokos and archōn with the preceding ablative Iēsou Christou with apo , a habit of John in this book (apparently on purpose) as in Rev 2:13, Rev 2:20; Rev 3:12, etc. See this same phrase in Rev 2:13; Rev 3:14. The use of martus of Jesus here is probably to the witness (Rev 1:1) in this book (Rev 22:16.), not to the witness of Jesus before Pilate (1Ti 6:13).

Robertson: Rev 1:5

The first-born of the dead ( ho prōtotokos tōn nekrōn ).

A Jewish Messianic title (Psa 89:27) and as in Col 1:18 refers to priority in the resurrection to be followed by others. See Luk 2:7 for the word.

Robertson: Rev 1:5

The ruler of the kings of the earth ( ho archōn tōn basileōn tēs gēs ).

Jesus by his resurrection won lordship over the kings of earth (Rev 17:14; Rev 19:16), what the devil offered him by surrender (Mat 4:8.).

Robertson: Rev 1:5

Unto him that loveth us ( tōi agapōnti hēmās ).

Dative of the articular present (not aorist agapēsanti ) active participle of agapaō in a doxology to Christ, the first of many others to God and to Christ (Rev 1:6; Rev 4:11; Rev 5:9, Rev 5:12.; Rev 7:10, Rev 7:12, etc.). For the thought see Joh 3:16.

Robertson: Rev 1:5

Loosed ( lusanti ).

First aorist active participle of luō (Aleph A C), though some MSS. (P Q) read lousanti (washed), a manifest correction. Note the change of tense. Christ loosed us once for all, but loves us always.

Robertson: Rev 1:5

By his blood ( en tōi haimati autou ).

As in Rev 5:9. John here as in the Gospel and Epistles states plainly and repeatedly the place of the blood of Christ in the work of redemption.

Robertson: Rev 1:6

And he made ( kai epoiēsen ).

Change from the participle construction, which would be kai poiēsanti (first aorist active of poieō ) like lusanti just before, a Hebraism Charles calls it, but certainly an anacoluthon of which John is very fond, as in Rev 1:18; Rev 2:2, Rev 2:9, Rev 2:20; Rev 3:9; Rev 7:14; Rev 14:2.; Rev 15:3.

Robertson: Rev 1:6

Kingdom ( basileian ).

So correctly Aleph A C, not basileis (P cursives). Perhaps a reminiscence of Exo 19:6, a kingdom of priests. In Rev 5:10 we have again "a kingdom and priests."The idea here is that Christians are the true spiritual Israel in God’ s promise to Abraham as explained by Paul in Gal 3; Rom 9.

Robertson: Rev 1:6

To be priests ( hiereis ).

In apposition with basileian , but with kai (and) in Rev 5:10. Each member of this true kingdom is a priest unto God, with direct access to him at all times.

Robertson: Rev 1:6

Unto his God and Father ( tōi theōi kai patri autou ).

Dative case and autou (Christ) applies to both theōi and patri . Jesus spoke of the Father as his God (Mat 27:46; Joh 20:17) and Paul uses like language (Eph 1:17), as does Peter (1Pe 1:3).

Robertson: Rev 1:6

To him ( autōi ).

Another doxology to Christ. "The adoration of Christ which vibrates in this doxology is one of the most impressive features of the book"(Moffatt). Like doxologies to Christ appear in Rev 5:13; Rev 7:10; 1Pe 4:11; 2Pe 3:18; 2Ti 4:18; Heb 13:21. These same words (hē doxa kai to kratos ) in 1Pe 4:11, only hē doxa in 2Pe 3:18; 2Ti 4:18, but with several others in Rev 5:13; Rev 7:10.

Robertson: Rev 1:7

Behold, he cometh with the clouds ( idou erchetai meta tōn nephelōn ).

Futuristic present middle indicative of erchomai , a reminiscence of Dan 7:13 (Theodotion). "It becomes a common eschatological refrain"(Beckwith) as in Mar 13:26; Mar 14:62; Mat 24:30; Mat 26:64; Luk 21:27. Compare the manifestation of God in the clouds at Sinai, in the cloudy pillar, the Shekinah, at the transfiguration"(Vincent).

Robertson: Rev 1:7

Shall see ( opsetai ).

Future middle of horaō , a reminiscence of Zec 12:10 according to the text of Theodotion (Aquila and Symmachus) rather than the lxx and like that of Mat 24:30 (similar combination of Daniel and Zechariah) and Mat 26:64. This picture of the victorious Christ in his return occurs also in Rev 14:14, Rev 14:18-20; Rev 19:11-21; Rev 20:7-10.

Robertson: Rev 1:7

And they which ( kai hoitines ).

"And the very ones who,"Romans and Jews, all who shared in this act.

Robertson: Rev 1:7

Pierced ( exekentēsan ).

First aorist active indicative of ekkenteō , late compound (Aristotle, Polybius, lxx), from ek and kenteō (to stab, to pierce), in N.T., only here and Joh 19:37, in both cases from Zec 12:10, but not the lxx text (apparently proof that John used the original Hebrew or the translation of Theodotion and Aquila).

Robertson: Rev 1:7

Shall mourn ( kopsontai ).

Future middle (direct) of koptō , old verb, to cut, "they shall cut themselves,"as was common for mourners (Mat 11:17; Luk 8:52; Luk 23:27). From Zec 12:12. See also Rev 18:9.

Robertson: Rev 1:7

Tribes ( phulai ).

Not just the Jewish tribes, but the spiritual Israel of Jews and Gentiles as in Rev 7:4-8. No nation had then accepted Christ as Lord and Saviour, nor has any yet done so.

Robertson: Rev 1:8

The Alpha and the Omega ( to Alpha kai to O ).

The first and the last letters of the Greek alphabet, each with its own neuter (grammatical gender) article. This description of the eternity of God recurs in Rev 21:6 with the added explanation hē archē kai to telos (the Beginning and the End) and of Christ in Rev 22:13 with the still further explanation ho prōtos kai ho eschatos (the First and the Last). This last phrase appears also in Rev 1:17; Rev 2:8 without to Alpha kai to O . The change of speaker here is unannounced, as in Rev 16:15; Rev 18:20. Only here and Rev 21:5. is God introduced as the speaker. The eternity of God guarantees the prophecy just made.

Robertson: Rev 1:8

The Lord God ( Kurios ho theos ).

"The Lord the God."Common phrase in Ezekiel (Eze 6:3, Eze 6:11; Eze 7:2, etc.) and in this book (Rev 4:8; Rev 11:17; Rev 15:3; Rev 16:7; Rev 19:6; Rev 21:22). See Rev 1:4; Rev 4:8 for the triple use of ho , etc. to express the eternity of God.

Robertson: Rev 1:8

The Almighty ( ho pantokratōr ).

Late compound (pās and krateō ), in Cretan inscription and a legal papyrus, common in lxx and Christian papyri, in N.T. only in 2Co 6:18 and Rev 1:8; Rev 4:8; Rev 11:17; Rev 15:3; Rev 16:7, Rev 16:14; Rev 19:6, Rev 19:15; Rev 21:22.

Robertson: Rev 1:9

1 John ( Egō Iōanēs ).

So Rev 22:8. In apocalyptic literature the personality of the writer is always prominent to guarantee the visions (Dan 8:1; Dan 10:2).

Robertson: Rev 1:9

Partaker with you ( sunkoinōnos ).

See note on 1Co 9:23. "Co-partner with you"(Rom 11:17). One article with adelphos and sunkoinōnos unifying the picture. The absence of apostolos here does not show that he is not an apostle, but merely his self-effacement, as in the Fourth Gospel, and still more his oneness with his readers. So there is only one article (tēi ) with thlipsei (tribulation), basileiāi (kingdom), hupomonēi (patience), ideas running all through the book. Both the tribulation (see Mat 13:21 for thlipsis ) and the kingdom (see Mat 3:2 for basileia ) were present realities and called for patience (hupomonē being "the spiritual alchemy"according to Charles for those in the kingdom, for which see Luk 8:15; Jam 5:7). All this is possible only "in Jesus"(en Iēsou ), a phrase on a par with Paul’ s common en Christōi (in Christ), repeated in Rev 14:13. Cf. Rev 3:20; 2Th 3:5.

Robertson: Rev 1:9

Was ( egenomēn ).

Rather, "I came to be,"second aorist middle indicative of ginomai .

Robertson: Rev 1:9

In the isle that is called Patmos ( en tēi nēsōi tēi kaloumenēi Patmōi ).

Patmos is a rocky sparsely settled island some ten miles long and half that wide, one of the Sporades group in the Aegean Sea, south of Miletus. The present condition of the island is well described by W. E. Geil in The Isle That Is Called Patmos (1905). Here John saw the visions described in the book, apparently written while still a prisoner there in exile.

Robertson: Rev 1:9

For the word of God and the testimony of Jesus ( dia ton logon tou theou kai tēn marturian Iēsou ).

The reason for (dia and the accusative) John’ s presence in Patmos, naturally as a result of persecution already alluded to, not for the purpose of preaching there or of receiving the visions. See Rev 1:2 for the phrase.

Robertson: Rev 1:10

I was in the Spirit ( egenomēn en pneumati ).

Rather, "I came to be (as in Rev 1:9) in the Spirit,"came into an ecstatic condition as in Act 10:10.; Act 22:17, not the normal spiritual condition (einai en pneumati , Rom 8:9).

Robertson: Rev 1:10

On the Lord’ s Day ( en tēi kuriakēi hēmerāi ).

Deissmann has proven ( Bible Studies , p. 217f.; Light , etc., p. 357ff.) from inscriptions and papyri that the word kuriakos was in common use for the sense "imperial"as imperial finance and imperial treasury and from papyri and ostraca that hēmera Sebastē (Augustus Day) was the first day of each month, Emperor’ s Day on which money payments were made (cf. 1Co 16:1.). It was easy, therefore, for the Christians to take this term, already in use, and apply it to the first day of the week in honour of the Lord Jesus Christ’ s resurrection on that day ( Didache 14, Ignatius Magn. 9). In the N.T. the word occurs only here and 1Co 11:20 (kuriakon deipnon the Lord's Supper ). It has no reference to hēmera kuriou (the day of judgment, 2Pe 3:10).

Robertson: Rev 1:10

Behind me ( opisō mou ).

"The unexpected, overpowering entrance of the divine voice"(Vincent). Cf. Eze 3:12.

Robertson: Rev 1:10

Voice ( phōnēn ).

Of Christ, as is plain in Rev 1:12.

Robertson: Rev 1:10

As of a trumpet ( hōs salpiggos ).

So in Rev 4:1 referring to this.

Robertson: Rev 1:10

Saying ( legousēs ).

Present active participle genitive case agreeing with salpiggos rather than legousan , accusative agreeing with phōnēn . So on purpose, as is clear from Rev 4:1, where lalousēs also agrees with salpiggos .

Robertson: Rev 1:11

Write in a book ( grapson eis biblion ).

First aorist active imperative of graphō for instantaneous action. The commission covers the whole series of visions which all grow out of this first vision of the Risen Christ.

Robertson: Rev 1:11

Send ( pempson ).

First aorist active imperative of pempō . Part of the commission from Christ. The names of the seven churches of Rev 1:4 are now given, and the particular message to each church comes in chapters 2 and 3 and in the same order, the geographical order going north from Ephesus, then east and south to Laodicea. But apparently the whole book was to be read to each of the seven churches. It would probably also be copied at each church.

Robertson: Rev 1:12

To see the voice ( blepein tēn phōnēn ).

The voice put for the person speaking.

Robertson: Rev 1:12

Having turned ( epistrepsas ).

First aorist active participle of epistrephō , from which also epestrepsa , just before, for which verb see Act 15:36; Act 16:18.

Robertson: Rev 1:12

Seven golden candlesticks ( hepta luchnias chrusas ).

See Mat 5:15 for luchnia (lampstand). Symbols of the seven churches as explained in Rev 1:20. See Exo 25:35. for description of a seven-branched candlestick, but here the lampstands are separate.

Robertson: Rev 1:13

One like unto a son of man ( homoion huion anthrōpou ).

Note accusative here with homoion (object of eidon ) as in Rev 14:14 and not the associative-instrumental as is usual (Rev 1:15; Rev 4:3, Rev 4:6). Charles holds that homoion here has the sense of hōs (as) and compares Rev 4:6; Rev 22:1 for proof. The absence of the article here shows also (Charles) that the idea is not "like the Son of man"for Christ is the Son of man. He is like "a son of man,"but not a man.

Robertson: Rev 1:13

Clothed ( endedumenon ).

Perfect passive participle of enduō , accusative case agreeing with homoion .

Robertson: Rev 1:13

A garment down to the foot ( podērē ).

Old adjective podērēs (from pous , foot, and airō ), here only in N.T., accusative singular retained with the passive participle as often with verbs of clothing. Supply chitōna or esthēta (garment).

Robertson: Rev 1:13

Girt about ( periezōsmenon ).

Perfect passive participle of perizōnnumi , accusative singular agreeing with homoion .

Robertson: Rev 1:13

At the breasts ( pros tois mastois ).

Old word for breasts of a woman (Luk 11:27; Luk 23:29) and nipples of a man, as here. High girding like this was a mark of dignity as of the high priest (Josephus, Ant. III. 7. 2). For pros with the locative see Mar 5:11.

Robertson: Rev 1:13

With a golden girdle ( zōnēn chrusān ).

Accusative case again retained with the passive participle (verb of clothing). Note also chrusān (vernacular Koiné ) rather than the old form, chrusēn .

Robertson: Rev 1:14

As white wool ( hōs erion leukon ).

Erion (wool) in N.T. only here and Heb 9:19, though old word. The person of the Lord Jesus is here described in language largely from Dan 7:9 (the Ancient of Days).

Robertson: Rev 1:14

White as snow ( hōs chiōn ).

Just "as snow,"also in Dan 7:9. In N.T. only here and Mat 28:3.

Robertson: Rev 1:14

As a flame of fire ( hōs phlox puros ).

In Dan 7:9 the throne of the Ancient of Days is phlox puros , while in Dan 10:6 the eyes of the Ancient of Days are lampades puros (lamps of fire). See also Rev 2:18; Rev 19:12 for this bold metaphor (like Heb 1:7).

Robertson: Rev 1:15

Burnished brass ( chalkolibanōi ).

Associative-instrumental case after homoioi . This word has so far been found nowhere else save here and Rev 2:18. Suidas defines it as an ēlecktron (amber) or a compound of copper and gold and silver ( aurichalcum in the Latin Vulgate). It is in reality an unknown metal.

Robertson: Rev 1:15

As if it had been refined ( hōs pepuromenēs ).

Perfect passive participle of puroō , old verb, to set on fire, to glow, as in Eph 6:16; Rev 3:18. The feminine gender shows that hē chalkolibanos is referred to with tēs chalkolibanou understood, for it does not agree in case with the associative-instrumental chalkolibanōi just before. Some would call it a slip for pepuromenōi as Aleph, and some cursives have it (taking chalkolibanōi to be neuter, not feminine). But P Q read pepurōmenoi (masculine plural), a correction, making it agree in number and gender with podes (feet).

Robertson: Rev 1:15

In a furnace ( en kaminōi ).

Old word, in N.T. also Rev 9:2; Mat 13:42, Mat 13:50.

Robertson: Rev 1:15

As the voice of many waters ( hōs phōnē hudatōn pollōn ).

So the voice of God in the Hebrew (not the lxx) of Eze 43:2. Repeated in Rev 14:2; Rev 19:6.

Robertson: Rev 1:16

And he had ( kai echōn ).

"And having,"present active participle of echō , loose use of the participle (almost like eiche , imperfect) and not in agreement with autou , genitive case. This is a common idiom in the book; a Hebraism, Charles calls it.

Robertson: Rev 1:16

In his right hand ( en tēi dexiāi cheiri ).

For safe keeping as in Joh 10:28.

Robertson: Rev 1:16

Seven stars ( asteras hepta ).

Symbols of the seven churches (Rev 1:20), seven planets rather than Pleiades or any other constellation like the bear.

Robertson: Rev 1:16

Proceeded ( ekporeuomenē ).

Present middle participle of ekporeuomai , old compound (Mat 3:5) used loosely again like echōn .

Robertson: Rev 1:16

A sharp two-edged sword ( romphaia distomos oxeia ).

"A sword two-mouthed sharp."Romphaia (as distinct from machaira ) is a long sword, properly a Thracian javelin, in N.T. only Luk 2:35; Rev 1:16; Rev 2:12; Heb 4:12. See stoma used with machairēs in Luk 21:24 (by the mouth of the sword).

Robertson: Rev 1:16

Countenance ( opsis ).

Old word (from optō ), in N.T. only here, Joh 7:24; Joh 11:44.

Robertson: Rev 1:16

As the sun shineth ( hōs ho hēlios phainei ).

Brachylogy, "as the sun when it shines."For phainei see Joh 1:5.

Vincent: Rev 1:1

The Revelation ( ἀποκάλυψις )

The Greek word is transcribed in Apocalypse . The word occurs only once in the Gospels, Luk 2:32, where to lighten should be rendered for revelation . It is used there of our Lord, as a light to dispel the darkness under which the heathen were veiled. It occurs thirteen times in Paul's writings, and three times in first Peter. It is used in the following senses:

(a.) The unveiling of something hidden , which gives light and knowledge to those who behold it . See Luk 2:32 (above). Christianity itself is the revelation of a mystery (Rom 16:25). The participation of the Gentiles in the privileges of the new covenant was made known by revelation (Eph 3:3). Paul received the Gospel which he preached by revelation (Gal 1:12), and went up to Jerusalem by revelation (Gal 2:2).

(b.) Christian insight into spiritual truth . Paul asks for Christians the spirit of revelation (Eph 1:17). Peculiar manifestations of the general gift of revelation are given in Christian assemblies (1Co 14:6, 1Co 14:26). Special revelations are granted to Paul (2Co 12:1, 2Co 12:7).

(c.) The second coming of the Lord (1Pe 1:7, 1Pe 1:13; 2Th 1:7; 1Co 1:7) in which His glory shall be revealed (1Pe 4:13), His righteous judgment made known (Rom 2:5), and His children revealed in full majesty (Rom 8:19).

The kindred verb ἀποκαλύπτω is used in similar connections. Following the categories given above,

(a.) Gal 1:16; Gal 3:23; Eph 3:5; 1Pe 1:12.

(b.) Mat 11:25, Mat 11:27; Mat 16:17; Luk 10:21, Luk 10:22; 1Co 2:10; 1Co 14:30; Phi 3:15.

(c.) Mat 10:26; Luk 2:35; Luk 12:2; Luk 17:30; Rom 1:17, Rom 1:18; Rom 8:18; 1Co 3:13; 2Th 2:3, 2Th 2:6, 2Th 2:8; 1Pe 1:5; 1Pe 5:1.

The word is compounded with ἀπό from , and καλύπτω to cover . Hence, to remove the cover from anything; to unveil . So of Balaam, the Lord opened or unveiled his eyes (ἀπεκάλυψεν τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς : Num 22:31, Sept.). So Boaz to Naomi's kinsman: " I thought to advertise thee:" Rev., " disclose it unto thee" (ἀποκαλύψω τὸ οὖς σου : Rth 4:4, Sept.). Lit., I will uncover thine ear .

The noun ἀποκάλυψις revelation , occurs only once in the Septuagint (1Sa 20:30), in the physical sense of uncovering . The verb is found in the Septuagint in Dan 2:19, Dan 2:22, Dan 2:28.

In classical Greek, the verb is used by Herodotus (i., 119) of uncovering the head; and by Plato: thus, " reveal (ἀποκαλύψας ) to me the power of Rhetoric" (" Gorgias," 460): " Uncover your chest and back" (" Protagoras," 352). Both the verb and the noun occur in Plutarch; the latter of uncovering the body, of waters, and of an error. The religious sense, however, is unknown to heathenism.

The following words should be compared with this: Ὀπτασία a vision (Luk 1:22; Act 26:19; 2Co 12:1). Ὅραμα a vision (Mat 17:9; Act 9:10; Act 16:9). Ὅρασις a vision (Act 2:17; Rev 9:17. Of visible form, Rev 4:3). These three cannot be accurately distinguished. They all denote the thing seen or shown , without anything to show whether it is understood or not.

As distinguished from these, ἀποκάλυψις includes, along with the thing shown or seen, its interpretation or unveiling.

Ἐπιφάνεια appearing (hence our epiphany ), is used in profane Greek of the appearance of a higher power in order to aid men. In the New Testament by Paul only, and always of the second appearing of Christ in glory, except in 2Ti 1:10, where it signifies His first appearing in the flesh. See 2Th 2:8; 1Ti 6:14; Tit 2:13. As distinguished from this, ἀπολάλυψις is the more comprehensive word. An apocalypse may include several ἐπιφάνειαι appearings . The appearings are the media of the revealings .

Φανέρωσις manifestation ; only twice in the New Testament; 1Co 12:7; 2Co 4:2. The kindred verb φανερόω to make manifest , is of frequent occurrence. See on Joh 21:1. It is not easy, if possible, to show that this word has a less dignified sense than ἀποκάλυψις . The verb φανερόω is used of both the first and the second appearing of our Lord (1Ti 3:16; 1Jo 1:2; 1Pe 1:20; Col 3:4; 1Pe 5:4). See also Joh 2:11; Joh 21:1.

Some distinguish between φανέρωσις as an external manifestation, to the senses, but single and isolated ; while ἀποκάλυψις is an inward and abiding disclosure. According to these, the Apocalypse or unveiling , precedes and produces the φανέρωσις or manifestation . The Apocalypse contemplates the thing revealed; the manifestation, the persons to whom it is revealed .

The Revelation here is the unveiling of the divine mysteries .

Vincent: Rev 1:1

Of Jesus Christ

Not the manifestation or disclosure of Jesus Christ, but the revelation given by Him.

Vincent: Rev 1:1

To shew ( δεῖξαι )

Frequent in Revelation (Rev 4:1; Rev 17:1; Rev 21:9; Rev 22:1). Construe with ἔδωκεν gave : gave him to shew . Compare " I will give him to sit" (Rev 3:21): " It was given to hurt" (Rev 7:2): " It was given him to do;" (A.V. " had power to do;" Rev 13:14).

Vincent: Rev 1:1

Servants ( δούλοις )

Properly, bond-servants . See on Mat 20:26; see on Mar 9:35.

Vincent: Rev 1:1

Must ( δεῖ )

As the decree of the absolute and infallible God.

Vincent: Rev 1:1

Shortly come to pass ( γενέσθαι ἐν τάχει )

For the phrase ἐν τάχει shortly , see Luk 18:8, where yet long delay is implied. Expressions like this must be understood, not according to human measurement of time, but rather as in 2Pe 3:8. The idea is, before long, as time is computed by God. The aorist infinitive γενέσθαι is not begin to come to pass, but denotes a complete fulfilment : must shortly come to pass in their entirety .

Vincent: Rev 1:1

He sent ( ἀποστείλας )

See on Mat 10:2, Mat 10:16.

Vincent: Rev 1:1

Signified ( ἐσήμανεν )

From σῆμα a sign . Hence, literally, give a sign or token . The verb occurs outside of John's writings only in Act 11:28; Act 25:27. See Joh 12:33; Joh 18:32; Joh 21:19. This is its only occurrence in Revelation. The word is appropriate to the symbolic character of the revelation, and so in Joh 12:33, where Christ predicts the mode of His death in a figure. Compare sign , Rev 12:1.

Vincent: Rev 1:1

Angel ( ἀγγέλου )

Strictly, a messenger . See Mat 11:10; Luk 8:24; Luk 9:52. Compare the mediating angel in the visions of Daniel and Zechariah (Dan 8:15, Dan 8:16; Dan 9:21; Dan 10:10; Zec 1:19). See on Joh 1:51.

Vincent: Rev 1:1

Servant

Designating the prophetic office. See Isa 59:5; Amo 3:7; compare Rev 19:10; Rev 22:9.

Vincent: Rev 1:2

Bare record ( ἐμαρτύρησεν )

See on Joh 1:7. Rev., bear witness . The reference is to the present book and not to the Gospel. The aorist tense is the epistolary aorist. See on 1Jo 2:13, and compare the introduction to Thucydides' " History:" " Thucydides, an Athenian, wrote (ξυνέγραψε ) the history of the war," etc.; placing himself at the reader's stand point, who will regard the writing as occurring in the past.

Vincent: Rev 1:2

Word of God

Not the personal Word, but the prophetic contents of this book. See Rev 22:6.

Vincent: Rev 1:2

Testimony ( μαρτυρίαν )

For the phrase to witness a witness see Joh 4:32. For the peculiar emphasis on the idea of witness in John, see on Joh 1:7. The words and the ides are characteristic of Revelation as of the Gospel and Epistles.

Vincent: Rev 1:2

And ( τε )

Omit. The clause all things that he saw is in apposition with the Word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ , marking these as seen by him. Rev. adds even .

Vincent: Rev 1:2

All things that he saw ( ὅσα εἶδεν )

Lit., as many things as he saw . In the Gospel John uses the word εἶδεν saw , only twice of his own eye-witness (Joh 1:40; Joh 20:8). In Revelation it is constantly used of the seeing of visions. Compare Rev 1:19. For the verb as denoting the immediate intuition of the seer, see on Joh 2:24.

Vincent: Rev 1:3

Blessed ( μακάριος )

See on Mat 5:3.

Vincent: Rev 1:3

He that readeth ( ὁ ἀναγινώσκων )

See on Luk 4:16. The Reader in the Church. See 2Co 3:14. They that hear , the congregation. The words imply a public , official reading, in full religious assembly for worship. The passage is of some weight in determining the date of this book. The stated reading of the Apostolical writings did not exist as a received form before the destruction of Jerusalem, a.d. 70.

Vincent: Rev 1:3

And keep ( καὶ τηροῦντες )

The absence of the article from τηροῦντες keeping (compare οἱ ἀκούντες they that hear ), shows that the hearers and the keepers form one class. Τηρεῖν to keep , is a peculiarly Johannine word, and is characteristic of Revelation as of the other writings in its own peculiar sense of " keeping" in the exercise of active and strenuous care, rather than of watching over to preserve. See on reserved , 1Pe 1:4.

Vincent: Rev 1:3

Prophecy

See on prophet , Luk 7:26.

Vincent: Rev 1:3

Which are written ( τὰ γεγραμμένα )

Perfect participle, have been written , and therefore stand written .

Vincent: Rev 1:3

The time ( ὁ καιρὸς )

See on Mat 12:1.

Vincent: Rev 1:3

At hand ( ἐγγύς )

Lit., near . See on shortly , Rev 1:1.

Vincent: Rev 1:4

John

Note the absence of all official titles, such as are found in Paul; showing that John writes as one whose position is recognized.

Vincent: Rev 1:4

Seven

Among every ancient people, especially in the East, a religious significance attaches to numbers. This grows out of the instinctive appreciation that number and proportion are necessary attributes of the created universe. This sentiment passes over from heathenism into the Old Testament. The number seven was regarded by the Hebrews as a sacred number, and it is throughout Scripture the covenant number, the sign of God's covenant relation to mankind, and especially to the Church. The evidences of this are met in the hallowing of the seventh day; in the accomplishment of circumcision, which is the sign of a covenant, after seven days; in the part played by the number in marriage covenants and treaties of peace. It is the number of purification and consecration (Lev 4:6, Lev 4:17; Lev 8:11, Lev 8:33; Num 19:12). " Seven is the number of every grace and benefit bestowed upon Israel; which is thus marked as flowing out of the covenant, and a consequence of it. The priests compass Jericho seven days, and on the seventh day seven times, that all Israel may know that the city is given into their hands by God, and that its conquest is a direct and immediate result of their covenant relation to Him. Naaman is to dip in Jordan seven times, that he may acknowledge the God of Israel as the author of his cure. It is the number of reward to those who are faithful in the covenant (Deu 28:7; 1Sa 2:5); of punishment to those who are froward in the covenant (Lev 26:21, Lev 26:24, Lev 26:28; Deu 28:25), or to those who injure the people in it (Gen 4:15, Gen 4:24; Exo 7:25; Psa 79:12). All the feasts are ordered by seven, or else by seven multiplied into seven, and thus made intenser still. Thus it is with the Sabbath, the Passover, the Feast of Weeks, of Tabernacles, the Sabbath-year, and the Jubilee."

Similarly the number appears in God's dealing with nations outside the covenant, showing that He is working for Israel's sake and with respect to His covenant. It is the number of the years of plenty and of famine, in sign that these are for Israel's sake rather than for Egypt's. Seven times pass over Nebuchadnezzar, that he may learn that the God of his Jewish captives is king over all the earth (partly quoted and partly condensed from Trench's " Epistles to the Seven Churches" ).

Seven also occurs as a sacred number in the New Testament. There are seven beatitudes, seven petitions in the Lord's Prayer; seven parables in Matthew 13; seven loaves, seven words from the cross, seven deacons, seven graces (Rom 12:6-8), seven characteristics of wisdom (Jam 3:17). In Revelation the prominence of the number is marked. To a remarkable extent the structure of that book is molded by the use of numbers, especially of the numbers seven, four, and three. There are seven spirits before the throne; seven churches; seven golden candlesticks; seven stars in the right hand of Him who is like unto a son of man; seven lamps of fire burning before the throne; seven horns and seven eyes of the Lamb; seven seals of the book; and the thunders, the heads of the great dragon and of the beast from the sea, the angels with the trumpets, the plagues, and the mountains which are the seat of the mystic Babylon, - are all seven in number.

So there are four living creatures round about the throne, four angels at the four corners of the earth, holding the four winds; the New Jerusalem is foursquare. Authority is given to Death to kill over the fourth part of the earth, and he employs four agents.

Again the use of the number three is, as Professor Milligan remarks, " so remarkable and continuous that it would require an analysis of the whole book for its perfect illustration." There are three woes, three unclean spirits like frogs, three divisions of Babylon, and three gates on each side of the heavenly city. The Trisagion, or " thrice holy," is sung to God the Almighty, to whom are ascribed three attributes of glory.

Vincent: Rev 1:4

Seven Churches

Not all the churches in Asia are meant, since the list of those addressed in Revelation does not include Colossae, Miletus, Hierapolis, or Magnesia. The seven named are chosen to symbolize the whole Church. Compare Rev 2:7. Seven being the number of the covenant, we have in these seven a representation of the Church universal.

Vincent: Rev 1:4

In Asia

See on Act 2:9.

Vincent: Rev 1:4

Grace - peace

For grace (χάρις ), see on Luk 1:30. Both words are used by Paul in the salutations of all his Epistles, except the three Pastorals.

Vincent: Rev 1:4

From Him which is, and which was, and which is to come ( ἀπὸ τοῦ ὁ ὢν καὶ ὁ ἦν καὶ ὁ ἐρχόμενος )

The whole salutation is given in the name of the Holy Trinity: the Father (Him which is, and was, and is to come), the Spirit (the seven spirits), the Son (Jesus Christ). See further below. This portion of the salutation has no parallel in Paul, and is distinctively characteristic of the author of Revelation. It is one of the solecisms in grammatical construction which distinguishes this book from the other writings of John. The Greek student will note that the pronoun which (ὁ ) is not construed with the preposition from (ἀπό ), which would require the genitive case, but stands in the nominative case.

Each of these three appellations is treated as a proper name. The Father is Him which is , and which was , and which is to come . This is a paraphrase of the unspeakable name of God (Exo 3:14), the absolute and unchangeable. Ὁ ὢν , the One who is , is the Septuagint translation of Exo 3:14, " I am the ὁ ὢν ( I am ):" " ὁ ὢν ( I am ), hath sent me unto you." The One who was (ὁ ἦν ). The Greek has no imperfect participle, so that the finite verb is used. Which is and which was form one clause, to be balanced against which is to come . Compare Rev 11:17; Rev 16:5; and " was (ἦν ) in the beginning with God" (Joh 1:2). Which is to come (ὁ ἐρχόμενος ). Lit., the One who is coming . This is not equivalent to who shall be ; i.e., the author is not intending to describe the abstract existence of God as covering the future no less than the past and the present. If this had been his meaning, he would have written ὁ ἐσόμενος , which shall be . The phrase which is to come would not express the future eternity of the Divine Being. The dominant conception in the title is rather that of immutability . Further, the name does not emphasize so much God's abstract existence, as it does His permanent covenant relation to His people. Hence the phrase which is to come , is to be explained in accordance with the key-note of the book, which is the second coming of the Son (Rev 1:7; Rev 22:20).

The phrase which is to come , is often applied to the Son (see on 1Jo 3:5), and so throughout this book. Here it is predicated of the Father, apart from whom the Son does nothing. " The Son is never alone, even as Redeemer" (Milligan). Compare " We will come unto him," Joh 14:23. Origen quotes our passage with the words: " But that you may perceive that the omnipotence of the Father and of the Son is one and the same, hear John speaking after this manner in Revelation, ' Who is , etc.'" Dean Plumptre cornpares the inscription over the temple of Isis at Sais in Egypt: " I am all that has come into being, and that which is, and that which shall be, and no man hath lifted my veil."

The Spirit is designated by

Vincent: Rev 1:4

The seven Spirits ( τῶν ἑπτὰ πνευμάτων )

Paul nowhere joins the Spirit with the Father and the Son in his opening salutations. The nearest approach is 2Co 13:13. The reference is not to the seven principal angels (Rev 8:2). These could not be properly spoken of as the source of grace and peace; nor be associated with the Father and the Son; nor take precedence of the Son, as is the case here. Besides, angels are never called spirits in this book. With the expression compare Rev 4:5, the seven lamps of fire, " which are the seven Spirits of God:" Rev 3:1, where Jesus is said to have " the seven Spirits of God." Thus the seven Spirits belong to the Son as well as to the Father (see Joh 15:26). The prototype of John's expression is found in the vision of Zechariah, where the Messiah is prefigured as a stone with seven eyes, " the eyes of the Lord, which run to and fro through the whole earth" (Zec 3:9; Zec 4:10). Compare also the same prophet's vision of the seven-branched candlestick (Zec 4:2).

Hence the Holy Spirit is called the Seven Spirits ; the perfect, mystical number seven indicating unity through diversity (1Co 12:4). Not the sevenfold gifts of the Spirit are meant, but the divine Personality who imparts them; the one Spirit under the diverse manifestations. Richard of St. Victor (cited by Trench, " Seven Churches" ) says: " And from the seven Spirits, that is, from the sevenfold Spirit, which indeed is simple in nature, sevenfold in grace."

Vincent: Rev 1:5

Jesus Christ

The Son. Placed after the Spirit because what is to follow in Rev 1:5-8 relates to Him. This is according to John's manner of arranging his thoughts so that a new sentence shall spring out of the final thought of the preceding sentence. Compare the Prologue of the Gospel, and Rev 1:1, Rev 1:2, of this chapter.

Vincent: Rev 1:5

The faithful witness ( ὁ μάρτυς ὁ πιστὸς )

For the phraseology see on 1Jo 4:9. For witness , see on Joh 1:7; see on 1Pe 5:1. As applied to the Messiah, see Psa 89:37; Isa 55:4. The construction again departs from the grammatical rule. The words witness , first-born , ruler , are in the nominative case, instead of being in the genitive, in apposition with Jesus Christ . This construction, though irregular, nevertheless gives dignity and emphasis to these titles of the Lord. See on Rev 1:4. The word πιστὸς , faithful is used (1), of one who shows Himself faithful in the discharge of a duty or the administration of a trust (Mat 24:45; Luk 12:42). Hence, trustworthy (1Co 7:25; 2Ti 2:2). Of things that can be relied upon (1Ti 3:1; 2Ti 2:11). (2), Confiding; trusting; a believer (Gal 3:9; Act 16:1; 2Co 6:15; 1Ti 5:16). See on 1Jo 1:9. The word is combined with ἀληθινός , true , genuine in Rev 3:14; Rev 19:11; Rev 21:5; Rev 22:6. Richard of St. Victor (cited by Trench) says: " A faithful witness, because He gave faithful testimony concerning all things which were to be testified to by Him in the world. A faithful witness, because whatever He heard from the Father, He faithfully made known to His disciples. A faithful witness, because He taught the way of God in truth, neither did He care for any one nor regard the person of men. A faithful witness, because He announced condemnation to the reprobate and salvation to the elect. A faithful witness, because He confirmed by miracles the truth which He taught in words. A faithful witness, because He denied not, even in death, the Father's testimony to Himself. A faithful witness, because He will give testimony in the day of judgment concerning the works of the good and of the evil."

Vincent: Rev 1:5

The first-begotten of the dead ( ὁ πρωτότοκος ἐκ τῶν νεκρῶν )

Rev., the first-born . The best texts omit ἐκ from . Compare Col 1:18. The risen Christ regarded in His relation to the dead in Christ. He was not the first who rose from the dead, but the first who so rose that death was thenceforth impossible for Him (Rom 6:9); rose with that resurrection-life in which He will finally bring with Him those who sleep in Him (1Th 4:14). Some interpreters, rendering first-born , find in the phrase the metaphor of death as the womb which bare Him (see on Act 2:24). Others, holding by the rendering first-begotten , connect the passage with Psa 2:7, which by Paul is connected with the resurrection of Christ (Act 13:32, Act 13:33). Paul also says that Jesus " was declared to be the Son of God with power by the resurrection from the dead" (Rom 1:4). The verb τίκτω which is one of the components of πρωτότοκος first-begotten or born , is everywhere in the New Testament used in the sense of to bear or to bring forth , and has nowhere the meaning beget , unless Jam 1:15 be an exception, on which see note. In classical Greek the meaning beget is common.

Vincent: Rev 1:5

The Ruler of the kings of the earth ( ὁ ἄρχων τῶν βασιλέων τῆς γῆς )

Through resurrection He passes to glory and dominion (Phi 2:9). The comparison with the kings of the earth is suggested by Psa 2:2. Compare Psa 89:27; Isa 52:15; 1Ti 6:16; and see Rev 6:15; Rev 17:4; Rev 19:16.

Vincent: Rev 1:5

Unto Him that loved ( τῳ ἀγαπήσαντι )

The true reading is ἀγαπῶντι that loveth . So Rev. Christ's love is ever present See Joh 13:1.

Vincent: Rev 1:5

Washed ( λούσαντι )

Read λύσαντι loosed . Trench remarks on the variation of readings as having grown out of a play on the words λουτρόν , a bathing , and λύτρον a ransom , both of which express the central benefits which redound to us through the sacrifice and death of Christ. He refers to this play upon words as involved in the etymology of the name Apollo as given by Plato; viz., the washer (ὁ ἀπολούων ) and the absolver (ὁ ἀπολύων ) from all impurities. Either reading falls in with a beautiful circle of imagery. If washed , compare Psa 51:2; Isa 1:16, Isa 1:18; Eze 36:25; Act 22:16; Eph 5:26; Tit 3:5. If loosed , compare Mat 20:28; 1Ti 2:6; 1Pe 1:18; Heb 9:12; Gal 3:13; Gal 4:5; Rev 5:9; Rev 14:3, Rev 14:4.

Vincent: Rev 1:6

Kings ( βασιλεῖς )

The correct reading is, βασιλείαν a kingdom . The term King is never applied in the New Testament to individual Christians. The reigning of the saints is emphasized in this book. See Rev 5:10; Rev 20:4, Rev 20:6; Rev 22:5. Compare Dan 7:18, Dan 7:22.

Vincent: Rev 1:6

Priests ( ἱερεῖς )

Kingdom describes the body of the redeemed collectively . Priests indicates their individual position. Peter observes the same distinction (1Pe 2:5) in the phrases living stones (individuals) and a spiritual house (the body collectively), and combines both kings and priests in another collective term, royal priesthood (1Pe 2:9). The priesthood of believers grows out of the priesthood of Christ (Psa 60:4; Zec 6:13; Hebrews 7-10). This dignity was promised to Israel on the condition of obedience and fidelity to God. " Ye shall be a kingdom of priests and a holy nation" (Exo 19:6). In the kingdom of Christ each individual is a priest. The priest's work is not limited to any order of the ministry. All may offer the sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving: all have direct access to the holiest through the blood of Jesus: all Christians, as priests, are to minister to one another and to plead for one another. The consummation of this ideal appears in Rev 21:22, where the heavenly Jerusalem is represented as without temple. It is all temple. " It is the abolition of the distinction between holy and profane (Zec 14:20, Zec 14:21) - nearer and more remote from God - through all being henceforth holy, all being brought to the nearest whereof it is capable, to Him" (Trench).

Vincent: Rev 1:6

Unto God and His Father ( τῷ Θεῷ καὶ πατρὶ αὐτοῦ )

Lit., to the God and Father of Him . Hence Rev., correctly, His God and Father . For the phrase compare Rom 15:6; 2Co 1:3; Eph 1:3.

Vincent: Rev 1:6

Glory and dominion ( ἡ δόξα καὶ τὸ κράτος )

Rev., correctly, rendering the two articles, " the glory and the dominion." The articles express universality: all glory; that which everywhere and under every form represents glory and dominion. The verb be (the glory) is not in the text. We may render either as an ascription, be , or as a confession, is . The glory is His. Δόξα glory means originally opinion or judgment . In this sense it is not used in Scripture. In the sacred writers always of a good or favorable opinion, and hence praise , honor , glory (Luk 14:10; Heb 3:3; 1Pe 5:4). Applied to physical objects, as light , the heavenly bodies (Act 22:11; 1Co 15:40). The visible brightness in manifestations of God (Luk 2:9; Act 7:55; Luk 9:32; 2Co 3:7). Magnificence , dignity (Mat 4:8; Luk 4:6). Divine majesty or perfect excellence , especially in doxologies, either of God or Christ (1Pe 4:11; Jud 1:25; Rev 4:9, Rev 4:11; Mat 16:27; Mar 10:37; Mar 8:38; Luk 9:26; 2Co 3:18; 2Co 4:4). The glory or majesty of divine grace (Eph 1:6, Eph 1:12, Eph 1:14, Eph 1:18; 1Ti 1:11). The majesty of angels (Luk 9:26; Jud 1:8; 2Pe 2:10). The glorious condition of Christ after accomplishing His earthly work , and of the redeemed who share His eternal glory (Luk 24:26; Joh 17:5; Phi 3:21; 1Ti 3:16; Rom 8:18, Rom 8:21; Rom 9:23; 2Co 4:17; Col 1:27).

Trench remarks upon the prominence of the doxological element in the highest worship of the Church as contrasted with the very subordinate place which it often occupies in ours. " We can perhaps make our requests known unto God, and this is well, for it is prayer; but to give glory to God, quite apart from anything to be directly gotten by ourselves in return, this is better, for it is adoration." Dr. John Brown in his Memoir of his father, one of the very finest biographical sketches in English literature, records a formula used by him in closing his prayers on specially solemn occasions: " And now unto Thee, O Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, the one Jehovah and our God, we would - as is most meet - with the Church on earth and the Church in heaven, ascribe all honor and glory, dominion and majesty, as it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be, world without end, Amen" (" Horae Subsecivae" ). Compare the doxologies in 1Pe 4:11; Gal 1:5; Rev 4:9, Rev 4:11; Rev 5:13; Rev 7:12; Jud 1:25; 1Ch 29:11.

Vincent: Rev 1:6

Forever and ever ( εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας τῶν αἰώνων )

Lit., unto the ages of the ages . For the phrase compare Gal 1:5; Heb 13:21; 1Pe 4:11. It occurs twelve times in Revelation, but not in John's Gospel or Epistles. It is the formula of eternity.

Vincent: Rev 1:6

Amen ( ἀμὴν )

The English word is a transcription of the Greek and of the Hebrew. A verbal adjective, meaning firm , faithful . Hence ὁ ἀμὴν , the Amen , applied to Christ (Rev 3:14). It passes into an adverbial sense by which something is asserted or confirmed. Thus often used by Christ, verily . John alone uses the double affirmation, verily , verily . See on Joh 1:51; see on Joh 10:1.

Vincent: Rev 1:7

He cometh with clouds ( ἔρχεται μετὰ τῶν νεφελῶν )

The clouds are frequently used in the descriptions of the Lord's second coming. See Dan 7:13; Mat 24:30; Mat 26:64; Mar 14:62. Compare the manifestation of God in the clouds at Sinai, in the cloudy pillar, the Shekinah, at the transfiguration, and see Psa 97:2; Psa 18:11; Nah 1:3; Isa 19:1.

Vincent: Rev 1:7

Shall see ( ὄψεται )

The verb denotes the physical act, but emphasizes the mental discernment accompanying it, and points to the result rather than to the act of vision. See on Joh 1:18. Appropriate here as indicating the quickened spiritual discernment engendered by the Lord's appearing, in those who have rejected Him, and who now mourn for their folly and sin.

Vincent: Rev 1:7

They which ( οἵτινες )

The compound relative describes a class. See on Mat 13:52; see on Mat 21:41; see on Mar 12:18.

Vincent: Rev 1:7

Pierced ( ἐξεκέντησαν )

See on Joh 19:34, and compare Zec 12:10; Joh 19:36. The expression here refers not to the Jews only, but to all who reject the Son of Man; those who " in any age have identified themselves with the Spirit of the Savior's murderers" (Milligan). The passage is justly cited as a strong evidence that the author of the Gospel is also the author of Revelation.

Vincent: Rev 1:7

Kindreds ( φυλαὶ )

More correctly, tribes . The word used of the true Israel in Rev 5:5; Rev 7:4-8; Rev 21:12. As the tribes of Israel are the figure by which the people of God, Jew or Gentile, are represented, so unbelievers are here represented as tribes , " the mocking counterpart of the true Israel of God." Compare Mat 24:30, Mat 24:31.

Vincent: Rev 1:7

Shall wail because of Him ( κόψονται ἐπ ' αὐτὸν )

Rev., better, shall mourn over Him . Lit., shall beat their breasts . See on Mat 11:17.

Vincent: Rev 1:8

Alpha and Omega ( τὸ Α καὶ τὸ Ω )

Rev., rightly, gives the article, " the Alpha," etc. The words are explained by the gloss, properly omitted from the text, the beginning and the ending . The Rabbinical writers used the phrase from Aleph to Tav , to signify completely , from beginning to end . Thus one says, " Adam transgressed the whole law from Aleph even to Tav." Compare Isa 41:4; Isa 43:10; Isa 44:6.

Vincent: Rev 1:8

The Lord ( ὁ Κύριος )

See on Mat 21:3. The best texts read Κύριος ὁ Θεὸς the Lord the God . Rev., the Lord God .

Vincent: Rev 1:8

Which is, etc.

See on Rev 1:4. " God, as the old tradition declares, holding in His hand the beginning, middle, and end of all that is" (Plato, " Laws," 715).

Vincent: Rev 1:8

The Almighty ( ὁ παντοκράτωρ )

Used only once outside of Revelation, in 2Co 6:18, where it is a quotation. Constantly in the Septuagint.

Vincent: Rev 1:9

I John

Compare Dan 7:28; Dan 9:2; Dan 10:2.

Vincent: Rev 1:9

Who am also your brother ( ὁ καὶ ἀδελφὸς ὑμῶν )

Omit καὶ , also , and render as Rev., John your brother .

Vincent: Rev 1:9

Companion ( συγκοινωνὸς )

Rev., better, partaker with you . See Phi 1:7, and note on partners , Luk 5:10. Κοινωνὸς , is a partner , associate . Σύν strengthens the term: partner along with . Compare John's favorite word in the First Epistle, κοινωνία fellowship , 1Jo 1:3.

Vincent: Rev 1:9

In the tribulation, etc.

Denoting the sphere or element in which the fellowship subsisted.

Vincent: Rev 1:9

Tribulation ( θλίψει )

See on Mat 13:21 Persecution for Christ's sake, and illustrated by John's own banishment.

Vincent: Rev 1:9

Kingdom ( βασιλείᾳ )

The present kingdom. Trench is wrong in saying that " while the tribulation is present the kingdom is only in hope." On the contrary, it is the assurance of being now within the kingdom of Christ - under Christ's sovereignty, fighting the good fight under His leadership - which gives hope and courage and patience. The kingdom of God is a present energy, and it is a peculiality of John to treat the eternal life as already present. See Joh 3:36; Joh 5:24; Joh 6:47, Joh 6:54; 1Jo 5:11. " In all these things we are abundantly the conquerors (Rom 8:37 sqq.). This may go to explain the peculiar order of the three words; tribulation and kingdom , two apparently antithetic ideas, being joined, with a true insight into their relation, and patience being added as the element through which the tribulation is translated into sovereignty. The reference to the future glorious consummation of the kingdom need not be rejected. It is rather involved in the present kingdom. Patience, which links the life of tribulation with the sovereignty of Christ here upon earth, likewise links it with the consummation of Christ's kingdom in heaven. Through faith and patience the subjects of that kingdom inherit the promises. " Rightly he says first 'in the tribulation' and adds afterwards 'in the kingdom,' because, if we suffer together we shall also reign together" (Richard of St. Victor, cited by Trench). Compare Act 14:22.

Vincent: Rev 1:9

Patience

See on 2Pe 1:6; see on Jam 5:7.

Vincent: Rev 1:9

Of Jesus Christ ( Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ )

The best texts omit Christ and insert ἐν in ; rendering, as Rev., " kingdom and patience which are in Jesus ."

Vincent: Rev 1:9

Was ( ἐγενόμην )

Lit., I came to pass , i.e., I found myself : The past tense seems to imply that John was no longer in Patmos when he wrote.

Vincent: Rev 1:9

Patmos

Now called Patmo and Palmosa . In the Aegean, one of the group of the Sporades, about twenty-eight miles S. S.W. of Samos. It is about ten miles long by six in breadth. The island is volcanic, and is bare and rocky throughout; the hills, of which the highest rises to nearly a thousand feet, commanding a magnificent view of the neighboring sea and islands. The bay of La Scala, running into the land on the east, divides the island into two nearly equal parts, a northern and a southern. The ancient town, remains of which are still to be seen, occupied the isthmus which separates La Scala from the bay of Merika on the western coast. The modern town is on a hill in the southern half of the island, clustered at the foot of the monastery of St. John. A grotto is shown called " the grotto of the Apocalypse," in which the apostle is said to have received the vision. " The stern, rugged barrenness of its broken promontories well suits the historical fact of the relegation of the condemned Christian to its shores, as of a convict to his prison. The view from the topmost peak, or, indeed, from any lofty elevation in the islands, unfolds an unusual sweep such as well became the Apocalypse, the unveiling of the future to the eyes of the solitary seer. Above, there was always the broad heaven of a Grecian sky; sometimes bright with its 'white cloud' (Rev 14:14), sometimes torn with 'lightnings and thunderings,' and darkened by 'great hail,' or cheered with 'a rainbow like unto an emerald' (Rev 4:3; Rev 8:7; Rev 11:19; Rev 16:21). Over the high tops of Icaria, Samos, and Naxos rise the mountains of Asia Minor; amongst which would lie, to the north, the circle of the Seven Churches to which his addresses were to be sent. Around him stood the mountains and islands of the Archipelago (Rev 6:14; Rev 16:20). When he looked round, above or below, 'the sea' would always occupy the foremost place... the voices of heaven were like the sound of the waves beating on the shore, as 'the sound of many waters' (Rev 14:2; Rev 19:6); the millstone was 'cast into the sea' (Rev 18:21); the sea was to 'give up the dead which were in it' (Rev 20:13)" (Stanley, " Sermons in the East" ).

Vincent: Rev 1:9

For the word of God ( διὰ τὸν λόγον τοῦ Θεοῦ )

For is because of: on account of . The expression is commonly explained with reference to John's banishment as a martyr for Christian truth. Some, however, especially those who desire to overthrow John's authorship of the book, explain that he was in Patmos for the sake of preaching the word there , or in order to receive a communication of the word of God. Apart, however, from the general tone of John's address, which implies a season of persecution, the phrase for the word of God occurs in two passages where the meaning cannot be doubtful; Rev 6:9, and Rev 20:4.

Vincent: Rev 1:9

Testimony ( μαρτυρίαν )

See on Joh 1:7.

Vincent: Rev 1:9

Of Jesus Christ

Omit Christ .

Vincent: Rev 1:10

I was ( ἐγενόμην )

See on Rev 1:9.

Vincent: Rev 1:10

In the Spirit ( ἐν πνεύμην )

The phrase I was in the Spirit occurs only here and Rev 4:2 : in the Spirit , in Rev 17:3; Rev 21:10. The phrase denotes a state of trance or spiritual ecstasy. Compare Act 10:10; 2Co 12:2, 2Co 12:4. " Connection with surrounding objects through the senses is suspended, and a connection with the invisible world takes place" (Ebrard). " A divine release from the ordinary ways of men" (Plato, " Phaedrus," 265).

" You ask, 'How can we know the infinite?' I answer, not by reason. It is the office of reason to distinguish and define. The infinite, therefore, cannot be ranked among its objects. You can only apprehend the infinite by a faculty superior to reason; by entering into a state in which you are your finite self no longer; in which the divine essence is communicated to you. This is ecstacy. It is the liberation of your mind from its finite consciousness.... But this sublime condition is not of permanent duration. It is only now and then that we can enjoy this elevation (mercifully made possible for us) above the limits of the body and the world.... All that tends to purify and elevate the mind will assist you in this attainment, and facilitate the approach and the recurrence of these happy intervals. There are then different roads by which this end may be reached. The love of beauty which exalts the poet; that devotion to the One, and that ascent of science which makes the ambition of the philosopher; and that love and those prayers by which some devout and ardent soul tends in its moral purity towards perfection. These are the great highways conducting to heights above the actual and the particular, where we stand in the immediate presence of the Infinite who shines out as from the deeps of the soul" (Letter of Plotinus, about A D. 260).

Richard of St. Victor (died 1173) lays down six stages of contemplation: two in the province of the imagination, two in the province of reason, and two in the province of intelligence. The third heaven is open only to the eye of intelligence - that eye whose vision is clarified by divine grace and a holy life. In the highest degrees of contemplation penitence avails more than science; sighs obtain what is impossible to reason. Some good men have been ever unable to attain the highest stage; few are fully winged with all the six pinions of contemplation. In the ecstasy he describes, there is supposed to be a dividing asunder of the soul and the spirit as by the sword of the Spirit of God. The body sleeps, and the soul and all the visible world is shut away. The spirit is joined to the Lord, and, one with Him, transcends itself and all the limitations of human thought.

Sufism is the mystical asceticism of Mohammedanism. The ecstasy of a Sufi saint is thus described:

" My tongue clave fever-dry, my blood ran fire,

My nights were sleepless with consuming lore,

Till night and day sped past - as flies a lance

Grazing a buckler's rim; a hundred faiths

Seemed there as one; a hundred thousand years

No longer than a moment. In that hour

All past eternity and all to come

Was gathered up in one stupendous Now, -

Let understanding marvel as it may.

Where men see clouds, on the ninth heaven I gaze,

And see the throne of God. All heaven and hell

Are bare to me and all men's destinies,

The heavens and earth, they vanish at my glance:

The dead rise at my look. I tear the veil

From all the world, and in the hall of heaven

I set me central, radiant as the Sun."

Vaughan , " Hours with the Mystics ," ii ., 19

Beatrice says to Dante:

" We from the greatest body

Have issued to the heaven that is pure light;

Light intellectual replete with love,

Love of true good replete with ecstasy,

Ecstasy that transcendeth every sweetness."

Dante says:

" I perceived myself

To be uplifted over my own power,

And I with vision new rekindled me,

Such that no light whatever is so pure

But that mine eyes were fortified against it."

" Paradiso ," xxx ., 38-60 .

Again, just before the consummate beatific vision, Dante says:

" And I, who to the end of all desires

Was now approaching, even as I ought

The ardor of desire within me ended.

Bernard was beckoning unto me, and smiling,

That I should upward look; but I already

Was of my own accord such as he wished;

Because my sight, becoming purified,

Was entering more and more into the ray

Of the High Light which of itself is true.

From that time forward what I saw was greater

Than our discourse, that to such vision yields,

And yields the memory unto such excess."

" Paradiso ," xxxiii ., 46-57 .

Vincent: Rev 1:10

On the Lord's day ( ἐν κυριακῇ ἡμέρᾳ )

The phrase occurs only here in the New Testament. The first day of the week, the festival of the Lord's resurrection. Not, as some, the day of judgment, which in the New Testament is expressed by ἡ ἡμέρα τοῦ Κυρίου the day of the Lord (2Th 2:2); or ἡμέρα Κυρίου the day of the Lord , the article being omitted (2Pe 3:10); or ἡμέρα Χριστοῦ the day of Christ (Phi 2:16). The usual New Testament expression for the first day of the week is ἡ μία τῶν σαββάτων (Luk 24:1; see on Act 20:7).

Vincent: Rev 1:10

Behind me

The unexpected, overpowering entrance of the divine voice. Compare Eze 3:12.

Vincent: Rev 1:10

Of a trumpet ( σάλπιγγος )

Properly, a war trumpet.

Vincent: Rev 1:11

I am Alpha and Omega, the first and the last

Omit.

Vincent: Rev 1:11

Thou seest ( βλέπεις )

See on Joh 1:29.

Vincent: Rev 1:11

Write ( γράψον )

The aorist imperative, denoting instantaneous action. Write at once , promptly .

Vincent: Rev 1:11

In a book ( εἰς βιβλίον )

Lit., into . Commit in writing to a book. For book see on Mat 19:7; see on Mar 10:4; see on Luk 4:17. The command to write is given twelve times in Revelation.

Vincent: Rev 1:11

Seven churches

See on Rev 1:4.

Vincent: Rev 1:11

Which are in Asia

Omit.

Vincent: Rev 1:11

Ephesus, etc.

Five out of the seven cities here named appear in a passage in Tacitus' " Annals" (iv., 55), in which is described a contention among eleven of the cities of proconsular Asia for the privilege of erecting a statue and a temple to Tiberius. Laodicea is passed over as unequal in wealth and dignity to the task. Philadelphia and Thyatira do not appear. Pergamum is rejected as having already a temple to Augustus. Ephesus (with Miletus) has sufficient employment for its state in the ceremonies of its own deity, Diana. Thus the dispute was confined to Sardis and Smyrna; and Smyrna was preferred on the ground of its friendly offices to the Roman people.

Vincent: Rev 1:12

To see the voice

The voice is put for the speaker.

Vincent: Rev 1:12

That spake ( ἥτις )

The compound relative has a qualitative force: of what sort .

Vincent: Rev 1:12

With me ( μετ ' ἐμοῦ )

The preposition implies conversation and not mere address .

Vincent: Rev 1:12

Candlesticks ( λυχνίας )

See on Mat 5:15. We are at once reminded of the seven-branched candlestick of the tabernacle (Exo 25:31; Heb 9:2; compare Zec 4:2). Here there is not one candlestick with seven branches, but seven candlesticks, representing the Christian Church. The Jewish Church was one, as being the Church of a single people. The Christian Church, though essentially one, is a Church composed of many peoples. It is no longer outwardly one or in one place. According to the literal meaning of the word, lampstand , the several lampstands are bearers of the light (Mat 5:14, Mat 5:16), " holding forth the word of life" (Phi 2:15, Phi 2:16).

The epithet golden , so common in Revelation, indicates the preciousness of all that pertains to the Church of God. Trench observes that throughout the ancient East there was a sense of sacredness attached to this metal, which still, to a great extent, survives. Thus, golden in the Zend Avesta is throughout synonymous with heavenly or divine . Even so late as the time of David gold was not used as a standard of value, but merely as a very precious article of commerce, and was weighed. In the Scriptures it is the symbol of great value, duration, incorruptibility, strength (Isa 13:12; Lam 4:2; 2Ti 2:20; Job 36:19). It is used metaphorically of Christian character (Rev 3:18). In the Earthly Paradise, Dante describes trees like gold.

" A little farther on, seven trees of gold

In semblance the long space still intervening

Between ourselves and them did counterfeit."

" Purgatorio ," xxix ., 43-45

Vincent: Rev 1:13

Seven.

Omit.

Vincent: Rev 1:13

The Son of Man

The article is wanting in the Greek Rev., " a son of Man." But the reference is none the less to the Lord, and is not equivalent to a man . Compare Joh 5:27; Rev 14:14.

Vincent: Rev 1:13

A garment down to the foot ( ποδήρη )

Compare Dan 10:5. From πούς , the foot , and ἄρω , to fasten : hence that which connects head and foot. The word is properly an adjective, reaching to the foot , with χίτων garment , understood. Xenophon speaks of the heavy-armed soldiers of the Persians as bearing wooden shields reaching to their feet (ποδήρεσι ξυλίναις ἀσπίσιν ) " Anabasis," i., 8, 9). The word occurs only here in the New Testament, but several times in the Septuagint; as Eze 9:2, Eze 9:3, Eze 9:11, where the A.V. gives merely linen ; Exo 28:4, A.V., robe ; of the High-Priest's garment, Lev 16:4; of Aaron's holy linen coat.

The long robe is the garment of dignity and honor. It may be either royal, or priestly, or both. Compare Isa 6:1.

Vincent: Rev 1:13

Girt about the paps ( περιεζωσμένον πρὸς τοῖς μαστοῖς )

Rev., more correctly, " girt about at (πρὸς ) the breasts." Compare Rev 15:6. The ordinary girding was at the loins. According to Josephus, the Levitical priests were girded about the breast.

Vincent: Rev 1:13

A golden girdle

The girdle is an Old Testament symbol of power, righteousness, truth (Isa 22:21; Job 12:18; Isa 11:5). Compare Eph 6:14, where the girdle of the Christian panoply is truth , which binds together the whole array of graces as the girdle does the upper and lower parts of the armor. The girdle suits equally Christ's kingly and priestly office. The girdle of the High-Priest was not golden, but only inwrought with gold. See Exo 28:8 : " curious girdle:" Rev., " cunningly woven band." So Exo 29:5.

Vincent: Rev 1:14

White ( λευκαὶ )

See on Luk 9:29. Compare Dan 7:9.

Vincent: Rev 1:14

Wool - snow

This combination to represent whiteness occurs in Dan 7:9, and Isa 1:18. Snow , in Psa 51:7.

Vincent: Rev 1:14

Flame of fire

Compare Dan 10:6. Fire, in Scripture, is the expression of divine anger. The figure may include the thought of the clear and penetrating insight of the Son of Man; but it also expresses His indignation at the sin which His divine insight detects. Compare Rev 19:11, Rev 19:12. So Homer, of Agamemnon in a rage: " His eyes were like shining fire" (" Iliad," i., 104); also of Athene, when she appears to Achilles: " Her eyes appeared dreadful to him" (" Iliad," i., 200).

Vincent: Rev 1:15

Fine brass ( χαλκολιβάνῳ )

Rev., burnished brass. Only here and Rev 2:18. Compare Daniel 10:; Eze 1:7. The meaning of the word is uncertain. Some explain electrum , an alloy of gold and silver: others, brass of Lebanon (Αίβανος ) others, brass of the color of frankincense (λίβανος ): others again, that it is an hybrid compound of the Greek χαλκός brass, and the Hebrew laban to make white . Dean Plumptre observes: " Such technical words were likely enough to be current in a population like that of Ephesus, consisting largely of workers in metal, some of whom were no doubt Jews" (" Epistles to the Seven Churches of Asia" ).

Vincent: Rev 1:15

Many waters

Compare Eze 1:24; Eze 43:2; Isa 17:12. See also Rev 14:2; Rev 19:6.

Vincent: Rev 1:16

A sharp, two-edged sword ( ῥομφαία δίστομος ὀξεῖα )

The (Greek order is a sword , two-edged , sharp . For the peculiar word for sword see on Luk 2:35. Two-edged is, literally, two-mouthed . See on edge , Luk 21:24. Homer speaks of poles for sea-fighting, " clad on the tip (στόμα , mouth ) with brass."

Vincent: Rev 1:16

Countenance ( ὄψις )

Used by John only, and only three times: here, Joh 7:24; Joh 11:44. Not general appearance.

Vincent: Rev 1:16

Shineth ( φαίει )

See on Joh 1:5.

Vincent: Rev 1:16

In his strength

With the full power of the eastern sun at noonday.

This picture of the Son of Man suggests some remarks on the general character of such symbols in Revelation. It may be at once said that they are not of a character which tolerates the sharper definitions of pictorial art. They must be held in the mind, not as clearly-cut symbols which translate themselves into appeals to the eye and which have their exact correspondences in visible facts, but rather in their totality, and with a dominant sense of their inner correspondences with moral and spiritual ideas. To translate them into picture is inevitably to run at some point into a grotesqueness which impairs and degrades their solemnity. This is shown in Albrecht Dürer's sixteen wood-cuts illustrative of Revelation. Professor Milligan goes too far in saying that these are only grotesque. One must be always impressed with Dürer's strong individuality, " lurking" as Lord Lindsay remarks, below a mind " like a lake, stirred by every breath of wind which descends on it through the circumjacent valleys;" with the fertility of his invention, the plenitude of his thought, his simplicity and fearlessness. But his very truthfulness to nature is his enemy in his dealing with such themes as the Apocalyptic visions; investing them as it does with a realism which is foreign to their spirit and intent. Take, for example, " the four riders" (Revelation 6). The power is at once felt of the onward movement of the three horsemen with bow, sword, and balances; the intense, inexorable purpose with which they drive on over the prostrste forms at their feet; but the fourth rider, Death on the pale horse, followed by Hell, portrayed as the wide-opened jaws of a rnonster into which a crowned head is sinking, degenerates into a ghastly caricature of the most offensive German type - a harlequin, far surpassing in hideousness the traditional skeleton with seythe and hour-glass.

Similarly, the angel with his feet like pillars of fire, the one upon the sea and the other upon the earth. If we are solemnly impressed by the awful face of the angel breaking forth from the sun, the solemnity degenerates into something akin to amusement, at the feet like solid columns, ending in flame at the knees, and at the Evangelist " who kneels on a promontory with the corner of the great book presented by the angel in his mouth, apparently in danger of choking."

In short, such symbols as the Lamb with seven horns and seven eyes; the four living creatures, each with six wings, and full of eyes before and behind; the beast rising out of the sea, having ten horns and seven heads, and on the horns ten diadems, - do not lend themselves to the pencil. An illustration of the sadly grotesque effect of such an attempt may be seen in Mr. Elliott's " Horae Apocalypticae," where is a picture of the locust of chapter 9, with a gold crown on the head, hair like women's, a breastplate of iron, and a tail like a scorpion's.

Archbishop Trench very aptly draws the comparison between the modes in which the Greek and the Hebrew mind respectively dealt with symbolism. With the Greek, the aesthetic element is dominant, so that the first necessity of the symbol is that it shall satisfy the sense of beauty, form, and proportion. With the Hebrew, the first necessity is " that the symbol should set forth truly and fully the religious idea of which it is intended to be the vehicle. How it would appear when it clothed itself in an outward form and shape; whether it would find favor and allowance at the bar of taste, was quite a secondary consideration; may be confidently affirmed not to have been a consideration at all."

The imagery of Revelation is Hebrew and not Greek. It is doubtful if there is any symbol taken from heathenism, so that the symbols of Revelation are to be read from the Jewish and not from the Heathen stand-point.

But to say that these symbols jar upon the aesthetic sense is not to detract from their value as symbols, nor to decry them as violations of the fitness of things. It may be fairly asked if, with all their apparent incongruity, and even monstrousness, they may not, after all, be true to a higher canon of congruity. Certain it is that the great visible divine economy, both of nature and of man, distinctly includes the grotesque, the monstrous, the ridiculous (or what we style such). We recognize the fact in the phrase " freaks of Nature." But are they freaks? Are they incongruous? Until we shall have grasped in mind the whole kosmos , it will not be safe for us to answer that question too positively. The apparent incongruity, viewed from a higher plane, may merge into beautiful congruity. Tested by a more subtle sense; brought into connection and relation with the whole region of mental and spiritual phenomena; regarded as a factor of that larger realm which embraces ideas and spiritual verities along with external phenomena; the outwardly grotesque may resolve itself into the spiritually beautiful; the superficial incongruity into essential and profound harmony.

This possibility emerges into fact in certain utterances of our Lord, notably in His parables. Long since, the absurdity has been recognized of attempting to make a parable " go on all fours;" in other words, to insist on a hard and literal correspondence between the minutest details of the symbol and the thing symbolized. Sound exposition has advanced to a broader, freer, yet deeper and more spiritual treatment of these utterances, grasping below mere correspondences of detail to that deeper, " fundamental harmony and parallelism between the two grand spheres of cosmic being - that of Nature and that of Spirit; between the three kingdoms of Nature, History, and Revelation. The selection of symbols and parables in Scripture, therefore, is not arbitrary, but is based on an insight into the essence of things" (Milligan).

Thus then, in this picture of the Son of Man, the attempt to portray to the eye the girded figure, with snow-white hair, flaming eyes, and a sword proceeding out of His mouth, - with feet like shining brass, and holding seven stars in His hand, would result as satisfactorily as the attempt to picture the mysterious combination of eyes and wheels and wings in Ezekiel's vision. If, on the other hand, we frankly admit the impossibility of this, and relegate this symbolism to a higher region, as a delineation (imperfect through the imperfection of human speech and the inevitable power of the sensuous) of deep-lying spiritual facts, priestly and royal dignity, purity, divine insight, divine indignation at sin; if we thus bring the deeper suggestions of outward humanity and nature into relation with their true correspondents in the spiritual realm - we gain something more and deeper than a pictorial appeal to the imagination. We grasp what we cannot formulate; nevertheless we grasp it. Dropping the outward correspondence, we are the freer to penetrate to the depths of the symbolism, and reach an inner correspondence no less real and no less apprehensible.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

Properly so called; for things covered before are here revealed, or unveiled. No prophecy in the Old Testament has this title; it was reserved for this alone in the New. It is, as it were, a manifesto, wherein the Heir of all things declares that all power is given him in heaven and earth, and that he will in the end gloriously exercise that power, maugre all the opposition of all his enemies.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

Not of "John the Divine," a title added in latter ages. Certain it is, that appellation, the Divine, was not brought into the church, much less was it affixed to John the apostle, till long after the apostolic age. It was St. John, indeed, who wrote this book, but the author of it is Jesus Christ.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

According to his holy, glorified humanity, as the great Prophet of the church. God gave the Revelation to Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ made it known to his servants.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

This word recurs, Rev 22:6; and in many places the parts of this book refer to each other. Indeed the whole structure of it breathes the art of God, comprising, in the most finished compendium, things to come, many, various; near, intermediate, remote; the greatest, the least; terrible, comfortable; old, new; long, short; and these interwoven together, opposite, composite; relative to each other at a small, at a great, distance; and therefore sometimes, as it were, disappearing, broken off, suspended, and afterwards unexpectedly and most seasonably appearing again. In all its parts it has an admirable variety, with the most exact harmony, beautifully illustrated by those very digressions which seem to interrupt it. In this manner does it display the manifold wisdom of God shining in the economy of the church through so many ages.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

Much is comprehended in this appellation. It is a great thing to be a servant of Jesus Christ. This book is dedicated particularly to the servants of Christ in the seven churches in Asia; but not exclusive of all his other servants, in all nations and ages. It is one single revelation, and yet sufficient for them all, from the time it was written to the end of the world. Serve thou the Lord Jesus Christ in truth: so shalt thou learn his secret in this book; yea, and thou shalt feel in thy heart whether this book be divine, or not.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

The things contained in this prophecy did begin to be accomplished shortly after it was given; and the whole might be said to come to pass shortly, in the same sense as St. Peter says, "The end of all things is at hand;" and our Lord himself, "Behold, I come quickly." There is in this book a rich treasure of all the doctrines pertaining to faith and holiness. But these are also delivered in other parts of holy writ; so that the Revelation need not to have been given for the sake of these. The peculiar design of this is, to show the things which must come to pass. And this we are especially to have before our eyes whenever we read or hear it.

It is said afterward, "Write what thou seest;" and again, "Write what thou hast seen, and what is, and what shall be hereafter;" but here, where the scope of the hook is shown, it is only said, the things which must come to pass. Accordingly, the showing things to come, is the great point in view throughout the whole. And St. John writes what he has seen, and what is, only as it has an influence on, or gives light to, what shall be.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

Jesus Christ.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

Showed them by signs or emblems; so the Greek word properly means.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

Peculiarly called, in the sequel, "the angel of God," and particularly mentioned, Rev 17:1; Rev 21:9; Rev 22:6, Rev 22:16.

Wesley: Rev 1:1

A title given to no other single person throughout the book.

Wesley: Rev 1:2

In the following book.

Wesley: Rev 1:2

Given directly by God.

Wesley: Rev 1:2

Which he hath left us, as the faithful and true witness.

Wesley: Rev 1:2

In such a manner as was a full confirmation of the divine original of this book.

Wesley: Rev 1:3

Some have miserably handled this book. Hence others are afraid to touch it; and, while they desire to know all things else, reject only the knowledge of those which God hath shown. They inquire after anything rather than this; as if it were written, "Happy is he that doth not read this prophecy." Nay, but happy is he that readeth, and they that hear, and keep the words thereof - Especially at this time, when so considerable a part of them is on the point of being fulfilled.

Nor are helps wanting whereby any sincere and diligent inquirer may understand what he reads therein. The book itself is written in the most accurate manner possible. It distinguishes the several things whereof it treats by seven epistles, seven seals, seven trumpets, seven phials; each of which sevens is divided into four and three. Many things the book itself explains; as the seven stars; the seven candlesticks; the lamb, his seven horns and seven eyes; the incense; the dragon; the heads and horns of the beasts; the fine linen; the testimony of Jesus: and much light arises from comparing it with the ancient prophecies, and the predictions in the other books of the New Testament.

In this book our Lord has comprised what was wanting in those prophecies touching the time which followed his ascension and the end of the Jewish polity. Accordingly, it reaches from the old Jerusalem to the new, reducing all things into one sum, in the exactest order, and with a near resemblance to the ancient prophets. The introduction and conclusion agree with Daniel; the description of the man child, and the promises to Sion, with Isaiah; the judgment of Babylon, with Jeremiah; again, the determination of times, with Daniel; the architecture of the holy city, with Ezekiel; the emblems of the horses, candlesticks, &c., with Zechariah. Many things largely described by the prophets are here summarily repeated; and frequently in the same words. To them we may then usefully have recourse. Yet the Revelation suffices for the explaining itself, even if we do not yet understand those prophecies; yea, it casts much light upon them. Frequently, likewise, where there is a resemblance between them, there is a difference also; the Revelation, as it were, taking a stock from one of the old prophets, and inserting a new graft into it. Thus Zechariah speaks of two olive trees; and so does St. John; but with a different meaning. Daniel has a beast with ten horns; so has St. John; but not with quite the same signification. And here the difference of words, emblems, things, times, ought studiously to be observed. Our Lord foretold many things before his passion; but not all things; for it was not yet seasonable. Many things, likewise, his Spirit foretold in the writings of the apostles, so far as the necessities of those times required: now he comprises them all in one short book; therein presupposing all the other prophecies, and at the same time explaining, continuing, and perfecting them in one thread. It is right therefore to compare them; but not to measure the fulness of these by the scantiness of those preceding.

Christ, when on earth, foretold what would come to pass in a short time; adding a brief description of the last things. Here he foretells the intermediate things; so that both put together constitute one complete chain of prophecy. This book is therefore not only the sum and the key of all the prophecies which preceded, but likewise a supplement to all; the seals being closed before. Of consequence, it contains many particulars not revealed in any other part of scripture. They have therefore little gratitude to God for such a revelation, reserved for the exaltation of Christ, who boldly reject whatever they find here which was not revealed, or not so clearly, in other parts of scripture.

Wesley: Rev 1:3

St. John probably sent this book by a single person into Asia, who read it in the churches, while many heard. But this, likewise, in a secondary sense, refers to all that shall duly read or hear it in all ages.

Wesley: Rev 1:3

It is a revelation with regard to Christ who gives it; a prophecy, with regard to John who delivers it to the churches.

Wesley: Rev 1:3

In such a manner as the nature of them requires; namely, with repentance, faith, patience, prayer, obedience, watchfulness, constancy. It behoves every Christian, at all opportunities, to read what is written in the oracles of God; and to read this precious book in particular, frequently, reverently, and attentively.

Wesley: Rev 1:3

Of its beginning to be accomplished.

Wesley: Rev 1:3

Even when St. John wrote. How much nearer to us is even the full accomplishment of this weighty prophecy!

Wesley: Rev 1:4

The dedication of this book is contained in Rev 1:4-6; but the whole Revelation is a kind of letter.

Wesley: Rev 1:4

That part of the Lesser Asia which was then a Roman province. There had been several other churches planted here; but it seems these were now the most eminent; and it was among these that St. John had laboured most during his abode in Asia. In these cities there were many Jews. Such of them as believed in each were joined with the gentile believers in one church. Grace be unto you, and peace - The favour of God, with all temporal and eternal blessings. From him who is, and who was, and who cometh, or, who is to come - A wonderful translation of the great name JEHOVAH: he was of old, he is now, he cometh; that is, will be for ever.

Wesley: Rev 1:4

Christ is he who "hath the seven spirits of God." "The seven lamps which burn before the throne are the seven spirits of God." " The lamb hath seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God." Seven was a sacred number in the Jewish church: but it did not always imply a precise number. It sometimes is to be taken figuratively, to denote completeness or perfection. By these seven spirits, not seven created angels, but the Holy Ghost is to be understood. The angels are never termed spirits in this book; and when all the angels stand up, while the four living creatures and the four and twenty elders worship him that sitteth on the throne, and the Lamb, the seven spirits neither stand up nor worship. To these "seven spirits of God," the seven churches, to whom the Spirit speaks so many things, are subordinate; as are also their angels, yea, and "the seven angels which stand before God." He is called the seven spirits, not with regard to his essence, which is one, but with regard to his manifold operations.

Wesley: Rev 1:5

Three glorious appellations are here given him, and in their proper order. He was the faithful witness of the whole will of God before his death, and in death, and remains such in glory. He rose from the dead, as "the first fruits of them that slept;" and now hath all power both in heaven and earth. He is here styled a prince: but by and by he hears his title of king; yea, King of kings, and Lord of lords." This phrase, the kings of the earth, signifies their power and multitude, and also the nature of their kingdom. It became the Divine Majesty to call them kings with a limitation; especially in this manifesto from his heavenly kingdom; for no creature, much less a sinful man, can bear the title of king in an absolute sense before the eyes of God.

Wesley: Rev 1:6

Partakers of his present, and heirs of his eternal, kingdom.

Wesley: Rev 1:6

To whom we continually offer ourselves, an holy, living sacrifice.

Wesley: Rev 1:6

For his love and redemption.

Wesley: Rev 1:6

Whereby he governs all things.

Wesley: Rev 1:7

In this and the next verse is the proposition, and the summary of the whole book.

Wesley: Rev 1:7

Jesus Christ. Throughout this book, whenever it is said, He cometh, it means his glorious coming. The preparation for this began at the destruction of Jerusalem, and more particularly at the time of writing this book; and goes on, without any interruption, till that grand event is accomplished. Therefore it is never said in this book, He will come; but, He cometh. And yet it is not said, He cometh again: for when he came before, it was not like himself, but in "the form of a servant." But his appearing in glory is properly his coming; namely, in a manner worthy of the Son of God.

Wesley: Rev 1:7

Of the Jews in particular.

Wesley: Rev 1:7

But with what different emotions, according as they had received or rejected him.

Wesley: Rev 1:7

They, above all, who pierced his hands, or feet, or side. Thomas saw the print of these wounds even after his resurrection; and the same, undoubtedly, will be seen by all, when he cometh in the clouds of heaven.

Wesley: Rev 1:7

The word tribes, in the Revelation, always means the Israelites: but where another word, such as nations or people, is joined with it, it implies likewise (as here) all the rest of mankind.

Wesley: Rev 1:7

For terror and pain, if they did not wail before by true repentance. Yea, Amen - This refers to, every eye shall see him. He that cometh saith, Yea; he that testifies it, Amen. The word translated yea is Greek; Amen is Hebrew: for what is here spoken respects both Jew and gentile.

Wesley: Rev 1:8

Alpha is the first, Omega, the last, letter in the Greek alphabet. Let his enemies boast and rage ever so much in the intermediate time, yet the Lord God is both the Alpha, or beginning, and the Omega, or end, of all things. God is the beginning, as he is the Author and Creator of all things, and as he proposes, declares, and promises so great things: he is the end, as he brings all the things which are here revealed to a complete and glorious conclusion. Again, the beginning and end of a thing is in scripture styled the whole thing. Therefore God is the Alpha and the Omega, the beginning and the end; that is, one who is all things, and always the same.

Wesley: Rev 1:9

The instruction and preparation of the apostle for the work are described from Rev 1:9-20.

Wesley: Rev 1:9

In the common faith.

Wesley: Rev 1:9

For the same persecution which carried him to Patmos drove them into Asia. This book peculiarly belongs to those who are under the cross. It was given to a banished man; and men in affliction understand and relish it most. Accordingly, it was little esteemed by the Asiatic church, after the time of Constantine; but highly valued by all the African churches, as it has been since by all the persecuted children of God. In the affliction, and kingdom and patience of Jesus - The kingdom stands in the midst. It is chiefly under various afflictions that faith obtains its part in the kingdom; and whosoever is a partaker of this kingdom is not afraid to suffer for Jesus, 2Ti 2:12.

Wesley: Rev 1:9

In the reign of Domitian and of Nerva. And there he saw and wrote all that follows. It was a place peculiarly proper for these visions. He had over against him, at a small distance, Asia and the seven churches; going on eastward, Jerusalem and the land of Canaan; and beyond this, Antioch, yea, the whole continent of Asia. To the west, he had Rome, Italy, and all Europe, swimming, as it were, in the sea; to the south, Alexandria and the Nile with its outlets, Egypt, and all Africa; and to the north, what was afterwards called Constantinople, on the straits between Europe and Asia. So he had all the three parts of the world which were then known, with all Christendom, as it were, before his eyes; a large theatre for all the various scenes which were to pass before him: as if this island had been made principally for this end, to serve as an observatory for the apostle. For preaching the word of God he was banished thither, and for the testimony of Jesus - For testifying that he is the Christ.

Wesley: Rev 1:10

That is, in a trance, a prophetic vision; so overwhelmed with the power, and filled with the light, of the Holy Spirit, as to be insensible of outward things, and wholly taken up with spiritual and divine. What follows is one single, connected vision, which St. John saw in one day; and therefore he that would understand it should carry his thought straight on through the whole, without interruption. The other prophetic books are collections of distinct prophecies, given upon various occasions: but here is one single treatise, whereof all the parts exactly depend on each other. Rev 4:1 is connected with Rev 1:19 and what is delivered in the fourth chapter goes on directly to the twenty - second.

Wesley: Rev 1:10

On this our Lord rose from the dead: on this the ancients believed he will come to judgment. It was, therefore, with the utmost propriety that St. John on this day both saw and described his coming.

Wesley: Rev 1:10

St. John had his face to the east: our Lord, likewise, in this appearance looked eastward toward Asia, whither the apostle was to write. A great voice, as of a trumpet - Which was peculiarly proper to proclaim the coming of the great King, and his victory over all his enemies.

Wesley: Rev 1:11

And hearest. He both saw and heard. This command extends to the whole book. All the books of the New Testament were written by the will of God; but none were so expressly commanded to be written.

Wesley: Rev 1:11

So all the Revelation is but one book: nor did the letter to the angel of each church belong to him or his church only; but the whole book was sent to them all.

Wesley: Rev 1:11

Hereafter named; and through them to all churches, in all ages and nations.

Wesley: Rev 1:11

Mr. Thomas Smith, who in the year 1671 travelled through all these cities, observes, that from Ephesus to Smyrna is forty - six English miles; from Smyrna to Pergamos, sixty - four; from Pergamos to Thyatira, forty - eight; from Thyatira to Sardis, thirty - three; from Sardis to Philadelphia, twenty - seven; from Philadelphia to Laodicea, about forty - two miles.

Wesley: Rev 1:12-13

That is, to see him whose voice it was. And being turned, I saw - It seems, the vision presented itself gradually. First he heard a voice; and, upon looking behind, he saw the golden candlesticks, and then, in the midst of the candlesticks, which were placed in a circle, he saw one like a son of man - That is, in an human form. As a man likewise our Lord doubtless appears in heaven: though not exactly in this symbolical manner, wherein he presents himself as the head of his church. He next observed that our Lord was clothed with a garment down to the foot, and girt with a golden girdle - Such the Jewish high priests wore. But both of them are here marks of royal dignity likewise.

Wesley: Rev 1:12-13

he that is on a journey girds his loins. Girding the breast was an emblem of solemn rest. It seems that the apostle having seen all this, looked up to behold the face of our Lord: but was beat back by the appearance of his flaming eyes, which occasioned his more particularly observing his feet. Receiving strength to raise his eyes again, he saw the stars in his right hand, and the sword coming out of his mouth: but upon beholding the brightness of his glorious countenance, which probably was much increased since the first glance the apostle had of it, he "fell at his feet as dead." During the time that St. John was discovering these several particulars, our Lord seems to have been speaking. And doubtless even his voice, at the very first, bespoke the God: though not so insupportably as his glorious appearance.

Wesley: Rev 1:12-13

That is, to see him whose voice it was. And being turned, I saw - It seems, the vision presented itself gradually. First he heard a voice; and, upon looking behind, he saw the golden candlesticks, and then, in the midst of the candlesticks, which were placed in a circle, he saw one like a son of man - That is, in an human form. As a man likewise our Lord doubtless appears in heaven: though not exactly in this symbolical manner, wherein he presents himself as the head of his church. He next observed that our Lord was clothed with a garment down to the foot, and girt with a golden girdle - Such the Jewish high priests wore. But both of them are here marks of royal dignity likewise.

Wesley: Rev 1:12-13

he that is on a journey girds his loins. Girding the breast was an emblem of solemn rest. It seems that the apostle having seen all this, looked up to behold the face of our Lord: but was beat back by the appearance of his flaming eyes, which occasioned his more particularly observing his feet. Receiving strength to raise his eyes again, he saw the stars in his right hand, and the sword coming out of his mouth: but upon beholding the brightness of his glorious countenance, which probably was much increased since the first glance the apostle had of it, he "fell at his feet as dead." During the time that St. John was discovering these several particulars, our Lord seems to have been speaking. And doubtless even his voice, at the very first, bespoke the God: though not so insupportably as his glorious appearance.

Wesley: Rev 1:14

That is, the hair of his head, not his whole head.

Wesley: Rev 1:14

Like the Ancient of Days, represented in Daniel's vision, Dan 7:9. Wool is commonly supposed to be an emblem of eternity.

Wesley: Rev 1:14

Betokening his spotless purity.

Wesley: Rev 1:14

Piercing through all things; a token of his omniscience.

Wesley: Rev 1:15

Denoting his stability and strength.

Wesley: Rev 1:15

As if having been melted and refined, they were still red hot.

Wesley: Rev 1:15

To the comfort of his friends, and the terror of his enemies.

Wesley: Rev 1:15

Roaring aloud, and bearing down all before them.

Wesley: Rev 1:16

In token of his favour and powerful protection.

Wesley: Rev 1:16

edged sword - Signifying his justice and righteous anger, continually pointed against his enemies as a sword; sharp, to stab; two - edged, to hew.

Wesley: Rev 1:16

Without any mist or cloud.

JFB: Rev 1:1

An apocalypse or unveiling of those things which had been veiled. A manifesto of the kingdom of Christ. The travelling manual of the Church for the Gentile Christian times. Not a detailed history of the future, but a representation of the great epochs and chief powers in developing the kingdom of God in relation to the world. The "Church-historical" view goes counter to the great principle that Scripture interprets itself. Revelation is to teach us to understand the times, not the times to interpret to us the Apocalypse, although it is in the nature of the case that a reflex influence is exerted here and is understood by the prudent [AUBERLEN]. The book is in a series of parallel groups, not in chronological succession. Still there is an organic historical development of the kingdom of God. In this book all the other books of the Bible end and meet: in it is the consummation of all previous prophecy. Daniel foretells as to Christ and the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, and the last Antichrist. But John's Revelation fills up the intermediate period, and describes the millennium and final state beyond Antichrist. Daniel, as a godly statesman, views the history of God's people in relation to the four world kingdoms. John, as an apostle, views history from the Christian Church aspect. The term Apocalypse is applied to no Old Testament book. Daniel is the nearest approach to it; but what Daniel was told to seal and shut up till the time of the end, John, now that the time is at hand (Rev 1:3), is directed to reveal.

JFB: Rev 1:1

Coming from Him. Jesus Christ, not John the writer, is the Author of the Apocalypse. Christ taught many things before His departure; but those which were unsuitable for announcement at that time He brought together into the Apocalypse [BENGEL]. Compare His promise, Joh 15:15, "All things that I have heard of My Father, I have made known unto you"; also, Joh 16:13, "The Spirit of truth will show you things to come." The Gospels and Acts are the books, respectively, of His first advent, in the flesh, and in the Spirit; the Epistles are the inspired comment on them. The Apocalypse is the book of His second advent and the events preliminary to it.

JFB: Rev 1:1

The Father reveals Himself and His will in, and by, His Son.

JFB: Rev 1:1

The word recurs in Rev 22:6 : so entirely have the parts of Revelation reference to one another. It is its peculiar excellence that it comprises in a perfect compendium future things, and these widely differing: things close at hand, far off, and between the two; great and little; destroying and saving; repeated from old prophecies and new; long and short, and these interwoven with one another, opposed and mutually agreeing; mutually involving and evolving one another; so that in no book more than in this would the addition, or taking away, of a single word or clause (Rev 22:18-19), have the effect of marring the sense of the context and the comparison of passages together [BENGEL].

JFB: Rev 1:1

Not merely to "His servant John," but to all His servants (compare Rev 22:3).

JFB: Rev 1:1

Greek, "speedily"; literally, "in," or "with speed." Compare "the time is at hand," Rev 1:3; Rev 22:6, "shortly"; Rev 22:7, "Behold, I come quickly." Not that the things prophesied were according to man's computation near; but this word "shortly" implies a corrective of our estimate of worldly events and periods. Though a "thousand years" (Rev 20:1-15) at least are included, the time is declared to be at hand. Luk 18:8, "speedily." The Israelite Church hastened eagerly to the predicted end, which premature eagerness prophecy restrains (compare Dan. 9:1-27). The Gentile Church needs to be reminded of the transitoriness of the world (which it is apt to make its home) and the nearness of Christ's advent. On the one hand Revelation says, "the time is at hand"; on the other, the succession of seals, &c., show that many intermediate events must first elapse.

JFB: Rev 1:1

Jesus Christ sent.

JFB: Rev 1:1

Joined with "sent." The angel does not come forward to "signify" things to John until Rev 17:1; Rev 19:9-10. Previous to that John receives information from others. Jesus Christ opens the Revelation, Rev 1:10-11; Rev 4:1; in Rev 6:1 one of the four living creatures acts as his informant; in Rev 7:13, one of the elders; in Rev 10:8-9, the Lord and His angel who stood on the sea and earth. Only at the end (Rev 17:1) does the one angel stand by Him (compare Dan 8:16; Dan 9:21; Zec 1:19).

JFB: Rev 1:2

"testified the word of God" in this book. Where we would say "testifies," the ancients in epistolary communications use the past tense. The word of God constitutes his testimony; Rev 1:3, "the words of this prophecy."

JFB: Rev 1:2

"the Spirit of prophecy" (Rev 19:10).

JFB: Rev 1:2

The oldest manuscripts omit "and." Translate, "whatsoever things he saw," in apposition with "the word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ."

JFB: Rev 1:3

Namely, the public reader in Church assemblies, and his hearers. In the first instance, he by whom John sent the book from Patmos to the seven churches, read it publicly: a usage most scriptural and profitable. A special blessing attends him who reads or hears the apocalyptic "prophecy" with a view to keeping the things therein (as there is but one article to "they that hear and keep those things," not two classes, but only one is meant: "they who not only hear, but also keep those things," Rom 2:13); even though he find not the key to its interpretation, he finds a stimulus to faith, hope, and patient waiting for Christ. Note: the term "prophecy" has relation to the human medium or prophet inspired, here John: "Revelation" to the Divine Being who reveals His will, here Jesus Christ. God gave the revelation to Jesus: He by His angel revealed it to John, who was to make it known to the Church.

JFB: Rev 1:4

The apostle. For none but he (supposing the writer an honest man) would thus sign himself nakedly without addition. As sole survivor and representative of the apostles and eye-witnesses of the Lord, he needed no designation save his name, to be recognized by his readers.

JFB: Rev 1:4

Not that there were not more churches in that region, but the number seven is fixed on as representing totality. These seven represent the universal Church of all times and places. See TRENCH'S [Commentary on the Epistles to the Seven Churches in Asia] interesting note, Rev 1:20, on the number seven. It is the covenant number, the sign of God's covenant relation to mankind, and especially to the Church. Thus, the seventh day, sabbath (Gen 2:3; Eze 20:12). Circumcision, the sign of the covenant, after seven days (Gen 17:12). Sacrifices (Num 23:1; Num 14:29; 2Ch 29:21). Compare also God's acts typical of His covenant (Jos 6:4, Jos 6:15-16; 2Ki 5:10). The feasts ordered by sevens of time (Deu 15:1; Deu 16:9, Deu 16:13, Deu 16:15). It is a combination of three, the divine number (thus the Trinity: the thrice Holy, Isa 6:3; the blessing, Num 6:24-26), and four the number of the organized world in its extension (thus the four elements, the four seasons, the four winds, the four corners or quarters of the earth, the four living creatures, emblems of redeemed creaturely life, Rev 4:6; Eze 1:5-6, with four faces and four wings each; the four beasts and four metals, representing the four world empires, Dan 2:32-33; Dan 7:3; the four-sided Gospel designed for all quarters of the world; the sheet tied at four corners, Act 10:11; the four horns, the sum of the world's forces against the Church, Zec 1:18). In the Apocalypse, where God's covenant with His Church comes to its consummation, appropriately the number seven recurs still more frequently than elsewhere in Scripture.

JFB: Rev 1:4

Proconsular, governed by a Roman proconsul: consisting of Phrygia, Mysia, Caria, and Lydia: the kingdom which Attalus III had bequeathed to Rome.

JFB: Rev 1:4

Paul's apostolical greeting. In his Pastoral Epistles he inserts "mercy" in addition: so 2Jo 1:3.

JFB: Rev 1:4

A periphrasis for the incommunicable name JEHOVAH, the self-existing One, unchangeable. In Greek the indeclinability of the designation here implies His unchangeableness. Perhaps the reason why "He which is to come" is used, instead of "He that shall be," is because the grand theme of Revelation is the Lord's coming (Rev 1:7). Still it is THE FATHER as distinguished from "Jesus Christ" (Rev 1:5) who is here meant. But so one are the Father and Son that the designation, "which is to come," more immediately applicable to Christ, is used here of the Father.

JFB: Rev 1:4

The oldest manuscripts omit "are."

JFB: Rev 1:4

Literally, "in the presence of." The Holy Spirit in His sevenfold (that is, perfect, complete, and universal) energy. Corresponding to "the seven churches." One in His own essence, manifold in His gracious influences. The seven eyes resting on the stone laid by Jehovah (Rev 5:6). Four is the number of the creature world (compare the fourfold cherubim); seven the number of God's revelation in the world.

JFB: Rev 1:5

Of the truth concerning Himself and His mission as Prophet, Priest, and King Saviour. "He was the faithful witness, because all things that He heard of the Father He faithfully made known to His disciples. Also, because He taught the way of God in truth, and cared not for man, nor regarded the persons of men. Also, because the truth which He taught in words He confirmed by miracles. Also, because the testimony to Himself on the part of the Father He denied not even in death. Lastly, because He will give true testimony of the works of good and bad at the day of judgment" [RICHARD OF ST. VICTOR in TRENCH]. The nominative in Greek standing in apposition to the genitive, "Jesus Christ," gives majestic prominence to "the faithful witness."

JFB: Rev 1:5

(Col 1:18). Lazarus rose, to die again. Christ rose to die no more. The image is not as if the grave was the womb of His resurrection-birth [ALFORD]; but as Act 13:33; Rom 1:4, treat Christ's resurrection as the epoch and event which fulfilled the Scripture, Psa 2:7, "This day (at the resurrection) have I begotten Thee." It was then that His divine Sonship as the God-man was manifested and openly attested by the Father. So our resurrection and our manifested sonship, or generation, are connected. Hence "regeneration" is used of the resurrection-state at the restitution of all things (Mat 19:28).

JFB: Rev 1:5

Or Ruler. The kingship of the world which the tempter offered to Jesus on condition of doing homage to him, and so shunning the cross, He has obtained by the cross. "The kings of the earth" conspired against the Lord's Anointed (Psa 2:2): these He shall break in pieces (Psa 2:9). Those who are wise in time and kiss the Son shall bring their glory unto Him at His manifestation as King of kings, after He has destroyed His foes.

JFB: Rev 1:5

The oldest manuscripts read the present, ". . . loveth us." It is His ever-continuing character, He loveth us, and ever shall love us. His love rests evermore on His people.

JFB: Rev 1:5

The two oldest manuscripts read, "freed (loosed as from a bond) us": so ANDREAS and PRIMASIUS. One very old manuscript, Vulgate, and Coptic read as English Version, perhaps drawn from Rev 7:4. "Loosed us in (virtue of) His blood," being the harder reading to understand, is less likely to have come from the transcribers. The reference is thus to Greek, "lutron," the ransom paid for our release (Mat 20:28). In favor of English Version reading is the usage whereby the priests, before putting on the holy garments and ministering, washed themselves: so spiritually believers, as priests unto God, must first be washed in Christ's blood from every stain before they can serve God aright now, or hereafter minister as dispensers of blessing to the subject nations in the millennial kingdom, or minister before God in heaven.

JFB: Rev 1:6

Rather as Greek, "And (He) hath."

JFB: Rev 1:6

The oldest manuscripts read, "a kingdom." One oldest manuscript reads the dative, "for us." Another reads "us," accusative: so Vulgate, Syriac, Coptic, and ANDREAS. This seems preferable, "He made us (to be) a kingdom." So Exo 19:6, "a kingdom of priests"; 1Pe 2:9, "a royal priesthood." The saints shall constitute peculiarly a kingdom of God, and shall themselves be kings (Rev 5:10). They shall share His King-Priest throne in the millennial kingdom. The emphasis thus falls more on the kingdom than on priests: whereas in English Version reading it is equally distributed between both. This book lays prominent stress on the saints' kingdom. They are kings because they are priests: the priesthood is the continuous ground and legitimization of their kingship; they are kings in relation to man, priests in relation to God, serving Him day and night in His temple (Rev 7:15; Rev 5:10). The priest-kings shall rule, not in an external mechanical manner, but simply in virtue of what they are, by the power of attraction and conviction overcoming the heart [AUBERLEN].

JFB: Rev 1:6

Who have pre-eminently the privilege of near access to the king. David's sons were priests (Hebrew), 2Sa 8:18. The distinction of priests and people, nearer and more remote from God, shall cease; all shall have nearest access to Him. All persons and things shall be holy to the Lord.

JFB: Rev 1:6

There is but one article to both in the Greek, therefore it means, "Unto Him who is at once God and His Father."

JFB: Rev 1:6

Greek, "the glory and the might." The fuller threefold doxology occurs, Rev 4:9, Rev 4:11; fourfold, Rev 5:13; Jud 1:25; sevenfold, Rev 7:12; 1Ch 29:11. Doxology occupies the prominent place above, which prayer does below. If we thought of God's glory first (as in the Lord's Prayer), and gave the secondary place to our needs, we should please God and gain our petitions better than we do.

JFB: Rev 1:6

Greek, "unto the ages."

JFB: Rev 1:7

Greek, "the clouds," namely, of heaven. "A cloud received Him out of their sight" at His ascension (Act 1:9). His ascension corresponds to the manner of His coming again (Act 1:11). Clouds are the symbols of wrath to sinners.

JFB: Rev 1:7

His coming shall therefore be a personal, visible appearing.

JFB: Rev 1:7

It is because they do not now see Him, they will not believe. Contrast Joh 20:29.

JFB: Rev 1:7

They in particular; "whosoever." Primarily, at His pre-millennial advent the Jews, who shall "look upon Him whom they have pierced," and mourn in repentance, and say, "Blessed is He that cometh in the name of the Lord." Secondarily, and here chiefly, at the general judgment all the ungodly, not only those who actually pierced Him, but those who did so by their sins, shall look with trembling upon Him. John is the only one of the Evangelists who records the piercing of Christ's side. This allusion identifies him as the author of the Apocalypse. The reality of Christ's humanity and His death is proved by His having been pierced; and the water and blood from His side were the antitype to the Levitical waters of cleansing and blood offerings.

JFB: Rev 1:7

All the unconverted at the general judgment; and especially at His pre-millennial advent, the Antichristian confederacy (Zec 12:3-6, Zec 12:9; Zec 14:1-4; Mat 24:30). Greek, "all the tribes of the land," or "the earth." See the limitation to "all," Rev 13:8. Even the godly while rejoicing in His love shall feel penitential sorrow at their sins, which shall all be manifested at the general judgment.

JFB: Rev 1:7

Greek, "at," or "in regard to Him."

JFB: Rev 1:7

Gods seal of His own word; to which corresponds the believer's prayer, Rev 22:20. The "even so" is Greek; "Amen" is Hebrew. To both Gentiles and Jews His promises and threats are unchangeable.

JFB: Rev 1:8

Greek, "I am the Alpha and the Omega." The first and last letters of the alphabet. God in Christ comprises all that goes between, as well as the first and last.

JFB: Rev 1:8

Omitted in the oldest manuscripts, though found in Vulgate and Coptic. Transcribers probably inserted the clause from Rev 21:6. In Christ, Genesis, the Alpha of the Old Testament, and Revelation, the Omega of the New Testament, meet together: the last book presenting to us man and God reconciled in Paradise, as the first book presented man at the beginning innocent and in God's favor in Paradise. Accomplishing finally what I begin. Always the same; before the dragon, the beast, false prophet, and all foes. An anticipatory consolation to the saints under the coming trials of the Church.

JFB: Rev 1:8

The oldest manuscripts read "the Lord God."

JFB: Rev 1:8

Hebrew, "Shaddai," and "Jehovah Sabaoth," that is, "of hosts"; commanding all the hosts or powers in heaven and earth, so able to overcome all His Church's foes. It occurs often in Revelation, but nowhere else in the New Testament save 2Co 6:18, a quotation from Isaiah.

JFB: Rev 1:9

So "I Daniel" (Dan 7:28; Dan 9:2; Dan 10:2). One of the many features of resemblance between the Old Testament and the New Testament apocalyptic seers. No other Scripture writer uses the phrase.

JFB: Rev 1:9

As well as being an apostle. The oldest manuscripts omit "also." In his Gospel and Epistles he makes no mention of his name, though describing himself as "the disciple whom Jesus loved." Here, with similar humility, though naming himself, he does not mention his apostleship.

JFB: Rev 1:9

Greek, "fellow partaker in the tribulation." Tribulation is the necessary precursor of the kingdom," therefore "the" is prefixed. This must be borne with "patient endurance." The oldest manuscripts omit "in the" before "kingdom." All three are inseparable: the tribulation, kingdom and endurance.

JFB: Rev 1:9

Translate, "endurance." "Persevering, enduring continuance" (Act 14:22); "the queen of the graces (virtues)" [CHRYSOSTOM].

JFB: Rev 1:9

The oldest manuscripts read "IN Jesus," or "Jesus Christ." It is IN Him that believers have the right to the kingdom, and the spiritual strength to enable them to endure patiently for it.

JFB: Rev 1:9

Greek, "came to be."

JFB: Rev 1:9

Now Patmo or Palmosa. See Introduction on this island, and John's exile to it under Domitian, from which he was released under Nerva. Restricted to a small spot on earth, he is permitted to penetrate the wide realms of heaven and its secrets. Thus John drank of Christ's cup, and was baptized with His baptism (Mat 20:22).

JFB: Rev 1:9

Greek, "for the sake of," "on account of"; so, "because of the word of God and . . . testimony." Two oldest manuscripts omit the second "for"; thus "the Word of God" and "testimony of Jesus" are the more closely joined. Two oldest manuscripts omit "Christ." The Apocalypse has been always appreciated most by the Church in adversity. Thus the Asiatic Church from the flourishing times of Constantine less estimated it. The African Church being more exposed to the cross always made much of it [BENGEL].

JFB: Rev 1:10

Greek, "I came to be"; "I became."

JFB: Rev 1:10

In a state of ecstasy; the outer world being shut out, and the inner and higher life or spirit being taken full possession of by God's Spirit, so that an immediate connection with the invisible world is established. While the prophet "speaks" in the Spirit, the apocalyptic seer is in the Spirit in his whole person. The spirit only (that which connects us with God and the invisible world) is active, or rather recipient, in the apocalyptic state. With Christ this being "in the Spirit" was not the exception, but His continual state.

JFB: Rev 1:10

Though forcibly detained from Church communion with the brethren in the sanctuary on the Lord's day, the weekly commemoration of the resurrection, John was holding spiritual communion with them. This is the earliest mention of the term, "the Lord's day." But the consecration of the day to worship, almsgiving, and the Lord's Supper, is implied in Act 20:7; 1Co 16:2; compare Joh 20:19-26. The name corresponds to "the Lord's Supper," 1Co 11:20. IGNATIUS seems to allude to "the Lord's day" [Epistle to the Magnesians, 9], and IRENÆUS [Quæst ad Orthod., 115] (in JUSTIN MARTYR). JUSTIN MARTYR [Apology, 2.98], &c., "On Sunday we all hold our joint meeting; for the first day is that on which God, having removed darkness and chaos, made the world, and Jesus Christ our Saviour rose from the dead. On the day before Saturday they crucified Him; and on the day after Saturday, which is Sunday, having appeared to His apostles and disciples, He taught these things." To the Lord's day PLINY doubtless refers [Epistles, Book X., p. 97], "The Christians on a fixed day before dawn meet and sing a hymn to Christ as God," &c. TERTULLIAN [The Chaplet, 3], "On the Lord's day we deem it wrong to fast." MELITO, bishop of Sardis (second century), wrote a book on the Lord's day [EUSEBIUS 4.26]. Also, DIONYSIUS OF CORINTH, in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 4.23,8]. CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA [Miscellanies, 5. and 7.12]; ORIGEN [Against Celsus, 8. 22]. The theory that the day of Christ's second coming is meant, is untenable. "The day of the Lord" is different in the Greek from "the Lord's (an adjective) day," which latter in the ancient Church always designates our Sunday, though it is not impossible that the two shall coincide (at least in some parts of the earth), whence a tradition is mentioned in JEROME [Commentary on Matthew, 25], that the Lord's coming was expected especially on the Paschal Lord's day. The visions of the Apocalypse, the seals, trumpets, and vials, &c., are grouped in sevens, and naturally begin on the first day of the seven, the birthday of the Church, whose future they set forth [WORDSWORTH].

JFB: Rev 1:10

Summoning solemn attention; Greek order, "I heard a voice behind me great (loud) as (that) of a trumpet." The trumpet summoned to religious feasts, and accompanies God's revelations of Himself.

JFB: Rev 1:11

The oldest manuscripts, omit all this clause.

JFB: Rev 1:11

To this book, having such an origin, and to the other books of Holy Scripture, who is there that gives the weight which their importance demands, preferring them to the many books of the world? [BENGEL].

JFB: Rev 1:11

As there were many other churches in Proconsular Asia (for example, Miletus, Magnesia, Tralles), besides the seven specified, doubtless the number seven is fixed upon because of its mystical signification, expressing totality and universality. The words, "which are in Asia" are rejected by the oldest manuscripts, A, B, C, CYPRIAN, Vulgate, and Syriac; Coptic alone supports them of old authorities. These seven are representative churches; and, as a complex whole, ideally complete, embody the chief spiritual characteristics of the Church, whether as faithful or unfaithful, in all ages. The churches selected are not taken at random, but have a many-sided completeness. Thus, on one side we have Smyrna, a Church exposed to persecutions unto death; on the other Sardis, having a high name for spiritual life and yet dead. Again, Laodicea, in its own estimate rich and having need of nothing, with ample talents, yet lukewarm in Christ's cause; on the other hand, Philadelphia, with but a little strength, yet keeping Christ's word and having an open door of usefulness set before it by Christ Himself. Again, Ephesus, intolerant of evil and of false apostles, yet having left its first love; on the other hand, Thyatira, abounding in works, love, service, and faith, yet suffering the false prophetess to seduce many. In another aspect, Ephesus in conflict with false freedom, that is fleshly licentiousness (the Nicolaitanes); so also Pergamos in conflict with Balaam-like tempters to fornication and idol-meats; and on the other side, Philadelphia in conflict with the Jewish synagogue, that is, legal bondage. Finally, Sardis and Laodicea without any active opposition to call forth their spiritual energies; a dangerous position, considering man's natural indolence. In the historic scheme of interpretation, which seems fanciful, Ephesus (meaning "the beloved" or "desired" [STIER]) represents the waning period of the apostolic age. Smyrna ("myrrh"), bitter suffering, yet sweet and costly perfume, the martyr period of the Decian and Diocletian age. Pergamos (a "castle" or "tower"), the Church possessing earthly power and decreasing spirituality from Constantine's time until the seventh century. Thyatira ("unwearied about sacrifices"), the Papal Church in the first half of the Middle Ages; like "Jezebel," keen about its so-called sacrifice of the mass, and slaying the prophets and witnesses of God. Sardis, from the close of the twelfth century to the Reformation. Philadelphia ("brotherly love"), the first century of the Reformation. Laodicea, the Reformed Church after its first zeal had become lukewarm.

JFB: Rev 1:12

That is, ascertain whence the voice came; to see who was it from whom the voice proceeded.

JFB: Rev 1:12

Greek, "of what kind it was which." The voice is that of God the Father, as at Christ's baptism and transfiguration, so here in presenting Christ as our High Priest.

JFB: Rev 1:12

The oldest manuscripts, versions, and Fathers read, "was speaking."

JFB: Rev 1:12

"having turned."

JFB: Rev 1:12

"lamp-stands" [KELLY]. The stand holding the lamp. In Exo 25:31-32, the seven are united in ONE candlestick or lamp-stand, that is, six arms and a central shaft; so Zec 4:2, Zec 4:11. Here the seven are separate candlesticks, typifying, as that one, the entire Church, but now no longer as the Jewish Church (represented by the one sevenfold candlestick) restricted to one outward unity and one place; the several churches are mutually independent as to external ceremonies and government (provided all things are done to edification, and schisms or needless separations are avoided), yet one in the unity of the Spirit and the Headship of Christ. The candlestick is not light, but the bearer of light, holding it forth to give light around. The light is the Lord's, not the Church's; from Him she receives it. She is to be a light-bearer to His glory. The candlestick stood in the holy place, the type of the Church on earth, as the holiest place was type of the Church in heaven. The holy place's only light was derived from the candlestick, daylight being excluded; so the Lord God is the Church's only light; hers is the light of grace, not nature. "Golden" symbolizes at once the greatest preciousness and sacredness; so that in the Zend Avesta, "golden" is synonymous with heavenly or divine [TRENCH].

JFB: Rev 1:13

His glorified form as man could be recognized by John, who had seen it at the Transfiguration.

JFB: Rev 1:13

Implying Christ's continual presence and ceaseless activity in the midst of His people on earth. In Rev 4:1-3, when He appears in heaven, His insignia undergo a corresponding change yet even there the rainbow reminds us of His everlasting covenant with them.

JFB: Rev 1:13

Omitted in two of the oldest manuscripts, but supported by one.

JFB: Rev 1:13

The form which John had seen enduring the agony of Gethsemane, and the shame and anguish of Calvary, he now sees glorified. His glory (as Son of man, not merely Son of God) is the result of His humiliation as Son of man.

JFB: Rev 1:13

A mark of high rank. The garment and girdle seem to be emblems of His priesthood. Compare Exo 28:2, Exo 28:4, Exo 28:31; Septuagint. Aaron's robe and girdle were "for glory and beauty," and combined the insignia of royalty and priesthood, the characteristics of Christ's antitypical priesthood "after the order of Melchisedec." His being in the midst of the candlesticks (only seen in the temple), shows that it is as a king-priest He is so attired. This priesthood He has exercised ever since His ascension; and, therefore He here wears its emblems. As Aaron wore these insignia when He came forth from the sanctuary to bless the people (Lev 16:4, Lev 16:23-24, the chetoneth, or holy linen coat), so when Christ shall come again, He shall appear in the similar attire of "beauty and glory" (Isa 4:2, Margin). The angels are attired somewhat like their Lord (Rev 15:6). The ordinary girding for one actively engaged, was at the loins; but JOSEPHUS [Antiquities,3.7.2], expressly tells us that the Levitical priests were girt higher up, about the breasts or paps, appropriate to calm, majestic movement. The girdle bracing the frame together, symbolizes collected powers. Righteousness and faithfulness are Christ's girdle. The high priest's girdle was only interwoven with gold, but Christ's is all of gold; the antitype exceeds the type.

JFB: Rev 1:14

Greek, "But," or "And."

JFB: Rev 1:14

Greek, "like white wool." The color is the point of comparison; signifying purity and glory. (So in Isa 1:18). Not age, for hoary hairs are the sign of decay.

JFB: Rev 1:14

All-searching and penetrating like fire: at the same time, also, implying consuming indignation against sin, especially at His coming "in flaming fire, taking vengeance" on all the ungodly, which is confirmed as the meaning here, by Rev 19:11-12.

JFB: Rev 1:15

Greek, "chalcolibanus," derived by some from two Greek words, "brass" and "frankincense"; derived by BOCHART from Greek, "chalcos," "brass," and Hebrew, "libbeen," "to whiten"; hence, "brass," which in the furnace has reached a white heat. Thus it answers to "burnished (flashing, or glowing) brass," Eze 1:7; Rev 10:1, "His feet as pillars of fire." Translate, "Glowing brass, as if they had been made fiery (red-hot) in a furnace." The feet of the priests were bare in ministering in the sanctuary. So our great High Priest here.

JFB: Rev 1:15

(Eze 43:2); in Dan 10:6, it is "like the voice of a multitude." As the Bridegroom's voice, so the bride's, Rev 14:2; Rev 19:6; Eze 1:24, the cherubim, or redeemed creation. His voice, however, is here regarded in its terribleness to His foes. Contrast Son 2:8; Son 5:2, with which compare Rev 3:20.

JFB: Rev 1:16

Greek, "having." John takes up the description from time to time, irrespective of the construction, with separate strokes of the pencil [ALFORD].

JFB: Rev 1:16

(Rev 1:20; Rev 2:1; Rev 3:1). He holds them as a star-studded "crown of glory," or "royal diadem," in His hand: so Isa 62:3. He is their Possessor and Upholder.

JFB: Rev 1:16

Greek, "going forth"; not wielded in the hand. His WORD is omnipotent in executing His will in punishing sinners. It is the sword of His Spirit. Reproof and punishment, rather than its converting winning power, is the prominent point. Still, as He encourages the churches, as well as threatens, the former quality of the Word is not excluded. Its two edges (back and front) may allude to its double efficacy, condemning some, converting others. TERTULLIAN [Epistle against Judaizers], takes them of the Old and the New Testaments. RICHARD OF ST. VICTOR, "the Old Testament cutting externally our carnal, the New Testament internally, our spiritual sins."

JFB: Rev 1:16

Greek, "romphaia," the Thracian long and heavy broad sword: six times in Revelation, once only elsewhere in New Testament, namely, Luk 2:35.

JFB: Rev 1:16

In unclouded power. So shall the righteous shine, reflecting the image of the Sun of righteousness. TRENCH notices that this description, sublime as a purely mental conception, would be intolerable if we were to give it an outward form. With the Greeks, æsthecial taste was the first consideration, to which all others must give way. With the Hebrews, truth and the full representation ideally of the religious reality were the paramount consideration, that representation being designed not to be outwardly embodied, but to remain a purely mental conception. This exalting of the essence above the form marks their deeper religious earnestness.

Clarke: Rev 1:1

The Revelation of Jesus Christ - The word Αποκαλυψις, from which we have our word Apocalypse, signifies literally, a revelation, or discovery of what was concealed or hidden. It is here said that this revelation, or discovery of hidden things, was given by God to Jesus Christ; that Christ gave it to his angel; that this angel showed it to John; and that John sent it to the Churches. Thus we find it came from God to Christ, from Christ to the angel, from the angel to John, and from John to the Church. It is properly, therefore, the Revelation of God, sent by these various agents to his servants at large; and this is the proper title of the book

Clarke: Rev 1:1

Things which must shortly come to pass - On the mode of interpretation devised by Wetstein, this is plain; for if the book were written before the destruction of Jerusalem, and the prophecies in it relate to that destruction, and the civil wars among the Romans, which lasted but three or four years, then it might be said the Revelation is of things which must shortly come to pass. But if we consider the book as referring to the state of the Church in all ages, the words here, and those in Rev 1:3, must be understood of the commencement of the events predicted; as if he had said: In a short time the train of these visions will be put in motion: -

- et incipient magni procedere menses

"And those times, pregnant with the most stupendous events, will begin to roll on."

Clarke: Rev 1:2

Who bare record of the word of God - Is there a reference here to the first chapter of John’ s gospel, In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, etc.? Of this Word John did bear record. Or, does the writer mean the fidelity with which he noted and related the word - doctrines or prophecies, which he received at this time by revelation from God? This seems more consistent with the latter part of the verse.

Clarke: Rev 1:3

Blessed is he that readeth - This is to be understood of the happiness or security of the persons who, reading and hearing the prophecies of those things which were to come to pass shortly, took proper measures to escape from the impending evils

Clarke: Rev 1:3

The time is at hand - Either in which they shall be all fulfilled, or begin to be fulfilled. See the note on Rev 1:1

These three verses contain the introduction; now the dedication to the seven Churches commences.

Clarke: Rev 1:4

John to the seven Churches - The apostle begins this much in the manner of the Jewish prophets. They often name themselves in the messages which they receive from God to deliver to the people; e.g. "The vision of Isaiah, the son of Amoz, which he saw concerning Judah and Jerusalem.""The words of Jeremiah, the son of Hilkiah; to whom the word of the Lord came.""The word of the Lord came expressly unto Ezekiel, the priest.""The word of the Lord that came unto Hosea, the son of Beeri.""The word of the Lord that came to Joel.""The words of Amos, who was among the herdsmen of Tekoa.""The vision of Obadiah; thus saith the Lord.""The word of the Lord came unto Jonah."So, "The revelation of Jesus Christ, which he sent and signified to his servant John.""John to the seven Churches,"etc

The Asia here mentioned was what is called Asia Minor, or the Lydian or Proconsular Asia; the seven Churches were those of Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. Of these as they occur. We are not to suppose that they were the only Christian Churches then in Asia Minor; there were several others then in Phrygia, Pamphylia, Galatia, Pontus, Cappadocia, etc., etc. But these seven were those which lay nearest to the apostle, and were more particularly under his care; though the message was sent to the Churches in general, and perhaps it concerns the whole Christian world. But the number seven may be used here as the number of perfection; as the Hebrews use the seven names of the heavens, the seven names of the earth, the seven patriarchs, seven suns, seven kinds, seven years, seven months, seven days, etc., etc.; in which the rabbins find a great variety of mysteries

Clarke: Rev 1:4

Grace be unto you - This form of apostolical benediction we have often seen in the preceding epistles

Clarke: Rev 1:4

From him which is, and which was, and which is to come - This phraseology is purely Jewish, and probably taken from the Tetragrammaton, יהוה Yehovah ; which is supposed to include in itself all time, past, present, and future. But they often use the phrase of which the ὁ ων, και ὁ ην, και ὁ ερχομενος, of the apostle, is a literal translation. So, in Sohar Chadash, fol. 7, 1: "Rabbi Jose said, By the name Tetragrammaton, (i.e. יהוה, Yehovah ), the higher and lower regions, the heavens, the earth, and all they contain, were perfected; and they are all before him reputed as nothing; והוא היה והוא הוה והוא יהיה vehu hayah , vehu hoveh , vehu yihyeh ; and He Was, and He Is, and He Will Be. So, in Shemoth Rabba, sec. 3, fol. 105, 2: "The holy blessed God said to Moses, tell them: - אני שהייתי ואני הוא עכשיו ואני הוא לעתיד לבוא ani shehayithi , veani hu achshaiu , veani hu laathid labo ; I Was, I Now Am, and I Will Be in Future."In Chasad Shimuel, Rab. Samuel ben David asks: "Why are we commanded to use three hours of prayer? Answer: These hours point out the holy blessed God; שהוא היה הוה ויהיה shehu hayah , hoveh , veyihyeh ; he who Was, who Is, and who Shall Be. The Morning prayer points out him who Was before the foundation of the world; the Noonday prayer points out him who Is; and the Evening prayer points out him who Is to Come."This phraseology is exceedingly appropriate, and strongly expresses the eternity of God; for we have no other idea of time than as past, or now existing, or yet to exist; nor have we any idea of eternity but as that duration called by some aeternitas a parte ante , the eternity that was before time, and aeternitas a parte post , the endless duration that shall be when time is no more. That which Was, is the eternity before time; that which Is, is time itself; and that which Is to Come, is the eternity which shall be when time is no more

Clarke: Rev 1:4

The seven Spirits - before his throne - The ancient Jews, who represented the throne of God as the throne of an eastern monarch, supposed that there were seven ministering angels before this throne, as there were seven ministers attendant on the throne of a Persian monarch. We have an ample proof of this, Tobit 12:15: I am Raphael, one of the Seven Holy Angels which present the prayers of the saints, and which go in and out before the glory of the Holy One. And in Jonathan ben Uzziel’ s Targum, on Gen 11:7 : God said to the Seven Angels which stand before him, Come now, etc

In Pirkey Eliezer, iv. and vii: "The angels which were first created minister before him without the veil."Sometimes they represent them as seven cohorts or troops of angels, under whom are thirty inferior orders

That seven Angels are here meant, and not the Holy Spirit, is most evident from the place, the number, and the tradition. Those who imagine the Holy Ghost to be intended suppose the number seven is used to denote his manifold gifts and graces. That these seven spirits are angels, see Rev 3:1; Rev 4:5; and particularly Rev 5:6, where they are called the seven spirits of God Sent Forth into All the Earth.

Clarke: Rev 1:5

The faithful witness - The true teacher, whose testimony is infallible, and whose sayings must all come to pass

Clarke: Rev 1:5

The first-begotten of the dead - See the note on Col 1:18

Clarke: Rev 1:5

The prince of the kings - Ὁ αρχων, The chief or head, of all earthly potentates; who has them all under his dominion and control, and can dispose of them as he will

Clarke: Rev 1:5

Unto him that loved us - This should begin a new verse, as it is the commencement of a new subject. Our salvation is attributed to the love of God, who gave his Son; and to the love of Christ, who died for us. See Joh 3:16

Clarke: Rev 1:5

Washed us from our sins - The redemption of the soul, with the remission of sins, and purification from unrighteousness, is here, as in all the New Testament, attributed to the blood of Christ shed on the cross for man.

Clarke: Rev 1:6

Kings and priests - See on 1Pe 2:5 (note), 1Pe 2:9 (note). But instead of βασιλεις και ἱερεις, kings and priests the most reputable MSS., versions, and fathers have βασιλειαν ἱερεις, a kingdom and priests; i.e. a kingdom of priests, or a royal priesthood. The regal and sacerdotal dignities are the two highest that can possibly exist among men; and these two are here mentioned to show the glorious prerogatives and state of the children of God

Clarke: Rev 1:6

To him be glory - That is, to Christ; for it is of him that the prophet speaks, and of none other

Clarke: Rev 1:6

For ever and ever - Εις τους αιωνας των αιωνων· To ages of ages; or rather, through all indefinite periods; through all time, and through eternity

Clarke: Rev 1:6

Amen - A word of affirmation and approbation; so it shall be, and so it ought to be.

Clarke: Rev 1:7

Behold, he cometh with clouds - This relates to his coming to execute judgment on the enemies of his religion; perhaps to his coming to destroy Jerusalem, as he was to be particularly manifested to them that pierced him, which must mean the incredulous and rebellious Jews

Clarke: Rev 1:7

And all kindreds of the earth - Πασαι αἱ φυλαι της γης· All the tribes of the land. By this the Jewish people are most evidently intended, and therefore the whole verse may be understood as predicting the destruction of the Jews; and is a presumptive proof that the Apocalypse was written before the final overthrow of the Jewish state

Clarke: Rev 1:7

Even so, Amen - Ναι, αμην· Yea, Amen. It is true, so be it. Our Lord will come and execute judgment on the Jews and Gentiles. This the Jews and Romans particularly felt.

Clarke: Rev 1:8

I am Alpha and Omega - I am from eternity to eternity. This mode of speech is borrowed from the Jews, who express the whole compass of things by א aleph and ת tau , the first and last letters of the Hebrew alphabet; but as St. John was writing in Greek, he accommodates the whole to the Greek alphabet, of which Α alpha and Ω omega are the first and last letters. With the rabbins מא ועד ת meeleph vead tau , "from aleph to tau,"expressed the whole of a matter, from the beginning to the end. So in Yalcut Rubeni, fol. 17, 4: Adam transgressed the whole law from aleph to tau; i.e., from the beginning to the end

Ibid., fol. 48, 4: Abraham observed the law, from aleph to tau; i.e., he kept it entirely, from beginning to end

Ibid., fol. 128, 3: When the holy blessed God pronounced a blessing on the Israelites, he did it from aleph to tau; i.e., he did it perfectly

Clarke: Rev 1:8

The beginning and the ending - That is, as aleph or alpha is the beginning of the alphabet, so am I the author and cause of all things; as tau or omega is the end or last letter of the alphabet, so am I the end of all thinks, the destroyer as well as the establisher of all things. This clause is wanting in almost every MS. and version of importance. It appears to have been added first as an explanatory note, and in process of time crept into the text. Griesbach has left it out of the text. It is worthy of remark, that as the union of א aleph and ת tau in Hebrew make את eth , which the rabbins interpret of the first matter out of which all things were formed, (see on Gen 1:1 (note)); so the union of Α alpha and Ω omega, in Greek, makes the verb αω, I breathe, and may very properly, in such a symbolical book, point out Him in whom we live, and move, and have our being; for, having formed man out of the dust of the earth, he breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and he became a living soul; and it is by the inspiration or inbreathing of his Spirit that the souls of men are quickened, made alive from the dead, and fitted for life eternal. He adds also that he is the Almighty, the all-powerful framer of the universe, and the inspirer of men.

Clarke: Rev 1:9

Your brother - A Christian, begotten of God, and incorporated in the heavenly family

Clarke: Rev 1:9

Companion in tribulation - Suffering under the persecution in which you also suffer

Clarke: Rev 1:9

In the kingdom - For we are a kingdom of priests unto God

Clarke: Rev 1:9

And patience of Jesus - Meekly bearing all indignities, privations, and sufferings, for the sake and after the example of our Lord and Master

Clarke: Rev 1:9

The isle that is called Patmos - This island is one of the Sporades, and lies in the Aegean Sea, between the island of Icaria, and the promontory of Miletus. It is now called Pactino, Patmol, or Palmosa. It has derived all its celebrity from being the place to which St. John was banished by one of the Roman emperors; whether Domitian, Claudius, or Nero, is not agreed on, but it was most probably the latter. The island has a convent on a well fortified hill, dedicated to John the apostle; the inhabitants are said to amount to about three hundred men, and about twenty women to one man. It is very barren, producing very little grain, but abounding in partridges, quails, turtles, pigeons, snipes, and rabbits. It has many good harbours, and is much infested by pirates. Patmos, its capital and chief harbour, lies in east Long. 26° 24’, north Lat. 37° 24’ . The whole island is about thirty miles in circumference

Clarke: Rev 1:9

For the testimony of Jesus Christ - For preaching Christianity, and converting heathens to the Lord Jesus.

Clarke: Rev 1:10

I was in the Spirit - That is, I received the Spirit of prophecy, and was under its influence when the first vision was exhibited

Clarke: Rev 1:10

The Lord’ s day - The first day of the week, observed as the Christian Sabbath, because on it Jesus Christ rose from the dead; therefore it was called the Lord’ s day, and has taken place of the Jewish Sabbath throughout the Christian world

Clarke: Rev 1:10

And heard behind me a great voice - This voice came unexpectedly and suddenly. He felt himself under the Divine afflatus; but did not know what scenes were to be represented

Clarke: Rev 1:10

As of a trumpet - This was calculated to call in every wandering thought, to fix his attention, and solemnize his whole frame. Thus God prepared Moses to receive the law. See Exo 19:16, Exo 19:19, etc.

Clarke: Rev 1:11

I am Alpha and Omega, the first and the last: and - This whole clause is wanting in ABC, thirty-one others; some editions; the Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, Armenian, Slavonic, Vulgate, Arethas, Andreas, and Primasius. Griesbach has left it out of the text

Clarke: Rev 1:11

Saying - What thou seest, write in a book - Carefully note down every thing that is represented to thee. John had the visions from heaven; but he described them in his own language and manner

Clarke: Rev 1:11

Send it unto the seven Churches - The names of which immediately follow. In Asia. This is wanting in the principal MSS. and versions. Griesbach has left it out of the text

Clarke: Rev 1:11

Ephesus - This was a city of Ionia, in Asia Minor, situated at the mouth of the river Cayster, on the shore of the Aegean Sea, about fifty miles south of Smyrna. See preface to the Epistle to the Ephesians

Clarke: Rev 1:11

Smyrna - Now called also Ismir, is the largest and richest city of Asia Minor. It is situated about one hundred and eighty-three miles west by south of Constantinople, on the shore of the Aegean Sea. It is supposed to contain about one hundred and forty thousand inhabitants, of whom there are from fifteen to twenty thousand Greeks, six thousand Armenians, five thousand Roman Catholics, one hundred and forty Protestants, eleven thousand Jews, and fifteen thousand Turks. It is a beautiful city, but often ravaged by the plague, and seldom two years together free from earthquakes. In 1758 the city was nearly desolated by the plague; scarcely a sufficient number of the inhabitants survived to gather in the fruits of the earth. In 1688 there was a terrible earthquake here, which overthrew a great number of houses; in one of the shocks, the rock on which the castle stood opened, swallowed up the castle and five thousand persons! On these accounts, nothing but the love of gain, so natural to man, could induce any person to make it his residence; though, in other respects, it can boast of many advantages. In this city the Turks have nineteen mosques; the Greeks, two churches; the Armenians, one; and the Jews, eight synagogues; and the English and Dutch factories have each a chaplain. Smyrna is one hundred miles north of the island of Rhodes, long. 27° 25’ E., lat. 38° 28’ N

Clarke: Rev 1:11

Pergamos - A town of Mysia, situated on the river Caicus. It was the royal residence of Eumenes, and the kings of the race of the Attali. It was anciently famous for its library, which contained, according to Plutarch, two hundred thousand volumes. It was here that the membranae Pergameniae , Pergamenian skins, were invented; from which we derive our word parchment. Pergamos was the birthplace of Galen; and in it P. Scipio died. It is now called Pergamo and Bergamo, and is situated in long. 27° 0’ E., lat. 39° 13’ N

Clarke: Rev 1:11

Thyatira - Now called Akissat and Ak-kissar, a city of Natolia, in Asia Minor, seated on the river Hermus, in a plain eighteen miles broad, and is about fifty miles from Pergamos; long. 27° 49’ E., lat. 38° 16’ N. The houses are chiefly built of earth, but the mosques are all of marble. Many remarkable ancient inscriptions have been discovered in this place

Clarke: Rev 1:11

Sardis - Now called Sardo and Sart, a town of Asia, in Natolia, about forty miles east from Smyrna. It is seated on the side of mount Tmolus, and was once the capital of the Lydian kings, and here Croesus reigned. It is now a poor, inconsiderable village. Long. 28° 5’ E., lat. 37° 51’ N

Clarke: Rev 1:11

Philadelphia - A city of Natolia, seated at the foot of mount Tmolus, by the river Cogamus. It was founded by Attalus Philadelphus, brother of Eumenes, from whom it derived its name. It is now called Alah-sheker, and is about forty miles ESE. of Smyrna. Long. 28° 15’ E., lat. 38° 28’ N

Clarke: Rev 1:11

Laodicea - A town of Phrygia, on the river Lycus; first called Diospolis, or the city of Jupiter. It was built by Antiochus Theos, and named after his consort Laodice. See the note on Col 2:1. And, for a very recent account of these seven Churches, see a letter from the Rev. Henry Lindsay, inserted at the end of Revelation 3.

Clarke: Rev 1:12

Seven golden candlesticks - Ἑπτα λυχνιας χρυσας· Seven golden lamps. It is absurd to say, a golden silver, or brazen candlestick. These seven lamps represented the seven Churches, in which the light of God was continually shining, and the love of God continually burning. And they are here represented as golden, to show how precious they were in the sight of God. This is a reference to the temple at Jerusalem, where there was a candlestick or chandelier of seven branches; or rather six branches; three springing out on either side, and one in the center. See Exo 25:31-37. This reference to the temple seems to intimate that the temple of Jerusalem was a type of the whole Christian Church.

Clarke: Rev 1:13

Like unto the Son of man - This seems a reference to Dan 7:13. This was our blessed Lord himself, Rev 1:18

Clarke: Rev 1:13

Clothed with a garment down to the foot - This is a description of the high priest, in his sacerdotal robes. See these described at large in the notes on Exo 28:4, etc., Jesus is our high priest, even in heaven. He is still discharging the sacerdotal functions before the throne of God

Clarke: Rev 1:13

Golden girdle - The emblem both of regal and sacerdotal dignity.

Clarke: Rev 1:14

His head and his hairs were white like wool - This was not only an emblem of his antiquity, but it was the evidence of his glory; for the whiteness or splendor of his head and hair doubtless proceeded from the rays of light and glory which encircled his head, and darted from it in all directions. The splendor around the head was termed by the Romans nimbus, and by us a glory; and was represented round the heads of gods, deified persons, and saints. It is used in the same way through almost all the nations of the earth

Clarke: Rev 1:14

His eyes were as a flame of fire - To denote his omniscience, and the all-penetrating nature of the Divine knowledge.

Clarke: Rev 1:15

His feet like unto fine brass - An emblem of his stability and permanence, brass being considered the most durable of all metallic substances or compounds

The original word, χαλκολιβανον, means the famous aurichalcum , or factitious metal, which, according to Suidas, was ειδος ηλεκτρου, τιμιωτερον χρυσου, "a kind of amber, more precious than gold."It seems to have been a composition of gold, silver, and brass, and the same with the Corinthian brass, so highly famed and valued; for when Lucius Mummius took and burnt the city of Corinth, many statues of these three metals, being melted, had run together, and formed the composition already mentioned, and which was held in as high estimation as gold. See Pliny, Hist. Nat., lib. 34, c. 2; Florus, lib. 2, c. 16. It may however mean no more than copper melted with lapis calaminaris, which converts it into brass; and the flame that proceeds from the metal during this operation is one of the most intensely and unsufferably vivid that can be imagined. I have often seen several furnaces employed in this operation, and the flames bursting up through the earth (for these furnaces are under ground) always called to remembrance this description given by St. John: His feet of fine brass, as if they burned in a furnace; the propriety and accuracy of which none could doubt, and every one must feel who has viewed this most dazzling operation

Clarke: Rev 1:15

His voice as the sound of many waters - The same description we find in Eze 43:2 : The glory of the God of Israel came from the way of the east; and his voice was like the noise of many waters: and the earth shined with his glory.

Clarke: Rev 1:16

In his right hand seven stars - The stars are afterwards interpreted as representing the seven angels, messengers, or bishops of the seven Churches. Their being in the right hand of Christ shows that they are under his special care and most powerful protection. See below

Clarke: Rev 1:16

Out of his mouth went a sharp two-edged sword - This is no doubt intended to point out the judgments about to be pronounced by Christ against the rebellious Jews and persecuting Romans; God’ s judgments were just now going to fall upon both. The sharp two-edged sword may represent the word of God in general, according to that saying of the apostle, Heb 4:12 : The word of God is quick and powerful, sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing even to the dividing asunder of soul and spirit, etc. And the word of God is termed the sword of the Spirit, Eph 6:17

Clarke: Rev 1:16

And his countenance was as the sun shineth in his strength - His face was like the disk of the sun in the brightest summer’ s day, when there were no clouds to abate the splendor of his rays. A similar form of expression is found in Jdg 5:31 : Let them that love him be as the sun when he Goeth Forth in His Might. And a similar description may be found, Midrash in Yalcut Simeoni, part I., fol. 55, 4: "When Moses and Aaron came and stood before Pharaoh, they appeared like the ministering angels; and their stature, like the cedars of Lebanon: - וגלגלי עיניהם דומים לגלגלי חמה vegalgilley eyneyhem domim legalgilley chammah , and the pupils of their eyes were like the wheels of the sun; and their beards were as the grape of the palm trees; וזיו פניהם כזיו חמה veziv peneyhem keziv chammah , and the Splendor of Their Faces was as the Splendor of the Sun."

Defender: Rev 1:1

The last book of the Bible gets its name from this first word (Greek apokalupsis), which means literally an "unveiling" of something previously concealed. The same word is translated "the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ" (1Co 1:7), "the appearing of Jesus Christ" (1Pe 1:7), and "the Lord Jesus shall be revealed from heaven" (2Th 1:7). This book is not about certain things Christ has revealed. Rather, it is about the revelation - the unveiling, the appearing - of Christ Himself.

Defender: Rev 1:1

"Shortly" (Greek en tachei) means literally "in speed." It can be understood in either of two ways, or both: (1) the coming of Christ is always imminent; (2) when He does come, the events described in this book will all take place in a short period of time.

Defender: Rev 1:1

Although some writers take this word to mean that the book is composed largely of "signs," or symbols, it is always used in the New Testament in the sense of "indicated." It is related to the Greek word for "sign;" however, "sign"; as used in the New Testament, means "miracle," not merely a symbol of something else. Its use here possibly suggests that these events which are about to come to pass, are being revealed to John in a special, miraculous way.

Defender: Rev 1:1

Note that the message was mediated to John not by Christ Himself but by a certain designated angel (compare Rev 22:6-9).

Defender: Rev 1:1

The writer claims a number of times to be John, obviously the same John who was the beloved disciple and who wrote the Gospel of John and the three Epistles of John. The vocabulary and general perspective of the five books, as well as uniform tradition, all agree on this."

Defender: Rev 1:2

The Book of Revelation is John's record of what he saw and heard taking place in the future. John uses the same, or related, Greek word (all derived from martios) frequently in the book of Revelation, as well as in his other writings. In Revelation, it is translated "witness" four times, "testimony" or "testify" nine times, and "martyr" twice."

Defender: Rev 1:3

This is the only book of the Bible where blessing is promised to all who either read it or hear it read. This fact indicates that its meaning and message are clear. A book that could not be understood could hardly be a blessing to anybody."

Defender: Rev 1:4

This is the first occurrence of the number seven in Revelation. The word (Greek hepta) occurs fifty-four times in this book, more than in all the rest of the New Testament combined. The reason for its pervasive use in Revelation is undoubtedly to emphasize that this book completes God's written revelation to man. Ever since God completed His creation of the world in six days and rested on the seventh, "seven" has been regarded in general as indicating fullness or completion.

Defender: Rev 1:4

These churches were seven real local churches, but they represent all churches with their various merits and problems. Christ's messages to them surely are also directed to all churches of all times and all places. It is significant that the Apostle Paul also wrote inspired messages to seven different local churches - the churches at Rome, Corinth, Galatia, Ephesus, Philippi, Colosse and Thessalonica. The church at Ephesus was included in both sets of epistles. This church was founded by Paul, then eventually ministered to by John.

Defender: Rev 1:4

The message of grace and peace is sent through John by the three that bear witness in heaven (1Jo 5:7).

Defender: Rev 1:4

The seven spirits are not seven angels at the throne. If they were angels, the text would say so. Since they join with the Father and Christ in sending the message, they must be one with God and should be recognized as the sevenfold Holy Spirit. This sevenfold nature of the Spirit presumably speaks of His ministry in the whole world (Joh 16:8; 2Ch 16:9). There is also a possible reference to Isa 11:2, which speaks of "the spirit of the Lord" resting on the coming Messiah. He is then called "the spirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit of counsel and might, the spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the Lord.""

Defender: Rev 1:5

Jesus Christ is anointed Prophet, Priest and King. As the "faithful witness," or "martyr," He shed His blood for our sins. As "the firstborn from the dead" (Col 1:18), He is our great "high priest for ever after the order of Melchizedec" (Heb 6:20). As the prince of earthly kings, He is also "Lord of lords, and King of kings" (Rev 17:14)."

Defender: Rev 1:7

See Mat 24:30.

Defender: Rev 1:7

John had actually seen Jesus "pierced" on the cross. He recalled the great prophecy of Zec 12:10, which almost five hundred years in advance of its fulfillment, amazingly revealed that God's chosen people would not only reject their Messiah when He came, but would even pierce Him to death."

Defender: Rev 1:8

These are the first words spoken to John by the Lord on this great occasion. Alpha and Omega are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, the Lord thereby claiming that He embodies all language and, in fact, all reality. A more definitive claim to absolute deity could hardly be imagined."

Defender: Rev 1:9

Patmos is a small, barren, rocky island in the Aegean Sea off the southwest coast of modern Turkey. It more or less faces the city of Ephesus where John had been serving as pastor/bishop of the church until the cruel Emperor Domitian had him banished because of his Christian testimony."

Defender: Rev 1:10

"The Lord's Day" most likely refers to the first day of the week, our modern Sunday. Christian congregations evidently had been worshipping on the first day of the week for many years by this time (Act 20:7; 1Co 16:2), presumably because they had been excluded from any influence in the synagogue worship on the last day of the week.

Furthermore, it would be appropriate to call such a day "the Lord's Day," in view of Christ's victory over death on that day. The grammatical construction does not warrant it to be interpreted as "the day of the Lord" (compare 1Th 5:2; 2Pe 3:10). It means, rather, "the day belonging to the Lord"; the only similar construction in the New Testament is in 1Co 11:20, describing the Lord's supper. John was first was called to address existing situations in the seven churches. He was not translated to the future "day of the Lord" until the events of the fourth and following chapters. Although there is considerable disagreement on this point among commentators, the evidence favors the "Sunday" interpretation here, even though no other record of this identification has been found in early church documents prior to about a.d. 200. This is merely an argument from silence; however, it seems reasonable that John's use of the term here set the precedent for its eventual adoption in other churches."

Defender: Rev 1:11

Here is John's explicit authorization for what we now know as the Book of Revelation.

Defender: Rev 1:11

These seven churches, all in southwest Asia Minor, are enumerated in clockwise order beginning with the one nearest John, his own church at Ephesus on the coast, the capital of the province of Asia."

Defender: Rev 1:13

Jesus is always "in the midst" of His church, even when only "two or three are gathered together in my name" (Mat 18:20).

Defender: Rev 1:13

Compare Exo 25:31. The candlesticks here represent His churches, which "shine as lights in the world" (Phi 2:15).

Defender: Rev 1:13

Both Christ and His saints are always arrayed appropriately (Rev 19:8, Rev 19:14)."

Defender: Rev 1:14

This is the only record we have in Scripture of the physical appearance of Christ. The Gospel writers give much information about His words and deeds, but not His appearance while here on earth. Thus He can be identified not as of any particular race or stature, but merely as the Son of Man, representing all men before His Father. Compare the description here to that in Dan 7:9, where He is called "the Ancient of days.""

TSK: Rev 1:1

Revelation : Dan 2:28, Dan 2:29; Amo 3:7; Rom 16:25; Gal 1:12; Eph 3:3

which God : Joh 3:32, Joh 8:26, Joh 12:49

to show : Rev 22:6; Psa 25:14; Joh 15:15

which must : Rev 1:3, Rev 1:19, Rev 4:1, Rev 22:10, 2Pe 3:8

and he : Rev 22:6, Rev 22:16; Dan 8:16, Dan 9:21, Dan 9:23

John : Rev 1:4, Rev 1:9, Rev 21:2

TSK: Rev 1:2

bare : Rev 1:9, Rev 6:9, Rev 12:11, Rev 12:17; Joh 1:32, Joh 12:17, Joh 19:35, Joh 21:24; 1Co 1:6, 1Co 2:1; 1Jo 5:7-11; 3Jo 1:12

and of all : Rev 1:19; Joh 3:11; Act 4:20, Act 22:15, Act 26:16; 1Jo 1:1, 1Jo 4:14

TSK: Rev 1:3

Blessed : Rev 22:7; Pro 8:34; Dan 12:12, Dan 12:13; Luk 11:28

for : Rev 22:6, Rev 22:10,Rev 22:12, Rev 22:20; Rom 13:11; Jam 5:8, Jam 5:9; 1Pe 4:7; 2Pe 3:8

TSK: Rev 1:4

John : Rev 1:1

to the : Rev 1:11, Rev 1:20, Rev 2:1, Rev 2:8, Rev 2:12, Rev 2:18, Rev 3:1, Rev 3:7, Rev 3:14; Act 19:10; 1Pe 1:1

Grace : Rom 1:7; 1Co 1:3; 2Co 1:2; 1Pe 1:2

him : Rev 1:8; Exo 3:14; Psa 90:2, Psa 102:25-27; Isa 41:4, Isa 57:15; Mic 5:2; Joh 1:1; Heb 1:10-13, Heb 13:8; Jam 1:17

from the : Rev 3:1, Rev 4:5, Rev 5:6; Zec 3:9, Zec 4:10, Zec 6:5; 1Co 12:4-13

TSK: Rev 1:5

who is : Rev 3:14; Psa 89:36, Psa 89:37; Isa 55:4; Joh 3:11, Joh 3:32, Joh 8:14-16, Joh 18:37; 1Ti 6:13; 1Jo 5:7-10

and the first : Act 26:23; 1Co 15:20-23; Col 1:18

and the prince : Rev 11:15, Rev 17:14, Rev 19:16; Psa 72:11, Psa 89:27; Pro 8:15, Pro 8:16; Dan 2:2, Dan 7:14; Mat 28:18; Eph 1:20-22; 1Ti 6:15

him : Deu 7:8, Deu 23:5; Joh 13:1, Joh 13:34, Joh 15:9; Rom 8:37; Gal 2:20; Eph 2:4, Eph 5:2, Eph 5:25-27; 1Jo 4:10

washed : Rev 7:14; Zec 13:1; Joh 13:8-10; Act 20:28; 1Co 6:11; Heb 9:14; 1Pe 1:19; 1Jo 1:7

TSK: Rev 1:6

made : Rev 5:10, Rev 20:6; Exo 19:6; Isa 61:6; Rom 12:1; 1Pe 2:5-9

to him : Rev 4:11, Rev 5:12-14; Psa 72:18, Psa 72:19; Dan 4:34; Mat 6:13; Joh 5:23; Phi 2:11; 1Ti 6:16; Heb 13:21; 1Pe 4:11, 1Pe 5:11; 2Pe 3:18; Jud 1:25

TSK: Rev 1:7

he cometh : Rev 14:14-16; Psa 97:2; Isa 19:1; Dan 7:13; Nah 1:3; Mat 24:30, Mat 26:64; Mar 13:26, Mar 14:62; Luk 21:27; Act 1:9-11; 1Th 4:17

and every : Rev 22:4; Num 24:17; Job 19:26, Job 19:27, Job 33:26; 1Th 1:10; 1Jo 3:2; Jud 1:14

and they : Psa 22:16; Zec 12:10; Joh 19:34, Joh 19:37; Heb 6:6, Heb 10:29

and all : Rev 6:15-17, Rev 18:15-19; Mat 24:30; Luk 23:28-30

Even So : Rev 18:20, Rev 19:1-3, Rev 22:20; Jdg 5:31; Psa 68:1

TSK: Rev 1:8

Alpha : Rev 1:11, Rev 1:17, Rev 2:8, Rev 21:6, Rev 22:13; Isa 41:4, Isa 43:10, Isa 44:6, Isa 48:12

which is : Rev 1:4

the Almighty : Rev 4:8, Rev 11:17, Rev 16:14, Rev 19:15, Rev 21:22; Gen 17:1, Gen 28:3, Gen 35:11, Gen 43:14, Gen 48:3; Gen 49:25; Exo 6:3; Num 24:4; Isa 9:6; 2Co 6:18

TSK: Rev 1:9

John : Rev 1:4

companion : Rev 2:9, Rev 2:10, Rev 7:14; Joh 16:33; Act 14:22; Rom 8:17; 1Co 4:9-13; Phi 1:7, Phi 4:14; 2Ti 1:8, 2Ti 2:3-12

in the : Rev 3:10, Rev 13:10, Rev 14:12; Rom 2:7, Rom 2:8, Rom 5:3, Rom 5:4, Rom 8:25; 2Th 1:4, 2Th 1:5, 2Th 3:5; Heb 10:36; Jam 5:7, Jam 5:8

for the word : Rev 1:2, Rev 6:9, Rev 11:7, Rev 12:11, Rev 12:17, Rev 19:10

TSK: Rev 1:10

in : Rev 4:2, Rev 17:3, Rev 21:10; Mat 22:43; Acts 10:10-33; 2Co 12:2-4

on the : Joh 20:19, Joh 20:26; Act 20:7; 1Co 16:2

as : Rev 4:1, Rev 10:3-8

TSK: Rev 1:11

I am : Rev 1:8, Rev 1:17

What : Rev 1:19, Rev 2:1, Rev 10:4, Rev 14:13, Rev 19:9, Rev 21:5; Deu 31:19; Isa 30:8; Jer 30:2; Hab 2:2

seven : Rev 1:4, Rev 2:1, Rev 2:8, Rev 2:12, Rev 2:18, Rev 3:1, Rev 3:7, Rev 3:14

Ephesus : Act 18:19-21, Act 18:24, 19:1-41, Act 20:17; 1Co 15:32, 1Co 16:8; Eph 1:1; 1Ti 1:3

Laodicea : Col 4:15, Col 4:16

TSK: Rev 1:12

see : Eze 43:5, Eze 43:6; Mic 6:9

I saw : Rev 1:13, Rev 1:20, Rev 2:1; Exo 25:37; Zec 4:2

TSK: Rev 1:13

like : Rev 14:14; Eze 1:26-28; Dan 7:9, Dan 7:13, Dan 10:5, Dan 10:6, Dan 10:16; Phi 2:7, Phi 2:8; Heb 2:14-17; Heb 4:15

clothed : Dan 10:5

and girt : Rev 15:6; Exo 28:6-8, Exo 39:5; Lev 8:7; Isa 11:5

TSK: Rev 1:14

and his hairs : Dan 7:9; Mat 28:3

and his eyes : Rev 2:18, Rev 19:12; Dan 10:6

TSK: Rev 1:15

his feet : Rev 2:18; Eze 1:7, Eze 40:3; Dan 10:6

his voice : Rev 14:2, Rev 19:6; Psa 93:4; Isa 17:13; Eze 43:2

TSK: Rev 1:16

he had : Rev 1:20, Rev 2:1, Rev 3:1, Rev 12:1; Job 38:7; Dan 8:10, Dan 12:3

out : Rev 2:12, Rev 2:16, Rev 19:15, Rev 19:21; Isa 11:4, Isa 49:2; Eph 6:17; Heb 4:12

and his : Rev 10:1; Isa 24:23, Isa 60:19, Isa 60:20; Mal 4:2; Act 26:13

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: Rev 1:1

The Revelation of Jesus Christ - This is evidently a title or caption of the whole book, and is designed to comprise the substance of the whole; for all that the book contains would be embraced in the general declaration that it is a revelation of Jesus Christ. The word rendered "Revelation"- Ἀποκάλυψις Apokalupsis , whence we have derived our word "Apocalypse"- means properly an that is, nakedness; from ἀποκαλύπτω apokaluptō , to uncover. It would apply to anything which had been covered up so as to be bidden from the view, as by a veil, a darkness, in an ark or chest, and then made manifest by removing the covering. It comes then to be used in the sense of disclosing or revealing, by removing the veil of darkness or ignorance. "There is nothing covered that shall not be revealed."It may be applied to the disclosing or manifesting of anything which was before obscure or unknown. This may be done:

(a) by instruction in regard to what was before obscure; that is, by statements of what was unknown before the statements were made; as in Luk 2:32, where it is said that Christ would be "a light to lighten the Gentiles"- φῶς εἰς ἀποκάλυψιν ἐθνῶν phōs eis apokalupsin ethnōn ; or when it is applied to the divine mysteries, purposes, or doctrines, before obscure or unknown, but made clear by light revealed in the gospel, Rom 16:25; 1Co 2:10; 1Co 14:6; Eph 3:5.

(b) by the event itself; as the manifestation of the wrath of God at the day of judgment will disclose the true nature of his wrath. "After thy hardness and impenitent heart treasurest up unto thyself wrath against the day of wrath and "revelation"of the righteous judgment of God,"Rev 2:5. "For the earnest expectation of the creature waiteth for the manifestation (Greek revelation) of the sons of God,"Rom 8:19; that is until it shall be manifest by the event what they who are the children of God are to be. In this sense the word is frequently applied to the second advent or appearing of the Lord Jesus Christ, as disclosing him in his glory, or showing what he truly is; "When the Lord Jesus shall be revealed,"2Th 1:7 - ἐν τῇ ἀποκαλυψει en tēn apokalupsei - in the revelation of Jesus Christ; "Waiting for the coming (the revelation - την ἀποκάλυψιν tēn apokalupsin of our Lord Jesus Christ,"1Co 1:7; "At the appearing (Greek revelation) of Jesus Christ,"1Pe 1:7; "When his glory shall be revealed,"1Pe 4:13.

© It is used in the sense of making known what is to come, whether by words, signs, or symbols, as if a veil were lifted from what is hidden from human vision, or which is covered by the darkness of the unknown future. This is called a revelation, because the knowledge of the event is in fact made known to the world by Him who alone can see it, and in such a manner as he pleases to employ; though many of the terms or the symbols may be, from the necessity of the case, obscure, and though their full meaning may be disclosed only by the event. It is in this sense, evidently, that the word is used here: and in this sense that it is more commonly employed when we speak of a revelation. Thus, the word גּלה gaalaah is used in Amo 3:7, "Surely the Lord God will do nothing, but he revealeth his secret unto his servants."So Job 33:16, "Then he openeth (margin, revealeth or uncovereth; Heb. יגלה yigleh the ears of men"; that is, in a dream, he discloses to their ears his truth before concealed or unknown. Compare Dan 2:22, Dan 2:28-29; Dan 10:1; Deu 29:29. These ideas enter into the word as used in the passage before us. The idea is that of a disclosure of an extraordinary character, beyond the mere ability of man, by a special communication from heaven. This is manifest, not only from the usual meaning of this word, but by the word "prophecy,"in Rev 1:3, and by all the arrangements by which these things were made known. The ideas which would be naturally conveyed by the use of this word in this connection are two:

(1)\caps1     t\caps0 hat there was something which was before hidden, obscure, or unknown; and,

(2)\caps1     t\caps0 hat this was so disclosed by these communications as to be seen or known.

The things hidden or unknown were those which pertained to the future; the method of disclosing them was mainly by symbols. In the Greek, in this passage, the article is missing - ἀποκάλυψις apokalupsis - a Revelation, not ἡ hē , the Revelation. This is omitted because it is the title of a book, and because the use of the article might imply that this was the only revelation, excluding other books claiming to be a revelation; or it might imply some previous mention of the book, or knowledge of it in the reader. The simple meaning is, that this was "a Revelation"; it was only a part of the revelation which God has given to mankind.

The phrase, "the Revelation of Jesus Christ,"might, so far as the construction of the language is concerned, refer either to Christ as the subject or object. It might either mean that Christ is the object revealed in this book, and that its great purpose is to make him known, and so the phrase is understood in the commentary called Hyponoia (New York, 1844); or it may mean that this is a revelation which Christ makes to mankind, that is, it is his in the sense that he communicates it to the world. That this latter is the meaning here is clear:

(1)\caps1     b\caps0 ecause it is expressly said in this verse that it was a revelation which God gave to him;

(2)\caps1     b\caps0 ecause it is said that it pertains to things which must shortly come to pass; and,

(3)\caps1     b\caps0 ecause, in fact, the revelation is a disclosure of eyelets which were to happen, and not of the person or work of the Lord Jesus Christ.

Which God gave unto him - Which God imparted or communicated to Jesus Christ. This is in accordance with the representations everywhere made in the Scriptures, that God is the original fountain of truth and knowledge, and that, whatever was the original dignity of the Son of God, there was a mediatorial dependence on the Father. See Joh 5:19-20, "Verily, verily, I say unto you, the Son can do nothing of himself, but what he seeth the Father do: for whatsoever he doeth, these also doeth the Son likewise. For the Father loveth the Son, and showeth him ( δεικνυσιν αὐτῷ deiknusin autō ) all things that himself doeth.""My doctrine is not mine, but his that sent me,"Joh 7:16. "As my Father hath taught me ἐδιδάξεν με edidaxen me , I speak these things,"Joh 8:28. "For I have not spoken of myself; but the Father which sent me, he gave me a commandment, what I should say, and what I should speak,"Joh 12:49. See also Joh 14:10; Joh 17:7-8; Mat 11:27; Mar 13:32. The same mediatorial dependence the apostle teaches us still subsists in heaven in his glorified state, and will continue until he has subdued all things 1Co 15:24-28; and hence, even in that state, he is represented as receiving the Revelation from the Father to communicate it to people.

To show unto his servants - That is, to his people, to Christians, often represented as the servants of God or of Christ, 1Pe 2:16; Rev 2:20; Rev 7:3; Rev 19:2; Rev 22:3. It is true that the word is sometimes applied, by way of eminence, to the prophets 1Ch 6:49; Dan 6:20, and to the apostles Rom 1:1; Gal 1:10; Phi 1:1; Tit 1:1; Jam 1:1; but it is also applied to the mass of Christians, and there is no reason why it should not be so understood here. The book was sent to the churches of Asia, and was clearly designed for general use; and the contents of the book were evidently intended for the churches of the Redeemer in all ages and lands. Compare Rev 1:3. The word rendered "to show"( δεῖξαι deixai ) commonly denotes to point out, to cause to see, to present to the sight, and is a word eminently appropriate here, as what was to be revealed was, in general, to be presented to the sight by sensible tokens or symbols.

Things which must shortly come to pass - Not all the things that will occur, but such as it was deemed of importance for his people to be made acquainted with. Nor is it certainly implied that all the things that are communicated would shortly come to pass, or would soon occur. Some of them might perhaps he in the distant future, and still it might be true that there were those which were revealed in connection with them, which soon would occur. The word rendered "things"( ἅ ha ) is a pronoun, and might be rendered "what"; "he showed to his servants what things were about to occur,"not implying that he showed all the things that would happen, but such as he judged to be needful that his people should know. The word would naturally embrace those things which, in the circumstances, were most desirable to be known. The phrase rendered "must come to pass"( δεῖ γενέσθαι dei genesthai ), would imply more than mere futurity; The word used ( δεῖ dei ) means "it needs, there is need of,"and implies that there is some kind of necessity that the event should occur.

That necessity may either arise from the felt waist of anything, as where it is absent or missing, Xen. Cyr. iv., 10; ib. Rev 7:5, Rev 7:9; or from the nature of the case, or from a sense of duty, as Mat 16:21, "Jesus began to show to his disciples that he must go ( δεῖ ἀπελθεῖν dei apelthein ) to Jerusalem"(compare Mat 26:35; Mar 14:31; Luk 2:49); or the necessity may exist, because a thing is right and just, meaning that it ought to be done, as Luk 13:14, "There are six days in which men ought to work" δεῖ ἐργάζεσθαι dei ergazesthai . And ought not this woman οὐκ ἔδει ouk edei , whom Satan hath bound, etc., be loosed from this bond,"Luk 13:16 (compare Mar 13:14; Joh 4:20; Act 5:11, Act 5:29; 2Ti 2:6; Mat 18:33; Mat 25:27); or the necessity may be that it is conformable to the divine arrangement, or is made necessary by divine appointment, as in Joh 3:14, "As Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, even so must ( δεῖ dei ) the Son of man be lifted up.""For as yet they knew not the Scriptures, that he must ( δεῖ dei ) rise again from the dead,"Joh 20:9; compare Act 4:12; Act 14:22, et al.

In the passage before us, it is implied that there was some necessity that the things referred to should occur. They were not the result of chance, they were not fortuitous. It is not, however, stated what was the ground of the necessity; whether because there was a want of something to complete a great arrangement, or because it was fight and proper in existing circumstances, or because such was the divine appointment. They were events which, on some account, must certainly occur, and which, therefore, it was important should be made known. The real ground of the necessity, probably, was founded in the design of God in redemption. He intended to carry out his great plans in reference to his church, and the things revealed here must necessarily occur in the completion of that design. The phrase rendered "shortly"( ἐν τάχει en tachei ) is one whose meaning has been much controverted, and on which much has been made to depend in the interpretation of the whole book.

The question has been whether the phrase necessarily implies that the events referred to were soon to occur, or whether it may have such an extent of meaning as to admit the supposition that the events referred to, though beginning soon, would embrace in their development far distant years, and would reach the end of all things. Those who maintain, as Prof. Stuart, that the book was written before the destruction of Jerusalem, and that the portion in Rev. 4\endash 11 has special reference to Jerusalem and Judea, and the portion in Rev. 12\endash 19 refers to persecution and pagan Rome, maintain the former opinion; those who suppose that Rev. 4\endash 11 refers to the irruption of Northern barbarians in the Roman empire, and Rev. 12ff., to the rise and the persecutions of the papal power, embrace the latter opinion. All that is proper in this place is, without reference to any theory of interpretation, to inquire into the proper meaning of the language, or to ascertain what idea it would naturally convey:

(a) The phrase properly and literally means, "with quickness, swiftness, speed; that is, speedily, quickly, shortly"(Robinson’ s Lexicon; Stuart, in loco). It is the same in meaning as ταχέως tacheōs . Compare 1Co 4:19, "But I will come to you shortly, if the Lord will.""Go out quickly into the streets,"Luk 14:21. "Sit down quickly, and write fifty,"Luk 16:6. "She rose up hastily ( ταχέως tacheōs ) and went out,"Joh 11:31. "That ye are so soon removed ( ταχέως tacheōs ) from him that called you,"Gal 1:6. "Lay hands suddenly on no man,"1Ti 5:22. See also Phi 2:19, Phi 2:24; 2Th 2:2; 2Ti 4:9. The phrase used here ἐν τάχει en tachei occurs in Luk 18:8, "He will avenge them speedily"(literally with speed). "Arise up quickly,"Act 12:7. "Get time quickly out of Jerusalem,"Act 22:18. "Would depart shortly,"Act 25:4. "Bruise Satan under your feet shortly,"Rom 16:20; and Rev 1:1; Rev 22:6. The essential idea is, that the thing which is spoken of was soon to occur, or it was not a remote and distant event. There is the notion of rapidity, of haste, of suddenness. It is such a phrase as is used when the thing is on the point of happening, and could not be applied to an event which was in the remote future, considered as an independent event standing by itself. The same idea is expressed, in regard to the same thing, in Rev 1:3, "The time is at hand"- ὁ γὰρ καιρὸς ἐγγύς ho gar kairos engus ; that is, it is near, it is soon to occur. Yet.

(b) it is not necessary to suppose that the meaning is that all that there is in the book was soon to happen. It may mean that the series of events which were to follow on in their proper order was soon to commence, though it might be that the sequel would be remote. The first in the series of events was soon to begin, and the others would follow on in their train, though a portion of them, in the regular order, might be in a remote futurity. If we suppose that there was such an order, that a series of transactions was about to commence, involving along train of momentous developments, and that the beginning of this was to occur soon, the language used by John would be what would be naturally employed to express it. Thus, in case of a revolution in a government, when a reigning prince should be driven from his kingdom, to be succeeded by a new dynasty, which would long occupy the throne, and involving, as the consequence of the revolution, important events extending far into the future, we would naturally say that these things were shortly to occur, or that the time was near. It is customary to speak of a succession of events or periods as near, however vast or interminable the series may be, when the commencement is at hand. Thus, we say that the great events of the eternal world are near; that is, the beginning of them is soon to occur. So Christians now speak often of the millennium as near, or as about to occur, though it is the belief of many that it will be protracted for many ages.

© That this is the true idea hem is clear, whatever general view of interpretation in regard to the book is adopted. Even Prof. Stuart, who contends that the greater portion of the book refers to the destruction of Jerusalem, and the persecutions of pagan Rome, admits that "the closing part of the Revelation relates beyond all doubt to a distant period, and some of it to a future eternity"(ii., p. 5); and, if this be so, then there is no impropriety in supposing that a part of the series of predictions preceding this may lie also in a somewhat remote futurity. The true idea seems to be that the writer contemplated a series of events that were to occur, and that this series was about to commence. How far into the future it was to extend, is to be learned by the proper interpretation of all the parts of the series.

And he sent - Greek: "Sending by his angel, signified it to his servant John."The idea is not precisely that he sent his angel to communicate the message, but that he sent by him, or employed him as an agent in doing it. The thing sent was rather the message than the angel.

And signified it - Ἐσήμανεν Esēmanen . He indicated it by signs and symbols. The word occurs in the New Testament only in Joh 12:33; Joh 18:32; Joh 21:19; Act 11:28; Act 25:27, and in the passage before us, in all which places it is rendered "signify, signifying, or signified."It properly refers to some sign, signal, or token by which anything is made known (compare Mat 26:28; Rom 4:11; Gen 9:12-13; Gen 17:11; Luk 2:12; 2Co 12:12; 1Co 14:22), and is a word most happily chosen to denote the manner in which the events referred to were to be communicated to John, for nearly the whole book is made up of signs and symbols. If it be asked what was signified to John, it may be replied that either the word "it"may be understood, as in our translation, to refer to the Apocalypse (Revelation), or refer to what he saw ( ὅσα εἶδε hosa eide ), as Prof. Stuart supposes; or it may be absolute, without any object following, as Prof. Robinson (Lexicon) supposes. The general sense is, that, sending by his angel, he made to John a communication by expressive signs or symbols.

By his angel - That is, an angel was employed to cause these scenic representations to pass before the mind of the apostle. The communication was not made directly to him, but was through the medium of a heavenly messenger employed for this purpose. Thus, in Rev 22:6, it is said, "And the Lord God of the holy prophets sent his angel to show unto his servants the things which must shortly be done."Compare Rev 1:8-9 of that chapter. There is frequent allusion in the Scriptures to the fact that angels have been employed as agents in making known the divine will, or in the revelations which have been made to people. Thus, in Act 7:53, it is said, "Who have received the law by the disposition of angels.""For if the word spoken by angels was stedfast,"etc., Heb 2:2; "and it was ordained by angels in the hand of a mediator,"Gal 3:19. Compare the notes on Act 7:38, Act 7:53. There is almost no further reference to the agency of the angel employed for this service in the book, and there is no distinct specification of what he did, or of his great agency in the case.

John is everywhere represented as seeing the symbols himself, and it would seem that the agency of the angel was, either to cause those symbols to pass before the apostle, or to convey their meaning to his mind. How far John himself understood the meaning of these symbols, we have not the means of knowing with certainty. The most probable supposition is, that the angel was employed to cause these visions or symbols to pass before his mind, rather than to interpret them. If an interpretation had been given, it is inconceivable that it should not have been recorded, and there is no more probability that their meaning should have been disclosed to John himself, for his private use, than that it should have been disclosed and recorded for the use of others. It would seem probable, therefore, that John had only that view of the meaning of what he saw which anyone else might obtain from the record of the visions. Compare the notes on 1Pe 1:10-12.

Unto his servant John - Nothing could be learned from this expression as to what John was the author of the book, whether the apostle of that name or some other. Compare the introduction, section 1. It cannot be inferred from the use of the word "servant,"rather than apostle, that the apostle John was not the author, for it was not uncommon for the apostles to designate themselves merely by the words "servants,"or "servants of God."Compare the notes on Rom 1:1.

Barnes: Rev 1:2

Who bare record of the word of God - Who bore witness to, or testified of ἐμαρτύρησεν emarturēsen the Word of God. He regarded himself merely as a "witness"of what he had seen, and claimed only to make a fair and faithful "record"of it. "This is the disciple which "testifieth"( ὁ μαρτυρῶν ho marturōn ) of these things, and wrote these things,"Joh 21:24. "And he that saw it bare record"- μεμαρτύρηκε memarturēke Joh 19:35. Compare also the following places, where the apostle uses the same word of himself: 1Jo 1:2; 1Jo 4:14. The expression here, "the word of God,"is one the meaning of which has been much controverted, and is important in its bearing on the question who was the author of the Book of Revelation. The main inquiry is, whether the writer refers to the "testimony"which he bears in this book respecting the "word of God"; or whether he refers to some testimony on that subject in some other book with which those to whom he wrote were so familiar that they would at once recognize him as the author; or whether he refers to the fact that he had borne his testimony to the great truths of religion, and especially respecting Jesus Christ, as a preacher who was well known, and who would be characterized by this expression.

The phrase "the word of God"- τὸν λόγον τοῦ Θεοῦ ton logon tou Theou - occurs frequently in the New Testament (compare Joh 10:35; Act 4:31; Act 6:2, Act 6:7; Act 11:1; Act 12:24); and may either mean the Word or doctrine respecting God - that which teaches what God is - or what he speaks or teaches. It is more commonly used in the latter sense (compare the passages referred to above), and especially refers to what God speaks or commands in the gospel. The fair meaning of this expression would be, that John had borne faithful witness to, or testimony of, the truth which God had spoken to man in the gospel of Christ. So far as the "language"used here is concerned, this might apply either to a written or an oral testimony; either to a treatise like that of his gospel, to his preaching, or to the record which he was then making. Vitringa and others suppose that the reference here is to the gospel which he had published, and which now bears his name; Lucke and others, to the revelation made to him in Patmos, the record of which he now makes in this book; Prof. Stuart and others, to the fact that he was a teacher or preacher of the gospel, and that (compare Rev 1:9) the allusion is to the testimony which he had borne to the gospel, and for which he was an exile in Patmos. Is it not possible that these conflicting opinions may be to some extent harmonized, by supposing that in the use of the aorist tense - ἐμαρτύρησε emarturēse - the writer meant to refer to a characteristic of himself, to wit, that he was a faithful witness of the Word of God and of Jesus Christ whenever and however made known to him?

With an eye, perhaps, to the record which he was about to make in this book, and intending to include that may he not also refer to what had been and was his well-known character as a witness of what God communicated to him? He had always borne this testimony. He always regarded himself as such a witness. He had been an eyewitness of what had occurred in the life and at the death of the Saviour (see the notes on 2Pe 1:17-18), and had, in all his writings and public administrations, horne witness to what he had seen and heard; for that Rev 1:9 he had been banished to Patmos: and he was now about to carry out the same characteristic of himself by bearing witness to what he saw in these new revelations. This would be much in the manner of John, who often refers to this characteristic of himself (compare Joh 19:35; Joh 21:24; 1Jo 1:2), as well as harmonize the different opinions. The meaning, then, of the expression, "who bare record of the word of God,"as I understand it, is, that it was a characteristic of the writer to bear simple but faithful testimony to the truth which God communicated to people in the gospel. If this be the correct interpretation, it may be remarked:

(a)\caps1     t\caps0 hat this is such language as John the apostle would be likely to use, and yet

(b)\caps1     t\caps0 hat it is not such language as an author would be likely to adopt if there was an attempt to forge a book in his name.

The artifice would be too refined to occur probably to anyone, for although perfectly natural for John, it would not be so natural for a forger of a book to select this circumstance and weave it thus unostentatiously into his narrative.

And of the testimony of Jesus Christ - That is, in accordance with the interpretation above, of the testimony "which Jesus Christ bore for the truth"; not of a testimony "respecting"Jesus Christ. The idea is, that Jesus Christ was himself "a witness"to the truth, and that the writer of this book was a witness merely of the testimony which Christ had borne. Whether the testimony of Jesus Christ was borne in his preaching when in the flesh, or whether made known to the writer by him at any subsequent period, it was his office to make a faithful record of that testimony. As he had always before done that, so he was about to do it now in the new revelation made to him in Patmos, which he regarded as a new testimony of Jesus Christ to the truth, Rev 1:1. It is remarkable that, in confirmation of this view, John so often describes the Lord Jesus as a witness, or represents him as having come to hear his faithful testimony to the truth. Thus, in Rev 1:5; "And from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful and true witness.""I am one that bear witness - ὁ μαρτυρῶν ho marturōn - of myself,"Joh 8:18. "To this end was I born, and for this cause came I into the world, that I should bear witness - ἵνα μαρτυρήσω hina marturēsō - to the truth,"Joh 18:37. "These things saith the Amen, the faithful and true witness"- ὁ μάρτυς ὁ πιστὸς ho martus ho pistos , ... Rev 3:14. Of this testimony which the Lord Jesus came to bring to man respecting eternal realities, the writer of this book says that he regarded himself as a witness. To the office of bearing such testimony he had been dedicated; that testimony he was now to bear, as he had always done.

And of all things that he saw - Ὅσα τε εἰδεν Hosa te eiden . This is the common reading in the Greek, and according to this reading it would properly mean, "and whatsoever he saw"; that is, it would imply that he bore witness to "the Word of God,"and to "the testimony of Jesus Christ,"and to "whatever he saw"- meaning that the things which he saw, and to which he refers, were things additional to those to which he had referred by "the Word of God,"and the "testimony of Christ."From this it has been supposed that in the former part of the verse he refers to some testimony which he had formerly borne, as in his gospel or in his preaching, and that here he refers to what he "saw"in the visions of the Revelation as additional to the former. But it should be remembered that the word rendered "and"- τε te - is missing in a large number of manuscripts (see Wetstein), and that it is now omitted in the best editions of the Greek Testament - as by Griesbach, Tittmann and Hahn. The evidence is clear that it should be omitted; and if so omitted, the reference is to whatever he had at any time borne his testimony to, and not particularly to what passed before him in the visions of this book.

It is a general affirmation that he had always borne a faithful testimony to whatever he had seen respecting the Word of God and the testimony of Christ. The correct rendering of the whole passage then would be, "And sending by his angel, he signifies it to his servant John, who bare record of"(that is, whose character and office it was to bear his testimony to) "the word of God"(the message which God has sent to me), "and the testimony of Jesus Christ"(the testimony which Christ bore to the truth), "whatsoever he saw."He concealed nothing; he held nothing back; he made it known precisely as it was seen by him. Thus interpreted, the passage refers to what was a general characteristic of the writer, and is designed to embrace all that was made known to him, and to affirm that he was a faithful witness to it. There were doubtless special reasons why John was employed as the medium through which this communication was to be made to the church and the world. Among these reasons may have been the following:

(a)    That he was the "beloved disciple."

(b)    That he was the only surviving apostle.

©    That his character was such that his statements would be readily received. Compare Joh 19:35; Joh 21:24; 3Jo 1:12.

(d)    It may be that his mind was better suited to be the medium of these communications than that of any other of the apostles - even if they had been then alive.

There is almost no one whose mental characteristics are less correctly understood than those of the apostle John. Among the most gentle and amiable of people; with a heart so suited for love as to be known as "the beloved disciple"- he yet had mental characteristics which made it proper that he should be called "a son of thunder"Mar 3:17; a mind suited to preserve and record the profound thoughts in his gospel; a mind of high poetic order, suited for the magnificent conceptions in this book.

Barnes: Rev 1:3

Blessed is he that readeth - That is, it is to be regarded as a privilege attended with many blessings, to be permitted to mark the disclosures to be made in this book; the important revelations respecting future times. Prof. Stuart supposes that this refers to a public reading, and that the phrase "those who hear the words of this prophecy,"refers to those who listened to the public reader, and that both the reader and hearer should regard themselves as highly favored. It is, however, more in accordance with the usual meaning of the word rendered "read,"to suppose that it refers to the act of one’ s reading for himself; to learn by reading. So Robinson (Lexicon) understands it. The Greek word, indeed, would bear the other interpretation (see Luk 4:16; Act 13:27; Act 15:21; 2Co 3:15); but as this book was sent abroad to be read by Christians, and not merely to be in the hands of the ministers of religion to be read by them to others, it is more natural to interpret the word in the usual sense.

And hear the words of this prophecy - As they shall be declared or repeated by others; or perhaps the word "hear"is used in a sense that is not uncommon, that of giving attention to; taking heed to. The general sense is, that they were to be regarded as highly favored who became acquainted in any way with what is here communicated. The writer does not say that they were blessed who understood it, or that they who read or heard it would fully understand it; but it is clearly implied, that there would be so far an understanding of its meaning as to make it a felicitous condition to have been made acquainted with it. An author could not be supposed to say that one should regard his condition as a favored one who merely heard words that he could not understand, or who had placed before him magnificent symbols that had to him no meaning. The word "prophecy"is used here in its more strict sense as denoting the disclosure of future events - a large portion of the book being of this nature. It is here synonymous with "Revelation"in Rev 1:1.

And keep those things which are written therein - Keep in mind those things which relate to the future; and obey those things which arc required as truth and duty. The blessing which results from having in possession the revealed truth of God is not merely in reading it, or in hearing it: it results from the fact that the truth is properly regarded, and exerts a suitable influence over our lives. Compare Psa 19:11; "And in keeping of them there is great reward."

For the time is at hand - See Rev 1:1. The word used here - ἐγγύς engus - has the same signification substantially as the word "shortly"in Rev 1:1. It would apply to any event whose beginning was soon to occur, though the end might be remote, for the series of events might stretch far into the future. It cannot be doubted, however, that the writer meant to press upon them the importance of attending to these things, from the fact that either entirely or in part these things were soon to happen. It may be inferred from this verse, that it is possible so to "understand"this book, as that it may convey useful instruction. This is the only book in the Bible of which a special blessing is pronounced on him who reads it; but assuredly a blessing would not be pronounced on the perusal of a book which is entirely unintelligible. While, therefore, there may be many obscurities in this book, it is also to be assumed that it may be so far understood as to be useful to Christians, in supporting their faith, and giving them elevated views of the final triumph of religion, and of the glory of the world to come. Anything is a blessing which enables us with well-founded hope and joy to look forward to the heavenly world.

Barnes: Rev 1:4

John to the seven churches which are in Asia - The word "Asia"is used in quite different senses by different writers. It is used:

(1)\caps1     a\caps0 s referring to the whole eastern continent now known by that name;

(2)\caps1     e\caps0 ither Asia or Asia Minor;

(3)\caps1     t\caps0 hat part of Asia which Attalus III, king of Pergamos, gave to the Romans, namely, Mysia, Phrygia, Lycaonia, Lydia, Carla, Pisidia, and the southern coast - that is, all in the western, southwestern, and southern parts of Asia Minor; and,

(4)\caps1     i\caps0 n the New Testament, usually the southwestern part of Asia Minor, of which Ephesus was the capital. See the notes at Act 2:9.

The word "Asia"is not found in the Hebrew Scriptures, but it occurs often in the Books of Maccabees, and in the New Testament. In the New Testament it is not used in the large sense in which it is now, as applied to the whole continent, but in its largest signification it would include only Asia Minor. It is also used, especially by Luke, as denoting the country that was called "Ionia,"or what embraced the provinces of Caria and Lydia. Of this region Ephesus was the principal city, and it was in this region that the "seven churches"were situated. Whether there were more than seven churches in this region is not intimated by the writer of this book, and on that point we have no certain knowledge. it is evident that these seven were the principal churches, even if there were more, and that there was some reason why they should be particularly addressed.

There is mention of some other churches in the neighborhood of these. Colosse was near to Laodicea; and from Col 4:13, it would seem not improbable that there was a church also at Hierapolis. But there may have been nothing in their circumstances that demanded particular instruction or admonition, and they may have been on that account omitted. There is also some reason to suppose that, though there had been other churches in that vicinity besides the seven mentioned by John, they had become extinct at the time when he wrote the Book of Revelation. It appears from Tacitus (History, xiv, 27; compare also Pliny, N. H., v. 29), that in the time of Nero, 61 a.d., the city of Laodicea was destroyed by an earthquake, in which earthquake, according to Eusebius, the adjacent cities of Colosse and Hierapolis were involved. Laodicea was, indeed, immediately rebuilt, but there is no evidence of the re-establishment of the church there before the time when John wrote this book.

The earliest mention we have of a church there, after the one referred to in the New Testament by Paul Col 2:1; Col 4:13, Col 4:15-16, is in the time of Trajan, when Papias was bishop there, sometime between 98 a.d. and 117 a.d. It would appear, then, to be not improbable that at the time when the Apocalypse was written, there were in fact but seven churches in the vicinity. Prof. Stuart (i., 219) supposes that "seven, and only so many, may have been named, because the sevenfold divisions and groups of various objects constitute a conspicuous feature in the Apocalypse throughout."But this reason seems too artificial; and it can hardly be supposed that it would influence the mind of John, in the specification by name of the churches to which the book was sent. If no names had been mentioned, and if the statement had occurred in glowing poetic description, it is not inconceivable that the number seven might have been selected for some such purpose.

Grace be unto you, and peace - The usual form of salutation in addressing a church. See the notes on Rom 1:7.

From him which is, and which was, and which is to come - From him who is everlasting - embracing all duration, past, present, and to come. No expression could more strikingly denote eternity than this. He now exists; he has existed in the past; he will exist in the future. There is an evident allusion here to the name Yahweh, the name by which the true God is appropriately designated in the Scriptures. That name יהוה Yahweh , from היה haayah , to be, to exist, seems to have been adopted because it denotes existence, or being, and as denoting simply one who exists; and has reference merely to the fact of existence. The word has no variation of form, and has no reference to time, and would embrace all time: that is, it is as true at one time as another that he exists. Such a word would not be inappropriately paraphrased by the phrase "who is, and who was, and who is to come,"or who is to be; and there can be no doubt that John referred to him here as being himself the eternal and uncreated existence, and as the great and original fountain of all being.

They who desire to find a full discussion in regard to the origin of the name Yahweh, may consult an article by Prof. Tholuck, in the "Biblical Repository,"vol. iv., pp. 89-108. It is remarkable that there are some passages in pagan inscriptions and writings which bear a very strong resemblance to the language used here by John respecting God. Thus, Plutarch (De Isa. et Osir., p. 354.), speaking of a temple of Isis, at Sais, in Egypt, says, "It bore this inscription - ‘ I am all that was, and is, and shall be, and my vail no mortal can remove’ "- Ἐγώ εἰμι πᾶν τὸ γεγονός, καὶ ὅν, καὶ ἐσόμενον καὶ τὸν ἐμὸν πέπλον οὐδείς τω θνητὸς ἀνεκάλυψεν Egō eimi pan to gegonos , kai hon , kai esomenon kai ton emon peplon oudeis tō thnētos anekalupsen . So Orpheus (in Auctor. Lib. de Mundo), "Jupiter is the head, Jupiter is the middle, and all things are made by Jupiter."So in Pausanias (Phocic. 12), "Jupiter was; Jupiter is; Jupiter shall be."The reference in the phrase before us is to God as such, or to God considered as the Father.

And from the seven Spirits which are before his throne - After all that has been written on this very difficult expression, it is still impossible to determine with certainty its meaning. The principal opinions which have been held in regard to it are the following:

I. That it refers to God, as such. This opinion is held by Eichhorn, and is favored by Ewald. No arguments derived from any parallel passages are urged for this opinion, nor can any such be found, where God is himself spoken of under the representation of a sevenfold Spirit. But the objections to this view are so obvious as to be insuperable:

(1)    If it refers to God as such, then it would be mere tautology, for the writer had just referred to him in the phrase "from him who was,"etc.

(2)\caps1     i\caps0 t is difficult to perceive in what sense "seven spirits"could be ascribed to God, or how he could be described as a being of "Seven Spirits."At least, if he could be spoken of as such, there would be no objection to applying the phrase to the Holy Spirit.

(3)\caps1     h\caps0 ow could it be said of God himself that he was "before the throne?"He is everywhere represented as sitting on the throne, not as before it. It is easy to conceive of angels as standing before the throne; and of the Holy Spirit it is more easy to conceive as being represented thus as ready to go forth and convey a heavenly influence from that throne, but it is impossible to conceive in what sense this could be applied to God as such.

II. The opinion held by Grotius, and by John Henry Heinrichs, that it refers to "the multiform providence of God,"or to God considered as operating in seven or many different ways. In support of this Grotius appeals to Rev 5:12; Rev 7:12. But this opinion is so far-fetched, and it is so destitute of support, as to have found, it is believed, no other advocates, and to need no further notice. It cannot be supposed that John meant to personify the attributes of the Deity, and then to unite them with God himself, and with the Lord Jesus Christ, and to represent them as real subsistences from which important blessings descend to people. It is clear that as by the phrase, "who is, and who was, and who is to come,"and by "Jesus Christ, the faithful and true witness,"he refers to real subsistences, so he must here. Besides, if the attributes of God, or the modes of divine operation, are denoted why is the number seven chosen? And why are they represented as standing before the throne?

III. A third opinion is, that the reference is to seven attending and ministering presence-angels - angels represented as standing before the throne of God, or in his presence. This opinion was adopted among the ancients by Clemens of Alexandria Andreas of Cesarea, and others; among the moderns by Beza, Drusius, Hammond, Wetstein, Rosenmuller, Clarke, Prof. Stuart, and others. This opinion, however, has been held in somewhat different forms; some maintaining that the seven angels are referred to because it was a received opinion among the Hebrews that there were seven angels standing in the presence of God as seven princes stood in the Persian court before the king; others, that the angels of the seven churches are particularly referred to, represented now as standing in the presence of God; others, that seven angels, represented as the principal angels employed in the government of the world, are referred to; and others, that seven archangels are particularly designated. Compare Poole, Synoptists in loco. The arguments which are relied on by those who suppose that seven angels are here referred to are briefly these:

(1) The nature of the expression used here. The expression, it is said, is such as would naturally denote beings who were before his throne - beings who were different from him who was on the throne - and beings more than one in number. That it could not refer to one on the throne, but must mean those distinct and separate from one on the throne, is argued from the use of the phrases "before the throne,"and "before God,"in Rev 4:5; Rev 7:9, Rev 7:15; Rev 8:2; Rev 11:4, Rev 11:16; Rev 12:10; Rev 14:3; Rev 20:12; in all which places the representation denotes those who were in the presence of God, and standing before him.

\caps1 (2) i\caps0 t is argued from other passages in the Book of Revelation which, it is said (Prof. Stuart), go directly to confirm this opinion. Thus, in Rev 8:2; "And I saw the seven angels which stood before God."So Rev 4:5; the seven lamps of fire burning before the throne, are said to be "the seven Spirits of God."In these passages, it is alleged that the article "the"designates the well-known angels; or those which had been before specified, and that this is the first mention of any such angels after the designation in the passage before us.

\caps1 (3) i\caps0 t is said that this is in accordance with what was usual among the Hebrews, who were accustomed to speak of seven presence-angels, or angels standing in the presence of Yahweh. Thus, in the Book of Tobit (12:15), Raphael is introduced as using this language: "I am Raphael, one of the seven holy angels, which present the prayers of the saints, and which go in and out before the glory of the Holy One."The apocryphal Book of Enoch (chapter 20) gives the names of the seven angels who watch; that is, of the watchers (compare the notes on Dan 4:13, Dan 4:17) who stand in the presence of God waiting for the divine commands, or who watch over the affairs of people. So in the Zendavesta of Zoroaster, seven amshaspends, or archangels, are mentioned. See Prof. Stuart, in loco.

To these views, however, there are objections of great weight, if they are not in fact quite insuperable. They are such as the following:

(1) That the same rank should be given to them as to God, as the source of blessings. According to the view which represents this expression as referring to angels, they are placed on the same level, so far as the matter before us is concerned, with "him who was, and is, and is to come,"and with the Lord Jesus Christ - a doctrine which does not elsewhere occur in the Scriptures, and which we cannot suppose the writer designed to teach.

\caps1 (2) t\caps0 hat blessings should be invoked from angels - as if they could impart "grace and peace."It is evident that, whoever is referred to here by the phrase "the seven Spirits,"he is placed on the same level with the others mentioned as the source of "grace and peace."But it cannot be supposed that an inspired writer would invoke that grace and peace from any but a divine being.

\caps1 (3) t\caps0 hat as two persons of the Trinity are mentioned here, it is to be presumed that the third would not be omitted; or to put this argument in a stronger form, it cannot be supposed that an inspired writer would mention two of the persons of the Trinity in this connection, and then not only not mention the third, but refer to angels - to creatures - as bestowing what would be appropriately sought from the Holy Spirit. The incongruity would be not merely in omitting all reference to the Spirit - which might indeed occur, as it often does in the Scriptures - but in putting in the place which that Spirit would naturally occupy an allusion to angels as conferring blessings.

\caps1 (4) i\caps0 f this refer to angels, it is impossible to avoid the inference that angel-worship, or invocation of angels, is proper. To all intents and purposes, this is an act of worship; for it is an act of solemn invocation. It is an acknowledgment of the "seven Spirits,"as the source of "grace and peace."It would be impossible to resist this impression on the popular mind; it would not be possible to meet it if urged as an argument in favor of the propriety of angel-invocation, or angel-worship. And yet, if there is anything clear in the Scriptures, it is that God alone is to he worshipped. For these reasons, it seems to me that this interpretation cannot be well founded.

IV. There remains a fourth opinion, that it refers to the Holy Spirit, and in favor of that opinion it may be urged:

(1) That it is most natural to suppose that the Holy Spirit would be invoked on such an occasion, in connection with him "who was, and is, and is to come,"and with "Jesus Christ."If two of the persons of the Trinity were addressed on such an occasion, it would be properly supposed that the Holy Spirit would not be omitted, as one of the persons from whom the blessing was to descend. Compare 2Co 13:14; "The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the communion of the Holy Spirit, be with you all."

\caps1 (2) i\caps0 t would be unnatural and improper, in such an invocation, to unite angels with God as imparting blessings, or as participating with God and with Christ in communicating blessings to man. An invocation to God to send his angels, or to impart grace and favor through angelic help, would be in entire accordance with the usage in Scripture, but it is not in accordance with such usage to invoke such blessings from angels.

\caps1 (3) i\caps0 t cannot be denied that an invocation of grace from "him who is, and was, and is to come,"is of the nature of worship. The address to him is as God, and the attitude of the mind in such an address is that of one who is engaged in an act of devotion. The effect of uniting any other being with him in such a case, would be to lead to the worship of one thus associated with him. In regard to the Lord Jesus, "the faithful and true witness,"it is from such expressions as these that we are led to the belief that he is divine, and that it is proper to worship him as such. The same effect must be produced in reference to what is here called "the seven Spirits before the throne."We cannot well resist the impression that someone with divine attributes is intended; or, if it refer to angels, we cannot easily show that it is not proper to render divine worship to them. If they were thus invoked by an apostle, can it be improper to worship them now?

\caps1 (4) t\caps0 he word used here is not "angels,"but "spirits"; and though it is true that angels are spirits, and that the word "spirit"is applied to them Heb 1:7, yet it is also true that that is not a word which would be understood to refer to them without designating that angels were meant. If angels had been intended here, that word would naturally have been used, as is the case elsewhere in this book.

\caps1 (5) i\caps0 n Rev 4:5, where there is a reference to "the seven lamps before the throne,"it is said of them that they "are,"that is, they represent "the seven Spirits of God."This passage may be understood as referring to the same thing as that before us, but it cannot he well understood of angels; because:

(a)\caps1     i\caps0 f it did, it would have been natural to use that language for the reason above mentioned;

(b)\caps1     t\caps0 he angels are nowhere called "the spirits of God,"nor would such language be proper.

The phrase, "Spirit of God"naturally implies divinity, and could not be applied to a creature. For these reasons it seems to me that the interpretation which applies the phrase to the Holy Spirit is to be preferred; and though that interpretation is not free from difficulties, yet there are fewer difficulties in that than in either of the others proposed. Though it may not be possible wholly to remove the difficulties involved in that interpretation, yet perhaps something may be done to diminish their force:

(1) First, as to the reason why the number seven should be applied to the Holy Spirit:

(a) There would be as much propriety certainly in applying it to the Holy Spirit as to God as such. And yet Grotius, Eichhorn, Ewald, and others saw no difficulty in such an application considered as representing a sevenfold mode of operation of God, or a manifold divine agency.

(b) The word "seven"often denotes a full or complete number, and may be used to denote what is full, complete, or manifold; and might thus be used in reference to an all-perfect Spirit, or to a spirit which was manifold in its operations.

© The number seven is evidently a favorite number in the Book of Revelation, and it might be used by the author in places, and in a sense, such as it would not be likely to be used by another writer. Thus, there are seven epistles to the seven churches; there are seven seals, seven trumpets, seven vials of the wrath of God, seven last plagues; there are seven lamps, and seven Spirits of God; the Lamb has seven horns and seven eyes. In Rev 1:16, seven stars are mentioned; in Rev 5:12, seven attributes of God; Rev 12:3, the dragon has seven heads; Rev 13:1, the beast has seven heads.

(d) The number seven, therefore, may have been given to the Holy Spirit with reference to the diversity or the fulness of his operations on the souls of people, and to his manifold agency on the affairs of the world, as further developed in this book.

\caps1 (2) a\caps0 s to his being represented as "before the throne,"this may be intended to designate the fact that the Divine Spirit was, as it were, prepared to go forth, or to be sent forth, in accordance with a common representation in the Scriptures, to accomplish important purposes on human affairs. The posture does not necessarily imply inferiority of nature, anymore than the language does respecting the Son of God, when he is represented as being sent into the world to execute an important commission from the Father.

Barnes: Rev 1:5

And from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful witness - See the notes on Rev 1:2. He is faithful in the sense that he is one on whose testimony there may be entire reliance, or who is entirely worthy to be believed. From him "grace and peace"are appropriately sought, as one who hears such a testimony, and as the first-begotten from the dead, and as reigning over the kings of the earth. Thus, grace and peace are invoked from the infinite God in all his relations and operations: as the Father, the Source of all existence; as the Sacred Spirit, going forth in manifold operations upon the hearts of people; and as the Son of God, the one appointed to bear faithful testimony to the truth respecting God and future events.

And the first-begotten of the dead - The same Greek expression - πρωτότοκος prōtotokos - occurs in Col 1:18. See it explained in the notes on that passage. Compare the notes at 1Co 15:20.

And the prince of the kings of the earth - Who has over all the kings of the earth the pre-eminence which kings have over their subjects. He is the Ruler of rulers; King of kings. In Rev 17:14; Rev 19:16, the same thought is expressed by saying that he is the "King of kings."No language could more sublimely denote his exalted character, or his supremacy. Kings and princes sway a scepter over the million of the earth, and the exaltation of the Saviour is here expressed by supposing that all those kings and princes constitute a community over which he is the head. The exaltation of the Redeemer is elsewhere expressed in different language, but the idea is one that everywhere prevails in regard to him in the Scriptures. Compare Mat 28:18; Mat 11:27; Joh 17:2; Eph 1:20-22; Phi 2:9-11; Col 1:15-18. The word "prince"- ὁ ἄρχων ho archōn - means properly, "ruler, leader, the first in rank."We often apply the word "prince"to an heir to a throne who is not invested with absolute sovereignty. The word here, however, denotes that he actually exercises dominion over the rulers of the earth. As this is an authority which is claimed by God (compare Isa 10:5 ff; Isa 45:1 ff; Psa 47:2; Psa 99:1; Psa 103:9; Dan 4:34), and which can only pertain to God, it is clear that in ascribing this to the Lord Jesus it is implied that he is possessed of divine attributes. As much of the revelations of this book pertained to the assertion of power over the princes and rulers of this world, there was a propriety that, in the commencement, it should be asserted that he who was to exert that power was invested with the prerogative of a ruler of the nations, and that he had this right of control.

Unto him that loved us - This refers undoubtedly to the Lord Jesus, whose love for people was so strong that nothing more was necessary to characterize him than to speak of him as the one "who loved us."It is manifest that the division in the verses should have been made here, for this commences a new subject, not having any special connection with what precedes. In Rev 1:4, and the first part of this verse, the writer had invoked grace from the Father, the Spirit, and the Saviour. In the latter clause of the verse there commences an ascription of praise to the Redeemer; an ascription to him particularly, because the whole book is regarded as a revelation from him Rev 1:1; because he was the one who especially appeared to John in the visions of Patmos; and because he was to be the great agent in carrying into execution the purposes revealed in this book.

And washed us from our sins in his own blood - He has removed the pollution of sin from our souls by his blood; that is, his blood has been applied to cleanse us from sin. Blood can be represented as having a cleansing power only as it makes an expiation for sin, for considered literally its effect would be the reverse. The language is such as would be used only on the supposition that he had made an atonement, and that it was by the atonement that we are cleansed; for in what sense could it be said of a martyr that he "had washed us from our sins in his blood?"How could this language be used of Paul or Polycarp; of Ridley or Cranmer? The doctrine that the blood of Christ cleanses us from sin, or purifies us, is one that is common in the Scriptures. Compare 1Jo 1:7; Heb 9:14. The specific idea of washing, however - representing that blood as washing sin away - is one which does not elsewhere occur. It is evidently used in the sense of "cleansing"or "purifying,"as we do this by "washing,"and as the blood of Christ accomplishes in respect to our souls, what washing with water does in respect to the body.

Barnes: Rev 1:6

And hath made us kings and priests unto God - In 1Pe 2:9 the same idea is expressed by saying of Christians that they are "a royal priesthood."See the notes on that verse. The quotation in both places is from Exo 19:6; "And ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests."This idea is expressed here by saying that Christ had made us in fact kings and priests; that is, Christians are exalted to the dignity and are invested with the office, implied in these words. The word "kings,"as applied to them, refers to the exalted rank and dignity which they will have; to the fact that they, in common with their Saviour, will reign triumphant over all enemies; and that, having gained a victory over sin and death and hell, they may be represented as reigning together. The word "priests"refers to the fact that they are engaged in the holy service of God, or that they offer to him acceptable worship. See the notes on 1Pe 2:5.

And his Father - Even his Father; that is, the Saviour has redeemed them, and elevated them to this exalted rank, in order that they may thus be engaged in the service of his Father.

To him be glory - To the Redeemer; for so the construction Rev 1:5 demands. The word "glory"here means praise, or honor, implying a wish that all honor should be shown him.

And dominion - This word means literally "strength"- κράτος kratos ; but it here means the strength, power, or authority which is exercised over others, and the expression is equivalent to a wish that he may reign.

Barnes: Rev 1:7

Behold he cometh with clouds - That is, the Lord Jesus, when he returns, will come accompanied with clouds. This is in accordance with the uniform representation respecting the return of the Saviour. See the notes on Mat 24:30. Compare Mat 26:64; Mar 13:26; Mar 14:62; Act 1:9, Act 1:11. Clouds are appropriate symbols of majesty, and God is often represented as appearing in that manner. See Exo 19:18; Psa 18:11 ff; Isa 19:1. So, among the pagan, it was common to represent their divinities as appearing clothed with a cloud:

"tandem venias, precamur,

Nube candentes humeros amictus.

Augur Apollo "

The design of introducing this representation of the Saviour, and of the manner in which he would appear, seems to be to impress the mind with a sense of the majesty and glory. of that being from whom John received his revelations. His rank, his character, his glory were such as to demand respect; all should reverence him, and all should feel that his communications about the future were important to them, for they must soon appear before him.

And every eye shall see him - He will be made visible in his glory to all that dwell upon the earth; to all the children of men. Everyone, therefore, has an interest in what he says; everyone has this in certain prospect, that he shall see the Son of God coming as a Judge.

And they also which pierced him - When he died; that is, they who pierced his hands, his feet, and his side. There is probably an allusion here to Zec 12:10; "They shall look upon me whom they have pierced, and they shall mourn."The language here is so general that it may refer to any act of looking upon the pierced Saviour, and might be applied to those who would see him on the cross and to their compunctious visitings then; or to their subsequent reflections, as they might look by faith on him whom they had crucified; or to the feeling of any sinners who should reflect that their sins had been the cause of the death of the Lord Jesus; or it might be applied, as it is here, more specifically to the feelings which his murderers will have when they shall see him coming in his glory. All sinners who have pierced his heart by their crimes will then behold him and will mourn over their treatment of him; they, in a special manner, who imbrued their hands in his blood will then remember their crime and be overwhelmed with alarm. The design of what is here said seems to be, to show that the coming of the Saviour will be an event of great interest to all mankind. None can be indifferent to it, for all will see him. His friends will hail his advent (compare Rev 22:20), but all who were engaged in putting him to death, and all who in any manner have pierced his heart by sin and ingratitude, unless they shall have repented, will have occasion of bitter lamentation when he shall come. There are none who have a more fearful doom to anticipate than the murderers of the Son of God, including those who actually put him to death, and those who would have engaged in such an act had they been present, and those who, by their conduct, have done all they could to pierce and wound him by their ingratitude.

And all kindreds of the earth - Greek, "All the tribes - φυλαὶ phulai of the earth."This language is the same which the Saviour uses in Mat 24:30. See the notes on that passage. The word "tribes"is what is commonly applied to the twelve tribes of Israel, and thus used, it would describe the inhabitants of the Holy Land; but it may be used to denote nations and people in general, as descended from a common ancestor, and the connection requires that it should be understood in this sense here, since it is said that "every eye shall see him"; that is, all that dwell on the face of the earth.

Shall wail because of him - On account of him; on account of their treatment of him. The word rendered "wail"- κόπτω koptō - means properly to beat, to cut; then to beat or cut oneself in the breast as an expression of sorrow; and then to lament, to cry aloud in intense grief. The coming of the Saviour will be an occasion of this:

(a)\caps1     b\caps0 ecause it will be an event which will call the sins of people to remembrance, and

(b)\caps1     b\caps0 ecause they will be overwhelmed with the apprehension of the wrath to come.

Nothing would fill the earth with greater consternation than the coming of the Son of God in the clouds of heaven; nothing could produce so deep and universal alarm. This fact, which no one can doubt, is proof that people feel that they are guilty, since, if they were innocent, they would have nothing to dread by his appearing. It is also a proof that they believe in the doctrine of future punishment, since, if they do not, there is no reason why they should be alarmed at his coming. Surely people would not dread his appearing if they really believed that all will be saved. Who dreads the coming of a benefactor to bestow favors on him? Who dreads the appearing of a jailer to deliver him from prison; of a physician to raise him up from a bed of pain; of a deliverer to knock off the fetters of slavery? And how can it be that people should be alarmed at the coming of the Saviour, unless their consciences tell them that they have much to fear in the future? The presence of the Redeemer in the clouds of heaven would destroy all the hopes of those who believe in the doctrine of universal salvation - as the approach of death now often does. People believe that there is much to be dreaded in the future world, or they would not fear the coming of Him who shall wind up the affairs of the human race.

Even so, Amen - ναὶ, ἀμήν nai , amēn . "A double expression of "so be it, assuredly, certainly,"one in Greek and the other in Hebrew"(Prof. Stuart). Compare Rom 8:16, "Abba, Father"- ἀββᾶ, ὁ πατήρ abba , ho patēr . The idea which John seems to intend to convey is, that the coming of the Lord Jesus, and the consequences which he says will follow, are events which are altogether certain. This is not the expression of a wish that it may be so, as our common translation would seem to imply, but a strong affirmation that it will be so. In some passages, how. over, the word ( ναὶ nai ) expresses assent to what is said, implying approbation of it as true, or as desirable. "Even so, Father: for so it seemed good in thy sight,"Mat 11:26; Luk 10:21. So in Rev 16:7, "Even so ( ναὶ nai ), Lord God Almighty."So in Rev 22:20, "Even so ( ναὶ nai ), come, Lord Jesus."The word "Amen"here seems to determine the meaning of the phrase, and to make it the affirmation of a "certainty,"rather than the expression of a "wish."

Barnes: Rev 1:8

I am Alpha and Omega - These are the first and the last letters of the Greek alphabet, and denote properly the first and the last. So in Rev 22:13, where the two expressions are united, "I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last."So in Rev 1:17, the speaker says of himself, "I am the first and the last."Among the Jewish rabbis it was common to use the first and the last letters of the Hebrew alphabet to denote the whole of anything, from beginning to end. Thus, it is said, "Adam transgressed the whole law, from ‘ Aleph ( א ) to Taw ( תּ ).""Abraham kept the whole law, from ‘ Aleph ( א ) to Taw ( תּ )."The language here is what would properly denote "eternity"in the being to whom it is applied, and could be used in reference to no one but the true God. It means that he is the beginning and the end of all things; that he was at the commencement, and will be at the close; and it is thus equivalent to saying that he has always existed, and that he will always exist. Compare Isa 41:4, "I the Lord, the first, and with the last"; Isa 44:6, "I am the first, and I am the last; and beside me there is no God"; Isa 48:12, "I am he; I am the first, I also am the last."There can be no doubt that the language here would be naturally understood as implying divinity, and it could be properly applied to no one but the true God. The obvious interpretation here would be to apply this to the Lord Jesus; for:

(a)\caps1     i\caps0 t is he who is spoken of in the verses preceding, and

(b)\caps1     t\caps0 here can be no doubt that the same language is applied to him in Rev 1:11.

As there is, however, a difference of reading in this place in the Greek text, and as it can. not be absolutely certain that the writer meant to refer to the Lord Jesus specifically here, this cannot be adduced with propriety as a proof-text to demonstrate his divinity. Many mss., instead of "Lord," κυρίος kurios , read "God," Θεὸς Theos and this reading is adopted by Griesbach, Tittman, and Hahn, and is now regarded as the correct reading. There is no real incongruity in supposing, also, that the writer here meant to refer to God as such, since the introduction of a reference to him would not be inappropriate to his manifest design. Besides, a portion of the language used here, "which is, and was, and is to come,"is what would more naturally suggest a reference to God as such, than to the Lord Jesus Christ. See Rev 1:4. The object for which this passage referring to the "first and the last - to him who was, and is, and is to come,"is introduced here evidently is, to show that as he was clothed with omnipotence, and would continue to exist through all ages to come as he had existed in all ages past, there could be no doubt about his ability to execute all which it is said he would execute.

Saith the Lord - Or, saith God, according to what is now regarded as the correct reading.

Which is, and which was, ... - See the notes on Rev 1:4.

The Almighty - An appellation often applied to God, meaning that he has all power, and used here to denote that he is able to accomplish what is disclosed in this book.

Barnes: Rev 1:9

I John, who also am your brother - Your Christian brother; who am a fellow-Christian with you. The reference here is doubtless to the members of the seven churches in Asia, to whom the epistles in the following chapters were addressed, and to whom the whole book seems to have been sent. In the previous verse, the writer had closed the salutation, and he here commences a description of the circumstances under which the vision appeared to him. He was in a lonely island, to which he had been banished on account of his attachment to religion; he was in a state of high spiritual enjoyment on the day devoted to the sacred remembrance of the Redeemer; he suddenly heard a voice behind him, and turning saw the Son of man himself, in glorious form, in the midst of seven golden lamps, and fell at his feet as dead.

And companion in tribulation - Your partner in affliction. That is, he and they were suffering substantially the same kind of trials on account of their religion. It is evident from this that some form of persecution was then raging, in which they were also sufferers, though in their case it did not lead to banishment. The leader, the apostle, the aged and influential preacher, was banished; but there were many other forms of trial which they might be called to endure who remained at home. What they were we have not the means of knowing with certainty.

And in the kingdom and patience of Jesus Christ - The meaning of this passage is, that he, and those whom he addressed, were not only companions in affliction, but were fellow-partners in the kingdom of the Redeemer; that is, they shared the honor and the privileges pertaining to that kingdom; and that they were fellow-partners in the "patience"of Jesus Christ, that is, in enduring with patience whatever might follow from their being his friends and followers. The general idea is, that alike in privileges and sufferings they were united. They shared alike in the results of their attachment to the Saviour.

Was in the isle that is called Patmos - Patmos is one of the cluster of islands in the Aegean Sea anciently called the "Sporades."It lies between the island of Icaria and the promontory of Miletus. It is merely mentioned by the ancient geographers (Plin. Hist. Nat., iv., 23; Strabo, x., 488). It is now called Patino or Patmoso. It is some six or eight miles in length, and not more than a mile in breadth, being about fifteen miles in circumference. It has neither trees nor rivers, nor has it any land for cultivation, except some little nooks among the ledges of rocks. On approaching the island, the coast is high, and consists of a succession of capes, which form so many ports, some of which are excellent. The only one in use, however, is a deep bay, sheltered by High mountains on every side but one, where it is protected by a projecting cape. The town attached to this port is situated upon a high rocky mountain, rising immediately from the sea, and this, with the Scala below upon the shore, consisting of some ships and houses, forms the only inhabited site of the island.

Though Patmos is deficient in trees, it abounds in flowery plants and shrubs. Walnuts and other fruit trees are raised in the orchards, and the wine of Patmos is the strongest and the best flavored in the Greek islands. Maize and barley are cultivated, but not in a quantity sufficient for the use of the inhabitants and for a supply of their own vessels, and others which often put into their good harbor for provisions. The inhabitants now do not exceed four or five thousand; many of whom are emigrants from the neighboring continent. About halfway up the mountain there is shown a natural grotto in a rock, where John is said to have seen his visions and to have written this book. Near this is a small church, connected with which is a school or college, where the Greek language is taught; and on the top of the hill, and in the center of the island, is a monastery, which, from its situation, has a very majestic appearance (Kitto’ s Cyclopoedia of Bib. Literally). The annexed engraving is supposed to give a good representation of the appearance of the island,

It is commonly supposed that John was banished to this island by Domitian, about 94 a.d. No place could have been selected for banishment which would accord better with such a design than this. Lonely, desolate, barren, uninhabited, seldom visited, it had all the requisites which could be desired for a place of punishment; and banishment to that place would accomplish all that a persecutor could wish in silencing an apostle, without putting him to death. It was no uncommon thing, in ancient times, to banish people from their country; either sending them forth at large, or specifying some particular place to which they were to go. The whole narrative leads us to suppose that this place was designated as that to which John was to be sent. Banishment to an island was a common mode of punishment; and there was a distinction made by this act in favor of those who were thus banished. The more base, low, and vile of criminals were commonly condemned to work in the mines; the more decent and respectable were banished to some lonely island. See the authorities quoted in Wetstein, "in loco."

For the word of God - On account of the word of God; that is, for holding and preaching the gospel. See the notes on Rev 1:2. It cannot mean that he was sent there with a view to his "preaching"the Word of God; for it is inconceivable that he should have been sent from Ephesus to preach in such a little, lonely, desolate place, where indeed there is no evidence that there were any inhabitants; nor can it mean that he was sent there by the Spirit of God to receive and record this revelation, for it is clear that the revelation could have been made elsewhere, and such a place afforded no special advantages for this. The fair interpretation is, in accordance with all the testimony of antiquity, that he was sent there in a time of persecution, as a punishment for preaching the gospel.

And for the testimony of Jesus Christ - See the notes on Rev 1:2. He did not go there to bear testimony to Jesus Christ on that island, either by preaching or recording the visions in this book, but he went because he had preached the doctrines which testified of Christ.

Barnes: Rev 1:10

I was in the Spirit - This cannot refer to his own spirit, for such an expression would be unintelligible. The language then must refer to some unusual state, or to some influence that had been brought to bear upon him from without, that was appropriate to such a day. The word "Spirit"may refer either to the Holy Spirit, or to some state of mind such as the Holy Spirit produces - a spirit of elevated devotion, a state of high and uncommon religious enjoyment. It is clear that John does not mean here to say that he was under the influence of the Holy Spirit in such a sense as that he was inspired, for the command to make a record, as well as the visions, came subsequently to the time referred to. The fair meaning of the passage is, that he was at that time favored, in a large measure, with the influences of the Holy Spirit - the spirit of true devotion; that he had a high state of religious enjoyment, and was in a condition not inappropriate to the remarkable communications which were made to him on that day.

The state of mind in which he was at the time here referred to, is not such as the prophets are often represented to have been in when under the prophetic inspiration (compare Eze 1:1; Eze 8:3; Eze 40:2; Jer 24:1), and which was often accompanied with an entire prostration of bodily strength (compare Num 24:4); 1Sa 19:24; Eze 1:28; Dan 10:8-10; Rev 1:17), but such as any Christian may experience when in a high state of religious enjoyment. He was not yet under the prophetic ecstasy (compare Act 10:10; Act 11:5; Act 22:17), but was, though in a lonely and barren island, and far away from the privileges of the sanctuary, permitted to enjoy, in a high degree, the consolations of religion - an illustration of the great truth that God can meet his people anywhere; that, when in solitude and in circumstances of outward affliction, when persecuted and cast out, when deprived of the public means of grace and the society of religious friends, He can meet them with the abundant consolations of His grace, and pour joy and peace into their souls. This state was not inappropriate to the revelations which were about to be made to John, but this itself was not that state. It was a state which seems to have resulted from the fact, that on that desert island he devoted the day to the worship of God, and, by honoring the day dedicated to the memory of the risen Saviour, found, what all will find, that it was attended with rick spiritual influences on his soul.

On the Lord’ s day - The word rendered here as "Lord’ s"( κυριακῇ kuriakē ), occurs only in this place and in 1Co 11:20, where it is applied to the Lord’ s supper. It properly means "pertaining to the Lord"; and, so far as this word is concerned, it might mean a day "pertaining to the Lord,"in any sense, or for any reason; either because he claimed it as his own, and had set it apart for his own service, or because it was designed to commemorate some important event pertaining to him, or because it was observed in honor of him. It is clear:

(1) That this refers to some day which was distinguished from all other days of the week, and which would be sufficiently designated by the use of this term.

\caps1 (2) t\caps0 hat it was a day which was for some reason regarded as especially a day of the Lord, or especially devoted to him.

\caps1 (3) i\caps0 t would further appear that this was a day particularly devoted to the Lord Jesus; for:

\tx720 \tx1080 (a)\caps1     t\caps0 hat is the natural meaning of the word "Lord"as used in the New Testament (compare the notes on Act 1:24); and

(b)\caps1     i\caps0 f the Jewish Sabbath were intended to be designated, the word "Sabbath"would have been used.

The term was used generally by the early Christians to denote the first day of the week. It occurs twice in the Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians (about 101 a.d.), who calls the Lord’ s day "the queen and prince of all days."Chrysostom (on Ps. 119) says, "It was called the Lord’ s day because the Lord rose from the dead on that day."Later fathers make a marked distinction between the "Sabbath"and the "Lord’ s day"; meaning by the former the Jewish "Sabbath,"or the seventh day of the week, and by the latter the first day of the week, kept holy by Christians. So Theodoret (Fab. Haeret. ii. 1), speaking of the Ebionites, says, "They keep the Sabbath according to the Jewish law, and sanctify the Lord’ s day in like manner as we do"(Prof. Stuart). The strong probability is, that the name was given to this day in honor of the Lord Jesus, and because he rose on that day from the dead. No one can doubt that it was an appellation given to the first day of the week; and the passage, therefore, proves:

\caps1 (1) t\caps0 hat that day was thus early distinguished in some special manner, so that the mere mention of it would be sufficient to identify it in the minds of those to whom the apostle wrote;

\caps1 (2) t\caps0 hat it was in some sense regarded as devoted to the Lord Jesus, or was designed in some way to commemorate what he had done; and,

\caps1 (3) t\caps0 hat if this book were written by the apostle John, the observance of that day has the apostolic sanction. He had manifestly, in accordance with a prevailing custom, set apart this day in honor of the Lord Jesus. Though alone, he was engaged on that day in acts of devotion. Though far away from the sanctuary, he enjoyed what all Christians hope to enjoy on such a day of rest, and what not a few do in fact enjoy in its observance. We may remark, in view of this statement:

\tx720 \tx1080 (a) that when away from the sanctuary, and deprived of its privileges, we should nevertheless not fail to observe the Christian Sabbath. If on a bed of sickness, if in a land of strangers, if on the deep, if in a foreign clime, if on a lonely island, as John was, where we have none of the advantages of public worship, we should yet honor the Sabbath. We should worship God alone, if we have none to unite with us; we should show to those around us, if we are with strangers, by our dress and our conversation, by a serious and devent manner, by abstinence from labor, and by a resting from travel, that we devoutly regard this day as set apart for God.

(b) We may expect, in such circumstances, and with such a devout observance of the day, that God will meet with us and bless us. It was on a lonely island, far away from the sanctuary and from the society of Christian friends, that the Saviour met "the beloved disciple,"and we may trust it will be so with us. For on such a desert island, in a lonely forest, on the deep, or amid strangers in a foreign land, he can as easily meet us as in the sanctuary where we have been accustomed to worship, and when surrounded by all the privileges of a Christian land. No man, at home or abroad, among friends or strangers, enjoying the privileges of the sanctuary, or deprived of those privileges, ever kept the Christian Sabbath in a devout manner without profit to his own soul; and, when deprived of the privileges of public worship, the visitations of the Saviour to the soul may be more than a compensation for all our privations. Who would not be willing to be banished to a lonely island like Patmos, if he might enjoy such a glorious vision of the Redeemer as John was favored with there?

And heard behind me a great voice - A loud voice. This was of course sudden, and took him by surprise.

As of a trumpet - Loud as a trumpet. This is evidently the only point in the comparison. It does not mean that the tones of the voice resembled a trumpet, but only that it was clear, loud, and distinct like a trumpet. A trumpet is a well-known wind instrument, distinguished for the clearness of its sounds, and was used for calling assemblies together, for marshalling hosts for battle, etc. The Hebrew word employed commonly to denote a trumpet שׁופר showpar means "bright"and "clear,"and is supposed to have been given to the instrument on account of its clear and shrill sound, as we now give the name "clarion"to a certain wind-instrument. The Hebrew trumpet is often referred to as employed, on account of its clearness, to summon people together, Exo 19:13; Num 10:10; Jdg 7:18, etc.; 1Sa 13:3; 2Sa 15:10.

Barnes: Rev 1:11

Saying - That is, literally, "the trumpet saying."It was, however, manifestly the voice that addressed these words to John, though they seemed to come through a trumpet, and hence the trumpet is represented as uttering them.

I am Alpha and Omega - Rev 1:8.

The first and the last - An explanation of the terms Alpha and Omega. See the notes on Rev 1:8.

And, What thou seest - The voice, in addition to the declaration, "I am Alpha and Omega,"gave this direction that he should record what he saw. The phrase, "what thou seest,"refers to what would pass before him in vision, what he there saw, and what he would see in the extraordinary manifestations which were to be made to him.

Write in a book - Make a fair record of it all; evidently meaning that he should describe things as they occurred, and implying that the vision would be held so long before the eye of his mind that he would be able to transfer it to the "book."The fair and obvious interpretation of this is, that he was to make the record in the island of Patmos, and then send it to the churches. Though Patmos was a lonely and barren place, and though probably here were few or no inhabitants there, yet there is no improbability in supposing that John could have found writing materials there, nor even that he may have been permitted to take such materials with him. He seems to have been banished for "preaching,"not for "writing"; and there is no evidence that the materials for writing would be withheld from him. John Bunyan, in Bedford jail, found materials for writing the "Pilgrim’ s Progress,"and there is no evidence that the apostle John was denied the means of recording his thoughts when in the island of Patmos. The word "book"here ( βιβλίον biblion ), would more properly mean a roll or scroll, that being the form in which books were anciently made. See the notes on Luk 4:17.

And send it unto the seven churches which are in Asia - The churches which are immediately designated, not implying that there were no other churches in Asia, but that there were particular reasons for sending it to these. He was to send all that he should "see"; to wit, all that is recorded in this volume or book of "Revelation."Part of this Rev. 2; Rev. 3 would pertain particularly to them; the remainder Rev. 4\endash 22 would pertain to them no more than to others, but still they would have the common interest in it which all the church would have, and, in their circumstances of trial, there might be important reasons why they should see the assurance that the church would ultimately triumph over all its enemies. They were to derive from it themselves the consolation which it was suited to impart in time of trial, and to transmit it to future times, for the welfare of the church at large.

Unto Ephesus - Perhaps mentioned first as being the capital of that portion of Asia Minor; the most important city of the seven; the place where John had preached, and whence he had been banished. For a particular description of these seven churches, see the notes on the epistles addressed to them in Rev. 2\endash 3.

Barnes: Rev 1:12

And I turned to see the voice that spake with me - He naturally turned round to see who it was that spake to him in this solitary and desolate place, where he thought himself to be alone. To see the "voice"here means to see the "person"who spake.

And being turned, I saw seven golden candlesticks - These were the "first"things that met his eye. This must have been in "vision,"of course, and the meaning is, that there "seemed"to be there seven such lamps or candelabras. The word rendered "candlesticks"( λυχνία luchnia ) means properly a light-stand, lampstand - something to bear up a light. It would be applied to anything that was used for this purpose; and nothing is intimated, in the use of the word, in regard to the form or dimensions of the light-bearers. Lamps were more commonly used at that time than candles, and it is rather to be supposed that these were designed to be lamp-bearers, or lamp-sustainers, than candle-sticks. They were seven in number; not one branching into seven, but seven standing apart, and so far from each other that he who appeared to John could stand among them. The lamp-bearers evidently sustained each a light, and these gave a special brilliancy to the scene. It is not improbable that, as they were designed to represent the seven churches of Asia, they were arranged in an order resembling these churches. The scene is not laid in the temple, as many suppose, for there is nothing that resembles the arrangements in the temple except the mere fact of the lights. The scene as yet is in Patmos, and there is no evidence that John did not regard himself as there, or that he fancied for a moment that he was translated to the temple in Jerusalem. There can be no doubt as to the design of this representation, for it is expressly declared Rev 1:20 that the seven lamp-bearers were intended to represent the seven churches. Light is often used in the Scriptures as an emblem of true religion; Christians are represented as "the light of the world"(Mat 5:14; compare Phi 2:15; Joh 8:12), and a Christian church may be represented as a light standing in the midst of surrounding darkness.

Barnes: Rev 1:13

And in the midst of the seven candlesticks - Standing among them, so as to be encircled with them. This shows that the representation could not have been like that of the vision of Zechariah Zec 4:2, where the prophet sees "a candlestick all of gold, with a bowl upon the top of it, and his seven lamps thereon."In the vision as it appeared to John, there was not one lampbearer, with seven lamps or branches, but there were seven lamp-bearers, so arranged that one in the likeness of the Son of man could stand in the midst of them.

One like unto the Son of man - This was evidently the Lord Jesus Christ himself, elsewhere so often called "the Son of man."That it was the Saviour himself is apparent from Rev 1:18. The expression rendered "like unto the Son of man,"should have been "like unto a son of man"; that is, like a man, a human being, or in a human form. The reasons for so interpreting it are:

(a)\caps1     t\caps0 hat the Greek is without the article, and

(b)\caps1     t\caps0 hat, as it is rendered in our version, it seems to make the writer say that he was like himself, since the expression "the Son of man"is in the New Testament but another name for the Lord Jesus.

The phrase is often applied to him in the New Testament, and always, except in three instances Act 7:56; Rev 1:13; Rev 14:14, by the Saviour himself, evidently to denote his warm interest in man, or his relationship to man; to signify that he was a man, and wished to designate himself eminently as such. See the notes on Mat 8:20. In the use of this phrase in the New Testament, there is probably an allusion to Dan 7:13. The idea would seem to be, that he whom he saw resembled "the Son of man"- the Lord Jesus, as he had seen him in the days of his flesh though it would appear that he did not know that it was he until he was informed of it, Rev 1:18. Indeed, the costume in which he appeared was so unlike that in which John had been accustomed to see the Lord Jesus in the days of his flesh, that it cannot be well supposed that he would at once recognize him as the same.

Clothed with a garment down to the foot - A robe reaching down to the feet, or to the ankles, yet so as to leave the feet themselves visible. The allusion here, doubtless, is to a long, loose, flowing robe, such as was worn by kings. Compare the notes on Isa 6:1.

And girt about the paps - About the breast. It was common, and is still, in the East, to wear a girdle to confine the robe, as well as to form a beautiful ornament. This was commonly worn about the middle of the person, or "the loins,"but it would seem also that it was sometimes worn around the breast. See the notes on Mat 5:38-41.

With a golden girdle - Either wholly made of gold, or, more probably, richly ornamented with gold. This would naturally suggest the idea of one of rank, probably one of princely rank. The raiment here assumed was not that of a priest, but that of a king. It was very far from being that in which the Redeemer appeared when he dwelt upon the earth, and was rather designed to denote his royal state as he is exalted in heaven. He is not indeed represented with a crown and scepter here, and perhaps the leading idea is that of one of exalted rank, of unusual dignity, of one suited to inspire awe and respect. In other circumstances, in this book, this same Redeemer is represented as wearing a crown, and going forth to conquest. See Rev 19:12-16. Here the representation seems to have been designed to impress the mind with a sense of the greatness and glory of the personage who thus suddenly made his appearance.

Barnes: Rev 1:14

His head and his hairs were white like wool, as white as snow - Exceedingly or perfectly white - the first suggestion to the mind of the apostle being that of wool, and then the thought occurring of its extreme whiteness resembling snow - the purest white of which the mind conceives. The comparison with wool and snow to denote anything especially white is not uncommon. See Isa 1:18. Prof. Stuart supposes that this means, not that his hairs were literally white, as if with age, which he says would be incongruous to one just risen from the dead, clothed with immortal youth and vigor, but that it means radiant, bright, resplendent - similar to what occurred on the transfiguration of the Saviour, Mat 17:2. But to this it may be replied:

(a)    That this would not accord well with that with which his hair is compared - snow and wool, particularly the latter.

(b)    The usual meaning of the word is more obvious here, and not at all inappropriate.

The representation was suited to signify majesty and authority; and this would be best accomplished by the image of one who was venerable in years. Thus, in the vision that appeared to Daniel Dan 7:9, it is said of him who is there called the "Ancient of Days,"that "his garment was white as snow, and the hair of his head like the pure wool."It is not improbable that John had that representation in his eye, and that therefore he would be impressed with the conviction that this was a manifestation of a divine person. We are not necessarily to suppose that this is the form in which the Saviour always appears now in heaven, anymore than we are to suppose that God appears always in the form in which he was manifested to Isaiah Isa 6:1, to Daniel Dan 7:9, or to Moses and Aaron, Nadab and Abihu in the mount, Exo 24:10-11. The representation is, that this form was assumed for the purpose of impressing the mind of the apostle with a sense of his majesty and glory.

And his eyes were as a flame of fire - Bright, sharp, penetrating; as if everything was light before them, or they would penetrate into the thoughts of people. Such a representation is not uncommon. We speak of a lightning glance, a fiery look, etc. In Dan 10:6, it is said of the man who appeared to the prophet on the banks of the river Hiddekel, that his eyes were "as lamps of fire."Numerous instances of this comparison from the Greek and Latin Classics may be seen in Wetstein, in loco.

Barnes: Rev 1:15

And his feet like unto fine brass - Compare Dan 10:6, "And his arms and his feet like in color to polished brass."See also Eze 1:7, "and they"(the feet of the living creatures) "sparkled like the color of burnished brass."The word used here - χαλκολιβάνω chalkolibanō - occurs in the New Testament only here and in Rev 2:18. It is not found in the Septuagint. The word properly means "white brass"(probably compounded of χαλκός chalkos , brass, and λίβανος libanos , whiteness, from the Hebrew לבן laban , white). Others regard it as from χαλκός chalkos , brass, and λιπαρόν liparon , clear. The metal referred to was undoubtedly a species of brass distinguished for its clearness or whiteness. Brass is a compound metal, composed of copper and zinc. The color varies much according to the different proportions of the various ingredients. The Vulgate here renders the word "aurichalcum,"a mixture of gold and of brass - perhaps the same as the ἠλεκτρον ēlektron - the electrum of the ancients, composed of gold and of silver, usually in the proportion of four parts gold and one part silver, and distinguished for its brilliancy. See Robinson, Lexicon, and Wetstein, in loco. The kind of metal here referred to, however, would seem to be some compound of brass - of a whitish and brilliant color. The exact proportion of the ingredients in the metal here referred to cannot now be determined.

As if they burned in a furnace - That is, his feet were so bright that they seemed to be like a beautiful metal glowing intensely in the midst of a furnace. Anyone who has looked upon the dazzling and almost insupportable brilliancy of metal in a furnace, can form an idea of the image here presented.

And his voice as the sound of many waters - As the roar of the ocean, or of a cataract. Nothing could be a more sublime description of majesty and authority than to compare the voice of a speaker with the roar of the ocean. This comparison often occurs in the Scriptures. See Eze 43:2, "And behold the glory of the God of Israel came from the east: and his voice was like the sound of many waters: and the earth shined with his glory."So Rev 14:2; Rev 19:6. Compare Eze 1:24; Dan 10:6.

Barnes: Rev 1:16

And he had in his right hand seven stars - Emblematic of the angels of the seven churches. How he held them is not said. It may be that they seemed to rest on his open palm; or it may be that he seemed to hold them as if they were arranged in a certain order, and with some sort of attachment, so that they could be grasped. It is not improbable that, as in the case of the seven lamp-bearers (see the notes at Rev 1:13), they were so arranged as to represent the relative position of the seven churches.

And out of his mouth went a sharp two-edged sword - On the form of the ancient two-edged sword, see the notes on Eph 6:17. The two edges were designed to cut both ways; and such a sword is a striking emblem of the penetrating power of truth, or of words that proceed from the mouth; and this is designed undoubtedly to be the representation here - that there was some symbol which showed that his words, or his truth, had the power of cutting deep, or penetrating the soul. So in Isa 49:2, it is said of the same personage, "And he hath made my mouth like a sharp sword."See the notes on that verse. So in Heb 4:12, "The Word of God is quick and powerful, sharper than any two-edged sword,"etc. So it is said of Pericles by Aristophanes:

"His powerful speech.

Pierced the hearer’ s soul, and left behind.

Deep in his bosom its keen point infixt."

A similar figure often occurs in Arabic poetry. "As arrows his words enter into the heart."See Gesenius, Commentary zu, Isa 49:2. The only difficulty here is in regard to the apparently incongruous representation of a sword seeming to proceed from the mouth; but it is not perhaps necessary to suppose that John means to say that he saw such an image. He heard him speak; he felt the penetrating power of his words; and they were as if a sharp sword proceeded from his mouth. They penetrated deep into the soul, and as he looked on him it seemed as if a sword came from his mouth. Perhaps it is not necessary to suppose that there was even any visible representation of this - either of a sword or of the breath proceeding from his mouth appearing to take this form, as Prof. Stuart supposes. It may be wholly a figurative representation, as Heinrichs and Ewald suppose. Though there were visible and impressive symbols of his majesty and glory presented to the eyes, it is not necessary to suppose that there were visible symbols of his words.

And his countenance - His face. There had been before particular descriptions of some parts of his face - as of his eyes - but this is a representation of his whole aspect; of the general splendor and brightness of his countenance.

Was as the sun shineth in his strength - In his full splendor when unobscured by clouds; where his rays are in no way intercepted. Compare Jdg 5:31; "But let them that love him (the Lord) be as the sun when he goeth forth in his might"; 2Sa 23:4, "And he shall be as the light of the morning, when the sun ariseth, even a morning without clouds"; Psa 19:5, "Which (the sun) is as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber, and rejoiceth as a strong man to run a race."There could be no more striking description of the majesty and glory of the countenance than to compare it with the overpowering splendor of the sun. This closes the description of the personage that appeared to John. The design was evidently to impress him with a sense of his majesty and glory, and to prepare the way for the authoritative nature of the communications which he was to make. It is obvious that this appearance must have been assumed.

The representation is not that of the Redeemer as he rose from the dead - a middle-aged man; nor is it clear that it was the same as on the mount of transfiguration - where, for anything that appears, he retained his usual aspect and form though temporarily invested with extraordinary brilliancy; nor is it the form in which we may suppose he ascended to heaven for there is no evidence that he was thus transformed when he ascended; nor is it that of a priest - for all the special habiliments of a Jewish priest are missing in this description. The appearance assumed is, evidently, in accordance with various representations of God as he appeared to Ezekiel, to Isaiah, and to Daniel - what was a suitable manifestation of a divine being - of one clothed in the majesty and power of God. We are not to infer from this, that this is in fact the appearance of the Redeemer now in heaven, or that this is the form in which he will appear when he comes to judge the world. Of his appearance in heaven we have no knowledge; of the aspect which he will assume when he comes to judge people we have no certain information. We are necessarily quite as ignorant of this as we are of what will be our own form and appearance after the resurrection from the dead.

Poole: Rev 1:1

The Preface To The Annotations Upon The Revelation

Although some particular heretics, such as Cerdon and Marcyon, have doubted the Divine authority of this mysterious piece of holy writ, and some better men in the primitive times doubted of it, the manuscript copy of it having been at first reserved in few hands, and (as some think) in the fewer because of the affairs and fate of the Roman empire revealed in it; yet, besides its general reception as such by the church in all late ages, there is in it such a harmony, both with Daniel’ s prophecy in the Old Testament, and with the types made use of by the holy prophets; such manifest allusions to the whole order and economy of the Jewish church; such an agreement of the doctrine contained in it with the doctrine of the Old and New Testament, concerning God and Christ, the resurrection from the dead, and the day of judgment; and of the promises and threatenings contained in it, with the promises and threatenings in other parts of holy writ; that none who hath not a vanity to question the whole canon of Scripture, can reasonably dispute the Divine authority of this part of it.

It appeareth from Rev 1:1 , that John was the penman of it; and that this John was the beloved disciple, he that was the penman of one of the Gospels, hath been doubted by very few, and with very little reason, as will appear to him that will but wisely consider the terms and phrases used in it almost peculiar to this apostle, and hardly to be found in Scripture any where but in this book and the Gospel of John, such as calling Christ the Word, of which he bare record, &c. Nor is their objection of any validity, who object, that in the Gospel he ordinarily concealeth his name, which this author doth not; considering that in that he wrote a relation or history of things past, to be proved by many eye and ear witnesses; but here a Revelation or prophecy of things to come, to which his name was necessary, that men might judge by what authority he thus wrote.

For the time of his writing it, himself tells us, Rev 1:9 , that he received this Revelation from God, while he was in Patmos , for the word of God, and for the testimony of Jesus Christ; this was (if we may believe history, and we have nothing else to inform us) in the time of Domitian the Roman emperor, about the 94th or 95th year after the nativity of Christ; so as this book pleads a prescription of near sixteen hundred years, in which very few ever questioned its Divine authority.

For the scope of it, it is plainly told us, Rev 1:1 , deixai toiv douloiv autou a dei genesyai en tacei , to show unto his servants things which must shortly come to pass. The like we have repeated, Rev 22:6 : upon which account it is called a Revelation and a prophecy, neither of which terms agree to a narration or history, the object of which is some thing or things that are already past.

I will not undertake to give the certain and infallible sense of the several passages of this mysterious prophecy: In magnis voluisse sat est. But I have proceeded upon these few postulata:

1. That the whole of this book is no historical relation of things that were past before the year 95 or 96, or at least not long before, but of things to come; which hath made me wholly reject the notions of Grotius and Dr. Hammond, so far as they concerned the siege or destruction of Jerusalem, which was past twenty-six or twenty-seven years before John heard of this Revelation. I cannot understand how this can agree with Rev 1:1 , or Rev 22:6 .

2. That it contains a prophecy of the most remarkable things that happened either to the Roman empire, or to the church (all which was within the latitude of that in St. John’ s time) during the whole time of that; or which should happen after the decay of that, throughout the church, to the end of the world.

3. That this time is reasonably divided into three periods; the first determining with the Roman empire’ s, continuing pagan, 310 or 325 years after Christ: the second with the total ruin of antichrist; when that shall be I cannot tell: the third with Christ’ s coming to the last judgment. The first is by some called Regnum draconis ethnicum; the second, Vicariatus draconis antichristianus; the third, Regnum Christi, or, Status ecclesiae tranquillus.

4. I see no reason to dissent from those eminent men, who think that part of the Revelation which relates to the first period, and is predictive of what happened to the church of God until the time of Constantine the Great, 310 or 325 years after Christ, beginneth with Rev 4:1-11 and endeth with Rev 7:1-17 ; and that the silence in heaven for half an hour, mentioned Rev 8:1 , relateth to the rest which the church had from Constantine’ s time till the end of Theodosius’ s reign, about seventy or seventy-five years.

5. Where to fix the epocha, or beginning, of the one thousand two hundred and sixty years, or forty-two months, I cannot tell. That the mystery of iniquity begun to work in the apostles’ time, is evident from 1Th 2:7 ; and reason will tell us, that Rome, as it now stands, or as it was in the year 1606, was not built up in a day, the great corruptions then in it came in and grew up by degrees; but I cannot tell how to count antichrist’ s reign, but from the time Phocas humoured the pope with the title and style of "supreme" or "universal bishop"; from which time I should rather reckon the one thousand two hundred and sixty years, than from any time before.

6. I do agree with those who think the first eleven chapters contain the sum of whatsoever is prophesied concerning the two first periods, though many things falling within them are more particularly and fully opened, Rev 12:1-19:21 . Rev 12:1-17 gives us a particular account of the church during the first two periods. Rev 13:1-18 gives us a more particular account of antichrist, both in the secular power and in his ecclesiastical jurisdiction. Rev 15:1-8 and Rev 16:1-21 more fully open to us what should be done under the sixth trumpet. In Rev 17:1-18 we have a more full description of the beast with two horns, mentioned Rev 13:11 , which signified antichrist as sitting in the temple of God. Rev 18:1-24 more fully describes his fall, summarily before mentioned, Rev 14:1-20 . Rev 19:1-21 , so far as it concerneth the praise given to God for this, relates to that great dispensation of providence.

7. I take the third state of the church (to which I cannot conceive we are yet come, which I called its serene and quiet state) to be foretold and described, Rev 20:1-15 ; after which shall be the battle with all the wicked of the earth, which shall end in Christ’ s coming to judge the world, and the general resurrection in order to it.

8. I take the last two chapters to describe a state of the church agreeing to none but the church triumphant, and have accordingly interpreted them.

If any differ from me in any of these things, it will be no wonder if he disagreeth with me in the explication of the chapters and verses relating to them.

I dare not be positive as to the sense I have given, but shall only say it is what appeareth to me most probable. There have been found some in the tents of protestants, that have taken much pains to free the papacy from the imputation of antichrist. This I conceive was Grotius’ s design, in his interpretation of this book, as if it had been a history rather than a prophecy, and if a prophecy, fulfilled in less than two hundred and fifty years after it was published. As to the papacy being antichrist, I think that great person spake well, who would not be peremptory in the case, but said, it had so many of his marks, that upon a hue and cry for antichrist, he should apprehend him. I shall add, that if he were so apprehended and tried, he could never acquit himself either at the bar of Scripture or reason.

REVELATION CHAPTER 1

Rev 1:1-3 The preface.

Rev 1:4-6 John’ s salutation to the seven churches of Asia.

Rev 1:7 The coming of Christ,

Rev 1:8 his eternal majesty.

Rev 1:9-20 John relateth his vision of the Son of man with the

seven stars and the seven golden candlesticks.

The Revelation of Jesus Christ the Apocalypse, (as this book is sometimes called), that is, the discovering or unveiling of some hidden things; so the word revelation signifieth. The Greek word is often used in the New Testament, and is ordinarily translated so. It is called The Revelation of Jesus Christ because Christ received it from his Father, as the next words show.

Which God gave unto him as he was Mediator: by God here, is to be understood the Father, not exclusively to the Son, as if he were not God, but to show the order of working in the Holy Trinity, Joh 7:16 Joh 14:10 . Christ in his state of humiliation is said to learn of the Father; in his state of exaltation, to receive from the Father.

To show unto his servants to John, and by him to all saints that will be studious of things revealed.

Things which must shortly come to passa dei genesyai en tacei . This phrase puts us out of doubt, that this book is not a relation or narrative of things past, but a revelation or prediction of things to come: see also Rev 22:6,16 . Which makes me wonder at the confidence of a learned annotator of our that all things here relate, either to the siege of Jerusalem (which was past more than twenty years before this Revelation to St. John), or to pagan Rome, which, indeed, continued two hundred and odd years after this. But his notion is contrary to the general sense of all interpreters, whether the ancient fathers or modern writers. The phrase, indeed, signifies shortly, but never what was past, nor always what shall in a few days come to pass; see Luk 18:8 Rom 16:20 ; though indeed sometimes it signifies the time immediately following a command, as Act 12:7 Act 22:18 : and considering it is God’ s phrase, to whom a thousand years are but as yesterday, Psa 90:4 , and who calls the things that are not as if they were, and who manifestly calls all those years between Christ’ s coming and the end of the world (almost one thousand seven hundred of which are past already) the last days, we may allow him to say, those things should be shortly, which soon after should begin to be effected, though not finished till Christ’ s second coming. Though therefore we may allow this verse the key to open the whole Apocalypse, yet we must judge the learned author hath turned it the wrong way. Christ had foretold the ruin of Jerusalem, Mat 24:1-51 , nor was it now the matter of a prophecy, but history. The first six seals plainly show the state of the Christian church under Rome pagan; what shall we say to all things represented under the seventh seal, &c.?

And he sent and signified it by his angel first by one angel, and then by another, or (possibly) constantly by the same.

Unto his servant John: who this John was, we shall declare further, Rev 1:2,4 .

Poole: Rev 1:2

Who bare record of the word of God: this phrase determines the controversy about the penman of this part of holy writ, and puts it out of doubt that it was John the apostle and evangelist; the phrase so agrees to Joh 1:19,32,34 19:35 . The word in the Greek signifies, bare testimony to, or of, the word of God. Some understand Christ, so called, 1Jo 1:2 . Some would have the gospel meant by it; and if any think this the more probable sense, because, though Christ be elsewhere called the Word, yet he is not called the word of God; and it is not here in the dative, but the accusative case; I see no reason to contradict them.

And of the testimony of Jesus Christ: by the testimony of Christ is to be understood the doctrine of Christ, called so, because it is a testimony concerning him; or rather, that which he testified, who is elsewhere called the true and faithful witness.

And of all things that he saw: this may be understood with reference to what went before; so it agreeth with 1Jo 1:1-10 ; or to what followeth in this Revelation, made to him in visions in a great measure.

Poole: Rev 1:3

Blessed is he that readeth, and they that hear the words of this prophecy: from hence is well concluded, that this is a portion of holy writ to be read publicly and privately, otherwise no blessing would have been pronounced to the readers or the hearers of it. It is also well from hence concluded, that this book is no history of things done, but a prediction of things to come to pass; for though prophecy in some scriptures signifieth more largely the revelation of the Divine will, yet here it must signify strictly.

And keep those things which are written therein that keep it in memory, and live in view of it, and as persons that believe it; they are blessed, as they will from it be comforted, concerning all the sufferings of the church, and people of God.

For the time is at hand the season for the accomplishment of these things is nigh, not past, but the time when they shall begin to happen is not very far off.

Poole: Rev 1:4

John to the seven churches which are in Asia: John, the apostle and evangelist, writes either to all the churches of Asia under the notion of seven, (which is the number of perfection), or to those seven churches mentioned Rev 1:11 , Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea, seven famous places in Asia the Less, where the gospel was planted; which being the most famous churches in that part of the world, John is commanded to deposit this prophecy in their hands, by them to be communicated unto other churches. These churches were in the most famous cities of the Lesser Asia: some think John was the apostle that preached most in Asia, and founded these churches; others, that though they were founded by Peter and Paul, yet after their death John took upon him the charge of them. It is the opinion of some learned men, that the apostle did not, in the epistles to the churches in Asia, design only to tell them of their error, and prescribe to their cure; but that in writing to them, he assigns both a prophetical instruction of us all concerning the state of the church in all periods from that time to the day of judgment, and also to reprove and counsel all present and succeeding churches; but of this we may possibly speak more afterward.

Grace be unto you, and peace: grace and peace is the common apostolical salutation, as to the sense of which we have often spoken: the apostle wisheth them the free love of God, that is, grace, and the seal of it, Rom 5:1 , peace with God and their own consciences, and each with other.

From him which is, and which was, and which is to come: these words are a description of God, particularly of Jesus Christ in his eternity and immutability: he was from eternity; he is now; and he shall be for ever. Or, (as some), he was in his promises before his incarnation; he is now God manifested in the flesh; and he is to come as a Judge, to judge the quick and the dead. This was an ancient name of God, Exo 3:14 , I am that I am.— I AM hath sent me unto you. These words interpret the name Jehovah.

And from the seven Spirits which are before his throne it is very difficult to determine what is meant by the seven Spirits here before the throne: we read of them also, Rev 3:1 4:5 5:6 . Christ is described, Rev 3:1 , as having the seven Spirits of God. It is said, Rev 4:5 , that the seven lamps of fire burning before the throne, are the seven Spirits of God; and Rev 5:6 , that the Lamb’ s seven eyes were the seven Spirits of God. This is all the light we have from Scripture. Some think they are seven angels that are here meant. We read, Rev 8:2 , of seven angels that stood before God; and in Rev 15:6-8 , there is a like mention of seven angels; and Zec 4:2,10 , Zechariah had a vision of seven lamps, and seven pipes, which, Rev 1:10 , are said to be the eyes of the Lord, which run to and fro through the whole earth. But John saluting the churches with grace and peace from these seven Spirits, and joining them with Christ, they do not seem to be creatures, angels, that are here meant, but such a Being from whom grace and peace cometh. Others therefore understand by them, the seven workings of Divine Providence in his management of the affairs of the world, with relation to the church, of which we shall read after; but this also seems hard. The sense seems to be, and from the Holy Ghost, who, though but one spiritual Being, yet exerteth his influence many ways, and by various manifestations, called here seven Spirits, because all flow from the same Spirit. They are therefore called, Rev 4:5 , burning lamps; the Holy Ghost descending in the appearance of fire, Act 2:3,4 , and being compared to fire, Mat 3:11 . They are called the Lamb’ s seven eyes and seven horns, Rev 5:6 . Christ had the Spirit without measure; and the Holy Spirit is oft called the Spirit of Christ. This seemeth the best sense; the reader may find the objections to it answered in Mr. Pool’ s Synopsis Criticorum upon this verse.

Poole: Rev 1:5

And from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful witness: here is an express mention of Jesus Christ, because he was the procurer of our redemption, and our Mediator, to whom the Father committed all power as to the church. He is called the faithful and true witness; 1Ti 6:13 , he witnessed a good confession before Pontius Plate; he bare record of himself, Joh 8:13,14 : see also Isa 43:10 55:4 Joh 18:37 .

And the first begotten of the dead that is, who first rose from the dead, viz. by his own power, Joh 10:18 , and to die no more: see Act 13:34 1Co 15:20 .

And the prince of the kings of the earth: the King of kings, Rev 17:14 19:16 1Ti 6:15 . The first name here given to Christ speaketh his prophetical office, the second his priestly office, this last his kingly office.

Unto him that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood: here begins a doxology, or giving glory to Christ, (such forms are frequent in the Epistles), first, as he that washed us from our sins, both from the guilt and from the power and dominion of our sins, with his blood, paying a price, and satisfying God’ s justice for, and meriting our sanctification: see Heb 9:14 1Jo 1:7 .

Poole: Rev 1:6

And hath made us kings and priests unto God and his Father : kings, to rule over our own appetite, and govern ourselves by the law of his word, to fight and conquer the world, the flesh, and the devil. Kings in a spiritual sense, for our kingdom is like his from whom we derive it, not of this world; therefore he adds, unto God, to the honour and glory of God, for his service, who is the Father of Christ.

Priests, to offer up spiritual sacrifices, acceptable to God through the Beloved, 1Pe 2:5 ; our bodies as a living sacrifice, Rom 12:1 ; part of our estates, Phi 4:18 ; the sacrifice of praise, the fruit of our lips, Heb 13:15 . So as all the privileges of the Jews, Exo 19:6 , belong to us, and that in a more eminent manner. Through Christ we also are a royal priesthood, a peculiar people.

To him be glory and dominion for ever and ever. Amen: let all praise, and honour, and acknowledgments be paid, and all power ascribed, to him for ever.

Poole: Rev 1:7

St. John being to speak of the various afflictions of the church of God, which should immediately begin, and hold on during the whole time that Rome should continue heathen, and one thousand two hundred and sixty years after, during the whole reign of the beasts, prepareth Christians for it, by calling them by the eye of faith to see (though at a great distance) Christ coming to judgment, whom he speaks of as already coming, according to the usual style of prophets, who use to speak of those things that shall shortly be done, or certainly, as if they were already done. He describes the manner of Christ’ s coming to judgment, and saith,

he cometh with clouds that is, in a glorious manner; in the clouds with power and great glory, Mat 24:30 ; in his glory, and all the holy angels with him, Mat 25:31 ; with ten thousand of his saints, Jud 1:14 ; with a shout, the voice of the archangel, and the trump of God, 1Th 4:16 ; here, with clouds, bright and glorious clouds, not obscuring him, but making his appearance more glorious and terrible.

And every eye shall see him he shall come visibly, for, Act 1:11 , he shall so come, as he was seen going up to heaven: see Isa 40:5 .

And they also which pierced him they also which pierced him shall look on him, Zec 12:10 ; yea, not those only which pierced him with their spears, but every sinner who hath pierced him with his sins, Heb 6:6 . From whence we may observe, that the resurrection will be general; and those in the Great Mogul’ s country are like to awake out of their sleep in the grave, as well as others.

And all kindreds of the earth shall wail because of him all the nations of the earth, (Greek, the tribes of the earth), shall wail, not with a mourning of repentance, the time for that will be past, but with a wailing of despair and horror.

Even so, Amen: these words are either a prophetical assertion, confirming the truth of what he had said, or a pious prayer or desire, or rather both together.

Poole: Rev 1:8

Alpha and Omega are the first and last letters in the Greek alphabet, as Aleph and Tau are in the Hebrew alphabet: the meaning of these is expounded,

the beginning and the ending he who was before all, and shall continue to exist when all creatures shall cease to be; the first and the last, as the same terms are expounded, Rev 22:13 : so Isa 41:4 43:13 .

Which is, and which was, and which is to come, the Almighty: see Rev 1:4 : He addeth the Almighty, to show that he was able to make his words good. Thus in this verse, omnipotency, eternity, and immutability, are all applied to God, and particularly predicated of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ.

Poole: Rev 1:9

I John, who also am your brother the same mentioned Rev 1:4 , the apostle of Jesus Christ, yet he disdaineth not to call those his brethren whom his Lord so called.

And companion in tribulation: the pagan persecutions were now begun. Nero first began them about twenty-three years after Christ was ascended into heaven, but he died within three years’ time after he had began that course. Then the Christians had some rest for twelve years, by reason of the short reigns of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, and the kindness of Flavius and Titus Vespasianus; but about eighty-two years after Christ began Domitian to reign, and to persecute the Christians about the year 90. He lived not long, for he was slain Anno 97, but in those seven years he put to death, imprisoned, and banished many. John is said to have been banished by him, Anno 91, and to have had this revelation, 94 and 95. Domitian lived but four or five years after this. After his death John is said to have come back to Ephesus, and to have died there three years after, about the year 98. But for five years John was the Christians’ companion in tribulation.

And in the kingdom and patience of Jesus Christ either the kingdom of grace, a member of the Christian church; or the kingdom of glory, which is to be arrived at both by patient waiting and by patient suffering for Jesus Christ, or waiting for the second appearance of Christ, in order to his glorious kingdom.

Was in the isle that is called Patmos: this island, geographers tell us, was an island in the Icarian or

Poole: Rev 1:10

I was in the Spirit not only in spiritual employment, suppose meditation and prayer, but in an ecstasy; my soul was (as it were) separated from my body, and under the more than ordinary influence and communications of the Spirit, as Act 10:10 11:5 16:9 18:9 .

On the Lord’ s day upon the Christian sabbath, called the Lord’ s day, ( as the eucharist, or breaking of bread, is called the Lord’ s supper, 1Co 11:20 ), because Christ instituted it; or, because the end of its institution was the remembrance of Christ’ s resurrection, (as the end of the Lord’ s supper was the commemoration of Christ’ s death), or because it was instituted for the honour of Christ.

And heard behind me a great voice, as of a trumpet: John in the isle of Patmos was keeping the Christian sabbath in spiritual services, meditation and prayer, and fell into a trance, wherein he had a more immediate communion with the Holy Spirit, which begun with his hearing a loud voice, as it were, behind him, as loud as the sound of a trumpet.

Poole: Rev 1:11

I am Alpha and Omega, the first and the last I, who speak unto thee, am the eternal, immutable God.

What thou seest, write in a book what thou shalt presently see, write in a book, not in loose papers. Whence we may observe, that this book is not only the revelation of the will of Christ, but written by his direction.

And send it unto the seven churches which are in Asia not to all that lived within the jurisdiction or compass of these cities, but only to those Christians who lived in or near these places, which are all cities in the Lesser Asia.

Ephesus was the most famous, where Paul preached, Act 19:10 , &c., and stayed three years, Act 20:31 . It was a noble city in that part of Greece which was called Ionia.

Smyrna was a sea-port city in the same country.

Pergamos was a city of Troas, or Phrygia.

Thyatira was a city in Lydia, or Mysia.

Sardis also was a city in Lydia, near the mountain Tmolus.

Philadelphia was a city in Lydia, next Mysia.

Laodicea was a city in Asia, near the river Lycus. In all these cities there were congregations of Christians formed into churches, to whom God here ordereth St. John to send these visions, when he had written them in a book. Our countryman, Mr. Brightman, asks: Where Rome was all this while? And how it came to pass God directed not these mysteries to be sent, and kept in their archives, especially if (as the papists say) the bishop there be Christ’ s successive vicar? And considering, too, how great friends Peter and John were wont to be? But the forementioned author tartly replies to his own question: That that church, it seems, could never err, and therefore needed not any correptory or monitory epistle.

Poole: Rev 1:12

And I turned to see the voice that spake with me that is, to see the person whose voice I heard speaking to me: or else, by seeing is meant understanding; but that he might have done without turning; he therefore turned, hoping to see the person that spake.

And being turned, I saw seven golden candlesticks: by these seven candlesticks which he saw, are meant the seven churches; so we find it infallibly expounded, Rev 1:20 . We shall find in this book frequent allusions to the Jewish temple: here they begin. In the Jewish tabernacle there was one golden candlestick, and seven lamps, to give light against it; so Num 8:2 Zec 4:2 . John here seeth seven. God had but one church of the Jews, but many amongst the Gentiles. This notion, or comparison of churches to golden candlesticks, both showeth us the nature and office of the churches of Christ, they do not give light of themselves, only hold lights, and it is their duty to keep in them the pure word of God, which is a light to our feet, and a godly ministry; and it also lets us know, that they ought to keep themselves pure (as beaten gold) from all corruption as to doctrine, and their members from all scandalous conversation.

Poole: Rev 1:13

And in the midst of the seven candlesticks that is, of the churches, resembled by the golden candlesticks.

One like unto the Son of man: we say, no like is the same; but Christ, who was the Son of man, and who ordinarily calls himself so throughout the gospel, is undoubtedly here meant, as appeareth by Rev 1:17,18 , which description can agree to him alone. He is said to have come in the likeness of sinful flesh, though he came in true human flesh; and Phi 2:7 , he was made in the likeness of men. John saw one who appeared to him as a man in the midst of seven golden candlesticks, which was Christ in the midst of his churches; placed in the midst, partly to let us know his observation of them all, and partly to let us know his being at hand to them all, to help, protect, and defend them.

Clothed with a garment down to the footpodhrh the word signifieth a long garment reaching to the feet, whether of linen or woollen, or what other material, is not expressed; so as it seemeth to me hard to determine, whether it was to signify his priestly or kingly office, or neither. It is a habit of gravity.

And girt about the paps with a golden girdle nor dare I determine the significancy of the golden girdle about his loins. It was a habit like that in Daniel’ s vision, Dan 10:5 . They were both symbols of majesty, authority, and dignity, and the appearance agreed very well to him, who was both a High Priest and a King.

Poole: Rev 1:14

His head and his hairs were white like wool, as white as snow: whiteness signifies purity; whiteness of hair signifies old age ordinarily, which commonly is attended with more prudence, as having most experience: hence this appearance of Christ may denote both his purity and wisdom, and that he is the Ancient of days; see Dan 7:9,13,22 ; though there the term of Ancient of days belongs to God the Father, yet it also agreeth to Christ, who is equal with the Father, as to his Divine nature.

And his eyes were as a flame of fire such an appearance is applied to God, Eze 1:27 Dan 10:6 ; and to Christ, Rev 19:12 , to denote either Christ’ s knowledge, wisdom, and omniscience; or his grace in purifying souls, as fire doth metals; or his wrath and anger against his enemies.

Poole: Rev 1:15

And his feet like unto fine brass: there are nice disquisitions what this chalcolibanum (which we translate, fine brass ) was: vid. Poli Synopsin. I understand not of what profit the determination will be to us. By the feet of Christ (probably) are signified his ways, counsels, and methods, in ordering and governing his church, which are compared to fine brass, for the beauty and glory of them, and for their firmness, strength, and steadiness.

As if they burned in a furnace they appeared like brass filled with fire, as if it were burning, and red-hot in furnace.

And his voice as the sound of many waters loud and terrible, like the noise of the sea dashing upon a rock, or the shore.

Poole: Rev 1:16

And he had in his right hand seven stars: the right hand is the hand of power, Psa 21:8 ; and of favour, Psa 44:3 ; and of honour and dignity, Psa 110:1 . The seven stars are expounded, Rev 1:20 , to be the ministers of the gospel, his messengers to his churches, who having in all times been most exposed to the malice and rage of enemies, Christ is said to hold them in his right hand, as to signify the dignity he hath put upon them and the favour he hath showed them, so also to show his resolution to protect them, according to his promise, Mat 28:20 .

And out of his mouth went a sharp two-edged sword either his gospel and word, compared to a two-edged sword, Heb 4:12 ; or a sword of justice, which he will use till he hath perfectly overcome and vanquished his enemies.

And his countenance was as the sun shineth in his strength that is, was very glorious, so as the apostle was not able to behold him.

PBC: Rev 1:1

Don’t try to make the book of Revelation the second bible that’s totally independent of the first one. It’s the sixty-sixth out of 66 books and it’s the same message from the same God. We have allegorized, parablized, devastated the message of Revelation to our great harm. There are two points of interpretation in Revelation that I want to suggest for your consideration -just study the book from this perspective and see if it helps you. What you have in the book of Revelation is revelations from God that present for us the image of ideas. Don’t allegorize all the horns on the beast. It’s not an allegory. It’s the image of an idea and that’s what the book of Revelation is full of. What can we learn if we take away the anemic attribute of allegory and symbolism from Revelation and look for ideas that make the images come to life and make sense to us. That’s one point. The other point -when you’re reading the book of Revelation, John in the Spirit is transported to different locations and given different perspectives of the visions he receives. He sees into heaven. He’s taken to heaven. He sees things in heaven. From heaven he sees the perspective of heaven of things on the earth. Don’t forget where John is and what perspective he has when you read the vision. Eld. Joe Holder

A PRACTICAL VIEW OF THE REVELATION

We do believe and affirm that The Revelation is scripture, and therefore the word of God. This being true it is profitable for doctrine, reproof, correction, and instruction in righteousness, to the end that through it, and all other scripture, the man of God may be made perfect unto every good work. (See 1Ti 3:16) Consequently our purpose in studying The Revelation should be not to see how many unfathomable mysteries we can find but to find how we may use it to profit in the Lord.

The first phrase of the book, The Revelation, declares the purpose and content of it. It is "The Revelation of Jesus Christ." We are to understand from the very beginning to the end of the book that the descriptions of all things, conditions, circumstances, consequences, principles, apparitions etc are presented in symbolic language, and all have to do with revealing Jesus Christ to the reader. Many symbols or figures which occur within the text are unfamiliar to us, but they would have been plain to the people of the church at the time they were written, and the church could profit from the knowledge of them. If we can discover the significance of more of them we also could profit from them.

Because of our not knowing the significance of a symbol, its meaning is lost to us. Our imagination runs wild, and beasts and dragons and serpents and horses and scorpions and thunder and lightning and blood and smoke and fire and rivers and war and famine and death and hell take on fantastic dimensions. We lose sight of Him of whom The Revelation is all about, Jesus Christ. For this reason many people have supposed the book to be a book of mysteries not to be understood until the end of time. On the contrary, it is a book of practical instruction to the church, and we, especially the ministers, ought to spend more time studying it. By hard study, meditation and fervent prayer we will be able to learn more about the book, and be able to rejoice in the view of Jesus it presents rather than standing awe-stricken by its supposed mystery and forebodings of gloom and misery.

The first three chapters of the book (Re 1:1-20; 2:1-29; 3:1-22) are more easily understood than the rest. We need to study them diligently, because the better we understand the first, the more likely we are to understand the latter. In the first chapter, Jesus appears to John while an exile on the isle of Patmos. Jesus identifies himself to John and instructs him to write what he sees in a book, and send it to the seven churches in Asia. Here is given unto us an example of resolute faith. John was a prisoner of Rome, exiled to the island called Patmos, separated from the brotherhood of the church, no means of communicating with the church except through the hands of the Romans. It would seem an impossibility, if he wrote a book, that it could be delivered to the churches. We find no indication that John faltered in the least. He immediately went forward with the work assigned to him. Evidently he understood that when God gives us a work to do, we are to be up and about it, and leave the consequences to Him. OH! that men today would exercise such faith. It is not that we do not have such faith, it is that we do not exercise the faith we do have! Faith is a gift from God. Living by faith is our responsibility!

What an important practical lesson taught in Re 1:1-20 which so many people see as a great mystery. I dare say volumes could be written about the practical lessons presented in Re 1:1-20.

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Jesus Christ, the Alpha and Omega

The Preface {Re 1:1-3}

There are three important foundations for proper interpretation of all that follows.

First, this is revealed from God to Jesus Christ, and is to be given to the Churches. " For the Father loveth the Son, and showeth him all things that himself doeth: and he will show him greater works than these, that ye may marvel." {Joh 5:20} John was that servant who would pen these things down for the Churches.

"which must shortly come to pass"

Second, it is a revelation of things " which must shortly come to pass." The Greek word for shortly is en (SGreek: 1722. en); a primary preposition denoting (fixed) position (in place, time or state), to give oneself wholly to; to do quickly, shortly, speedily...

When we examine the text, we are told that these things will be carried out in the very near future quickly (speedily) by one who is mighty and will give Himself wholly to this work. Third, Jesus Christ signified it by His angel unto His servant John. This messenger was faithful in delivering the messages which were important to the people in that day. We are given the written word which contains those messages. Let us be careful not to add nor take away from these things. May we prayerfully and carefully seek guidance from God in our interpretations.— Eld. Charles Taylor

"The things which must shortly come to pass" deals with events that are immediate at the time of the writing. There are so many close parallels between so many of the symbols that are given later in the Book to the historical writings of Josephus that it is my opinion this revelation was given prior to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A.D.

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PBC: Rev 1:2

"record"[1]

According to Parson’s Thesaurus, Record means a register, a catalog, a daybook, a ledger, or lot. This shows that these events were already put in a register. If so, God will not change it because He is omniscient, or all knowledgeable of past, present, and future.

Eld. Charles Taylor

[1] The Greek word marturew, (SGreek: 3140. martureo from martuv (SGreek: 3144. martus); to be a witness, give [evidence], bear record, have (obtain of) good (honest) report, be well reported of, testify, give (obtain) witness.

PBC: Rev 1:3

Blessed is he that readeth, and they that hear the words of this prophecy, and keep those things which are written therein: for the time is at hand. The blessedness of those who read this prophecy, and keep those things which are written is manifest in their obedience. Please read the instruction given in Mr 13:14, and Lu 21:20-21, concerning fleeing out of Jerusalem to the mountains. Much had been given in prophecy concerning this great catastrophe which would come upon the inhabitants of Jerusalem as a result of their condition of sinfulness and disobedience. The Jews were in possession of these prophecies and could read them. Nevertheless, the reading of God’s word is not the end which God intended for His people. Their temporal salvation lies in how they hear and obey the given instruction. " All the words of my mouth are in righteousness; there is nothing froward or perverse in them. They are all plain to him that understandeth, and right to them that find knowledge."  {Pr 8:8-9} —Eld. Charles Taylor

This verse lets us know that there are blessings to be had in reading, hearing and keeping the things written in the book, for the time is at hand. This is a very timely book. It has been a blessing to every generation of God’s children since it was written. The book is for us NOW. The time is at hand. This has been true in every generation and will be as long as time goes on.

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PBC: Rev 1:4

The letter corpus {Re 1:4-3:22} Covering letter {Re 1:4-20}

The seven churches which are in Asia are specifically mentioned as the Churches in Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. A popular theory says these represent the so-called " ages" of the Churches, but I believe that the conditions of these churches are to be patterns for all churches who serve Jesus Christ in sincerity throughout all ages.

Grace carries the attributes of graciousness in manner or act, especially the divine influence upon the heart, and its reflection in the life. This is found most often in the benedictions given by Paul in his epistles to the churches. This should be the spiritual desire for all who are sincere in their worship and service to God. Our manner of conduct should be adorned with grace.

Peace carries the attributes of accord, armistice, harmony, reconciliation, and truce. Paul wrote, " And the peace of God, which passeth all understanding, shall keep your hearts and minds through Christ Jesus." {Php 4:7} If there is to be peace, there must first be a spirit of accord among God’s people. If there are differences there should be an armistice, in which there is a cease-fire. Harmony can only come about through reconciliation with one another and most of all, with God. There comes a time when God’s people must declare and observe a truce while we take a good look at our lives and service to God.

This peace must come " from him which is, and which was, and which is to come; and from the seven Spirits which are before his throne." The course of our lives will be changed through obedience. The seven Spirits (notice the capitalization) are in perfect accord with God. Matthew Henry takes this to mean the " Holy Spirit, which is called the seven Spirits, the infinite Spirit of God, in whom there is a diversity of gifts and operations." I can see the meaning to have something to do with the number (seven) of churches mentioned. These seven Spirits are in complete harmony with the will of God and are ready to faithfully carry out the messages to the churches.— Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 1:5

John tells us something about the One from whom he received The Revelation; "Jesus Christ" the "faithful witness," "the first begotten of the dead," "prince of the kings of the earth," who "loved us," "and washed us from our sins in his own blood"

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"faithful"

There is none more faithful than Jesus Christ. If there is a witness, who is worthy of sending this message to His Church, let that one now be named. " Wherefore, holy brethren, partakers of the heavenly calling, consider the Apostle and High Priest of our profession, Christ Jesus. Who was faithful to him that appointed him, as also Moses was faithful in all his house. For this man was counted worthy of more glory than Moses, inasmuch as he who hath builded the house hath more honour than the house."  {Heb 3:1-3} His faithfulness is shown in the promise of the resurrection, in which He was shown to be the first begotten from the dead! Being Prince of the kings of the earth, He is King of kings. He loved us even while we were dead in trespasses and sins. {See Eph 2:1} He washed us by His blood and cleansed us from all iniquity. Surely we must say that one who loved us so much and gave Himself for us is a faithful witness in things concerning our warfare while here in the earth.

Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 1:6

"kings"

What a wonderful existence we have in His inheritance! We are kings and priests unto God! What is the meaning to this statement? If we are made kings, then we have a kingdom. " And I appoint unto you a kingdom, as my Father hath appointed unto me; that ye may eat and drink at my table in my kingdom, and sit on thrones judging the twelve tribes of Israel." {Lu 22:29-30} The writer of Hebrews states it this way, " Wherefore we receiving a kingdom which cannot be moved, let us have grace, whereby we may serve God acceptably with reverence and godly fear: For our God is a consuming fire." {Heb 12:28-29} —Eld. Charles Taylor

He has made us kings and priests unto God and his Father; in recognition of which, glory and dominion be given to Him for ever and ever. In Christ every child of God is made a king. One can not be a king except he/she have a kingdom over which to rule. Our kingdom, over which we are to rule as a king, is our body of flesh. The Spirit God has given us He has made to be king. The flesh is subject to the Spirit as the subjects of a kingdom are subject to their king. Paul, writing to the church at Corinth said, "I keep under my body and bring it into subjection." We all are to do likewise.

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"priests"

If we are made priests, we have a priesthood. No, we are not High Priests. This is the office of Christ Jesus. However we do have a priesthood which was prefigured in the Levitical priesthood. They participated in the worship of the temple; so do we have a place in the Spiritual temple. The Levitical priests trimmed the lamps; so should we keep our lights trimmed and burning. They burned incense; so should we let our prayers ascend to God for a sweet smelling savor. They were teachers; so should we apply ourselves in teaching others by our lives.— Eld. Charles Taylor

We have also been made priests. Priests offer up sacrifices unto God. The days of animal sacrifices, when only a few priests were anointed to offer sacrifices, are past. We live in a new and better day, the day of Jesus Christ. Jesus has made the final sin offering to God for all His children. His children now are all priests unto Him and are to offer up spiritual sacrifices unto Him. "By Him therefore let us offer the sacrifice of praise to God continually, that is, the fruit of our lips giving thanks to his name." {Heb 13:15} "Ye also, as lively stones, are built up a spiritual house, a holy priesthood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices, acceptable to God by Jesus Christ." {1Pe 2:5} "I beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercies of God, that ye present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable unto God, which is your reasonable service." {Ro 12:1} See how The Revelation is inter-related to the other scriptures? It stands not alone as a separate book, but is complimentary to the other scriptures.

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PBC: Rev 1:7

In the midst of the warnings which are given there is a sound of triumph in the words. There also seems to be a warning for His elect not to follow those who are walking in error. " For there shall arise false Christs, and false prophets, and shall show great signs and wonders; insomuch that, if it were possible, they shall deceive the very elect. Behold, I have told you before. Wherefore if they shall say unto you, Behold, he is in the desert; go not forth: behold, he is in the secret chambers; believe it not. For as the lightning cometh out of the east, and shineth even unto the west; so shall also the coming of the Son of man be."{Mt 24:24-27} Even in the early days of the Church there were many who claimed to be the Christ. By His own words, they need not run to and fro following every religious sect. When He came to destroy Jerusalem, it was with great distinction and utter destruction. This could not be ignored!

The point of reference about which Jesus is speaking moves back to the destruction of Jerusalem: " For wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered together."{Mt 24:28} The word carcase[1] describes the condition of those Jews who were apostates in their worship and teaching. They were in a dead condition. The body was lifeless. The Roman army was swift in their movements to take vast territories. This may be the meaning of the above verse. When the body of Judaism became lifeless, the eagles (Roman armies) moved to destroy the lifeless body. The body of Christ without the Spirit is dead. God has no use for a lifeless corpse. Jerusalem, refusing to be ruled by God, was dead. These were days of great tribulation for those who were gathered in Jerusalem. They were shut in for three and one-half years. Josephus writes in his history, War of the Jews, the famine was so rampant throughout the city, that mothers killed and ate their young.

Jesus said, " Immediately after the tribulation of those days shall the sun be darkened, and the moon shall not give her light, and the stars shall fall from heaven, and the powers of the heavens shall be shaken: And then shall appear the sign of the Son of man in heaven: and then shall all the tribes of the earth mourn, and they shall see the Son of man coming in the clouds of heaven with power and great glory."{Mt 24:29-30} The great satellite of Judaism [the moon] gave no light because of their sins. The sun was darkened because of the great smoke which arose from their burning. The stars [men of great stature] fell from heavenly places. The powers of these great people [Jews] were shaken and they lost their position in high places.

Eld. Charles Taylor

John doth not say, Christ is come, the primitive saints did know that, {1Jo 5:20} nor doth he say Christ will come, {Heb 10:37} though that is certain. {Heb 9:28} But he saith

"Behold he cometh with clouds;"

This coming is not at the end of time and the resurrection. At first one might think so, because we read in Ac 1:9, "and a cloud received him out of their sight," and in Ac 1:11, "this same Jesus, which is taken up from you into heaven, shall so come in like manner as ye have seen him go into heaven." These verses from Acts do have reference to his coming at the end of time, but there is a different coming under consideration in Re 1:7. In Mt 24:1-30 Jesus is answering some questions the disciples asked him. He uses almost the same words that are used in Re 1:7. Notice the similarity of Mt 24:30 with Re 1:7. If you read Mt 24:1-28 you have read a graphic description of the siege and destruction of Jerusalem about the year 70 AD. Mt 24:29 begins, "Immediately after the tribulation of those days..." and tells about events that took place then. Mt 24:30 continues and says the same thing as is said in Re 1:7. Perhaps you are wondering, "What about the clouds?" Heb 12:1 speaks of a great CLOUD of witnesses. Many of these witnesses are named, and others are described in Heb 11:1-40. How often has Jesus been brought to our consciousness by these witnesses! We are such witnesses, and there are other witnesses all around us; a great cloud! When we speak to someone about Jesus, He comes to them by or with us. When others speak to us about Jesus, He comes to us by or with them. The word "with" in Re 1:7 is "by means of" not "in the company of."

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[1] ptwma (SGreek: 4430. ptoma), from the alternative of piptw (SGreek: 4098. pipto); a ruin, i.e. (specifically) lifeless body (corpse, carrion)—dead body, carcase, corpse.

PBC: Rev 1:8

Here we find the identification of Jesus as the One who has no beginning and no ending. The metaphor of the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet is used here. David could say in Ps 90:2, " Before the mountains were brought forth, or ever thou hadst formed the earth and the world, even from everlasting to everlasting, thou art God." The wise man Solomon, being inspired by God, could say in Pr 8:23, " I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, or ever the earth was." The One who commands and it is done, was in the beginning with God. He was the most indispensable part in the plan of our salvation. He is our Redeemer and guide. When the earth shall be folded as a garment which is no longer needed, He will still be there. He is eternal, the sovereign God of the universe. With all the great number, we can also say Amen.

He returned with great power to take vengeance on the evil of the people whom He had chosen above all the peoples of the earth. He returns often when men least expect it. He will also return at the proper time to call His elect from the earth to meet Him in the clouds of glory. There shall we ever be with the Lord.

Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 1:9

Christ in the Midst of the Candlesticks {Re 1:9-20}

Christ could be called the Critic of Churches. This is true in the sense that Christ is speaking to the pastors (angels) of the churches of things which are not as they should be. Two things show the mark of a true Critic: (1) The ability to recognize the problems. (2) The Solution to the Problems (or Problems). In this portion of the book we will find Jesus faithfully sending the messages which are relevant to the needs of the churches. As we proceed through this section, we will be enlightened by many things which leave no doubt as to their needs and the solution to their needs.

Biblical scholars recognize the speaker as being the Apostle John, the brother of James. Both were the sons of Zebedee, the fisherman. James was put to death by Herod Agrippa I about A.D. 44.  { Ac 12:1-2} It is not clear exactly when John was banished to Patmos. It is thought to be shortly after the death of Peter and Paul.[1] This was during the reign of Nero,[2] who reigned as emperor in Rome, 54-68 A.D. (Nero succeeded Claudius Caesar). During the reign of Nero there was a period of one of the most terrible times of Christian persecutions recorded in history. John is said to have died about 98 A.D., and was buried[3] at Ephesus, during the reign of Trajan[4] who was emperor of Rome from 98-117 A.D.

Eld. Charles Taylor

[1] Hassell’s Church History, pp 215, 242.

[2] Ancient & Medieval History by Magoffin and Duncalf, page 350.

[3] Hassell’s Church History, page 225.

[4] Ancient and Medieval History- Magoffin and Duncalf, page 353.

PBC: Rev 1:10

It seems to be significant here that the time element is mentioned. It was on the Lord’s day! The time set aside by the early Church as a day of worship and rest following the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead is called The Lord’s day. This was observed on the first day of the week. Even here on this desolate island, and having no one with whom to converse, John still observed the Lord’s day. Also John states, " I was in the Spirit." As John was in this position of worship, being in the Spirit of God, he states, " I heard behind me a great voice, as of a trumpet." God makes Himself known in no uncertain terms. In this case it was with the voice (sound) of a great trumpet, loud and clear! The importance of the message required attention.— Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 1:11

He identified Himself as Alpha [the first letter in the Greek alphabet—meaning first; prwtov (SGreek: 4413. protos) protos, pro’-tos; foremost (in time, place, order or importance)—before, beginning, first (of all), former] and Omega [the last letter of the Greek alphabet, i.e., (figuratively) the finality]. This identification is given four times in this book, Re 1:8,11; 21:6; 22:13. "What thou seest, write in a book, and send it unto the seven churches which are in Asia." The importance of this message was directed to the particular churches mentioned. Yet, it is just as important to each body of believers today. It has not lost its greatness in value. The purpose of this important message was to cause the churches to repent and turn from the error which was among them.— Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 1:12

In the book of Exodus we find a command of God that a menorah, a chandelier or candlestick having seven branches, be made. This candlestick was to be made according to the pattern shown Moses on the mount. {Ex 25:40} This menorah’s seven branches which typified the seven golden candlesticks in Re 1:12. We know that the number seven is a representation of perfection. So in this respect, it seems that the seven churches of Asia were a representation of the whole body of Christ, which is the Church. In this we have a pattern of conduct for every individual congregation of believers in all ages. The Greek word for candlestick is lucnia (SGreek: 3087. luchnia) luchnia, lookh-nee’-ah; a lamp-stand (literally or figuratively):—candlestick. It is my understanding this candlestick was the place where the light was placed. Our Lord explains this in Mt 5:1-48 as the body where our lights (membership; affiliation) should be placed: " Neither do men light a candle, and put it under a bushel, but on a candlestick; and it giveth light unto all that are in the house."— Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 1:13

A parallel scripture is found in Da 7:13; " I saw in the night visions, and, behold, one like the Son of man came with the clouds of heaven, and came to the Ancient of days, and they brought him near before him. And there was given him dominion, and glory, and a kingdom, that all people, nations, and languages, should serve him: his dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and his kingdom that which shall not be destroyed." The description Daniel gives is identical to John’s description. We find another description given in Da 10:5; " Then I lifted up mine eyes, and looked, and behold a certain man clothed in linen, whose loins were girded with fine gold of Uphaz:..." There seems to be no doubt that this is Jesus Christ who is King of kings, and Lord of lords.— Eld. Charles Taylor

In Re 1:12 Jesus in the midst of them. Later he tells us the candlesticks are the churches, {Re 1:20} and even today, as then, Jesus is in the midst of them. His voice is as the sound of many waters. {Re 1:15} This means his words have gone into all the world, to all peoples and tongues, and continues even to this day. He had in his right hand seven stars; the angels, or ministers, of the seven churches. {Re 1:20} He has the keys of hell and death. {Re 1:18} We will find more about them later.

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PBC: Rev 1:14

When we compare the figure John saw with that which Daniel saw, we see the same Alpha and Omega, the first and the last. He is mighty in power and His strength and dominion have not diminished in the least. There is a reason for the similarity in the comparison. The times prophesied by Daniel were fulfilled in the Kingdom of God through the early Church. These times are not reserved for the " millennium" or some future age. Let us study God’s Word diligently, so as not to be deceived by false teaching.— Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 1:16

The descriptive language remains the same throughout Scripture. " And, behold, the glory of the God of Israel came from the way of the east: and his voice was like a noise of many waters: and the earth shined with his glory." {Eze 43:2} In Eph 6:17, Paul calls the word of God the sword of the Spirit. In Heb 4:12 he speaks about the effectiveness of the word of God; " For the word of God is quick, and powerful, and sharper than any twoedged sword, piercing even to the dividing asunder of soul and spirit, and of the joints and marrow, and is a discerner of the thoughts and intents of the heart." Paul, as he was on his way to persecute the saints, describes his experience with similar language, " At midday, O king, I saw in the way a light from heaven, above the brightness of the sun, shining round about me and them which journeyed with me." {Ac 26:13}

—Eld. Charles Taylor

Haydock: Rev 1:1-3

The Apocalypse, or Revelation. I rather prefer the word Apocalypse, which the Latin interpreter did not think fit to change. ---

Of Jesus Christ....by his Angel, sent to his servant, John. So that these things were immediately revealed to St. John by an Angel, who represented and spoke in the person of Christ.--- Which must shortly come; and as it is again said, (ver. 3.) the time is at hand. This cannot be meant of all things in the Apocalypse, where mention is also made of the day of judgment, and of the glory of heaven at the end of the world. It can only mean, that some things were to happen shortly, i.e. what is said of the seven churches. (Chap. ii. and iii.) Or the persecutions foretold should begin shortly. Or else these expressions are only to signify, that all time is short, and that from the coming of the Messias, we are not in the last age, or the last hour. See 1 John ii. 18. (Witham) ---

St. John excites their attention by the most pressing motives, the approach of the events. Whatever explanation be given of this book, it is equally true in all, that the time is at hand, when it will begin to be accomplished. To find our consolation and happiness in this sacred book, according to the promise of the Holy Spirit, we must peruse it with faith and humility, receive the interpretation of the Church with submission and docility, and practise the truths contained with fidelity and promptitude. What is the life of man, since ages are but moments that escape us? Eternity is but a moment, but a moment that will never end.

Haydock: Rev 1:4-6

John to the seven churches, [1] afterwards named; and by them, to be understood of all churches, bishops, and people in the like dispositions. ---

From him, who is, who was, and who is to come. As these words are only applied, and applicable to him, who is truly God and eternal, Alcazar (p. 176) applies them to God the Father. Others think them to be spoken of God, as the word God agrees to all the three divine Persons, who are one and the same God. See Ribera. ---

And from the seven spirits. Alcazar understands them of seven of God's attributes, or perfections, but, by the common exposition, are meant seven of the chief created spirits, who in a special manner assist at the throne of God, employed to execute God's commands, as Raphael saith. (Tobit. xii. 15.) I am one of the seven who stand before God. (Witham) ---

Spirits, &c. Some understand this of the Holy Ghost, on account of his seven gifts; but the most literal interpretation is of the principal Angles, who always surround the throne of God, and are his ministering spirits. (Calmet) ---

And from Jesus Christ, [2] made man, and the Redeemer of mankind, whom St. John here names after the seven spirits, because he continues his discourse about Christ, who is the faithful witness; testified and approved of God by so many miracles, prophecies, &c. He is the chief of the martyrs or witnesses, as the Greek word signifies. ---

The first begotten of the dead, both first in dignity, and first that rose to an immortal life. ---

The prince of the kings of the earth, whose power is infinetely greater than all theirs; and this to put the suffering Christians in mind, that they needed not to fear the persecuting emperors, who have no power after this life. ---

And Christ hath made us a kingdom, inasmuch as by his grace he has made us members of his true Church, called the kingdom of God, and promised us to reign with him in his glorious kingdom in heaven. ---

And hath made us priests to God, and his Father, to offer up spiritual sacrifices. See 1 Peter ii. 9. ---

To him be, or is due, glory and empire, for ever and ever. Amen . That is, to Jesus Christ. (Witham)

Haydock: Rev 1:4

[BIBLIOGRAPHY]

Ab eo qui erat, & qui est, & qui venturus est, Greek: apo tou o on, kai o en, kai o erchomenos, as if it was said, Greek: apo tou os legetai o on, &c.

Haydock: Rev 1:5

[BIBLIOGRAPHY]

Qui est testis fidelis, Greek: o martus o pistos. Martyr ille fidelis.

Haydock: Rev 1:7

Behold, he cometh, or is to come at the day of judgment. (Witham)

Haydock: Rev 1:8

I am Alpha, and Omega. These, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, signify the same as what follows, the beginning, and the end, the first cause and last end of all intelligent beings, who is, and who was, and who is to come, the Almighty: These words agree only to him, who is the true God, and here are applied to our blessed Redeemer, who is to come and judge all. (Witham)

Haydock: Rev 1:10

On the Lord's day. [3] Not on the Jewish sabbath, which is our Saturday, but on the Christian sabbath, our Sunday, called the Lord's day . The Church, in the apostle's time, changed the day of rest, on which the Jews were commanded to rest and sanctify that day, from Saturday to Sunday, from the last day of the week to the first. They judged this only to be an indispensable precept, that some day or some time should be appointed, in a special manner, to God's service and worship, on which Christians should also abstain from servile works, that were not of necessity: as to the determination of such a day of the week, they judged that the Church had power to change the day. The late pretended reformers have all agreed with us in this change. And if they would have all that is expressed in this commandment, to be of an indispensable and unchangeable obligation, according to the letter of the law, they ought certainly to observe, to sanctify, and to abstain from all servile works of Saturday, or on the Jewish sabbath. ---

A great voice, as of a trumpet. To signify the importance of things to be revealed. (Witham) ---

Voice, &c. This was most likely St. John the Baptist, who calls himself the voice of one crying in the desert, and who in Malachias is called the Angel of the Lord, as he is also styled in the first verse of this chapter. (Pastorini)

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[BIBLIOGRAPHY]

In Dominica die, Greek: en te kuriake emera.

Haydock: Rev 1:12

I saw seven golden candlesticks, which, by the last verse of this chapter, represented the seven Churches of Asia. We may suppose these candlesticks to have been shown to St. John, like what is described, Exodus xxv. 31. For in these visions of St. John are frequent allusions to the former tabernacle, and to things relating to the service and worship of God, which Moses was ordered to make. (Witham)

Haydock: Rev 1:13

And in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks, i.e. walking among the candlesticks, like unto Christ, as he many times called himself the Son of man, and at other times told the Jews he was the Son, the only begotten Son of God. By this walking among the candlesticks is signified his providential care over all the particular Churches, which make up one Catholic Church. ---

With a long garment, [4] and a golden girdle, with a resemblance to the habit of the priests. (Witham) ---

Jesus Christ is in the midst of his Church to enlighten it, to defend and sanctify it, the true model of pastors, who should reside in the midst of their flock, be clothed with sanctity and justice, and girt with the golden girdle, i.e. with singular purity, always ready for combat and labour, by their charity and zeal.

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[BIBLIOGRAPHY]

See Exodus xxviii. 51.; Daniel x. 5.

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Haydock: Rev 1:15

His feet like unto fine brass, to signify the purity and steadfastness of his steps and actions. ---

His voice as the sound of many waters, the sound of his preaching by himself, and by his apostles, has been heard throughout all nations of the world. (Witham)

Haydock: Rev 1:16

In his right hand seven stars, which, as it is said, (ver. 20.) were the Angels, i.e. the bishops of the seven churches, by this comparison is expressed their dignity. ---

And from his mouth came out a sharp two-edged sword. The word of God preached is compared to a two-edged sword. (Ephesians vi. 17. and Hebrews iv. 12.) It also signifies God's severity in punishing sinners. (Witham)

Gill: Rev 1:1

The Revelation of Jesus Christ,.... Either of which he is the author: for it was he that sent and showed it by his angel to John; it was he, the lion of the tribe of Judah, that took the book, and opened the seals of it, and which is a very considerable proof of his deity; since none but God could foreknow and foretell things to come, or declare the end from the beginning, and from ancient times the things that are not yet, as is done in this book: or of which he is the subject; for it treats much of his person, offices, and grace, and of Christ mystical, of the state of his church, in the several ages of time; or it is that revelation which was first made unto him, to which sense the following words incline:

which God gave unto him; not to him as he is God, for as such he is omniscient, and foreknew whatever would come to pass, and needed no revelation to be made to him, but as he was man and Mediator; and this was given him by God the Father, and put into his hands, to make known as being a part of the administration of his prophetic office: the end of its being given him was,

to show unto his servant things which must shortly come to pass: the Arabic version adds, "in future ages"; things that were to be hereafter, the accomplishment of which was necessary, because of the certain and unalterable decree of God, the good of his people, and his own glory; and these were to come to pass quickly, in a very little time; not that they would all be fulfilled in a short space of time, for there are some things not fulfilled yet, though it is nineteen hundred years ago and more, since this revelation was made; and we are sure there are some things that will not be accomplished till a thousand years hence, and more, for the millennium is not yet begun; and after that is ended, there is to be a second resurrection, and a destruction of the Gog and Magog army; but the sense is, that these things should very quickly begin to be fulfilled, and from thenceforward go on fulfilling till all were accomplished. Now to show, to represent these things, in a clear manner, as the nature of them would admit of, to the servants of Christ, all true believers, read and hear and diligently observe them, and especially to the ministers of the Gospel, whose business is to search into them, and point them out to and particularly to his servant John, was this revelation made by Christ, who immediately answered this end:

and he sent, and signified it by his angel unto servant John; he who is the Lord of angels, and to whom they are ministering spirits, sometimes sent one angel and sometimes another; and by various emblems, signs, and visions, represented and set before John, a faithful servant, and a beloved disciple of his, the whole of this revelation.

Gill: Rev 1:2

Who bore record of the word of God,.... Of the essential and eternal Word of God, his only begotten Son; as John the apostle did in his Gospel, and in his epistles, and also in this book; and which is a clear evidence of his being the writer of it,

And of the testimony of Jesus Christ; that is, the Gospel, which testifies of the person of Christ, of the truth of his divinity, and reality of his human nature; of the union of the two natures, divine and human, his person: of his several offices, of prophet, priest and King; of what he did and suffered for his people; and of the blessings of grace which they receive by him:

and of all things that he saw; with his bodily eyes, as the human body of Christ, the miracles he wrought in it, the transfiguration of it on the mount, the crucifixion of it, and the piercing of it with a spear, and the resurrection of it from the dead; and also the visions recorded in this book; and such a faithful witness serves greatly to confirm the authority of this book, and to recommend the perusal of it. The Complutensian edition and the Arabic version read, "which are, and which shall", or "must be hereafter", as in Rev 1:19.

Gill: Rev 1:3

Blessed is he that readeth,.... This book the Revelation, privately, in his closet or family, carefully and diligently, with a desire of understanding it; or publicly in the church of God, and endeavours open and explain it to others; and may allude to the reading of the law and the prophets in the synagogues, which were not barely read, but expounded; see Act 13:15; and the rather this may be thought to be the sense of the words, since there is a change of number in the next clause,

and they that hear the words of this prophecy; that listen attentively to the reading and exposition of this book, and have ears to hear, so as to understand the prophecies contained in it: for the whole, when delivered to John, was a prophecy of things to come: but some versions read the number alike in both clauses; as either, "blessed is he that readeth, and he that heareth", as the Vulgate Latin and Ethiopic versions; or "blessed are they that read, and they that hear", as the Arabic version:

and keep those things which are written therein; the last version adds, "concerning this frail world"; who not only read, and hear, but put in practice what they read and hear; for there are some things in this book which are of a practical nature, especially in the epistles to the seven churches; or the sense is, happy are those persons that observe, and take notice of what is written herein, and meditate upon them, and well weigh them in their minds, and retain them in their memories. Now, though eternal happiness does not depend upon, nor is procured by any of these means, as reading, hearing, and observing; yet there is a real happiness, a true pleasure, that does attend these things, which may stir up to a regard unto them; and for which purpose the following words are added:

for the time is at hand; when thee things should begin to be fulfilled.

Gill: Rev 1:4

John to the seven churches which are in Asia,.... In lesser Asia; their names are mentioned in Rev 1:11,

grace be unto you, and peace; which is the common salutation of the apostles in all their epistles, and includes all blessings of grace, and all prosperity, inward and outward: See Gill on Rom 1:7. The persons from whom they are wished are very particularly described,

from him which is, and which was, and which is to come; which some understand of the whole Trinity; the Father by him "which is", being the I am that I am; the Son by him "which was", which was with God the Father, and was God; and the Spirit by him "which is to come", who was promised to come from the Father and the Son, as a Comforter, and the Spirit of truth: others think Christ is here only intended, as he is in Rev 1:8 by the same expressions; and is he "which is", since before Abraham he was the "I am"; and he "which was", the eternal Logos or Word; and "is to come", as the Judge of quick and dead. But rather this is to be understood of the first Person, of God the Father; and the phrases are expressive both of his eternity, he being God from everlasting to everlasting; and of his immutability, he being now what he always was, and will be what he now is, and ever was, without any variableness, or shadow of turning: they are a periphrasis, and an explanation of the word "Jehovah", which includes all tenses, past, present, and to come. So the Jews explain this name in Exo 3:14,

"Says R. Isaac ^k, the holy blessed God said to Moses, Say unto them, I am he that was, and I am he that now is, and I am he that is to come, wherefore אהיה is written three times.

And such a periphrasis of God is frequent in their writings ^l,

And from the seven spirits which are before his throne; either before the throne of God the Father; or, as the Ethiopic version reads, "before the throne of the Lord Jesus Christ"; by whom are meant not angels, though these are spirits, and stand before the throne of God, and are ready to do his will: this is the sense of some interpreters, who think such a number of them is mentioned with reference to the seven angels of the churches; or to the seven last "Sephirot", or numbers in the Cabalistic tree of the Jews; the three first they suppose design the three Persons in the Godhead, expressed in the preceding clause, and the seven last the whole company of angels: or to the seven principal angels the Jews speak of. Indeed, in the Apocrypha,

"I am Raphael, one of the seven holy angels, which present the prayers of the saints, and which go in and out before the glory of the Holy One.'' (Tobit 12:15)

Raphael is said to be one of the seven angels; but it does not appear to be a generally received notion of theirs that there were seven principal angels. The Chaldee paraphrase on Gen 11:7 is misunderstood by Mr. Mede, for not "seven", but "seventy angels" are there addressed. It was usual with the Jews only to speak of four principal angels, who stand round about the throne of God; and their names are Michael, Uriel, Gabriel, and Raphael; according to them, Michael stands at his right hand, Uriel at his left, Gabriel before him, and Raphael behind him ^m. However, it does not seem likely that angels should be placed in such a situation between the divine Persons, the Father and the Son; and still less that grace and peace should be wished for from them, as from God the Father, and the Lord Jesus Christ; and that any countenance should be given to angel worship, in a book in which angels are so often represented as worshippers, and in which worship is more than once forbidden them, and that by themselves: but by these seven spirits are intended the Holy Spirit of God, who is one in his person, but his gifts and graces are various; and therefore he is signified by this number, because of the fulness and perfection of them, and with respect to the seven churches, over whom he presided, whom he influenced, and sanctified, and filled, and enriched with his gifts and graces,

Gill: Rev 1:5

And from Jesus Christ,.... Who, though the second Person in the Trinity, is mentioned last, because many things were to be said of him; and who is described in all his offices: in his prophetic office,

the faithful witness; as he is of his Father, of his mind and will, with respect to doctrine and worship; of his truth and faithfulness in his promises; and of his love, grace, and mercy, to his chosen; and of himself, of his true deity, proper sonship, and perfect equality with the Father; of his Messiahship, and of salvation through his obedience, sufferings, and death; and of all truth in general, to which he has bore a faithful testimony several ways, in his ministry, by his miracles, at his death, and by the shedding of his blood to seal it; by his Spirit since, and by the ministers of his word: he is described in his priestly office be

the first begotten of the dead: being the first that rose from the dead by his own power, and to an immortal life; for though some few were raised before him, yet not by themselves, nor to live for ever, but to die again. Moreover, he is the firstfruits of the resurrection, the pledge and earnest of it, as well as the efficient cause and exemplar of it. This character supposes that he died, as he did, for the sins of his people; and that he rose again from the dead, as he did, for their justification; and that he rose first as their head and representative, and opened the way of life for them. And he is described in his kingly office, for it follows,

and the Prince of the kings of the earth: which is not to be understood figuratively of the saints, who have power over sin, Satan, and the world, through the efficacious grace of Christ, and of whom he is Prince or King; but literally of the kings and princes of this world, over whom Christ is King and Lord, who receive their crowns and kingdoms from him, and rule by him, and are accountable to him, as they one day must be. Next follows a doxology, or an ascription of glory to him,

unto him that hath loved us; his own, his people, his church, his chosen, and who are given him by his Father; these he has loved with an everlasting and unchangeable love, with a love of complacency and delight, which passes knowledge, and will never end: and which he has shown in espousing their persons, undertaking their cause, assuming their nature, and in nothing more than in giving himself for them as a propitiatory sacrifice, or in dying and shedding his precious blood for them, as is next expressed:

and washed us from our sins in his own blood; which shows that these persons were loved before washed; they were not first washed, and then loved, but first loved, and then washed. Love was the cause of washing, and not washing the cause of love; hence it appears that they were in themselves filthy, and unclean through sin; and that they could not cleanse themselves by anything they could do; and that such was the love of Christ to them, that he shed his precious blood for them, which is a fountain opened, to wash in for sin, and which cleanses from all sin. This is to be understood, not of the sanctification of their natures, which is the work of the Spirit, but of atonement for their sins, and justification from them by the blood of Christ, whereby they are so removed, that they are all fair, and without spot. It is afterwards said, that these same persons are made priests; and it may be observed, that the priests were always washed, before they performed their service, as such ⁿ. The Alexandrian copy and the Syriac and Arabic versions read, "and hath loosed us from our sins in", or "by his blood"; that is, from the guilt of them, which was bound upon them,

Gill: Rev 1:6

And hath made us kings and priests,.... The Alexandrian copy, and Complutensian edition, read, "a kingdom, priests"; and the Vulgate Latin version, "a kingdom and priests"; and the Arabic version, "a kingdom of priesthood"; reference seems to be had to Exo 19:6, "and ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests"; which the Jerusalem Targum renders, "ye shall be unto me", מלכין וכהנין, "kings and priests"; and so the Targum of Jonathan ben Uzziel paraphrases it thus, "and ye shall be before me", מלכין, "kings" crowned with a crown, וכהנין, "and priests" ministering. Hence it is a common saying with the Jews, that all Israelites are the sons of kings ^o; and sometimes their doctors are called מלכי תורה, "kings of the law" ^p: and they ascribe the same thing to the word of the Lord as is here attributed to Jesus Christ: so the Targum of Jonathan on Deu 28:13 paraphrases the words,

"the word of the Lord shall appoint or constitute you kings, and not private persons.

Likewise they say ^q.

"that even a Gentile, if he studies in the law, is ככהן גדול, "as an high priest".

All which may serve to show to what the reference is had in the text, and from whence the language is taken. But the words are used in a higher and greater sense. The saints are made "kings" by Christ; they are so now; they have received a kingdom of grace, which cannot be taken away; and they have the power of kings over sin, Satan, and the world, and all their enemies; and they live and fare like kings, and are clothed like them, in rich apparel, the righteousness of Christ; and are attended as kings, angels being their lifeguards; and they will appear much more so hereafter, when they shall reign on earth with Christ a thousand years, shall sit upon the same throne, and have a crown of life and righteousness given them, and at last be introduced into the kingdom of glory. And they become such by being the sons of God, which power and privilege they receive from Christ, and so are heirs of God, and joint heirs with him, and by being united to him. And he also makes them "priests" to offer up the spiritual sacrifices of prayer and praise, and those of a broken heart, and of a contrite spirit, and even their souls and bodies, as a holy, living, and acceptable sacrifice unto God, by anointing and sanctifying them by his Spirit: and they are made such by him

to God, and his Father; not to men, nor to angels. Now to him that has shown so much love, and bestowed such high favours and honours, is the following ascription made,

to him be glory and dominion for ever and ever, Amen. The glory of his deity, and of all his offices; of his being the faithful witness, the first begotten of the dead, and the Prince of the kings of the earth; and of all the benefits and blessings, favours and honours, received from him by his people: and "dominion"; over all creatures, and over all his saints, and especially in his kingdom, in the last days, which will be an everlasting one; and which is continually to be wished and prayed for, that it would come, and come quickly. "Amen"; so let it be, and so it shall be,

Gill: Rev 1:7

Behold he cometh with clouds,.... John carries on the account of Christ in his kingly office, one branch of which is to execute judgment; and describes him by a future coming of his, which cannot be understood of his coming to take vengeance on the Jews, at the time of Jerusalem's destruction, though that is sometimes expressed in such language, and with such circumstances, as here; see Mat 24:30; because if this revelation was made to John, in the latter end of Domitian's reign, as is commonly reported by the ancients, and in the year 95 or 96, as chronologers generally place it, it must be upwards of twenty years after the destruction of Jerusalem, and therefore cannot relate to that; nor to his coming in a spiritual sense to convert the Jews in the latter day; for this coming is personal, and with clouds, when he will be seen by every eye; all which circumstances do not so well agree with that; besides, all the kindreds of the earth will not lament on that account: the wicked will take little notice of it, the tribes of the Jews will rejoice at it, and so will all the converted Gentiles: it is better therefore to understand this of Christ's second coming to judge the quick and dead, which is represented as just at hand, to denote the certainty of it; and a "behold" is prefixed to it, to excite attention, and to denote the importance of it: things of great moment, and very surprising, will then be done; Christ will appear in great glory and majesty, the dead in Christ will be raised, Christ's personal kingdom will take place, and the general judgment come on. The manner of his coming will be "with clouds"; either figuratively, with angels, who will attend him both for grandeur and service, or literally, in the clouds of heaven; he shall descend in like manner as he ascended, and as Daniel prophesied he should, Dan 7:13. Hence, one of the names of the Messiah, with the Jews, is, ענני, "Anani" ^r, which signifies "clouds"; and his coming is so described, both to denote the grand and magnificent manner, in which he will come, making the clouds his chariots; and to strike terror into his enemies, clouds and darkness being about him, thunder and lightning breaking out of them, as tokens of that vengeance he comes to take upon them; as also the visibility of his coming, he shall descend from the third heaven, where he now is, into the airy heaven, and sit upon the clouds, as on his throne, and be visible to all: hence it follows,

and every eye shall see him; that is, everyone that has eyes shall see him, or all men shall see him; the righteous shall see him, and be glad; they shall see him in his glory, as he is, and for themselves, and be satisfied; they shall rejoice at the sight of him; they will be filled with joy unspeakable, and full of glory: but the wicked will see him and tremble; they will be filled with the utmost consternation and astonishment; they will not be able to bear the sight of him; they will flee from him, and call to the rocks and mountains to fall on them, and hide them from his face,

And they also which pierced him; his hands, feet, and side, when they crucified him; both the Roman soldiers, who actually did it, and the body of the Jewish nation, the rulers and common people, who consented to it, and at whose instigation it was done; these, being raised from the dead, shall see him with their bodily eyes, whom they so used,

And all kindreds of the earth shall wail because of him; all the wicked, in the several parts of the world, will lament, and wring their hands, and express the inward terror and horror of their minds, at his appearing; they will fear his resentment of all their wicked words and actions; will dread his wrath, and tremble at his righteous judgment:

even so, Amen, says John, and so say all true believers; what the wicked lament, they rejoice at; they desire the coming of Christ, they love it, look and long for it; they believe it shall be, and wish it may be quickly, as in Rev 22:20; This expression of faith in, and desire after the coming of Christ, is signified by two words, the one Greek and the other Hebrew; suggesting, that this is an article of faith among all the saints of all nations, Jews and Gentiles, and is what they are wishing and waiting for,

Gill: Rev 1:8

I am Alpha and Omega,.... These are the words of Christ himself, appearing at once, and confirming what John had said of him, concerning his person, offices, and future coming: Alpha is the first letter, and Omega the last in the Greek alphabet, and signifies that Christ is the first and the last, as it is interpreted in Rev 1:11, and is a character often given to the divine Being in prophetic writings; see Isa 41:4; and is no small proof of the proper deity of Christ. Alpha is used by the Jews for the chief of persons or things,

"Macmas and Mezonicha (names of places) are אלפא לסלת, "Alpha for fine flour";

that is, the best fine flour is there, they are the chief places for it: and again,

"Tekoah is אלפא לשמן, "Alpha for oil",

or the chief place for oil; the best oil was to be had there ^s: so Christ, he is the Alpha, the chief as to his divine nature, being God over all, blessed for ever; and in his divine sonship, none, angels or men, are in such sense the Son of God as he is; and in all his offices, of prophet, priest, and King; he is the prophet, the great prophet of the church, never man spake like him, or taught as he did; he is the most excellent priest, that exceeds Aaron and all his sons, having an unchangeable priesthood; and he is the King of kings, and Lord of lords; he has the chief place in the church, he is the head of it, and has in all things the preeminence; he is the chief in honour and dignity, is at the right hand of God, and has a name above every name: he also in some sense may be said to be the Omega, the last and the lowest; as in his state of humiliation, he was not only made lower than the angels, but than man; he was despised and rejected of men, and scarcely reckoned a man, a worm, and no man; and he humbled himself, and became obedient to death, even the death of the cross. Moreover, these letters, Alpha and Omega, being the first and the last in the alphabet, may stand for the whole; and it seems to be a proverbial expression taken from the Jews, who use the phrase, from Aleph to Tau, for the whole of any thing, which two letters in the Hebrew alphabet stand in the same place as these; accordingly the Syriac version renders it Olaph and Tau; and the Arabic version Aleph and Ye. It is said in Eze 9:6, "begin at my sanctuary",

"R. Joseph taught, do not read "my sanctuary", but "sanctified ones", these are the children of men who confirm "the whole law", מאלף ועד תיו, "from Aleph to Tau";

the same as from Alpha to Omega, or from one end to the other: and a little after,

"says R. Levi, Tau is the end of the seal of the holy blessed God, for says R. Chanina, the seal of the holy blessed God is אמת, "truth": says R. Samuel bar Nachmani, these are the children of men who confirm the whole law "from Aleph to Tau" ^t.

So Christ, he is the Alpha and Omega, the first and last, the chief, the whole of things; as of the covenant of grace, he is the first and last of it, he is the Mediator, surety, and messenger of it, and the ratifier and confirmer of it, he is the covenant itself, all its blessings and promises are in him; he is the sum and substance of the Scriptures, both of the law and of the Gospel; he is the fulfilling end of the law, and he is the subject matter of the Gospel; he stands in the first verse in Genesis, and in the last of the Revelation; he is the Alpha and Omega, the first and last, the whole and all in the business of salvation, in the affair of justification before God, in the sanctification of his people, in their adoption, and eternal glorification; he stands first and last in the book of God's purposes and decrees, in the book of the covenant, in the book of the creatures, or creation, being the first cause, and last end of all things, in the book of Providence, and in the book of the Scriptures: likewise, as these two letters include all the rest, this phrase may be expressive of the perfection of Christ, who as God has the fulness of the Godhead, all the perfections of the divine nature in him; and, as man, is in all things made like unto his brethren; and, as Mediator, has all fulness of power, wisdom, grace, and righteousness in him, in whom all the saints are complete; and this may also denote his eternity, he having none before him, nor any after him; and which also is signified by some other following expressions:

the beginning and the ending; the Alexandrian copy, the Complutensian edition, the Syriac and Ethiopic versions, leave out this; which seems to be explanative of the former clause, Alpha being the beginning of the alphabet, and Omega the ending of it; and properly belongs to Christ, who knows no beginning, nor will he have any end with respect to time, being from everlasting to everlasting; and agrees with him as the first cause of all things, both of the old and new creation, and the last end to which they are all referred, being made for his pleasure, honour, and glory: these things now

saith the Lord; that is, the Lord Jesus Christ; the Alexandrian copy, the Complutensian edition, and the Vulgate Latin, Syriac, and Arabic versions, read, "the Lord God"; and the Ethiopic version only God:

which is, and which was, and which is to come; who is God over all, "was" God from all eternity, and is to come as such; which he will show by: his omniscience and omnipotence, displayed in the judgment of the world: who "is" now a Saviour of all that come to God by him; "was" so under the Old Testament dispensation, being the Lamb slain from the foundation of the world; and "is to come", as such, and shall appear a second time unto salvation to them that look for him: particularly this phrase is expressive of the eternity of Christ, who is, was, and ever will be; and of his immutability, who is the same he was, and will be for ever the same he is, and was, unchangeable in his person, in his love, and in the virtue of his blood, righteousness, and sacrifice; he is the same today, yesterday, and for ever. This same phrase is used of God the Father in Rev 1:4; and is a further proof of the deity of Christ; and which is still more confirmed by the following character,

the Almighty; as he appears to be, by creating all things but of nothing; by upholding all creatures in their beings; by the miracles he wrought on earth; by the resurrection of himself from the dead; by obtaining eternal redemption for his people; and by his having the care and government of them upon him, whom he keeps, upholds, bears, and carries to the end, through all their infirmities, afflictions, temptations, and trials,

Gill: Rev 1:9

I, John, who also am your brother,.... Here begins the narrative of the visions and prophecies of this book, the former verses containing a general preface to the whole; and this, and the two following verses, are the introduction to the first vision, which John saw; who describes himself by his name, "I John", the evangelist and apostle, a servant of Christ, and a beloved disciple of his; one that was well known to the seven churches to whom he writes, and who had no reason to doubt of his fidelity in the account he gives them; and also by his relation to them as a "brother", not in a natural, but in a spiritual sense, they and he belonging to that family that is named of Christ, to the household of God, and of faith, and having one and the same Father, even God: thus, though he was an elder, an evangelist, yea, an apostle by office, yet he puts himself on a level with the several members of these churches, as he was a believer in Christ:

and companion in tribulation, and in the kingdom and patience of Jesus Christ; many are the afflictions and tribulations of the saints; these lie in the way to the kingdom; and they are companions and partners with one another in them, both by enduring the same, and by their sympathy and compassion with each other; and as they go sharers in the troubles of this life, so they do, and shall in the kingdom; in the kingdom of grace now, being all of them made kings and priests unto God, and in the kingdom of Christ on earth, where they will all reign with him a thousand years, and in the kingdom of glory, where they shall reign together to all eternity; and in the mean while, they join in the exercise of the grace of patience, of which Christ is the author, exemplar, and object; they are directed by the Spirit of God into a patient waiting for Christ, or a patient expectation of his coming, kingdom, and glory: the Alexandrian copy reads, "patience in Christ"; and the Complutensian edition, "patience in Christ Jesus": this same person John, who gives this account of himself,

was in the isle that is called Patmos; but now "Palmosa"; it is one of the islands of the Cyclades, in the Archipelago, or Icarian sea, and sometimes called the Aegean sea, and had its name from the turpentine trees in it; it is, as Pliny ^u says, about thirty miles in circumference; and it lay next to the churches on the continent, and is said to be about forty miles southwest of Ephesus, from whence John came thither, and to which church he writes first; how he came here he does not say, concealing, through modesty, his sufferings; he did not come here of his own accord; Ignatius says ^w, John εφυγαδευετο, "was banished to Patmos": by Domitian emperor of Rome, as Irenaeus says ^x, at the latter end of his reign, about the year 95 or 96; and, as Tertullian ^y after he had been cast into a vessel of flaming oil, where he got no hurt: and this banishment was not for any immorality, and capital sin he had committed, but

for the word of God; for believing in Christ, the essential Word of God, and for professing and bearing record of him, both in preaching and writing:

and for the testimony of Jesus; for the Gospel of Christ, see Rev 1:2; for embracing it, adhering to it, and publishing it: it is generally thought that John wrote his Revelation in this isle, though some think it is not to be concluded from these words, but the contrary that he had been here, but now was not, but at Ephesus, where he wrote what he had a vision of there,

Gill: Rev 1:10

I was in the Spirit on the Lord's day,.... Not on the Jewish sabbath, which was now abolished, nor was that ever called the Lord's day, and had John meant that, he would have said on the sabbath day; much less the Jewish passover, but the first day of the week is designed; so the Ethiopic version renders it "on the first day"; and is so called just as the ordinance of the supper is called the Lord's supper, being instituted by the Lord, and the Lord's table, 1Co 10:21, and that because it was the day in which our Lord rose from the dead, Mar 16:9; and in which he appeared at different times to his disciples, Joh 20:19, and which the primitive churches set apart for his worship and service, and on which they met together to hear the word, and attend on ordinances, Act 20:7; and Justin Martyr ^z tells us, who lived within about fifty years after this time, that on the day called τη του ηλιου ημερα, "Sunday", (by the Greeks,) the Christians met together in one place, and read the Scriptures, and prayed together, and administered the ordinance of the supper; and this, he adds, was the first day in which God created the World, and our Saviour Jesus Christ rose from the dead; yea, Barnabas ^a, the companion of the Apostle Paul, calls this day the eighth day, in distinction from the seventh day sabbath of the Jews, and which he says is the beginning of another world; and therefore we keep the eighth day, adds he, joyfully, in which Jesus rose from the dead, and being manifested, ascended unto heaven: and this day was known by the ancients by the name of "the Lord's day"; as by Ignatius ^b, Irenaeus ^c, Tertullian ^d, Origen ^e, and others; for it must be some day that was known by this name, otherwise it is mentioned to no purpose, because it would not be distinctive from others; for which reason it cannot merely design the day in which John saw this vision, because the Lord appeared on it to him, for this would not distinguish it from any other day. Some have conjectured that this was not the weekly Lord's day observed by the Christians, but the anniversary of Christ's resurrection; and so the Ethiopians still call Easter "Schambatah Crostos", the sabbath of Christ: to understand it of the former is best. Now, though John was driven from the house and worship of God, and could not join with the saints in the public worship of that day; yet he was employed in spiritual contemplations and exercises, and was under a more than ordinary influence of the Spirit of God; and his spirit or soul was wholly intent upon, and taken up with divine and spiritual things, with visions and representations that were made unto his mind, which he perceived in his spirit, and not with the organs of his body; he was in an ecstasy of spirit, and knew not scarcely whether he was in the body or out of it:

and heard behind me a great voice, as of a trumpet; which was the voice of the Son of God, as appears by what it uttered, Rev 1:11; and is afterwards said to be as the sound of many waters; and it was behind him, as in Isa 30:21, it came to him at an unawares, and surprised him, while he was in deep meditation on spiritual things: and it was a very "great" one; it was the voice of a great person, of the Son of God, and expressed great things, and was very sonorous and loud, it was like the sound of a trumpet; and this was partly to awaken the attention of John to it, and partly to express the certainty of the relation he gives of what it said; had it been a low muttering voice, it might be questioned whether John rightly understood it, and whether he might not be mistaken in the account of what he heard; but it being so loud and clear, there is no room for such a doubt,

Gill: Rev 1:11

Saying, I am Alpha and Omega, the first and the last,.... These characters, which are repeated here; see Gill on Rev 1:8; are left out in the Alexandrian copy, the Complutensian edition, the Vulgate Latin, Syriac, and Ethiopic versions; but are very fitly retained, to point out the person that speaks; to express his dignity, deity, and eternity; to excite the attention of John, and to give weight to what he said:

and, what thou seest, write in a book; that it might remain, and be read of all men, and be profitable to the churches in the then present age, and in all future ones:

and send it unto the seven churches which are in Asia; from whence it appears, that not only the seven following epistles were sent to the churches, but that after John had written in a book the account of all the visions that he saw, the whole was sent unto them, for their use and benefit; and who are particularly named:

unto Ephesus; which was a city of Ionia, and which Pliny calls ^f the work of the Amazons, and the light of Asia; it was famous for the temple of Diana, but more so for having a church of Christ in it: hither the Apostle Paul came and preached, and continued for the space of two years; where a very famous church was planted by him, and proper officers appointed, to whom he wrote a very excellent epistle: this is now a miserable desolate place, not a city, but a village; and is called by the Turks, Aiasalik: of this place and church; See Gill on Act 18:19, Act 20:17,

and unto Smyrna; another city of Ionia, so called from Smyrna, the wife of Theseus ^g, the builder of it; or from Smyrna, an Amazon ^h, the relies of whose marble bust are to be seen there to this day: it lies about forty six miles from Ephesus, and is by the Turks now called Esmir, and is still a place famous, not for pompous buildings, but for number of inhabitants, riches, and commerce:

and unto Pergamos; this was a city of Mysia, situated by the river Caicus, formerly the seat of the kings of Attalia, and was bequeathed by Attalus, their last king, to the Romans: it is famous for being the native place of Galen the physician, and of Apollodorus the rhetorician, master to Augustus Caesar, and for the invention of parchment in it, from whence it seems to have its name: it is now called by the Turks Bergamo, and is almost sixty four miles from Smyrna:

and unto Thyatira; a city of Lydia, near the river Lycus, formerly called Pelopia, and Euhippia, and now, by the Turks, Ak Hissar, or "the white camp", and is distant from Pergamos about forty eight miles; See Gill on Act 16:14,

and unto Sardis; this was another city of Lydia, situated at the side of Mount Tmolus, it was the metropolis of Lydia, and the seat of King Croesus, and is now called, by the Turks, Sart; and instead of a famous city, it is now an obscure little village, of mean houses, and scarce any other inhabitants in it than shepherds and cow keepers, and is thirty three miles from Thyatira:

and unto Philadelphia; another city of Lydia, situated at the foot of Mount Tmolus; it had its name from Attalus Philadelphus, the builder of it; it is now called, by the Turks, Alah Shahr, or "the fair city", though there is nothing beautiful or magnificent in it; it is distant from Thyatira about twenty seven miles:

and unto Laodicea; another city of Lydia, near the river Lycus, first named Diospolis, afterwards Rhoas, and is now, by the Turks, called Eski Hissar, or "the old camp"; and is inhabited by none, unless it be in the night, by wolves, foxes, and jackals, as our countryman Dr. Smith affirms, in his "Notitia" of the seven churches of Asia; from whom I have taken the account of these cities as they now are, and the rest from Pliny and Ptolomy chiefly,

Gill: Rev 1:12

And I turned to see the voice that spake with me,.... The Complutensian edition reads, "and there I turned": and so the Arabic version; that is, to see who it was that spoke, from whom the voice came, and by whom it was uttered; see Exo 20:18,

and being turned, I saw seven golden candlesticks; which represented the seven churches, Rev 1:20; in allusion to the seven lamps in the candlestick of the sanctuary, Exo 25:37; compared to "candlesticks", for the use of them, which is to hold forth light; these have none of themselves, but what is put into them, and being put into them, they hold it forth; so the churches of Christ have no light of themselves, but what is put into them; and the light which is put into them, is not the mere light of nature, nor the law of Moses, but the Gospel of Christ; which dispels darkness, and is the means of enlightening sinners, and gives light to saints, by which they walk and work; and this light is put into the churches by Christ, whose the Gospel is, and who is himself come a light into the world; and being put here by him, it is held forth by them, especially by the ministers of it, who are the lights of the world, both by their ministry, and in their lives and conversations: and they are compared to "golden" candlesticks, because of their excellency, preciousness, and value, in the esteem of Christ; and for their brightness and purity in doctrine, discipline, and life; and for their splendour, glory, and beauty; and for their stability and duration; and though they are liable to corruption and taint, yet may be melted, refined, and purified as gold.

Gill: Rev 1:13

And in the midst of the seven candlesticks one like unto the son of man,.... By whom is meant not an angel, for he speaks of himself as a divine Person, as the Alpha and Omega, the first and the last, phrases not applicable to any created beings; and of himself also as having been dead, which angels are not capable of, and of living again, and of living for evermore, and having power over death and the grave, which no creature has; yea, he calls himself expressly the Son of God, Rev 1:11; so that Christ is manifestly designed, who, as a divine Person, appeared in a form like that individual human nature which was at his Father's right hand; for that human nature of his, or he as the son of man, was not in the midst of these candlesticks, or churches, but he the Son of God was in a form like to his human nature in heaven; so before his incarnation, he is said to be like unto the son of man, in Dan 7:13; to which there is a reference here, and not only in this, but in some other parts of the description; so after his ascension, he in a visionary way appears, not in that real human nature he assumed, but in a form like unto it, that being in heaven; but when he was here on earth he is called the son of man, and not like to one; though even such a phrase may express the truth and reality of his humanity, for who more like to the son of man than he who is so? see Joh 1:14; now Christ was seen by John in the midst of the candlesticks or churches, and among whom he walked, as in Rev 2:1; which is expressive of his presence in his churches, and which he has promised unto the end of the world; and of the gracious visits he makes them, and the sweet communion and conversation he indulges them with, to their joy and comfort; as well as the walks he takes among them for his own delight and pleasure; and where he is, abides and takes his turns, particularly as a priest, in which form he now appeared, as the antitype of Aaron the high priest, to him the lamps or candles in the candlesticks, to cause them to burn more brightly and clearly:

clothed with a garment down to the foot; which some understand of the righteousness of Christ; this is called a garment, a wedding garment, the best or first robe, the robe of righteousness; and is fitly compared to one, it being unto, and upon believers, put upon them, and which covers their persons, keeps them warm and comfortable, and beautifies and adorns them; and is a very beautiful, pure, and spotless robe; and reaches to the feet, covers all the members of Christ's mystical body, the meanest and lowest, as well as the more excellent; the weakest believer as well, and as much, as the strongest: but not Christ mystical, but personal, is here represented; others therefore think that this long garment is a sign of gravity and wisdom, it being usual for men of power and authority, and learning, as the Jewish sanhedrim, Scribes and Pharisees, to wear long garments; but it seems rather to design a priestly robe; the robe of the ephod wore by the high priest is called by this name in the Septuagint version of Exo 28:4; and so it is by Josephus ⁱ, who speaking of the hyacinthine tunic, or robe of blue, says, this is ποδηρης, "a garment down to the foot", which in our language is called "Meeir"; rather it should be מעיל, "Meil", which is its Hebrew name; and so this robe is expressed by the same word here, used by Philo the Jew ^k, and by Jerom ^l; so Maimonides ^m says, the length of his garment was to the top of his heel: and in the habit of a priest did Christ now appear; and so he is described in his priestly office, in the midst of his churches, having made atonement for their sins by the sacrifice of himself; and now as their high priest had entered into the holiest of all with his own blood and righteousness; bore their names on his breastplate, appeared in the presence of God on their account, and ever lived to make intercession for them:

and girt about the paps with a golden girdle; as the high priest was with the girdle of the ephod, which was made of gold, of blue, purple, scarlet, and fine twined linen, Exo 28:8; and with which the priests were girt about the paps, or breast, as Christ is here described: it is said of the priests in Eze 44:18, "they shall not gird themselves with anything that causeth sweat"; which some render "in sweating places": and so some Jewish writers interpret it, which will serve to illustrate the present place,

"says R. Abai ⁿ, (upon citing Eze 44:18) they do not gird themselves in the place in which they sweat; according to the tradition, when they gird themselves they do not gird neither below their loins, nor above their arm holes, but over against their arm holes;

the gloss says, upon their ribs, against their arm pit, that is, about their breast, or paps; and which is still more plainly expressed by the Targum on the above place, which paraphrases it thus,

"they shall not gird about their loins, but they shall gird לע לבבהון, "about their heart".

So Josephus ^o says, the high priest's garment was girt about the breast, a little below the arm holes. Christ's girdle, as a King, is the girdle of faithfulness and righteousness, which is about his loins; and his girdle, as a prophet, is the girdle of truth; but, as a priest, it is the girdle of love; it is that which has constrained him to put himself in the room and stead of his people, to assume their nature, give himself a sacrifice for them, and intercede on their behalf: this is like a girdle, round from everlasting to everlasting; is said to be "golden", because of the excellency, purity, glory, and duration of it; and because it is very strong, affectionate, and hearty, it is hid to be a girdle about the paps, near where is the heart, the seat of love; and this may also denote the power, strength, and readiness of Christ to assist and help his churches in every time of need,

Gill: Rev 1:14

His head and his hairs were white like wool, as white as snow,.... In allusion to the white head and hairs of old men, said to be hoary, or like the hoar frost, and compared to an almond tree in bloom, Ecc 12:5; and here to wool and snow for whiteness; see Eze 27:18; and according to the Jews ^p, צמר לבן, "white wool", is the wool of a lamb just born, about which a cloth is bound, that it may not be defiled; now these metaphors are expressive of the antiquity of Christ, who is the everlasting Father, and whose goings forth were of old, even from everlasting; and of his senile gravity and prudence, for with the Ancient is wisdom; he is the wisdom of God, in whom all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge are hid; and also of his glory and majesty, being the brightness of his Father's glory; and likewise of his true and proper deity, since this description is the same with that of the Ancient of days in Dan 7:9; for by his head is not here meant either God the Father, who is sometimes called the head of Christ, 1Co 11:3, nor his divine nature, which is the chief and principal in him, nor his headship over the church; nor do his hairs intend his elect, which grow upon him, and are nourished by him, and are so called for their number, weakness, and purity:

and his eyes were as a flame of fire: see Dan 10:6; which may design the omniscience of Christ, which reaches to all persons, and things, and is very searching and penetrating, and discovers and brings to light things the most dark and obscure; and also Christ's eyes of love upon his own people, which have both heat and light; Christ's love never waxes cold, and, being shed abroad in the hearts of his people, warms theirs; and in the light of his gracious countenance do they see light; and his love, like flames of fire, melts their souls into a true and genuine repentance for sin: or else, rather his eyes of wrath and vengeance, as set upon his enemies, are here meant: which will be fierce and furious, bring swift and sudden destruction on them, before which there is no standing, and from which there is no fleeing. It is said of Augustus Caesar, that he had fiery eyes ^q,

Gill: Rev 1:15

And his feet like unto fine brass, as if they burned in a furnace,.... By which is meant, not his human nature in a suffering state; or his people, the meaner and lower parts of his mystical body, in a like state; or his apostles and ministers, who are supporters of his church, and run to and fro with spiritual knowledge, for which, though they suffer much, are permanent and glorious; but either the power of Christ in bearing up and supporting his people, in the care and government and defence of them; or his ways, works, and walks in his churches, and all his providential administrations towards them, which are holy, just, and righteous, and will be manifest; or his wrath and vengeance in treading down and trampling upon his enemies:

and his voice as the sound of many waters; meaning his Gospel, as preached by his apostles and ministers, which was heard far and near; see Rom 10:18; and which made a great noise in the world; or his voice of vengeance on his enemies, which will be very terrible and irresistible.

Gill: Rev 1:16

And he had in his right hand seven stars,.... The angels or pastors of the seven churches, Rev 1:20. The ministers of the Gospel are compared to stars, because of their efficient cause, God, who has made them, and fixed them in their proper place, and for his glory; and because of the matter of them, being the same with the heavens, so ministers are of the same nature with the churches; and because of their form, light, which they receive from the sun, so preachers of the Gospel receive their light from Christ; and because of their multitude and variety, so the ministers of the Gospel are many, and their gifts different; and chiefly for their usefulness, to give light to others, to direct to Christ, and point out the way of salvation, and to rule over the churches: nor was it unusual with the Jews to compare good men to stars, and to the seven stars. The Targumist ^r says, the seven lamps in the candlestick answer to the seven stars to which the righteous are like. These are led and held in Christ's right hand; which shows that they are dear unto him, and highly valued by him; that they are his, in his possession, at his dispose, whom he uses as his instruments to do his work; and whom he upholds and sustains, that they shall not sink under their burdens; and whom he preserves from failing, and so holds them that they shall stand fast in the faith, and not be carried away with the error of the wicked:

and out of his mouth went a sharp twoedged sword; which designs the word of God; see Eph 6:17; This comes out of the mouth of Christ, it is the word of God, and not of man; and is a sharp sword, contains sharp reproofs for sin, severe threatenings against it, and gives cutting convictions of it, and is a twoedged one; and by its two edges may be meant law and Gospel; the law lays open the sins of men, fills with grief and anguish for them, yea, not only wounds, but kills; and the Gospel cuts down the best in man, his wisdom, holiness, righteousness, and carnal privileges, in which he trusts; and the worst in man, teaching him to deny ungodliness and worldly lusts: or the word of God may be so called, because it is a means both of saving and of destroying; it is the savour of life unto life to some, and the savour of death unto death to others; and is both an offensive and defensive weapon; it is for the defence of the saints, against Satan, false teachers, and every other enemy; and an offensive one to them, which cuts them down, and destroys them and their principles: or this may mean the judiciary sentence of Christ upon the wicked, which will be a fighting against them, and a smiting of the nations of the world; see Rev 2:16; which the Jews interpret of the law ^s:

and his countenance was as the sun shineth in his strength; at noonday; such was the countenance of Christ at his transfiguration, Mat 17:2; and designs here the manifestation of himself in the glories of his person, and in the riches of his grace; who is the sun of righteousness that arises upon his people with light, heat, joy, and comfort; see the phrase in Jdg 5:31, which the Jewish writers understand of the strength of the sun both in the summer solstice, and in the middle of the day, or at noon, at which time its heat is strongest, and it usually shines brightest; the design of the metaphor is to set forth the glory and majesty of Christ,

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

NET Notes: Rev 1:1

¹ tn The phrase ἀποκάλυψις ᾿Ιησοῦ Χριστοῦ (ajpokaluyi" Ihsou Cristou, “the revelation of Jesus Christ”) could be interpreted as either an objective genitive (“the revelation about Jesus Christ”), subjective genitive (“the revelation from Jesus Christ”), or both (M. Zerwick’s “general” genitive [Biblical Greek, §§36-39]; D. B. Wallace’s “plenary” genitive [ExSyn 119-21]). In 1:1 and 22:16 it is clear that Jesus has sent his angel to proclaim the message to John; thus the message is from Christ, and this would be a subjective genitive. On a broader scale, though, the revelation is about Christ, so this would be an objective genitive. One important point to note is that the phrase under consideration is best regarded as the title of the book and therefore refers to the whole of the work in all its aspects. This fact favors considering this as a plenary genitive.

² tn Grk “slaves.” Although this translation frequently renders δοῦλος (doulos) as “slave,” the connotation is often of one who has sold himself into slavery; in a spiritual sense, the idea is that of becoming a slave of God or of Jesus Christ voluntarily. The voluntary notion is not conspicuous here; hence, the translation “servants.” In any case, the word does not bear the connotation of a free individual serving another. BDAG notes that “‘servant’ for ‘slave’ is largely confined to Biblical transl. and early American times…in normal usage at the present time the two words are carefully distinguished” (BDAG 260 s.v.). The most accurate translation is “bondservant” (sometimes found in the ASV for δοῦλος), in that it often indicates one who sells himself into slavery to another. But as this is archaic, few today understand its force.

³ tn BDAG 992-93 s.v. τάχος has “quickly, at once, without delay Ac 10:33 D; 12:7; 17:15 D; 22:18; 1 Cl 48:1; 63:4…soon, in a short time…Rv 1:1; 22:6…shortly Ac 25:4.”

⁴ tn Or “He indicated it clearly” (L&N 33.153).

⁵ tn See the note on the word “servants” earlier in this verse.

NET Notes: Rev 1:2

¹ tn “Then” is not in the Greek text, but is supplied to make the chronological succession clear in the translation.

² tn The genitive phrase “about Jesus Christ” is taken as an objective genitive.

NET Notes: Rev 1:3

¹ tn The word “this” is used to translate the Greek article τῆς (ths), bringing out its demonstrative force.

² tn The word “aloud” has been supplied to indicate that in the original historical setting reading would usually refer to reading out loud in public rather than silently to oneself.

³ tn The words “blessed are” are repeated from the beginning of this verse for stylistic reasons and for clarity.

⁴ tn Grk “keep.” L&N 36.19 has “to continue to obey orders or commandments – ‘to obey, to keep commandments, obedience.’”

⁵ sn The time refers to the time when the things prophesied would happen.

NET Notes: Rev 1:4

¹ tn Grk “John.” The word “From” is not in the Greek text, but has been supplied to indicate the sender of the letter.

² tn Grk “Asia”; in the NT this always refers to the Roman province of Asia, made up of about one-third of the west and southwest end of modern Asia Minor. Asia lay to the west of the region of Phrygia and Galatia. The words “the province of” are supplied to indicate to the modern reader that this does not refer to the continent of Asia.

³ tn It is probable that the ὑμῖν (Jumin) applies to both elements of the greeting, i.e., to both grace and peace.

⁴ tc The earliest and best mss (Ì^18vid א A C P 2050 al lat sy co) lack the term “God” (θεοῦ, qeou) between “from” (ἀπό, apo) and “he who is” (ὁ ὤν, Jo wn). Its inclusion, as supported by the bulk of the Byzantine witnesses, is clearly secondary and a scribal attempt to achieve two things: (1) to make explicit the referent in the passage, namely, God, and (2) to smooth out the grammar. The preposition “from” in Greek required a noun in the genitive case. But here in Rev 1:4 the words following the preposition “from” (ἀπό) are in another case, i.e., the nominative. There are two principal ways in which to deal with this grammatical anomaly. First, it could be a mistake arising from someone who just did not know Greek very well, or as a Jew, was heavily influenced by a Semitic form of Greek. Both of these unintentional errors are unlikely here. Commenting on this ExSyn 63 argues: “Either of these is doubtful here because (1) such a flagrant misunderstanding of the rudiments of Greek would almost surely mean that the author could not compose in Greek, yet the Apocalypse itself argues against this; (2) nowhere else does the Seer [i.e., John] use a nom. immediately after a preposition (in fact, he uses ἀπό 32 times with the gen. immediately following).” The passage appears to be an allusion to Exod 3:14 (in the LXX) where God refers to himself as “he who is” (ὁ ὤν), the same wording in Greek as here in Rev 1:4. Thus, it appears that John is wanting to leave the divine name untouched (perhaps to allude to God’s immutability, or as a pointer to the Old Testament as the key to unlocking the meaning of this book), irrespective of what it “looks” like grammatically. The translation has placed the “he who is” in quotation marks to indicate to the reader that the syntactical awkwardness is intentional. (For further comments, see ExSyn 63).

⁵ tn BDAG 106 s.v. ἀπό 5.d states: “The expr. εἰρήνη ἀπὸ ‘ὁ ὢν καὶ ὁ ἦν καὶ ὁ ἐρχόμενος’ Rv 1:4 is quite extraordinary. It may be an interpretation of the name Yahweh already current, or an attempt to show reverence for the divine name by preserving it unchanged, or simply one more of the grammatical peculiarities so frequent in Rv.”

NET Notes: Rev 1:5

¹ tn Or “Jesus Christ – the faithful one, the witness…” Some take ὁ πιστός (Jo pistos) as a second substantive in relation to ὁ μάρτυς (Jo martus). In the present translation, however, ὁ πιστός was taken as an adjective in attributive position to ὁ μάρτυς. The idea of martyrdom and faithfulness are intimately connected. See BDAG 820 s.v. πιστός 1.a.α: “ὁ μάρτυς μου ὁ πιστός μου Rv 2:13 (μάρτυς 3); in this ‘book of martyrs’ Christ is ὁ μάρτυς ὁ πιστὸς (καὶ ὁ ἀληθινός) 1:5; 3:14; cp. 19:11 (the combination of ἀληθινός and πιστός in the last two passages is like 3 Macc 2:11). Cp. Rv 17:14.”

² sn The Greek term translated witness can mean both “witness” and “martyr.”

³ tc The reading “set free” (λύσαντι, lusanti) has better ms support (̹⁸ א A C 1611 2050 2329 2351 Ï^A sy) than its rival, λούσαντι (lousanti, “washed”; found in P 1006 1841 1854 2053 2062 Ï^K lat bo). Internally, it seems that the reading “washed” could have arisen in at least one of three ways: (1) as an error of hearing (both “released” and “washed” are pronounced similarly in Greek); (2) an error of sight (both “released” and “washed” look very similar – a difference of only one letter – which could have resulted in a simple error during the copying of a ms); (3) through scribal inability to appreciate that the Hebrew preposition ב can be used with a noun to indicate the price paid for something. Since the author of Revelation is influenced significantly by a Semitic form of Greek (e.g., 13:10), and since the Hebrew preposition “in” (ב) can indicate the price paid for something, and is often translated with the preposition “in” (ἐν, en) in the LXX, the author may have tried to communicate by the use of ἐν the idea of a price paid for something. That is, John was trying to say that Christ delivered us at the price of his own blood. This whole process, however, may have been lost on a later scribe, who being unfamiliar with Hebrew, found the expression “delivered in his blood” too difficult, and noticing the obvious similarities between λύσαντι and λούσαντι, assumed an error and then proceeded to change the text to “washed in his blood” – a thought more tolerable in his mind. Both readings, of course, are true to scripture; the current question is what the author wrote in this verse.

tn Or “and released us” (L&N 37.127).

⁴ tn The style here is somewhat Semitic, with the use of the ἐν (en) + the dative to mean “at the price of.” The addition of “own” in the English is stylistic and is an attempt to bring out the personal nature of the statement and the sacrificial aspect of Jesus’ death – a frequent refrain in the Apocalypse.

NET Notes: Rev 1:6

¹ tn The verb ποιέω (poiew) can indicate appointment or assignment rather than simply “make” or “do.” See Mark 3:14 (L&N 37.106).

² tn See BDAG 168 s.v. βασιλεία 1.a for the idea of “he made us a kingdom,” which was translated as “he appointed us (to be or function) as a kingdom” (see the note on the word “appointed” earlier in the verse).

³ tn Grk “a kingdom, priests.” The term ἱερεῖς (Jiereis) is either in apposition to βασιλείαν (basileian) or as a second complement to the object “us” (ἡμᾶς, Jhmas). The translation retains this ambiguity.

⁴ tc Both the longer reading τῶν αἰώνων (twn aiwnwn, “to the ages of the ages” or, more idiomatically, “for ever and ever”; found in א C Ï) and the shorter (“for ever”; found in ̹⁸ A P 2050 pc bo) have good ms support. The author uses the longer expression (εἰς [τοὺς] αἰῶνας [τῶν] αἰώνων, ei" [tou"] aiwna" [twn] aiwnwn) in every other instance of αἰών in Revelation, twelve passages in all (1:18; 4:9, 10; 5:13; 7:12; 10:6; 11:15; 14:11; 15:7; 19:3; 20:10; 22:5). Thus, on the one hand, the style of the author is consistent, while on the other hand, the scribes may have been familiar with such a stylistic feature, causing them to add the words here. The issues are more complex than can be presented here; the longer reading, however, is probably original (the shorter reading arising from accidental omission of the genitive phrase due to similarity with the preceding words).

NET Notes: Rev 1:7

¹ sn An allusion to Dan 7:13.

² tn Here καί (kai) was translated as ascensive.

³ sn An allusion to Zech 12:10.

⁴ tn In this context, tribes (φυλαί, fulai) could also be translated as “nations” or “peoples” (L&N 11.56).

⁵ tn The conjunction ἐπί (epi) is most likely causal here. The people who crucified him are those of every tribe on the earth and they will mourn because he comes as judge.

⁶ tn Grk “Yes, Amen.” The expression “This will certainly come to pass” is an attempt to capture the force of the juxtaposition of the Greek ναί (nai) and the Hebrew ἀμήν (amhn). See L&N 69.1.

⁷ sn These lines are placed in parentheses because they form an aside to the main argument.

NET Notes: Rev 1:8

¹ tc The shorter reading “Omega” (ὦ, w) has superior ms evidence ({א¹ A C 1611}) to the longer reading which includes “the beginning and the end” (ἀρχὴ καὶ τέλος or ἡ ἀρχὴ καὶ τὸ τέλος, arch kai telo" or Jh arch kai to telo"), found in א*^,2 1854 2050 2329 2351 Ï^A lat bo. There is little reason why a scribe would have deleted the words, but their clarifying value and the fact that they harmonize with 21:6 indicate that they are a secondary addition to the text.

² tn On this word BDAG 755 s.v. παντοκράτωρ states, “the Almighty, All-Powerful, Omnipotent (One) only of God…(ὁ) κύριος ὁ θεὸς ὁ π. …Rv 1:8; 4:8; 11:17; 15:3; 16:7; 21:22.”

NET Notes: Rev 1:9

¹ tn The translation attempts to bring out the verbal idea in συγκοινωνός (sunkoinwno", “co-sharer”); John was suffering for his faith at the time he wrote this.

² tn The prepositional phrase ἐν ᾿Ιησοῦ (en Ihsou) could be taken with ὑπομονῇ (Jupomonh) as the translation does or with the more distant συγκοινωνός (sunkoinwno"), in which case the translation would read “your brother and the one who shares with you in Jesus in the persecution, kingdom, and endurance.”

³ tn The phrase “about Jesus” has been translated as an objective genitive.

NET Notes: Rev 1:10

¹ tn Or “in the spirit.” “Spirit” could refer either to the Holy Spirit or the human spirit, but in either case John was in “a state of spiritual exaltation best described as a trance” (R. H. Mounce, Revelation [NICNT], 75).

² tn Concerning the phrase κυριακῇ ἡμέρᾳ (kuriakh Jhmera) BDAG 576 s.v. κυριακός states: “pert. to belonging to the Lord, the Lord’s…κ. ἡμέρᾳ the Lord’s day (Kephal. I 192, 1; 193, 31…) i.e. certainly Sunday (so in Mod. Gk….) Rv 1:10 (WStott, NTS 12, ’65, 70-75).”

³ tn The conjunction καί (kai) is not introducing a coordinate thought, but one that is logically subordinate to the main verb ἐγενόμην (egenomhn).

NET Notes: Rev 1:11

¹ map For location see JP1 D2; JP2 D2; JP3 D2; JP4 D2.

² tn Grk “and to Smyrna.” For stylistic reasons the conjunction καί (kai) and the preposition εἰς (eis) have not been translated before the remaining elements of the list. In lists with more than two elements contemporary English generally does not repeat the conjunction except between the next to last and last elements.

NET Notes: Rev 1:12

¹ tn Throughout the translation John’s use of καί (kai) often reflects the varied usage of the Hebrew conjunction ו (vav). A clause which καί introduces has been translated in terms of its semantic relationship to the clause that preceded it. If the καί seemed redundant, however, it was left untranslated; that is the case in this verse.

² tn Grk “with me.” The translation “with me” implies that John was engaged in a dialogue with the one speaking to him (e.g., Jesus or an angel) when in reality it was a one-sided conversation, with John doing all the listening. For this reason, μετ᾿ ἐμοῦ (met’ emou, “with me”) was translated as “to me.”

³ tn Grk “and turning I saw.” The repetition of ἐπιστρέφω (epistrefw) is somewhat redundant in contemporary English and has been translated generally.

NET Notes: Rev 1:13

¹ tn This phrase constitutes an allusion to Dan 7:13. Concerning υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου (Juio" tou anqrwpou), BDAG 1026 s.v. υἱός 2.d.γ says: “ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου lit. ‘the son of the man’…‘the human being, the human one, the man’…On Israelite thought contemporary w. Jesus and alleged knowledge of a heavenly being looked upon as a ‘Son of Man’ or ‘Man’, who exercises Messianic functions such as judging the world (metaph., pictorial passages in En 46-48; 4 Esdr 13:3, 51f)…Outside the gospels: Ac 7:56…Rv 1:13; 14:14 (both after Da 7:13…).” The term “son” here in this expression is anarthrous and as such lacks specificity. Some commentators and translations take the expression as an allusion to Daniel 7:13 and not to “the son of man” found in gospel traditions (e.g., Mark 8:31; 9:12; cf. D. E. Aune, Revelation [WBC], 2:800-801; cf. also NIV). Other commentators and versions, however, take the phrase “son of man” as definite, involving allusions to Dan 7:13 and “the son of man” gospel traditions (see G. K. Beale, Revelation [NIGTC], 771-72; NRSV).

² tn Or “a wide golden sash,” but this would not be diagonal, as some modern sashes are, but horizontal. The Greek term can refer to a wide band of cloth or leather worn on the outside of one’s clothing (L&N 6.178).

NET Notes: Rev 1:14

¹ tn Here δέ (de) has not been translated.

² tn The clause, “even as white as snow” seems to heighten the preceding clause and is so understood in this ascensive sense (“even”) in the translation.

³ tn The genitive noun πυρός (puros) has been translated as an attributive genitive.

NET Notes: Rev 1:15

¹ tn The precise meaning of the term translated “polished bronze” (χαλκολιβάνῳ, calkolibanw), which appears nowhere else in Greek literature outside of the book of Revelation (see 2:18), is uncertain. Without question it is some sort of metal. BDAG 1076 s.v. χαλκολίβανον suggests “fine brass/bronze.” L&N 2.57 takes the word to refer to particularly valuable or fine bronze, but notes that the emphasis here and in Rev 2:18 is more on the lustrous quality of the metal.

² tn Or “that has been heated in a furnace until it glows.”

³ tn Grk “sound,” but the idea is closer to the roar of a waterfall or rapids.

NET Notes: Rev 1:16

¹ tn Grk “and having.” In the Greek text this is a continuation of the previous sentence, but because contemporary English style employs much shorter sentences, a new sentence was started here in the translation by supplying the pronoun “he.”

² tn This is a continuation of the previous sentence in the Greek text, but a new sentence was started here in the translation.

Geneva Bible: Rev 1:1

The ^{( 1 ) ( a )} Revelation of ^{( b )} Jesus Christ, which God gave unto him, to shew unto his servants things which must shortly come to pass; and he sent and signified [it] by his angel unto his servant John:

1 AD The dragon watches the Church of the Jews, which was ready to travail: She brings forth, flees and hides herself, while Christ was yet on the earth.

34 AD The dragon persecutes Christ ascending to heaven, he fights and is thrown down: and after persecutes the Church of the Jews.

67 AD The Church of the Jews is received into the wilderness for three years and a half.

70 AD When the Church of the Jews was overthrown, the dragon invaded the catholic church: all this is in the twelfth chapter. The dragon is bound for a thousand years in chapter twenty. The dragon raises up the beast with seven heads, and the beast with two heads, which make havock of the catholic church and her prophets for 1260 years after the passion of Christ in (Rev 13:11).

97 AD The seven churches are admonished of things present, somewhat before the end of Domitian his reign, and are forewarned of the persecution to come under Trajan for ten years, chapter 2,3. God by word and signs provokes the world, and seals the godly in chapter 6 and 7. He shows examples of his wrath on all creatures, mankind excepted in chapter 8.

1073 AD The dragon is let loose after a thousand years, and Gregory the seventh, being Pope, rages against Henry the third, then Emperor in chapter 20.

1217 AD The dragon vexes the world for 150 years to Gregory the ninth, who wrote the Decretals, and most cruelly persecuted the Emperor Fredrick the second.

1295 AD The dragon kills the prophets after 1260 years, when Boniface the eighth was Pope, who was the author of the sixth book of the Decretals: he excommunicated Philip the French King.

1300 AD Boniface celebrates the Jubile.

1301 AD About this time was a great earthquake, which overthrew many houses in Rome.

1305 AD Prophecy ceases for three years and a half, until Benedict the second succeeded after Boniface the eighth. Prophecy is revived in chapter 11. The dragon and the two beasts question prophecy in chapter 13. Christ defends his Church in word and deed, chapter 14, and with threats and arms, chapter 16. Christ gives his Church victory over the harlot, chapter 17 and 18. Over the two beasts, chapter 19. Over the dragon and death, chapter 20. The Church is fully glorified in heaven with eternal glory, in Christ Jesus, chapter 21 and 22.

^{( 1 )} This chapter has two principal parts, the title or inscription, which stands in place of an introduction: and a narration going before the whole prophecy of this book. The inscription is double, general and particular. In (Rev 1:1) the general inscription contains the kind of prophecy, the author, end, matter, instruments, and manner of communication the same, in (Rev 1:2) the most religious faithfulness of the apostle as public witness and the use of communicating the same, taken from the promise of God, and from the circumstance of the time, (Rev 1:3)

^{( a )} An opening of secret and hidden things.

^{( b )} Which the Son opened to us out of his Father's bosom by angels.

Geneva Bible: Rev 1:4

^{( 2 )} John to the seven churches which are in Asia: Grace [be] unto you, and peace, ^{( 3 )} from him ^{( c )} which is, and which was, and which is to come; and from ^{( 4 )} the ^{( d )} seven Spirits which are before his throne;

^{( 2 )} This is the particular or singular inscription, in which salutation is written to certain churches by name, who represent the catholic church: and the certainty and truth of this is declared, from the author of it, in (Rev 1:8). ^{( 3 )} That is, from God the Father, eternal, immortal, immutable: wholly unchangeable, John declares in a form of speech which is undeclined. For there is no incongruity in this place, where, of necessity the words must be adapted to the mystery, not the mystery corrupted or impaired by the words.

^{( c )} These three, Is, Was, and Shall be, signify the word Jehovah, which is the proper name for God. ^{( 4 )} That is, from the Holy Spirit who proceeds from the Father and the Son. This Spirit is one in person according to his subsistence: but in communication of his power, and in demonstration of his divine works in those seven churches, perfectly manifests himself as if there were many spirits, every one perfectly working in his own church. Which is why in (Rev 5:6) they are called the seven horns and seven eyes of the Lamb, as if to say, as his most absolute power and wisdom. In (Rev 3:1) Christ is said to have those seven spirits of God, and in (Rev 4:5) it is said that seven lamps burn before his throne, which also are those seven spirits of God. That this place ought to be so understood, it is thus proved. For first, grace and peace is asked by prayer from this Spirit, which is a divine work, and an action incommunicable in respect to God. Secondly, he is placed between the Father and the Son, as set in the same degree of dignity and operation with them, besides, he is before the throne, as of the same substance with the Father and the Son: as the seven eyes and seven horns of the Lamb. Moreover, these spirits are never said to adore God, as all other things are. Finally, this is the power by which the Lamb opened the book, and loosed the seven seals of it, when no one could be found among all creatures by whom the book might be opened (Rev 5:1-10); Of these things long ago Master John Luide of Oxford wrote to me. Now the Holy Spirit is named before Christ because a long speech about Christ follows.

^{( d )} These are the seven spirits, which are later called the horns and eyes of the Lamb in (Rev 5:6) and are now acting as a guard waiting on God.

Geneva Bible: Rev 1:5

And from Jesus Christ, ^{( 5 )} [who is] the faithful witness, [and] the first begotten of the dead, and the prince of the kings of the earth. Unto him that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood,

^{( 5 )} A most ample and honourable commendation of Christ, first from his offices of the priesthood and kingdom: secondly from his benefits, as his love toward us, and washing us with his blood, in this verse, and communication of his kingdom and priesthood with us: thirdly, from his eternal glory and power, which is always to be celebrated by us; (Rev 1:6) Finally, from the accomplishment of all things once to be effected by him, at his second coming, at which time he shall openly destroy the wicked, and comfort the godly in the truth; (Rev 1:7).

Geneva Bible: Rev 1:7

Behold, he cometh with clouds; and every ^{( e )} eye shall see him, and they [also] which pierced him: and all kindreds of the earth shall wail because of him. Even so, Amen.

^{( e )} All men.

Geneva Bible: Rev 1:8

^{( 6 )} I am ^{( f )} Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, which is, and which was, and which is to come, the Almighty.

^{( 6 )} A confirmation of the greeting earlier, taken from the words of God himself: in which he affirms his operation in every single creature, the immutable eternity that is in himself, and his omnipotence in all things: and concludes in the unity of his own essence, that Trinity of persons which was spoken of before.

^{( f )} I am he before whom there was nothing, indeed, by whom everything that is made, was made: and I shall remain though everything else should perish.

Geneva Bible: Rev 1:9

^{( 7 )} I John, who also am your brother, and companion in tribulation, and in the kingdom and patience of Jesus Christ, was in the isle that is ^{( g )} called Patmos, for the word of God, and for the testimony of Jesus Christ.

^{( 7 )} The narration, opening the way to the declaring of the authority and calling of John the evangelist in this singular revelation, and to procure faith and credit to this prophecy. This is the second part of this chapter, consisting of a proposition, and an exposition. The proposition shows, in (Rev 1:9) first who was called to this revelation, in what place, and how occupied. Then at what time, and by what means, namely, by the Spirit and the word, and that on the Lord's day, which ever since the resurrection of Christ, was consecrated for Christians: that is to say, to be a day of rest, as in (Rev 1:10) Thirdly, who is the author that calls him, and what is the sum of his calling.

^{( g )} Patmos is one of the islands of Sporas, where John was banished according to some historians.

Geneva Bible: Rev 1:10

I was in the ^{( h )} Spirit on the ^{( i )} Lord's day, and heard behind me a great voice, as of a trumpet,

^{( h )} This is a holy trance expressed, with which the prophets were entranced, and being carried out of the world, conversed with God: and so Ezekiel says often, that he was carried from place to place by the Spirit, and that the Spirit of the Lord came on him.

^{( i )} He calls it the Lord's day, which Paul calls the first day of the week; (1Co 16:2).

Geneva Bible: Rev 1:12

^{( 8 )} And I turned to ^{( k )} see the voice that spake with me. ^{( 9 )} And being turned, I saw seven golden candlesticks;

^{( 8 )} The exposition, declaring the third and last point of the proposition (for the other points are evident of themselves) in which is he first speaks of the author of his calling (till verse 17), and secondly, of the calling itself (Rev 1:17-20). First of all the occasion is noted in this verse, in that John turned himself towards the vision, and after he sets down the description of the author, in the following verses, (Rev 1:13-16).

^{( k )} To see him whose voice I had heard. ^{( 9 )} The description of the Author, who is Christ: by the candlesticks that stand about him, that is, the churches that stand before him, and depend upon his direction. In (Rev 1:13) he is described by his properties, that he is provided with wisdom and dexterity for the achieving of great things, and in (Rev 1:14) with ancient gravity and most excellent sight of the eye. In (Rev 1:15) he is described with strength invincible and with a mighty word, and in (Rev 1:16) by his ruling of the ministry of his servants in the Church by the sword of his word, and enlightening all things with his countenance, and mightily providing for everyone by his divine providence.

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: Rev 1:1-20

1 The preface.

4 John's salutation to the seven churches of Asia.

7 The coming of Christ.

8 His glorious power and majesty.

Maclaren: Rev 1:4-5

The Gifts Of Christ As Witness, Risen And Crowned

"Grace be unto you, and peace, from … 5. Jesus Christ, who is the faithful Witness, and the first begotten of the dead, and the Prince of the kings of the earth."--Rev. 1:4-5.

So loftily did John in his old age come to think of his Lord. The former days of blessed nearness had not faded from his memory; rather he understood their meaning better than when he was in the midst of their sweetness. Years and experience, and the teaching of God's Spirit, had taught Him to understand what the Master meant when He said:--It is expedient for you that I go away'; for when He had departed John saw Him a great deal more clearly than ever he had done when he beheld Him with his eyes. He sees Him now invested with these lofty attributes, and, so to speak, involved in the brightness of the Throne of God. For the words of my text are not only remarkable in themselves, and in the order in which they give these three aspects of our Lord's character, but remarkable also in that they occur in an invocation in which the Apostle is calling down blessings from Heaven on the heads of his brethren. The fact that they do so occur points a question: Is it possible to conceive that the writer of these words thought of Jesus Christ as less than divine? Could he have asked for grace and peace' to come down on the Asiatic Christians from the divine Father, and an Abstraction, and a Man? A strange Trinity that would be, most certainly. Rightly or wrongly, the man that said, Grace and peace be unto you, from Him which is, and which was, and which is to come, and from the seven Spirits which are before His Throne, and from Jesus Christ,' believed that the name of the One God was Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

But it is not so much to this as to the connection of these three clauses with one another, and to the bearing of all three on our Lord's power of giving grace and peace to men's hearts, that I want to turn your attention now. I take the words simply as they lie here; asking you to consider, first, how grace and peace come to us from the faithful Witness'; how, secondly, they come from the first begotten from the dead'; and how, lastly, they come from the Prince of the kings of the earth.'

I. Now As To The First Of These, The Faithful Witness.

All of you who have any familiarity with the language of Scripture will know that a characteristic of all the writings which are ascribed to the Apostle John, viz., his Gospel, his Epistles, and the book of the Revelation, is their free and remarkable use of that expression, Witness.' It runs through all of them, and is one of the many threads of connection which tie them all together, and which constitute a very strong argument for the common authorship of the three sets of writings, vehemently as that has of late been denied.

But where did John get this word? According to his own teaching he got it from the lips of the Master, who began His career with these words, We speak that we do know, and bear witness to that we have seen,' and who all but ended it with these royal words, Thou sayest that I am a King! For this cause came I into the world, that I should bear witness unto the Truth.' Christ Himself, then, claimed to be in an eminent and special sense the witness to the world.

The witness of what? What was the substance of His testimony? It was a testimony mainly about God. The words of my text substantially cover the same ground as His own words, I have declared Thy name unto My brethren,' and as those of the Apostle: The only begotten Son which is in the bosom of the Father, He hath declared Him.' And they involve the same ideas as lie in the great name by which He is called in John's Gospel, the Word of God.'

That is to say, all our highest and purest and best knowledge of God comes from the life and conduct and character of Jesus Christ. His revelation is no mere revelation by words. Plenty of men have talked about God, and said noble and true and blessed things about Him. Scattered through the darkness of heathenism, and embedded in the sinfulness of every man's heart, there are great and lofty and pure thoughts about Him, which to cleave to and follow out would bring strength and purity. It is one thing to speak about God in words, maxims, precepts; it is another thing to show us God in act and life. The one is theology, the other is gospel. The one is the work of man, the other is the exclusive prerogative of God manifested in the flesh.

It is not Christ's words only that make Him the Amen,' the faithful and true Witness,' but in addition to these, He witnesses by all His deeds of grace, and truth, and gentleness, and pity; by all His yearnings over wickedness, and sorrow, and sinfulness; by all His drawings of the profligate and the outcast and the guilty to Himself, His life of loneliness, His death of shame. In all these, He is showing us not only the sweetness of a perfect human character, but in the sweetness of a perfect human character, the sweeter sweetness of our Father, God. The substance of His testimony is the Name, the revelation of the character of His Father and our Father.

This name of witness' bears likewise strongly upon the characteristic and remarkable manner of our Lord's testimony. The task of a witness is to affirm; his business is to tell his story--not to argue about it, simply to state it. And there is nothing more characteristic of our Lord's words than the way in which, without attempt at proof or argumentation, He makes them stand on their own evidence; or, rather, depend upon His veracity. All His teaching is characterised by what would be insane presumption in any of us, and would at once rule us out of court as unfit to be listened to on any grave subject, most of all on religious truth. For His method is this: Verily, verily,! say to you! Take it on My word. You ask Me for proof of My saying: I am the proof of it; I assert it. That is enough for you!' Not so do men speak. So does the faithful Witness speak; and instead of the conscience and common-sense of the world rising up and saying, This is the presumption of a religious madman and dictator,' they have bowed before Him and said, Thou art fairer than the children of men! Grace is poured into Thy lips.' He is the faithful Witness, who lays His own character and veracity as the basis of what He has to say, and has no mightier word by which to back His testimony than His own sovereign Verily! verily!'

The name bears, too, on the ground of His testimony. A faithful witness is an eye-witness. And that is what Christ claims when He witnesses about God. We speak that we do know, we testify that we have seen.' I speak that which I have seen with My Father!' There is nothing more remarkable about the oral portion of our Lord's witness than the absence of any appearance, such as marks all the wisest words of great men, of having come to them as the result of patient thought. We never see Him in the act of arriving at a truth, nor detect any traces of the process of forming opinions in Him. He speaks as if He had seen, and His tone is that of one who is not thinking out truth or grasping at it, but simply narrating that which lies plain and clear ever before His eyes. I do not ask you what that involves, but I quote His own statement of what it involves: No man hath ascended up into Heaven save He that came down from Heaven, even the Son of man which is in Heaven.'

There have been plenty of great and gracious words about God, and there have been plenty of black and blasphemous thoughts of Him. They rise in our own hearts, and they come from our brothers' tongues. Men have worshipped gods gracious, gods loving, gods angry, gods petulant, gods capricious; but God after the fashion of the God whom Jesus Christ avouches to us, we have nowhere else, a God of absolute love, who so loved the world'--that is, you and me--that He gave His only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in Him should not perish.'

And now I ask, is there not grace and peace brought to us all from that faithful Witness, and from His credible testimony? Surely the one thing that the world wants is to have the question answered whether there really is a God in Heaven that cares anything about me, and to whom I can trust myself wholly; believing that He will lift me out of all my meannesses and sins, and make me clean and pure and blessed like Himself. Surely that is the deepest of all human needs, howsoever little men may know it. And sure I am that none of us can find the certitude of such a Father unless we give credence to the message of Jesus Christ our Lord.

This day needs that witness as much as any other; sometimes in our unbelieving moments, we think more than any other. There is a wave--I believe it is only a wave--passing over the cultivated thought of Europe at present which will make short work of all belief in a God that does not grip fast to Jesus Christ. As far as I can read the signs of the times, and the tendency of modern thinking, it is this:--either an absolute Silence, a Heaven stretching above us, blue and clear, and cold, and far away, and dumb; or else a Christ that speaks--He or none! The Theism that has shaken itself loose from Him will be crushed, I am sure, in the encounter with the agnosticism and the materialism of this day. And the one refuge is to lay fast hold of the old truth:--The only begotten Son which is in the bosom of the Father, He hath declared Him.'

Oh! you orphan children that have forgotten your Father, and have turned prodigals and rebels; you that have begun to doubt if there is any one above this low earth that cares for you; you that have got bewildered and befogged amidst the manifold denials and controversies of this day; come back to the one voice that speaks to us in tones of confident certainty as from personal knowledge of a Father. He that hath seen Me hath seen the Father,' says Jesus to us all: hearken unto Me, and know God, whom to know in Me is eternal life.' Listen to Him. Without His testimony you will be the sport of fears, and doubts, and errors. With it in your hearts you will be at rest. Grace and peace come from the faithful Witness.

II. We Have Grace And Peace From The Conqueror Of Death.

The first begotten from the dead' does not precisely convey the idea of the original, which would be more accurately represented by the first born from the dead'--the resurrection being looked upon as a kind of birth into a higher order of life. It is, perhaps, scarcely necessary to observe that the accuracy of this designation, the first born from the dead,' as applied to our Lord, is not made questionable because of the mere fact that there were others who rose from the dead before His resurrection, for all of these died again. What a strange feeling that must have been for Lazarus and the others, to go twice through the gates of death; twice to know the pain and the pang of separation! But these all have been gathered to the dust, and He now waiting the adoption, that is the resurrection of the body.' But this Man, being raised, dieth no more, death hath no more dominion over Him. And how is it that grace and peace come to us from the risen Witness? Two or three words may be said about that.

Think how, first of all, the resurrection of Jesus Christ is the confirmation of His testimony. In it the Father, to whom He hath borne witness in His life and death, bears witness to Christ, that His claims were true and His work well-pleasing. He is declared to be the Son of God by the resurrection from the dead.' If our Lord did not rise from the dead, as all Christendom to-day! has been declaring its faith that He did, then, as it seems to me, there is an end to His claims to be Son of God, and Son of Man, or anything other than a man like the rest of us. If He be no more and naught else than a man, altogether like the rest of us, then there is an end to any special revelation of the Divine nature, heart, purposes, and will, in His works and character. They may still be beautiful, they may still reveal God in the same sense in which the doings of any good man suggest a fontal source of goodness from which they flow, but beyond that they are nothing. So all the truth, and all the peace, all the grace and hope which flow to us from the witness of Jesus Christ to the Father, are neutralised and destroyed unless we believe in the resurrection from the dead. His words may still remain gracious, and true in a measure, only all dashed with the terrible mistake that He asserted that He would rise again, and rose not. But as for His life, it ceases to be in any real sense, because it ceases to be in any unique sense, the revelation to the world of the character of God.

And therefore, as I take it, it is no exaggeration to say that the whole fabric of Christianity, and all Christ's worth as a witness to God, stand or fall with the fact of His resurrection. If you pull out that keystone, down comes the arch. There may still be fair carving on some of the fallen fragments, but it is no longer an arch that spans the great gulf, and has a firm pier on the other side. Strike away the resurrection and you fatally damage the witness of Jesus. You cannot strike the supernatural out of Christianity, and keep the natural. The two are so inextricably woven together that to wrench away the one lacerates the other, and makes it bleed, even to death. If Christ be not risen we have nothing to preach, and you have nothing to believe. Our preaching and your faith are alike vain: ye are yet in your sins. Grace and peace come from faith in the first begotten from the dead?

And that is true in another way too. Faith in the resurrection gives us a living Lord to confide in--not a dead Lord, whose work we may look back upon with thankfulness; but a living one, who works now upon us, and by whose true companionship and real affection strength and help are granted to us every day. The cold frost of death has not congealed that stream of love that poured from His heart while He lived on earth; it flows yet for each of us, for all of us, for the whole world.

My brother, we cannot do without a living Christ to stand beside us, to sympathise, to help, to love. We cannot do without a living Christ with whom we may speak, who will speak to us. And that communion which is blessedness, that communication of power and righteousness which is life, are only possible, if it be true that His death was not the end of His relationship to us, or of His work in the world, but was only a transition from one stage of that work to another. We have to look to Christ, the faithful Witness,' the Witness who witnessed when He died; but we have to look to Him that is risen again and takes His place at the right hand of God. And the grace and peace flow to us not only from the contemplation of the past witness of the Lord, but are showered upon us from the open hands of the risen and living Christ.

In still another way do grace and peace reach us, from the first begotten from the dead,' inasmuch as in Him and in His resurrection-life we are armed for victory over that foe whom He has conquered. If He be the first born, He will have many brethren.' The first' implies a second. He has been raised from the dead, therefore death is not the destruction of conscious life. He has been raised from the dead, therefore any other man may be. Like another Samson, He has come forth from the prison-house, with the bars and gates upon His mighty shoulders, and has carried them away up there to the hill-top where He is. And the prison-house door stands gaping wide, and none so weak but he can pass out through the ever open portals. Christ has risen, and therefore if we will trust Him we have conquered that last and grimmest foe. And so for ourselves, when we are trembling, as we all do with the natural shrinking of flesh from the thought of that certain death; for ourselves, in our hours of lonely sorrow, when the tears come or the heart is numbed with pain; for ourselves when we lay ourselves down in our beds to die, grace and peace, like the dove that fell on His sacred head as it rose from the water of the baptism--will come down from His hands who is not only the faithful Witness,' but the first begotten from the dead.'

III. Lastly, We Have Grace And Peace From The King Of Kings.

The series of aspects of Christ's work here is ranged in order of time, in so far as the second follows the first, and the third flows from both, though we are not to suppose that our Lord has ceased to be the faithful Witness when He has ascended His Sovereign Throne. His own saying, I have declared Thy name, and will declare it,' shows us that His witness is perpetual, and carried on from His seat at the right hand of God.

He is the Prince of the kings of the earth,' just because He is' the faithful Witness.' That is to say: --His dominion is the dominion of the truth; His dominion is a kingdom over men's wills and spirits. Does He rule by force? No! Does He rule by outward means? No! By terror? No! but because, as He said to the astonished Pilate, He came to bear witness to the truth'; therefore is He the King not of the Jews only but of the whole world. A kingdom over heart and conscience, will and spirit, is the kingdom which Christ has founded, and His rule rests upon His witness.

And not only so, He is the Prince of the kings of the earth' because in that witness He dies, and so becomes a martyr' to the truth--the word in the original conveying both ideas. That is to say, His dominion rests not only upon truth. That would be a dominion grand as compared with the kingdom of this world, but still cold. His dominion rests upon love and sacrifice. And so His Kingdom is a kingdom of blessing and of gentleness; and He is crowned with the crowns of the universe, because He was first crowned with the crown of thorns. His first regal title was written upon His Cross, and from the Cross His Royalty ever flows. He is the King because He is the sacrifice.

And He is the Prince of the kings of the earth because, witnessing and slain, He has risen again; His resurrection has been the step midway, as it were, between the humiliation of earth and death, and the loftiness of the Throne. By it He has climbed to His place at the right hand of God. He is King and Prince, then, by right of truth, love, sacrifice, death, resurrection.

And King to what end? That He may send grace and peace. Is there no peace for a man's heart in feeling that the Brother that loves him and died for him rules over all the perplexities of life, the confusions of Providence, the sorrows of a world, and the corruptions of his own nature? Is it not enough to drive away fears, to anodyne cares, to disentangle perplexities, to quiet disturbances, to make the coward brave, and the feeble strong, and the foolish wise, and the querulous patient, to think that my Christ is king; and that the hands which were nailed to the Cross wield the sceptre, and that He who died for me rules the universe and rules me?

Oh, brethren! there is no tranquillity for a man anywhere else but in the humble, hearty recognition of that Lord as his Lord. Crown Him with your reverence, with your loyal obedience, with your constant desires; crown Him with your love, the most precious of all the crowns that He wears, and you will find that grace and peace come to you from Him.

Such, then, is the vision that this seer in Patmos had of his Lord. It was to him a momentary opening of the heavens, which showed him his throned Lord; but the fact which was made visible to his inward eye for a moment is an eternal fact. To-day as then, to-morrow as to-day, for Asiatic Greeks and for modern Englishmen, for past centuries, for the present, and for all the future, for the whole world for ever, Jesus Christ is the only witness whose voice breaks the awful silence and tells us of a Father; the only Conqueror of Death who makes the life beyond a firm, certain fact; the King whose dominion it is life to obey. We all need Him. Your hearts have wants which only His grace can supply, your lives have troubles which only His peace can still. Sin and sorrow, change and trial, separation and death, are facts in every man's experience. They are ranked against us in serried battalions. You can conquer them all if you will seek shelter and strength from Him who has died for you, and lives to succour and to save. Trust Him! Let your faith grasp the past fact of the Cross whose virtue never grows old, and the present fact of the Throne from which He bends down with hands full of grace; and on His lips the tender old words: Peace I leave with you, My peace give I unto you!'

Maclaren: Rev 1:5

Christ's Present Love And Past Loosing From Sins

"Unto Him that loved us, and washed us from our sins in His own blood."--Rev. 1:5.

The Revised Version rightly makes two slight but important changes in this verse, both of which are sustained by preponderating authority. For loved' it reads loveth,' and for washed' it reads loosed'; the whole standing Unto Him that loveth us, loosed us from our sins by His blood.' Now the first of these changes obviously adds much to the force and richness of the representation, for it substitutes for a past a present and timeless love. The second of them, though it seems greater, is really smaller, for it makes no change in the meaning, but only in the figure under which the meaning is represented. If we read washed,' the metaphor would be of sin as a stain; if we read loosed,' the metaphor is of sin as a chain.' Possibly the context may somewhat favour the alteration, inasmuch as there would then be the striking contrast between the condition of captives or bondsmen, and the dignity of kings and priests unto God,' into which Jesus brings those whom He has freed from the bondage. Taking, then, these changes, and noting the fact that our text is the beginning of a doxology, we have here three points, the present love of Christ, the great past act which is its outcome and proof, and the praise which should answer that great love.

I. We Have Here That Great Thought Of The Present Love Of Christ.

The words seem to me to become especially beautiful, if we remember that they come from the lips of him whose distinction it was that he was the disciple whom Jesus loved.' It is as if he had said, I share my privilege with you all. I was no nearer Him than you may be. Every head may rest on the breast where mine rested. Having the sweet remembrance of that early love, these things write I unto you that ye also may have fellowship with me in that which was my great distinction. I, the disciple whom Jesus loved, speak to you as the disciples whom Jesus loves.'

Mark that he is speaking of One who had been dead for half a century, and that he is speaking to people, none of whom had probably ever seen Jesus in His lifetime, and most of whom had not been born when He died. Yet to them all he turns with that profound and mighty present tense, and says, He loveth us.' He was speaking to all generations, and telling all the tribes of men of a love which is in active operation towards each of them, not only at the moment when John spoke to Asiatic Greeks, but at the moment when we Englishmen read his words, Christ that loveth us.'

Now that great thought suggests two things, one as to the permanence, and one as to the sweep of Christ's love. With regard to the permanence, we have here the revelation of One whose relation to life and death is altogether unique. For though we must believe that the dead do still cherish the love that lighted earth for them, we cannot suppose that their love embraces those whom on earth they did not know, or that for those who are still held in its grasp it can be a potence in active operation to bless them and to do them good. But here is a Man, to the exercise of whose love, to the clearness of whose apprehension and knowledge, to the outgoing of whose warm affection, the active energy of that affection life or death make no difference. The cold which stays the flow of all other human love, like frost laid upon the running streams which it binds in fetters, has no power over the flow of Christ's love, which rolls on, unfrozen and unaffected by it. But not only does Christ's present love require that He should be lifted above death as it affects the rest of us, but it also demands for its explanation that we shall see in Him true Divinity. For this loveth' is the timeless present of that Divine nature, of which we cannot properly say either that it was or that it will be, but only that it for ever is, and the outgoings of His love are like the outgoings of that Divine energy of which we cannot properly say that it did or that it will do, but only that it ever does. His love, if I might use such a phrase, is lifted above all tenses, and transcends even the bounds of grammar. He did love. He does love. He will love. All three forms of speech must be combined in setting forth the ever present, because timeless and eternal, love of the Incarnate Word.

Then let me remind you too that this present love of Christ is undiminished by the glory to which He is exalted. We find clear and great differences between the picture of Jesus Christ in the four gospels and the picture of Him drawn in that magnificent vision of this chapter. But the differences are surface, and the identity is deep-lying. The differences affect position much rather than nature, and as we look upon that revelation which was given to the seer in his rocky Patmos, and with him in the Spirit' behold the things that are,' we carry into all the glory the thought He loveth us'; and the breast girded with the golden girdle is as loving as that upon which John's happy head lay, and the hand that holds the seven stars is as tender as when it was laid on little children in blessing or on lepers in cleansing; or as when it held up the sinking Apostle, or lifted the sick from their couches, or as when it was stretched on the Cross and pierced with the nails; and the face,' which is as the sun shineth in his strength,' is as gracious as when it beamed in pity upon wanderers and sorrowful ones, and drew by its beauty and its sweetness the harlots and publicans to His pity. The exalted Christ loves as did the lowly Christ on earth.

How different this prosaic, worried present would be if we could carry with us, as we may if we will, into all its trivialities, into all its monotony, into all its commonplace routine, into all its little annoyances and great sorrows, that one lambent thought as a source of light and strength and blessing, He loveth us.' Ah! brethren, we lose tremendously of what we might all possess, because we think so of He loved.' and travel back to the Cross for its proof, and think so comparatively seldom' He loveth,' and feel the touch of His hand on our hearts for its token.

But here we have not only the present and permanent love, but we have the sweep and extent of it. He loveth us.' And though John was speaking primarily about a little handful of people scattered through some of the seaboard towns of Asia Minor, the principle upon which he could make the assertion in regard to them warrants us in extending the assertion not only to men that respond to the love, and believe in it, but right away over all the generations and all the successive files of the great army of humanity, down to the very ends of time, He loveth us.'

That universality, wonderful as it is, and requiring for its basis the same belief in Christ's Divine nature which the present energy of His love requires, has to be translated by each of us into an individualising love which is poured upon each single soul, as if it were the sole recipient of the fulness of the heart of Christ. When we extend our thoughts or our sympathies to a crowd, we lose the individual. We generalise, as logicians say, by neglecting the particular instances. That is to say, when we look at the forest we do not see the trees. But Jesus Christ sees each tree, each stem, each branch, each leaf, just as when the crowd thronged Him and pressed Him, He knew when the tremulous finger, wasted and shrunken to skin and bone, was timidly laid on the hem of His garment; as there was room for all the five thousand on the grass, and no man's plenty was secured at the expense of another man's penury, so each of us has a place in that heart; and my abundance will not starve you, nor your feeding full diminish the supplies for me. Christ loves all, not with the vague general philanthropy with which men love the mass, but with the individualising knowledge and special direction of affection towards the individual which demands for its fulness a Divine nature to exercise it. And so each of us may have our own rainbow, to each of us the sunbeam may come straight from the sun and strike upon our eye in a direct line, to each of us the whole warmth of the orb may be conveyed, and each of us may say, He loved me, and gave Himself for me.' Is that your conception of your relation to Jesus Christ, and of Christ's to you?

II. Notice The Great Proof And Outcome Of This Present Love.

Because it is timeless love, and has nothing to do with the distinction of past, present, and future, John lays hold of a past act as the manifestation of a present love. If we would understand what that love is which is offered to each of us in the present, we must understand what is meant and what is involved in that past act to which John points: He loosed us from our sins by His own blood.' Christ is the Emancipator, and the instrument by which He makes us free is His own blood.'

Now there underlies that thought the sad metaphor that sin is captivity. There may be some kind of allusion in the Apostle's mind to the deliverance from Egyptian bondage; and that is made the more probable if we observe that the next clause, hath made us kings and priests unto God,' points back to the great charter of Israel's national existence which was given immediately after the Exodus. But, be that as it may, the notion of bondage underlies this metaphor of loosing a fetter. If we would be honest with ourselves, in our account of our own inward experiences, that bondage we all know. There is the bondage of sin as guilt, the sense of responsibility, the feeling that we have to answer for what we have done, and to answer --as I believe and as I think men's consciences for the most part force them to believe--not only here but hereafter, when we appear before the judgment-seat of Christ. Guilt is a chain. And there is the bondage of habit, which ties and holds us with the cords of our sins, so as that, slight as the fetter may seem at first it has an awful power of thickening and becoming heavier and more pressing, till at last it holds a man in a grip that he cannot get away from. I know of nothing in human life more mystically awful than the possible influence of habit. And you cannot break these fetters yourselves, brethren, any more than a man in a dungeon, shackled to the wall, can file through his handcuffs and anklets with a pin or a broken penknife. You can do a great deal, but you cannot deal with the past fact of guilt, and you can only very partially deal with the present fact of tyranny which the evil habit exercises on you.

He loosed us from our sins by His own blood.' This is not the place to enter upon theological speculations, but I, for my part, believe that, although I may not get to the bottom of the bottomless, nor speak about the Divine nature with full knowledge of all that it is, Scripture is pledged to the fact that the death of Jesus Christ is the Sacrifice for the world's sin. I admit that a full theory is not within reach, but I do not admit that therefore we are to falter in declaring that Christ's death is indispensable in order that a man's sin may be forgiven, and the fetters broken, in so far as guilt and condemnation and Divine disapprobation are concerned.

But that is only one side of the truth. The other, and in some aspects a far more important one, is that that same blood which shed delivers them that trust in Jesus Christ from the guilt of their sin, imparted to men, delivers them from the power of their sin. The blood is the life,' according to the simple physiology of the Old and of the New Testament. When we read in Scripture that the blood of Jesus Christ cleanses from all sin, as I believe we are intended to understand that word, the impartation of Christ's life to us purifies our nature, and makes us, too, in our degree, and on condition of our own activity, and gradually and successively free from all evil. So as regards both aspects of the thraldom of sin, as guilt and as habit: He has loosed us from our sins in His own blood.'

That is the great token and manifestation of His love. If we do not believe that, how else can we have any real conviction and proof of anything worth calling love as being in the heart of Jesus Christ to any of us? To me it seems that unless a man accepts that great thought, He loved me, and gave Himself for me,' and is daily working in my nature to make it and me more like Himself, he has no real proof that Jesus Christ cares a jot for him, or knows anything about him. But I, for my part, venture to say that looking on Christ and His past as this text does, we can look up to Christ in the present as the seer did, and, behold, enthroned by the side of the glory, the Man, the Incarnate Word, who loves with timeless love every single soul of man.

III. So, Lastly, Let Me Point You To The Praise Which Should Answer This Present Love And Emancipation.

Unto Him,' says John, be'--or is--glory and dominion for ever and ever.' That present love, and that great past act which is its vindication and manifestation, are the true glory of God. For His glory lies, not in attributes, as we call them, that distinguish Him from the limitations of humanity, such as Omniscience and Omnipresence and Eternal Being and the like; all these are great, but they are not the greatest. The divinest thing in God is His love, and the true glory is the glory that rays out from Him whom we behold full of grace and truth,' full of love, and dying on the Cross. When we look at that weak man there yielding to the last infirmity of humanity, and yet in yielding to it manifesting His dominion over it, there we see God as we do not see Him anywhere besides. To Him is the glory for His love, and His loosing' manifest the glory, and from His love and His loosing accrue to Him glory beyond all other revenue of praise which comes to Him from creative and sustaining acts.

Unto Him be dominion,' for His rule rests on His sacrifice and on His love. The crown of thorns prepared for the many crowns' of heaven, the sceptre of reed was the prophecy of the sceptre of the universe. The Cross was the footstool of His Throne. He is King of men because He has loved us perfectly, and given everything for us.

And so, brethren, the question of questions for each of us is, Is Jesus Christ my Emancipator? Do I see in Him He that looses me from my sins, and makes me free indeed, because the Son has made me free and a son? Do I render to Him the love which such a love requires? Do I find in Him my ever-present Lover and Friend, and is His love to me as a stimulus for all service, an amulet against every temptation, a breakwater in all storms, a light in every darkness, the pledge of a future heaven, and the beginning of a heaven even upon earth? I beseech you, recognise your fetters, and do not say we were never in bondage to any man.' Recognise your Liberator, put your trust in Him; and then you will be able to join, even here on earth, and more perfectly hereafter, in that great storm and chorus of praise which is in heaven and on the earth, and under the earth, and such as are in the sea, and all that are in them, saying, Blessing and honour and glory and power be unto Him that sitteth on the Throne and to the Lamb for ever and ever.'

Kings And Priests

"He hath made us kings and priests unto God."--Rev. 1:5.

There is an evident reference in these words to the original charter of the Jewish nation, which ran,' If ye will indeed obey My voice and keep My covenant, then shall ye be to Me a kingdom of priests.' That reference is still more obvious if we follow the reading of our text in the Revised Version, which runs,' He made us to be a kingdom, to be priests.' Now it is unquestionable that, in the original passage, Israel is represented as being God's kingdom, the nation over which He reigned as King. But in John's use of the expression there seems to be a slight modification of meaning, as is obvious in the parallel passage to this, which occurs in a subsequent chapter, where we read in addition, They shall reign with Him for ever.' That is to say, in our text we should rather translate the word kingship' than kingdom,' for it means rather the Royal dominion of the Christian community than its subjection to the reign of God.

So the two dignities, the chief in the ancient world, which as a rule were sedulously kept apart, lest their union should produce a grinding despotism from which there was no appeal, are united in the person of the humblest Christian, and that not merely at some distant future period beyond the grave, but here and now; for my text says, not will make,' but hath made.' The coronation and the consecration are both past acts, they are the sequel, certain to follow upon the previous act: He hath loosed us from our sins in His own blood.' The timeless love of Christ, of which that loosing' was the manifestation and the outcome, is not content with emancipating the slaves; it enthrones and hallows them. He lifts the beggar from the dunghill to set him among princes.' He hath loosed us from our sins,' He hath therein made us kings and priests to God.'

I. So, Then, We Have To Consider, First, The Royalty Of The Christian Life.

Now as I have already observed, that royalty has two aspects, a present and a future, and therein the representation coincides with the whole strain of the New Testament, which never separates the present from the future condition of Christian people, as if they were altogether unlike, but lays far more emphasis upon the point in which they coincide than on the points in which they differ, and represents that future as being but the completion and the heightening to a more lustrous splendour, of that which characterises Christian life in the present. So there is a present dominion, notwithstanding all the sorrows and limitations and burdens of life; and there is a future one, which is but the expansion and the superlative degree of that which is enjoined in the present. What, then, is the present royalty of the men that have been loosed from their sins?

Well, I think that the true kingship, which comes as the consequence of Christ's emancipation of us from the guilt and power of sin, is dominion over ourselves. That is the real royalty, to which every man, whatever his position, may aspire, and may exercise. Our very nature shows that we are not, if I might so say, a republic or a democracy, but a monarchy, for there are parts of every one of us that are manifestly intended to be subjected and to obey, and there are parts that are as manifestly intended to be authoritative and to command. On the one side are the passions and the desires that inhere in our fleshly natures, and others, more refined and sublimated forms of the same, and on the other, there is will, reason, conscience. And these, being themselves the authoritative and commanding parts of our nature, observe a subordination also. For the will which impels all the rest is but a blind giant unless it be illumined by reason. And will anal reason alike have to bow to the dictates of that conscience which is the vicegerent of God in every man.

But there is rebellion in the monarchy, as we all know, a revolt that spreads widely. And there is no power that will enable my will to dominate my baser part, and no power that will enthrone my reason above my will, and no power that will give to the empty voice of conscience force to enforce its decrees, except the power of Him that has loosed us from our sins in His own blood.' When we bow to Him, then, and, as I believe in its perfect measure, only then, shall we realise the dominion over the anarchic, rebellious self, which God means every man to exercise. Christ, and Christ alone, makes us fit to control all our nature. And He does it by pouring into us His own Spirit, which will subdue, by strengthening all the motives which should lead men to obedience, by setting before them the perfect pattern in Himself, and by the communication of His own life, which is symbolised by His blood cleansing us from the tyranny under which we have been held. We were slaves, He makes us free, and making us free He enthrones us. He that is king over himself is the true king.

Again, the present royalty of the Christian man is found in his sovereignty over the world. He commands the world who despises it. He is lord of material things who bends them to the highest use, the development of his own nature, and the formation in him of a God-pleasing and Christlike character. He is king of the material who uses it as men use the leaping-bars and other apparatus in a gymnasium, for the strengthening of the frame, and the bringing out of the muscles. He is the king of the world to whom it is all a mirror that shows God, a ladder by which we can climb to Him. And this domination over things visible and material is possible to us in its superlative degree only in the measure in which we are united by faith and obedience to Him who declared, with almost His dying breath, I have overcome the world,' and bade us therefore be of good cheer.' This is the victory that overcometh the world, even our faith,' and He is the master of all who has submitted himself to the monarchy of Jesus Christ. And so the royalty which begins with ruling my own nature goes on to be master of all things around me, according to that great saying, the depth of which can be realised only by experience, All things are yours, and ye are Christ's.'

There is another department in which the same kingship is at present capable of being exercised by us all, and that is that we may become, by faith in Jesus Christ, independent of men, and lords over them, in the sense that we shall take no orders from them, nor hang upon their approbation or disapprobation, nor depend upon their love for our joy, nor be frightened or bewildered by their hate, but shall be able to say, We are the servants of Christ, therefore we are free from men.' The King's servant is everybody else's master. In the measure in which we hold ourselves in close union with that Saviour we are set free from all selfish dependence on, and regard to, the judgments of perishable and fallible creatures like ourselves.

But the passage to which I have already referred as determining the precise meaning of the ambiguous expression in my text goes a little further. It not only speaks of being kings and priests here and now, but it adds they shall reign with Him,' and so points us onward to a dim future, in which all that is tendency here, and an imperfect kingship, shall be perfectly realised hereafter. I do not dwell upon that, for we see that future but through a glass darkly'; only I remind you of such sayings as have thou authority over ten cities,' and the other phrase in one of the letters to the seven churches, in which authority over the nations' and ruling them with a rod of iron' is promised to Christ's servants. These are promises as dim as they are certain, but they, at least, teach us that they who here, in lowly dependence on the King of kings, have bowed themselves to Him, and, emancipated by Him, have been made to share in some measure in His royalty here, shall hereafter, according to the depth of His own wonderful promise, sit with Him on His Throne, as He also hath sat down with the Father on His Throne.'

For indeed this kingship of all Christ's children, like the priesthood with which it is associated in my text, is but one case of the general principle that, by faith in Jesus Christ, we are so united with Him as that where He is, and what He is, there and that we shall be also.' He has become like us that we might become like Him. He has taken part of the flesh and blood of which the children are partakers, that they might take part of the Spirit of which He is the Lord. He is the Son, has become the Son of Man that sons of men might in Him become the sons of God. The branches partake of the fatness' of the vine; and the King who is Priest makes all to trust Him, not only sons but kings through Himself.

II. We Have Here The Priesthood Of The Christian Life.

Now that idea is but a symbolical way of putting some very great and wondrous thoughts, for what are the elements that go to make up the idea of a priest.

First, direct access to God, and that is the prerogative of every Christian. All of us, each of us, may pass into the secret place of the Most High, and stand there with happy hearts, unabashed and unafraid, beneath the very blaze of the light of the Shekinah. And we can do that, because Jesus Christ has come to us with these words upon His lips, I am the Way; no man cometh to the Father but by Me.' The path into that Divine Presence is for every sinful soul blocked by an immense black rock, its own transgressions; but He has blasted away the rock, and the path is patent for all our feet. By His death we have the way made open into the holiest of all. And so we can come, come with lowly hearts, come with childlike confidence, come with the whole burden of our weaknesses and wants and woes, and can spread them all before Him, and nestle to the great heart of God the Father Himself. We are priests to God, and our prerogative is to pass within the veil by the new and living Way which Christ is for us.

Again, another idea in the conception of the priest is that he must have somewhat to offer; and we Christian people are in that sense priests. Christ has offered the one Sacrifice for sins for ever,' and there is no addition to that possible or requisite. But after the offering of the expiatory sacrifice, the ancient Ritual taught us a deep truth when it appointed that following it there should be the sacrifice of thanksgiving. And these are what we are to bring. You remember the words, I beseech you, brethren, by the mercies of God, that ye present '--and that word is the technical one for the offering of sacrifice--your bodies a living sacrifice, acceptable unto God.' You remember Peter's use of this same expression, Ye are a royal priesthood,' and his description of their function to offer up spiritual sacrifices.' You remember the other words of the great sacerdotal book of the New Testament, the Epistle to the Hebrews, which claims for Christians all that seemed to be disappearing with the dying Jewish economy, and says, By Him, therefore, let us offer the sacrifice of praise unto God … that is the fruit of our lips, giving thanks to His Name, and to do good, and to communicate forget not, for with such sacrifices God is well-pleased.' So the sacrifice of myself, moved by the mercies of God as a great thank-offering, and in detail the sacrifice of praise, of good gifts and good deeds, and a life devoted to Him, these are the sacrifices which we have to bring.

I need not remind you of yet another aspect in which the sacrificial idea inheres in the very notion of the Christian life, and that is not only access to God, and the offering of sacrifice, but mediation with man. For the function is laid upon all Christian people by Jesus Christ Himself, that they should represent God and Him in the world, and beseech men, in Christ's stead, to be reconciled to God. And so the priesthood and the kingship both belong to the ideal of the Christian life.

III. In The Last Place, Just A Word Or Two As To The Practical Conclusions From This Idea.

The first of them is one on which I touch very lightly, but which I cannot well omit, and that is the bearing of this thought on the relations of the members of the Christian community to one another. The New Testament knows of two kinds of priesthood, and no third. It knows of Christ as the High Priest who, by His great sacrifice for the sins of the world, has made all other expiation antiquated and impertinent, and has swept away the whole fabric of ceremonial and sacrificial worship; and it knows of the derived priesthood which belongs to every member of Christ's Church. But it stops there; and there is not a word in the New Testament which warrants any single member of that universal priesthood monopolising the title to himself, and so separating himself from the community of his brethren. I do not wish to elaborate that point, or to bring any mere controversial elements into my sermon, but I am bound to say that if that name of priest be given to a class, you elevate the class and you degrade the mass of believers. You take away from the community what you concentrate on the individual. And historically it has always been the case that wherever the name of priest has been allotted to the officials, the ministers of the Church, there the priesthood of the community has tended to be forgotten.

I do not dwell upon the other great error which goes along with that name as applied to an officer in any Christian community. But a priest must have a sacrifice, and you cannot sustain the sacerdotal idea except by the help of the sacramentarian idea which, I venture to say, travesties the simple memorial rite of the Lord's Supper into what it is called in Roman Catholic phraseology, the tremendous sacrifice.'

Brethren, the hand of the priest paralyses the life of the Church; and politically, intellectually, socially, and above all religiously, it blights whatsoever it touches. You free Churchmen have laid upon you this day the imperative duty of witnessing for the two things, the sole priesthood of Jesus Christ, and the universal priesthood of all His people.

Let me say again, these thoughts bear upon our individual duty. It is idle, as some of us are too apt to do, to use them as a weapon to fight ecclesiastical assumptions with, unless they regulate our own lives. Be what you are is what I would say to all Christian men. You are a king; see that you rule yourself and the world. You are a priest; see that the path into the Temple is worn by your continual feet. See that you offer yourselves sacrifices to God in the daily work and self-surrender of life. See that you mediate between God and man, in such brotherly mediation as is possible to us.

Above all, dear friends, let us all begin where Christ begins, where my text begins, and go to Him to have ourselves loosed from our sins in His own blood.' Then the king's diadem and the priest's mitre will meet on our happy heads. In plain English, if we want to govern ourselves and the world, we must let Christ govern us, and then all things will be our servants. If we would draw near to God--and to be distant from Him is misery; and if we would offer to Him the sacrifices--to refrain from offering which is sin and sorrow--we must begin with going to Jesus Christ, and trusting in Him as our Redeemer from sin. And then, so trusting, He will give us here and now, amid the sorrows and imperfections of life, and more perfectly amid the glories and unknown advances in power and beauty in the heavens, a share in His Royalty and His unchangeable Priesthood.

Maclaren: Rev 1:9-20

The King Of Glory And Lord Of The Churches

"I John, who also am your brother, and companion in tribulation, and in the kingdom and patience of Jesus Christ. was in the isle that is called Patmos, for the word of God, and for the testimony of Jesus Christ. 10. I was in the Spirit on the Lord's day, and heard behind me a great voice, as of a trumpet, 11. Saying, I am Alpha and Omega, the first and the last: and, What thou seest, write in a book, and send it unto the seven churches which are in Asia; unto Ephesus, and unto Smyrna, and unto Pergamos, and unto Thyatira, and unto Sardis, and unto Philadelphia, and unto Laodicea. 12. And I turned to see she voice that spake with me. And being turned, I saw seven golden candlesticks; 13. And in the midst of the seven candlesticks one like unto the Son of man, clothed with a garment down to the foot, and girt about the paps with a golden girdle. 14. His head and His hairs were white like wool, as white as snow; and His eyes were as a flame of fire; 15. And His feet like unto fine brass, as if they burned in a furnace; and His voice as the sound of many waters. 16. And He had in His right hand seven stars: and out of His mouth went a sharp two-edged sword: and His countenance was as the sun shineth in his strength. 17. And when I saw Him, I fell at His feet as dead. And He laid His right hand upon me, saying onto me, Fear not; I am the first and the last: 18. I am He that liveth, and was dead; and, behold, I am alive for evermore, Amen; and have the keys of hell and of death. 19. Write the things which thou hast seen, and the things which are, and the things which shall be hereafter; 20. The mystery of the seven stars which thou sawest in My right hand, and the seven golden candlesticks. The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches: and the seven candlesticks which thou sawest are the seven churches."--Rev. 1:9-20.

In this passage we have the seer and his commission (Rev. 1:9-11); the vision of the glorified Christ (Rev. 1:12-16); His words of comfort, self-revelation, and command (Rev. 1:17-20).

I. The Writer Does Not Call Himself An Apostle, But A Brother And Sharer In The Common Good Of Christians.

He does not speak as an apostle, whose function was to witness to the past earthly history of the Lord, but as a prophet, whose message was as to the future.

The true rendering of Rev. 1:9 (R.V.) brings all three words, tribulation,' kingdom,' and patience' into the same relation to in Jesus.' Sharing in afflictions which flow from union to Him is the condition of partaking in His kingdom; and tribulation leads to the throne, when it is borne with the brave patience which not only endures, but, in spite of sorrows, goes right onwards, and which is ours if we are in Christ.

Commentators tell us that John was banished to Patmos, an insignificant rock off the Asiatic coast, under Domitian, and returned to Ephesus in the reign of Nerva (A.D. 96). No wonder that all through the book we hear the sound of the sea! It was common for the Romans to dispose of criminals in that fashion, and, clearly, John was shut up in Patmos as a criminal. For the word of God, and the testimony of Jesus,' cannot fairly bear any other meaning than that he was sent there as punishment for bearing witness to Jesus. Observe the use of witness' or testimony, as connecting the Apocalypse with the Gospel and Epistles of John.

In his rocky solitude the Apostle was in the Spirit,' --by which is, of course, not meant the condition in which every Christian should ever be, but such a state of elevated consciousness and communion as Paul was in when he was caught up to the heavens. No doubt John had been meditating on the unforgotten events of that long-past day of resurrection, which he was observing in his islet by solitary worship, as he had often observed it with his brethren in Ephesus; and his devout thoughts made him the more capable of supernatural communications. Whether the name of the first day of the week as the Lord's Day' originated with this passage, or had already become common, is uncertain. But, at all events, it was plainly regarded as the day for Christian worship. Solitary souls, far away from the gatherings of Christ's people, may still draw near to Him; and if they turn thought and love towards Him, they will be lifted above this gross earth, and hear that great voice speaking to them, which rose above the dash of waves, and thrilled the inward ear of the lonely exile. That voice, penetrating and clear like a trumpet, gave him his charge, and woke his expectation of visions to follow.

We cannot enter on any consideration of the churches enumerated, or the reasons for their selection. Suffice it to note that their number suggests their representative character, and that what is said to them is meant for all churches in all ages.

II. The Fuller Consideration Of The Emblem Of The Candlesticks Will Come Presently,

But we have reverently to gaze upon the glorious figure which flashed on John's sight as he turned to see who spoke to him there in his loneliness. His first glimpse told him that it was one like to the Son of man'; for it can scarcely be supposed that the absence of the definite article in the Greek obliges us to think that all that John meant to say was that the form was manlike. Surely it was a more blessed resemblance than that vague one which struck on his heart. It was He Himself with His human air, standing there in the blaze of celestial light. What a rush of memories, what a rapture of awe and surprise would flood his soul, as that truth broke on him! The differences between the form seen and that remembered were startling, indeed, but likeness persisted through them all. Nor is it inexplicable that, when he had taken in all the features of the vision, he should have fallen as one dead; for the truest love would feel awe at the reappearance of the dearest invested with heavenly radiance.

The elements of the description are symbolical, and, in most instances, drawn from the Old Testament. The long robe, girdled high up with a golden girdle, seems to express at once kingly and priestly dignity. Girded loins meant work. This girdled breast meant royal repose and priestly calm. The whiteness of the hair (comp. Dan. 7:9) may indicate, as in Daniel, length of days; but more probably it expresses the transfiguration in light of the glorified person of the Redeemer' (Trench). The flaming eyes are the symbol of His all-seeing wrath against evil, and the feet of burning brass symbolise the exalted Christ's power to tread down His enemies and consume them. His voice was as the sound of many waters, like the billows that broke on Patmos, whereby is symbolised the majesty of His utterance of power, whether for rebuke or encouragement, but mainly for the former.

Flashing in His hand were seven stars. The seer does not stop to tell us how they were disposed there, nor how one hand could grasp them all; but that right hand can and does. What this point of the vision means we shall see presently.

The terrible power of the exalted Christ's word to destroy His foes is expressed by that symbol of the two-edged sword from His mouth, which, like so many prophetic symbols, is grotesque if pictured, but sublime when spoken. The face blazed with dazzling brightness unbearable as the splendours of that southern sun which poured its rays on the flashing waters round John's rocky prison.

Is this tremendous figure like the Christ on whose bosom John had leaned? Yes; for one chief purpose of this book is to make us feel that the exalted Jesus is the same in all essentials as the lowly Jesus. The heart that beats beneath the golden girdle is the same that melted with pity and overflowed with love here. The hands that bear the seven stars are those that were pierced with nails. The eyes that flash fire are those that dropped tears at a grave and over Jerusalem. The lips from which issues the sharp sword are the same which said, I will give you rest.' He has carried all His love, His gentleness, His sympathy, into the blaze of Deity, and in His glory is still our brother.

III. His Gracious Words To John Tell Us This And More.

Soothingly He laid the hand with the stars in it on the terrified Apostle, and gentle words, which he had heard Him say many a time on earth, came soothingly from the mouth from which the sword proceeded. How the calming graciousness rises into majesty! I am the first and the last.' That is a Divine prerogative (Isa. 44:6). The glorified Christ claims to have been before all creatures, and to be the end to which all tend.

Rev. 1:18 should be more closely connected with the preceding than in Authorised Version. The sentence runs on unbroken, and the Living one,' which is equivalent to the claim to possess life in Himself (John 5:26), on which follows in majestic continuity, and I became dead'--pointing to the mystery of the Lord of life entering into the conditions of humanity, and stooping to taste of death--and, behold, I am alive for evermore '--the transient eclipse of the grave is followed by glorious life for ever--and I have the keys of death and of Hades '--having authority over that dark prison-house, and opening and shutting its gates as I will.

Mark how, in these solemn words, the threefold state of the eternal Word is set forth, in His pre-incarnate fulness of Divine life, in His submission to death, in His resurrection, and in His ascended glory, as Lord of life and death, and of all worlds. Does our faith grasp all these? We shall never understand His life and death on earth, unless we see before them the eternal dwelling of the Word with God, and after them the exaltation of His manhood to the throne of the universe.

The charge to the Apostle, which follows on this transcendent revelation, has two parts--the command to write his visions, and the explanation of the symbols of the stars and the candlesticks. As to the former, we need only note that it extends to the whole book, and that the three divisions of what thou seest,' the things which are,' and the things which shall be hereafter,' may refer, respectively, to the vision in this chapter, the letters to the seven churches, and the subsequent prophetic part of the book.

As to the explanation of the symbols, stars are always, in Scripture, emblems of authority, and here they are clearly so. But there is great difference of opinion as to the meaning of the angels,' which are variously taken as being guardian angels of each church, or the presiding officers of these, or ideal figures representing each church in its collective aspect. It is impossible to enter on the discussion of these views here, and we can only say that, in our judgment, the opinion that the angels are the bishops of the churches is the most probable. If so, the fact that they are addressed as representing the churches, responsible for and sharing in their spiritual condition, suggests very solemn thoughts as to the weight laid on every one who sustains an analogous position, and the inseparable connection between the spiritual condition of pastor and people.

The seven candlesticks are the seven churches. The formal unity of the ancient church, represented by the one candlestick with its seven branches, is exchanged for the real unity which arises from the presence of Christ in the midst. The old candlestick is at the bottom of the Mediterranean. The unity of the Church does not depend on compression into one organisation, but on all its parts being clustered around Jesus.

The emblem of the candlestick, or lamp-holder, may suggest lessons as to the Church's function. Each church should be light. That light must be derived. There is only one unkindled and unfed light--that of Jesus Christ. Of the rest of us it has to be said, He was not that Light, but was sent to bear witness of that Light.' Each church should be, as it were, a clustered light, like those rings of iron, pierced with many little holes, from each of which a tiny jet of gas comes, which, running all together, make one steady lustre. So we should each be content to blend our little twinkle in the common light.

The Threefold Common Heritage

"I John, your brother, and partaker with you in the tribulation and kingdom and patience which are in Jesus."--Rev. 1:9 (R.V.).

So does the Apostle introduce himself to his readers; with no word of pre-eminence or of apostolic authority, but with the simple claim to share with them in their Christian heritage. And this is the same man who, at an earlier stage of his Christian life, desired that he and his brother might sit on Thy right hand and on Thy left in Thy Kingdom.' What a change had passed over him! What was it that out of such timber made such a polished shaft? I think there is only one answer--the resurrection of Jesus Christ and the gift of God's good Spirit that came after it.

It almost looks as if John was thinking about his old ambitious wish, and our Lord's answer to it, when he wrote these words; for the very gist of our Lord's teaching to him on that memorable occasion is reproduced in compressed form in my text. He had been taught that fellowship in Christ's sufferings must go before participation in His throne; and so here he puts tribulation before the kingdom. He had been taught, in answer to his foolish request, that pre-eminence was not the first thing to think of, but service; and that the only principle according to which rank was determined in that kingdom was service. So here he says nothing about dignity, but calls himself simply a brother and companion. He humbly suppresses his apostolic authority, and takes his place, not by the side of the throne, apart from others, but down among them.

Now the Revised Version is distinctly an improved version in its rendering of these words. It reads partaker with you,' instead of companion,' and so emphasises the notion of participation. It reads, in the tribulation and kingdom and patience,' instead of in tribulation and in the kingdom and patience'; and so, as it were, brackets all the three nouns together under one preposition and one definite article, and thus shows more closely their connection. And instead of in the kingdom and patience of Jesus Christ,' it reads, which are in Jesus Christ,' and so shows that the predicate, in Jesus Christ,' extends to all the three--the tribulation,' the kingdom,' and the patience,' and not only to the last of the three, as would be suggested to an ordinary reader of our English version. So that we have here a participation by all Christian men in three things, all of which are, in some sense, in Christ Jesus.' Note that participation in the kingdom' stands in the centre, buttressed, as it were, on the one side by participation in the tribulation,' and on the other side by participation in the patience.' We may, then, best bring out the connection and force of these thoughts by looking at the common royalty, the common road leading to it, and the common temper in which the road is trodden--all which things do inhere in Christ, and may be ours on condition of our union with Him.

I. So Then, First, Note The Common Royalty.

I John am a partaker with you in the kingdom.'

Now John does not say, I am going to be a partaker,' but says, Here and now, in this little rocky island of Patmos, an exile and all but a martyr, I yet, like all the rest of you, who have the same weird to dree, and the same bitter cup to drink, even now am a partaker of the kingdom that is in Christ.'

What is that kingdom? It is the sphere or society, the state or realm, in which His will is obeyed; and, as we may say, His writs run. His kingdom, in the deepest sense of the word, is only there, where loving hearts yield, and where His will is obeyed consciously, because the conscious obedience is rooted in love.

But then, besides that, there is a wider sense of the expression in which Christ's kingdom stretches all through the universe, and wherever the authority of God is there is the kingdom of the exalted Christ, who is the right hand and active power of God.

So then the kingdom that is in Christ' is yours if you are in Christ.' Or, to put it into other words, whoever is ruled by Christ has a share in rule with Christ. Hence the words in the context here, to which a double meaning may be attached, He hath made us to be a kingdom.' We are His kingdom in so far as our wills joyfully and lovingly submit to His authority; and then, in so far as we are His kingdom, we are kings. So far as our wills bow to and own His sway, they are invested with power to govern ourselves and others. His subjects are the world's masters. Even now, in the midst of confusions and rebellions, and apparent contradictions, the true rule in the world belongs to the men and women who bow to the authority of Jesus Christ. Whoever worships Him, saying, Thou art the King of Glory, O Christ,' receives from Him the blessed assurance, and I appoint unto you a kingdom.' His vassals are altogether princes. He is King of kings,' not only in the sense that He is higher than the kings of the earth, but also in the sense, though it be no part of the true meaning of the expression, that those whom He rules are, by the very submission to His rule, elevated to royal dignity.

We rule over ourselves, which is the best kingdom to govern, on condition of saying:--Lord! I cannot rule myself, do Thou rule me.' When we put the reins into His hands, when we put our consciences into His keeping, when we take our law from His gentle and yet sovereign lips, when we let Him direct our thinking; when His word is absolute truth that ends all controversy, and when His will is the supreme authority that puts an end to every hesitation and reluctance, then we are masters of ourselves. The man that has rule over his own spirit is the true king. He that thus is Christ's man is his own master. Being lords of ourselves, and having our foot upon our passions, and conscience and will flexible in His hand and yielding to His lightest touch, as a fine-mouthed horse does to the least pressure of the bit, then we are masters of circumstances and the world; and all things are on our side if we are on Christ's side.

So we do not need to wait for Heaven to be heirs, that is possessors, of the kingdom that God hath prepared for them that love Him. Christ's dominion is shared even now and here by all who serve Him. It is often bard for us to believe this about ourselves or others, especially when toil weighs upon us, and adverse circumstances, against which we have vainly striven, tyrannise over our lives. We feel more like powerless victims than lords of the world. Our lives seem concerned with such petty trivialities, and so absolutely lorded over by externals, that to talk of a present dominion over a present world seems irony, flatly contradicted by facts. We are tempted to throw forward the realisation of our regality to the future. We are heirs, indeed, of a great kingdom, but for the present are set to keep a small huckster's shop in a back street. So we faithlessly say to ourselves; and we need to open our eyes, as John would have his brethren do, to the fact of the present participation of every Christian in the present kingdom of the enthroned Christ. There can be no more startling anomalies in our lots than were in his, as he sat there in Patmos, a solitary exile, weighed upon with many cares, ringed about with perils not a few. But in them all he knew his share in the kingdom to be real and inalienable, and yielding much for present fruition, however much more remained over for hope and future possession. The kingdom is not only of' but in' Jesus Christ. He is, as it were, the sphere in which it is realised. If we are in Him' by that faith which engrafts us into Him, we shall ourselves both be and possess that kingdom, and possess it, because we are it.

But while the kingdom is present, its perfect form is future. The crown of righteousness is laid up for God's people, even though they are already a kingdom, and already (according to the true reading of Rev. 5:10) reign upon the earth.' Great hopes, the greater for their dimness, gather round that future when the faithfulness of the steward shall be exchanged for the authority of the ruler, and the toil of the servant for the joy of the Lord. The presumptuous ambition of John in his early request did not sin by setting his hopes too high; for, much as he asked when he sought a place at the right hand of his Master's throne, his wildest dreams fell far below the reality, reserved for all who overcome, of a share in that very throne itself. There is room there, not for one or two of the aristocracy of heaven, but for all the true servants of Christ.

They used to say that in the days of the first Napoleon every French soldier carried a field-marshal's baton in his knapsack. That is to say, every one of them had the chance of winning it, and many of them did win it. But every Christian soldier carries a crown in his, and that not because be perhaps may, but because he certainly will, wear it, when the war is over, if he stands by his flag, and because he has it already in actual possession, though for the present the helmet becomes his brow rather than the diadem'. On such themes we can say little, only let us remember that the present and the future life of the Christian are distinguished, not by the one possessing the royalty which the other wants, but as the partial and perfect forms of the same kingdom, which, in both forms alike, depends on our true abiding in Him. That kingdom is in Him, and is the common heritage of all who are in Him, and who, on earth and in heaven, possess it in degrees varying accurately with the measure in which they are in Christ, and He in them.

II. Note, Secondly, The Common Road To That Common Royalty.

As I have remarked, the kingdom is the central thought here, and the other two stand on either side as subsidiary: on the one hand, a common' tribulation'; on the other, a common patience.' The former is the path by which all have to travel who attain the royalty; the latter is the common temper in which all the travellers must face the steepnesses and roughnesses of the road.

Tribulation' has, no doubt, primarily reference to actual persecution, such as had sent John to his exile in Patmos, and hung like a threatening thunder-cloud over the Asiatic churches. But the significance of the word is not exhausted thereby. It is always true that through much tribulation we must enter the kingdom.' All who are bound to the same place, and who start from the same place, must go by the same road. There are no short-cuts nor by-paths for the Christian pilgrim. The only way to the kingdom that is in Christ is the road which He Himself trod. There is tribulation in Christ,' as surely as in Him there are peace and victory, and if we are in Christ we shall be sure to get our share of it. The Christian course brings new difficulties and trials of its own, and throws those who truly out-and-out adopt it into relations with the world which will surely lead to oppositions and pains. If we are in the world as Christ was, we shall have to make up our minds to share the reproach of Christ' until Egypt owns Him, and not Pharaoh, for its King. If there be no such experience, it is much more probable that the reason for exemption is the Christian's worldliness than the world's growing Christlikeness.

No doubt the grosser forms of persecution are at an end, and no doubt multitudes of nominal Christians live on most amicable terms with the world, and know next to nothing of the tribulation that is in Christ. But that is not because there is any real alteration in the consequences of union with Jesus, but because their union is so very slight and superficial. The world loves its own,' and what can it find to hate in the shoals of people, whose religion is confined to their tongues mostly, and has next to nothing to do with their lives? It has not ceased to be a hard thing to be a real and thorough Christian. A great deal in the world is against us when we try to be so, and a great deal in ourselves is against us. There will be tribulation' by reason of self-denial, and the mortification and rigid suppression or regulation of habits, tastes, and passions, which some people may be able to indulge, but which we must cast out, though dear and sensitive as a right eye, if they interfere with our entrance into life. The law is unrepealed--If we suffer with Him, we shall also reign with Him.'

But this participation in the tribulation that is in Christ has another and gentler aspect. The expression points to the blessed softening of our hardest trials when they are borne in union with the Man of Sorrows. The sunniest lives have their dark times. Sooner or later we all have to lay our account with hours when the heart bleeds and hope dies, and we shall not find strength to bear such times aright unless we bear them in union with Jesus Christ, by which our darkest sorrows are turned into the tribulation that is in Him, and all the bitterness, or, at least, the poison of the bitterness, taken out of them, and they almost changed into a solemn joy. Egypt would be as barren as the desert which bounds it, were it not for the rising of the Nile; so when the cold waters of sorrow rise up and spread over our hearts, if we are Christians, they will leave a precious deposit when they retire, on which will grow rich harvests. Some edible plants are not fit for use till they have had a touch of frost. Christian character wants the same treatment. It is needful for us that the road to the kingdom should often run through the valley of weeping. Our being in the kingdom depends upon the bending of our wills in submission to the King; then surely nothing should be more welcome to us, as nothing can be more needful, than anything which bends them, even if the fire which makes their obstinacy pliable, and softens the iron so that it runs in the appointed mould, should have to be very hot. The soil of the vineyards on the slopes of Vesuvius is disintegrated lava. The richest grapes, from which a precious wine is made, grow on the product of eruptions which tore the mountain-side and darkened all the sky. So our costliest graces of character are grown in a heart enriched by losses and made fertile by convulsions which rent it and covered smiling verdure with what seemed at first a fiery flood of ruin. The kingdom is reached by the road of tribulation. Blessed are they for whom the universal sorrows which flesh is heir to become helps heavenwards because they are borne in union with Jesus, and so hallowed into tribulation that is in Him.'

III. We Note The Common Temper In Which The Common Road To The Common Royalty Is To Be Trodden.

Tribulation' refers to circumstances--patience' to disposition. We shall certainly meet with tribulation if we are Christians, and if we are, we shall front tribulation with patience. Both are equally, though in different ways, characteristics of all the true travellers to the kingdom. Patience is the link, so to speak, between the kingdom and the tribulation. Sorrow does not of itself lead to the possession of the kingdom. All depends on the disposition which the sorrow evokes, and the way in which it is borne. We may take our sorrows in such a fashion as to be driven by them out of our submission to Christ, and so they may lead us away from and not towards the kingdom. The worst affliction is an affliction wasted, and every affliction is wasted, unless it is met with patience, and that in Christ Jesus. Many a man is soured, or paralysed, or driven from his faith, or drowned in self-absorbed and self-compassionating regret, or otherwise harmed by his sorrows, and the only way to get the real good of them is to keep closely united to our Lord, that in Him we may have patience as well as peace.

Most of us know that the word here translated patience' means a great deal more than the passive endurance which we usually mean by that word, and distinctly includes the notion of active perseverance. That active element is necessarily implied, for instance, in the exhortation, Let us run with patience the race that is set before us.' Mere uncomplaining passive endurance is not the temper which leads to running any race. It simply bears and does nothing, but the persistent effort of the runner with tense muscles calls for more than patience. A vivid metaphor underlies the word--that of the fixed attitude of one bearing up a heavy weight or pressure without yielding or being crushed. Such immovable constancy is more than passive. There must be much active exercise of power to prevent collapse. But all the strength is not to be exhausted in the effort to bear without flinching. There should be enough remaining for work that remains over and above the sorrow. The true Christian patience implies continuance in well-doing, besides meek acceptance of tribulation. The first element in it is, no doubt, unmurmuring acquiescence in whatsoever affliction from God or man beats against us on our path. But the second is, continual effort after Christian progress, notwithstanding the tribulation. The storm must not blow us out of our course. We must still bear up and steer right onward,' in spite of all its force on our faces, or, as birds of tempest-loving kind' do, so spread our pinions as to be helped by it towards our goal.

Do I address any one who has to stagger along the Christian course under some heavy and, perhaps, hopeless load of sorrow? There is a plain lesson for all of us in such circumstances. It is not less my duty to seek to grow in grace and Christlikeness because I am sad. That is my first business at all times and under all changes of fortune and mood. My sorrows are meant to help me to that, and if they so absorb me that I am indifferent to the obligation of Christian progress, then my patience, however stoical and uncomplaining it may be, is not the perseverance that is in Christ Jesus.' Nor does tribulation absolve from plain duties. Poor Mary of Bethany sat still in the house, with her hands lying idly in her lap, and her regrets busy with the most unprofitable of all occupations fancying how different all would have been if one thing had been different. Sorrow is excessive and misdirected and selfish, and therefore hurtful, when for the sake of indulgence in it we fling up plain tasks. The glory of the kingdom shining athwart the gloom of the tribulation should help us to be patient, and the patience, laying hold of the tribulation by the right handle, should convert it into a blessing and an instrument for helping us to a fuller possession of the kingdom.

This temper of brave and active persistence in the teeth of difficulties will only be found where these other two are found--in Christ. The stem from which the three-leaved plant grows must be rooted in Him. He is the King, and in Him abiding we have our share of the common royalty. He is the forerunner and pathfinder, and, abiding in Him, we tread the common path to the common kingdom, which is hallowed at every rough place by the print of His bleeding feet. He is the leader and perfecter of faith, and, abiding in Him, we receive some breath of the spirit which was in Him, who, for the joy that was set before Him, endured the Cross, despising the shame. Abiding in Him, we shall possess in our measure all which is in Him, and find ourselves partakers with an innumerable company in the tribulation and kingdom and patience which are in Christ Jesus,' and may hope to hear at last, Ye are they which have continued with Me in My temptations, and I appoint unto you a Kingdom, as My Father hath appointed unto Me.'

MHCC: Rev 1:1-3

This book is the Revelation of Jesus Christ; the whole Bible is so; for all revelation comes through Christ, and all relates to him. Its principal subject is to discover the purposes of God concerning the affairs of the church, and of the nations as connected therewith, to the end of the world. These events would surely come to pass; and they would begin to come to pass very shortly. Though Christ is himself God, and has light and life in himself, yet, as Mediator between God and man, he receives instructions from the Father. To him we owe the knowledge of what we are to expect from God, and what he expects from us. The subject of this revelation was, the things that must shortly come to pass. On all who read or hear the words of the prophecy, a blessing is pronounced. Those are well employed who search the Bible. It is not enough that we read and hear, but we must keep the things that are written, in our memories, in our minds, in our affections, and in practice, and we shall be blessed in the deed. Even the mysteries and difficulties of this book are united with discoveries of God, suited to impress the mind with awe, and to purify the soul of the reader, though he may not discern the prophetic meaning. No part of Scripture more fully states the gospel, and warns against the evil of sin.

MHCC: Rev 1:4-8

There can be no true peace, where there is not true grace; and where grace goeth before, peace will follow. This blessing is in the name of God, of the Holy Trinity, it is an act of adoration. The Father is first named; he is described as the Jehovah who is, and who was, and who is to come, eternal, unchangeable. The Holy Spirit is called the seven spirits, the perfect Spirit of God, in whom there is a diversity of gifts and operations. The Lord Jesus Christ was from eternity, a Witness to all the counsels of God. He is the First-born from the dead, who will by his own power raise up his people. He is the Prince of the kings of the earth; by him their counsels are overruled, and to him they are accountable. Sin leaves a stain of guilt and pollution upon the soul. Nothing can fetch out this stain but the blood of Christ; and Christ shed his own blood to satisfy Divine justice, and purchase pardon and purity for his people. Christ has made believers kings and priests to God and his Father. As such they overcome the world, mortify sin, govern their own spirits, resist Satan, prevail with God in prayer, and shall judge the world. He has made them priests, given them access to God, enabled them to offer spiritual and acceptable sacrifices, and for these favours they are bound to ascribe to him dominion and glory for ever. He will judge the world. Attention is called to that great day when all will see the wisdom and happiness of the friends of Christ, and the madness and misery of his enemies. Let us think frequently upon the second coming of Christ. He shall come, to the terror of those who wound and crucify him by apostacy: he shall come, to the astonishment of the whole world of the ungodly. He is the Beginning and the End; all things are from him and for him; he is the Almighty; the same eternal and unchanged One. And if we would be numbered with his saints in glory everlasting, we must now willing submit to him receive him, and honour him as a saviour, who we believe will come to be our Judge. Alas, that there should be many, who would wish never to die, and that there should not be a day of judgment!

MHCC: Rev 1:9-11

It was the apostle's comfort that he did not suffer as an evil-doer, but for the testimony of Jesus, for bearing witness to Christ as the Immanuel, the Saviour; and the Spirit of glory and of God rested upon this persecuted apostle. The day and time when he had this vision was the Lord's day, the Christian sabbath, the first day of the week, observed in remembrance of the resurrection of Christ. Let us who call him " Our Lord," honour him on his own day. The name shows how this sacred day should be observed; the Lord's day should be wholly devoted to the Lord, and none of its hours employed in a sensual, worldly manner, or in amusements. He was in a serious, heavenly, spiritual frame, under the gracious influences of the Spirit of God. Those who would enjoy communion with God on the Lord's day, must seek to draw their thoughts and affections from earthly things. And if believers are kept on the Lord's holy day, from public ordinances and the communion of saints, by necessity and not by choice, they may look for comfort in meditation and secret duties, from the influences of the Spirit; and by hearing the voice and contemplating the glory of their beloved Saviour, from whose gracious words and power no confinement or outward circumstances can separate them. An alarm was given as with the sound of the trumpet, and then the apostle heard the voice of Christ.

MHCC: Rev 1:12-20

The churches receive their light from Christ and the gospel, and hold it forth to others. They are golden candlesticks; they should be precious and pure; not only the ministers, but the members of the churches; their light should so shine before men, as to engage others to give glory to God. And the apostle saw as though of the Lord Jesus Christ appeared in the midst of the golden candlesticks. He is with his churches always, to the end of the world, filling them with light, and life, and love. He was clothed with a robe down to the feet, perhaps representing his righteousness and priesthood, as Mediator. This vest was girt with a golden girdle, which may denote how precious are his love and affection for his people. His head and hairs white like wool and as snow, may signify his majesty, purity, and eternity. His eyes as a flame of fire, may represent his knowledge of the secrets of all hearts, and of the most distant events. His feet like fine brass burning in a furnace, may denote the firmness of his appointments, and the excellence of his proceedings. His voice as the sound of many waters, may represent the power of his word, to remove or to destroy. The seven stars were emblems of the ministers of the seven churches to which the apostle was ordered to write, and whom Christ upheld and directed. The sword represented his justice, and his word, piercing to the dividing asunder of soul and spirit, Heb 4:12. His countenance was like the sun, when it shines clearly and powerfully; its strength too bright and dazzling for mortal eyes to behold. The apostle was overpowered with the greatness of the lustre and glory in which Christ appeared. We may well be contented to walk by faith, while here upon earth. The Lord Jesus spake words of comfort; Fear not. Words of instruction; telling who thus appeared. And his Divine nature; the First and the Last. His former sufferings; I was dead: the very same whom his disciples saw upon the cross. His resurrection and life; I have conquered death, and am partaker of endless life. His office and authority; sovereign dominion in and over the invisible world, as the Judge of all, from whose sentence there is no appeal. Let us listen to the voice of Christ, and receive the tokens of his love, for what can he withhold from those for whose sins he has died? May we then obey his word, and give up ourselves wholly to him who directs all things aright.

Matthew Henry: Rev 1:1-2

Here we have,

I. What we may call the pedigree of this book. 1. It is the revelation of Jesus Christ. The whole Bible is so; for all revelation comes through Christ and all centres in him; and especially in these last days God has spoken to us by his Son, and concerning his Son. Christ, as the king of his church, has been pleased thus far to let his church know by what rules and methods he will proceed in his government; and, as the prophet of the church, he has made known to us the things that shall be hereafter. 2. It is a revelation which God gave unto Christ. Though Christ is himself God, and as such has light and life in himself, yet, as he sustains the office of Mediator between God and man, he receives his instructions from the Father. The human nature of Christ, though endowed with the greatest sagacity, judgment, and penetration, could not, in a way of reason, discover these great events, which not being produced by natural causes, but wholly depending upon the will of God, could be the object only of divine prescience, and must come to a created mind only by revelation. Our Lord Jesus is the great trustee of divine revelation; it is to him that we owe the knowledge we have of what we are to expect from God and what he expects from us. 3. This revelation Christ sent and signified by his angel. Observe here the admirable order of divine revelation. God gave it to Christ, and Christ employed an angel to communicate it to the churches. The angels are God's messengers; they are ministering spirits to the heirs of salvation. They are Christ's servants: principalities and powers are subject to him; all the angels of God are obliged to worship him. 4. The angels signified it to the apostle John. As the angels are the messengers of Christ, the ministers are the messengers of the churches; what they receive from heaven, they are to communicate to the churches. John was the apostle chosen for this service. Some think he was the only one surviving, the rest having sealed their testimony with their blood. This was to be the last book of divine revelation; and therefore notified to the church by the last of the apostles. John was the beloved disciple. He was, under the New Testament, as the prophet Daniel under the Old, a man greatly beloved. He was the servant of Christ; he was an apostle, an evangelist, and a prophet; he served Christ in all the three extraordinary offices of the church. James was an apostle, but not a prophet, nor an evangelist; Matthew was an apostle and evangelist, but not a prophet; Luke was an evangelist, but neither a prophet nor an apostle; but John was all three; and so Christ calls him in an eminent sense his servant John. 5. John was to deliver this revelation to the church, to all his servants. For the revelation was not designed for the use of Christ's extraordinary servants the ministers only, but for all his servants, the members of the church; they have all a right to the oracles of God, and all have their concern in them.

II. Here we have the subject-matter of this revelation, namely, the things that must shortly come to pass. The evangelists give us an account of the things that are past; prophecy gives us an account of things to come. These future events are shown, not in the clearest light in which God could have set them, but in such a light as he saw most proper, and which would best answer his wise and holy purposes. Had they been as clearly foretold in all their circumstances as God could have revealed them, the prediction might have prevented the accomplishment; but they are foretold more darkly, to beget in us a veneration for the scripture, and to engage our attention and excite our enquiry. We have in this revelation a general idea of the methods of divine providence and government in and about the church, and many good lessons may be learned hereby. These events (it is said) were such as should come to pass not only surely, but shortly; that is, they would begin to come to pass very shortly, and the whole would be accomplished in a short time. For now the last ages of the world had come.

III. Here is an attestation of the prophecy, Rev 1:2. It was signified to John, who bore record of the word of God, and of the testimony of Jesus Christ, and of all things that he saw. It is observable that the historical books of the Old Testament have not always the name of the historian prefixed to them, as in the books of Judges, Kings, Chronicles; but in the prophetical books the name is always prefixed, as Isaiah, Jeremiah, etc. So in the New Testament, though John did not prefix his name to his first epistle, yet he does to this prophecy, as ready to vouch and answer for the truth of it; and he gives us not only his name, but his office. He was one who bore record of the word of God in general, and of the testimony of Jesus in particular, and of all things that he saw; he was an eye-witness, and he concealed nothing that he saw. Nothing recorded in this revelation was his own invention or imagination; but all was the record of God and the testimony of Jesus; and, as he added nothing to it, so he kept back no part of the counsels of God.

Matthew Henry: Rev 1:3-8

We have here an apostolic benediction on those who should give a due regard to this divine revelation; and this benediction is given more generally and more especially.

I. More generally, to all who either read or hear the words of the prophecy. This blessing seems to be pronounced with a design to encourage us to study this book, and not be weary of looking into it upon account of the obscurity of many things in it; it will repay the labour of the careful and attentive reader. Observe, 1. It is a blessed privilege to enjoy the oracles of God. This was one of the principal advantages the Jews had above the Gentiles. 2. It is a blessed thing to study the scriptures; those are well employed who search the scriptures. 3. It is a privilege not only to read the scriptures ourselves, but to hear them read by others, who are qualified to give us the sense of what they read and to lead us into an understanding of them. 4. It is not sufficient to our blessedness that we read and hear the scriptures, but we must keep the things that are written; we must keep them in our memories, in our minds, in our affections, and in practice, and we shall be blessed in the deed. 5. The nearer we come to the accomplishment of the scriptures, the greater regard we shall give to them. The time is at hand, and we should be so much the more attentive as we see the day approaching.

II. The apostolic benediction is pronounced more especially and particularly to the seven Asian churches, Rev 1:4. These seven churches are named in Rev 1:11, and distinct messages sent to each of them respectively in the chapters following. The apostolic blessing is more expressly directed to these because they were nearest to him, who was now in the isle of Patmos, and perhaps he had the peculiar care of them, and superintendency over them, not excluding any of the rest of the apostles, if any of them were now living. Here observe,

1. What the blessing is which he pronounces on all the faithful in these churches: Grace and peace, holiness and comfort. Grace, that is, the good-will of God towards us and his good work in us; and peace, that is, the sweet evidence and assurance of this grace. There can be no true peace where there is not true grace; and, where grace goes before, peace will follow.

2. Whence this blessing is to come. In whose name does the apostle bless the churches? In the name of God, of the whole Trinity; for this is an act of adoration, and God only is the proper object of it; his ministers must bless the people in no name but his alone. And here, (1.) The Father is first named: God the Father, which may be taken either essentially, for God as God, or personally, for the first person in the ever-blessed Trinity, the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ; and he is described as the Jehovah who is, and who was, and who is to come, eternal, unchangeable, the same to the Old Testament church which was, and to the New Testament church which is, and who will be the same to the church triumphant which is to come. (2.) The Holy Spirit, called the seven spirits, not seven in number, nor in nature, but the infinite perfect Spirit of God, in whom there is a diversity of gifts and operations. He is before the throne; for, as God made, so he governs, all things by his Spirit. (3.) The Lord Jesus Christ. He mentions him after the Spirit, because he intended to enlarge more upon the person of Christ, as God manifested in the flesh, whom he had seen dwelling on earth before, and now saw again in a glorious form. Observe the particular account we have here of Christ, Rev 1:5. [1.] He is the faithful witness; he was from eternity a witness to all the counsels of God (Joh 1:18), and he was in time a faithful witness to the revealed will of God, who has now spoken to us by his Son; upon his testimony we may safely depend, for he is a faithful witness, cannot be deceived and cannot deceive us. [2.] He is the first-begotten or first-born from the dead, or the first parent and head of the resurrection, the only one who raised himself by his own power, and who will by the same power raise up his people from their graves to everlasting honour; for he has begotten them again to a lively hope by his resurrection from the dead. [3.] He is the prince of the kings of the earth; from him they have their authority; by him their power is limited and their wrath restrained; by him their counsels are over-ruled, and to him they are accountable. This is good news to the church, and it is good evidence of the Godhead of Christ, who is King of kings and Lord of lords. [4.] He is the great friend of his church and people, one who has done great things for them, and this out of pure disinterested affection. He has loved them, and, in pursuance of that everlasting love, he has, First, Washed them from their sins in his own blood. Sins leave a stain upon the soul, a stain of guilt and of pollution. Nothing can fetch out this stain but the blood of Christ; and, rather than it should not be washed out, Christ was willing to shed his own blood, to purchase pardon and purity for them. Secondly, He has made them kings and priests to God and his Father. Having justified and sanctified them, he makes them kings to his Father; that is, in his Father's account, with his approbation, and for his glory. As kings, they govern their own spirits, conquer Satan, have power and prevalency with God in prayer, and shall judge the world. He hath made them priests, given them access to God, enabled them to enter into the holiest and to offer spiritual and acceptable sacrifices, and has given them an unction suitable to this character; and for these high honours and favours they are bound to ascribe to him dominion and glory for ever. [5.] He will be the Judge of the world: Behold, he cometh, and every eye shall see him, Rev 1:7. This book, the Revelation, begins and ends with a prediction of the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. We should set ourselves to meditate frequently upon the second coming of Christ, and keep it in the eye of our faith and expectation. John speaks as if he saw that day: " Behold, he cometh, as sure as if you beheld him with your eyes. He cometh with clouds, which are his chariot and pavilion. He will come publicly: Every eye shall see him, the eye of his people, the eye of his enemies, every eye, yours and mine."He shall come, to the terror of those who have pierced him and have not repented and of all who have wounded and crucified him afresh by their apostasy from him, and to the astonishment of the pagan world. For he comes to take vengeance on those who know not God, as well as on those that obey not the gospel of Christ. [6.] This account of Christ is ratified and confirmed by himself, Rev 1:8. Here our Lord Jesus justly challenges the same honour and power that is ascribed to the Father, Rev 1:4. He is the beginning and the end; all things are from him and for him; he is the Almighty; he is the same eternal and unchangeable one. And surely whoever presumes to blot out one character of this name of Christ deserves to have his name blotted out of the book of life. Those that honour him he will honour; but those who despise him shall be lightly esteemed.

Matthew Henry: Rev 1:9-20

We have now come to that glorious vision which the apostle had of the Lord Jesus Christ, when he came to deliver this revelation to him, where observe,

I. The account given of the person who was favoured with this vision. He describes himself, 1. By his present state and condition. He was the brother and companion of these churches in tribulation, and in the kingdom and patience of Christ. He was, at their time, as the rest of true Christians were, a persecuted man, banished, and perhaps imprisoned, for his adherence to Christ. He was their brother, though an apostle; he seems to value himself upon his relation to the church, rather than his authority in it: Judas Iscariot may be an apostle, but not a brother in the family of God. He was their companion: the children of God should choose communion and society with each other. He was their companion in tribulation: the persecuted servants of God did not suffer alone, the same trials are accomplished in others. He was their companion in patience, not only a sharer with them in suffering circumstances, but in suffering graces: if we have the patience of the saints, we should not grudge to meet with their trials. He was their brother and companion in the patience of the kingdom of Christ, a sufferer for Christ's cause, for asserting his kingly power over the church and the world, and for adhering to it against all who would usurp upon it. By this account he gives of his present state, he acknowledges his engagements to sympathize with them, and to endeavour to give them counsel and comfort, and bespeaks their more careful attention to what he had to say to them from Christ their common Lord. 2. By the place where he was when he was favoured with this vision: he was in the isle Patmos. He does not say who banished him thither. It becomes Christians to speak sparingly and modestly of their own sufferings. Patmos is said to be an island in the Aegean Sea, One of those called Cyclades, and was about thirty-five miles in compass; but under this confinement it was the apostle's comfort that he did not suffer as an evil-doer, but that it was for the testimony of Jesus, for bearing witness to Christ as the Immanuel, the Saviour. This was a cause worth suffering for; and the Spirit of glory and of God rested upon this persecuted apostle. 3. The day and time in which he had this vision: it was the Lord's day, the day which Christ had separated and set apart for himself, as the eucharist is called the Lord's supper. Surely this can be no other than the Christian sabbath, the first day of the week, to be observed in remembrance of the resurrection of Christ. Let us who call him our Lord honour him on his own day, the day which the Lord hath made and in which we ought to rejoice. 4. The frame that his soul was in at this time: He was in the Spirit. He was not only in a rapture when he received the vision, but before he received it; he was in a serious, heavenly, spiritual frame, under the blessed gracious influences of the Spirit of God. God usually prepares the souls of his people for uncommon manifestations of himself, by the quickening sanctifying influences of his good Spirit. Those who would enjoy communion with God on the Lord's day must endeavour to abstract their thoughts and affections from flesh and fleshly things, and be wholly taken up with things of a spiritual nature.

II. The apostle gives an account of what he heard when thus in the Spirit. An alarm was given as with the sound of a trumpet, and then he heard a voice, the voice of Christ applying to himself the character before given, the first and the last, and commanding the apostle to commit to writing the things that were now to be revealed to him, and to send it immediately to the seven Asian churches, whose names are mentioned. Thus our Lord Jesus, the captain of our salvation, gave the apostle notice of his glorious appearance, as with the sound of a trumpet.

III. We have also an account of what he saw. He turned to see the voice, whose it was and whence it came; and then a wonderful scene of vision opened itself to him.

1. He saw a representation of the church under the emblem of seven golden candlesticks, as it is explained in the last verse of the chapter. The churches are compared to candlesticks, because they hold forth the light of the gospel to advantage. The churches are not candles: Christ only is our light, and his gospel our lamp; but they receive their light from Christ and the gospel, and hold it forth to others. They are golden candlesticks, for they should be precious and pure, comparable to fine gold; not only the ministers, but the members of the churches ought to be such; their light should so shine before men as to engage others to give glory to God.

2. He saw a representation of the Lord Jesus Christ in the midst of the golden candlesticks; for he has promised to be with his churches always to the end of the world, filling them with light, and life, and love, for he is the very animating informing soul of the church. And here we observe,

(1.) The glorious form in which Christ appeared in several particulars. [1.] He was clothed with a garment down to the foot, a princely and priestly robe, denoting righteousness and honour. [2.] He was girt about with a golden girdle, the breast-plate of the high priest, on which the names of his people are engraven; he was ready girt to do all the work of a Redeemer. [3.] His head and hairs were white like wool or snow. He was the Ancient of days; his hoary head was no sign of decay, but was indeed a crown of glory. [4.] His eyes were as a flame of fire, piercing and penetrating into the very hearts and reins of men, scattering terrors among his adversaries. [5.] His feet were like unto fine burning brass, strong and stedfast, supporting his own interest, subduing his enemies, treading them to powder. [6.] His voice was as the sound of many waters, of many rivers falling in together. He can and will make himself heard to those who are afar off as well as to those who are near. His gospel is a profluent and mighty stream, fed by the upper springs of infinite wisdom and knowledge. [7.] He had in his right hand seven stars, that is, the ministers of the seven churches, who are under his direction, have all their light and influence from him, and are secured and preserved by him. [8.] Out of his mouth went a two-edged sword, his word, which both wounds and heals, strikes at sin on the right hand and on the left, [9.] His countenance was as the sun shining, its strength too bright and dazzling for mortal eyes to behold.

(2.) The impression this appearance of Christ made upon the apostle John (Rev 1:17): He fell at the feet of Christ as dead; he was overpowered with the greatness of the lustre and glory in which Christ appeared, though he had been so familiar with him before. How well is it for us that God speaks to us by men like ourselves, whose terrors shall not make us afraid, for none can see the face of God and live!

(3.) The condescending goodness of the Lord Jesus to his disciple: He laid his hand upon him, Rev 1:17. He raised him up; he did not plead against him with his great power, but he put strength into him, he spoke kind words to him. [1.] Words of comfort and encouragement: Fear not. He commanded away the slavish fears of his disciple. [2.] Words of instruction, telling him particularly who he was that thus appeared to him. And here he acquaints him, First, with his divine nature: The first and the last. Secondly, With his former sufferings: I was dead; the very same that his disciples saw upon the cross dying for the sins of men. Thirdly, With his resurrection and life: " I live, and am alive for evermore, have conquered death and opened the grave, and am partaker of an endless life." Fourthly, With his office and authority: I have the keys of hell and of death, a sovereign dominion in and over the invisible world, opening and none can shut, shutting so that none can open, opening the gates of death when he pleases and the gates of the eternal world, of happiness or misery, as the Judge of all, from whose sentence there lies no appeal. Fifthly, With his will and pleasure: Write the things which thou hast seen, and the things which are, and which shall be hereafter. Sixthly, With the meaning of the seven stars, that they are the ministers of the churches; and of the seven candlesticks, that they are the seven churches, to whom Christ would now send by him particular and proper messages.

Barclay: Rev 1:1-3

This book is called sometimes the Revelation and sometimes the Apocalypse. It begins with the words "The revelation of Jesus Christ," which mean not the revelation about Jesus Christ but the revelation given by Jesus Christ. The Greek word for revelation is apokalupsis (602) which is a word with a history.

(i) Apokalupsis (602) is composed of two parts. Apo (575) means "away from" and kalupsis (compare 2572) "a veiling." Apokalupsis (602), therefore, means an unveiling, a revealing. It was not originally a specially religious word; it meant simply the disclosure of any fact. There is an interesting use of it in Plutarch (How to tell a Flatterer from a Friend, 32). Plutarch tells how once Pythagoras severely rebuked a devoted disciple of his in public and the young man went out and hanged himself. "From that time on Pythagoras never admonished anyone when anyone else was present. For error should be treated as a foul disease, and all admonition and disclosure (apokalupsis, 602) should be in secret." But apokalupsis (602) became specially a Christian word.

(ii) It is used for the revealing of God's will to us for our actions. Paul says that he went up to Jerusalem by apokalupsis (602). He went because God told him he wanted him to go (Gal 2:2).

(iii) It is used of the revelation of God's truth to men. Paul received his gospel, not from men, but by apokalupsis (602) from Jesus Christ (Gal 1:12). In the Christian assembly the message of the preacher is an apokalupsis (602) (1Co 14:6).

(iv) It is used of God's revealing to men of his own mysteries, especially in the incarnation of Jesus Christ (Rom 16:25; Eph 3:3).

(v) It is specially used of the revelation of the power and the holiness of God which is to come at the last days. That will be an unveiling of judgment (Rom 2:5); but for the Christian it will be an unveiling of praise and glory (1Pe 1:7); of grace (1Pe 1:13); of joy (1Pe 4:13).

Before we remind ourselves of the more technical use of apokalupsis (602), we may note two things.

(i) This revelation is connected specially with the work of the Holy Spirit (Eph 1:17).

(ii) We are bound to see that here we have a picture of the whole of the Christian life. There is no part of it which is not lit by the revelation of God. God reveals to us what we must do and say; in Jesus Christ he reveals himself to us, for he who has seen Jesus has seen the Father (Joh 14:9); and life moves on to the great and final revelation in which there is judgment for those who have not submitted to God but grace and glory and joy for those who are in Jesus Christ. Revelation is no technical theological idea; it is what God is offering to all who will listen.

Now we look at the technical meaning of apokalupsis (602), for that meaning is specially connected with this book.

The Jews had long since ceased to hope that they would be vindicated as the chosen people by human means. They hoped now for nothing less than the direct intervention of God. To that end they divided all time into two ages--this present age, wholly given over to evil; and the age to come, the age of God. Between the two there was to be a time of terrible trial. Between the Old and the New Testaments the Jews wrote many books which were visions of the dreadful time before the end and of the blessedness to come. These books were called Apokalypses; and that is what the Revelation is. Although there is nothing like it in the New Testament, it belongs to a class of literature which was common between the Testaments. All these books are wild and unintelligible, for they are trying to describe the indescribable. The very subject with which the Revelation deals is the reason why it is so difficult to understand.

Barclay: Rev 1:1-3

This short section gives us a concise account of how revelation comes to men.

(i) Revelation begins with God, the fountain of all truth. Every truth which men discover is two things--a discovery of the human mind and a gift of God. But it must always be remembered that men never create the truth; they receive it from God. We must also remember that that reception comes in two ways. It comes from earnest seeking. God gave men minds and it is often through our minds that he speaks to us. Certainly he does not grant his truth to the man who is too lazy to think. It comes from reverent waiting. God sends his truth to the man who not only thinks strenuously, but waits quietly in prayer and in devotion. But it must be remembered that prayer and devotion are not simply passive things. They are the dedicated listening for the voice of God.

(ii) God gives this revelation to Jesus Christ. The Bible never, as it were, makes a second God of Jesus; rather it stresses his utter dependence on God. "My teaching," said Jesus, "is not mine, but his who sent me" (Joh 7:16). "I do nothing on my own authority but speak thus as the Father taught me" (Joh 8:28). "I have not spoken on my own authority; the Father who sent me has himself given me commandment what to say and what to speak" (Joh 12:49). It is God's truth that Jesus brings to men; and that is precisely why his teaching is unique and final.

(iii) Jesus sends that truth to John through his angel (Rev 1:1). Here the writer of the Revelation was a child of his day. At this time in history men were specially conscious of the transcendence of God. That is to say, they were impressed above all things with the difference between God and man. So much so that they felt direct communication between God and man was impossible and that there must always be some intermediary. In the Old Testament story Moses received the Law directly from the hands of God (Exo 19-20); but twice in the New Testament it is said that the Law was given by angels (Act 7:53; Gal 3:19).

(iv) Finally, the revelation is given to John. It is most uplifting to remember the part men play in the coming of God's revelation. God must find a man to whom he can entrust his truth and whom he can use as his mouthpiece.

(v) Let us note the content of the revelation which comes to John. It is the revelation of "the things which must quickly happen" (Rev 1:1). There are two important words here. There is must. History is not haphazard; it has purpose. There is quickly. Here is the proof that it is quite wrong to use the Revelation as a kind of mysterious timetable of what is going to happen thousands of years from now. As John sees it, the things it deals with are working themselves out immediately. The Revelation must be interpreted against the background of its own time.

Barclay: Rev 1:1-3

Twice the word servant appears in this passage. God's revelation was sent to his servants and it was sent through his servant John. In Greek the word is doulos (1401) and in Hebrew 'ebed (05650). Both are difficult fully to translate. The normal translation of doulos (1401) is slave. The real servant of God is, in fact, his slave. A servant can leave his service when he likes; he has stated hours of work and stated hours of freedom; he works for a wage; he has a mind of his own and can bargain as to when and for what he will give his labour. A slave can do none of these things; he is the absolute possession of his owner, with neither time nor will of his own. Doulos (1401) and 'ebed (05650) bring out how absolutely we must surrender life to God.

It is of the greatest interest to note to whom these words are applied in Scripture.

Abraham is the servant of God (Gen 26:24; Psa 105:26; Dan 9:11). Jacob is the servant of God (Isa 44:1-2; Isa 45:4; Eze 37:25). Caleb and Joshua are the servants of God (Num 14:24; Jos 24:29; Jdg 6:49; 2Ch 24:6; Neh 1:7; Neh 10:29; Psa 105:26; Dan 9:11). Jacob is the servant of God (Isa 44:1-2; Isa 45:4; Eze 37:25). Caleb and Joshua are the servants of God (Num 14:24; Jos 24:29; Jdg 2:8). David is second only to Moses as characteristically the servant of God (Psa 132:10; Psa 144:10; 1Ki 8:66; 1Ki 11:36; 2Ki 19:34; 2Ki 20:6; 1Ch 17:4; in the titles of Ps 18 and Ps 36 ; Psa 89:3; Eze 34:24). Elijah is the servant of God (2Ki 9:36; 2Ki 10:10). Isaiah is the servant of God (Isa 20:3). Job is the servant of God (Job 1:8; Job 42:7). The prophets are the servants of God (2Ki 21:10; Amo 3:7). The apostles are the servants of God (Phi 1:1; Tit 1:1; Jam 1:1; Jud 1:1; Rom 1:1; 2Co 4:5). A man like Epaphras is the servant of God (Col 4:12). All Christians are the servants of God (Eph 6:6).

Two things emerge from this.

(i) The greatest men regarded as their greatest honour the fact that they were servants of God.

(ii) We must note the width of this service. Moses, the law-giver; Abraham, the adventurous pilgrim; David, shepherd boy, sweet singer of Israel, king of the nation; Caleb and Joshua, soldiers and men of action; Elijah and Isaiah, prophets and men of God; Job, faithful in misfortune; the apostles, who bore to men the story of Jesus; every Christian--all are servants of God. There is none whom God cannot use, if he will submit to his service.

Barclay: Rev 1:1-3

This passage ends with a threefold blessing.

(i) The man who reads these words is blessed. The reader here mentioned is not the private reader, but the man who publicly reads the word in the presence of the congregation. The reading of Scripture was the centre of any Jewish service (Luk 4:16; Act 13:15). In the Jewish synagogue scripture was read to the congregation by seven ordinary members of the congregation, although if a priest or levite was present he took precedence. The Christian Church took much of its service from the synagogue order and the reading of scripture remained a central part of the service. Justin Martyr gives the earliest account of what a Christian service was like; and it includes the reading of "the memoirs of the apostles (i.e. the Gospels), and the writings of the prophets" (Justin Martyr 1: 67). Reader became in time an official office in the Church. One of Tertullian's complaints about the heretical sects was the way in which a man could too speedily arrive at office without any training for it. He writes: "And so it comes to pass that today one man is their bishop, and tomorrow another; today he is a deacon who tomorrow is a reader" (Tertullian, On Prescription against Heretics, 41).

(ii) The man who hears these words is blessed. We do well to remember how great a privilege it is to hear the word of God in our own tongue, a privilege which was dearly bought. Men died to give it to us; and the professional clergy sought for long to keep it to themselves. To this day the task of giving men the Scriptures in their own language goes on.

(iii) The man who keeps these words is blessed. To hear God's word is a privilege; to obey it is a duty. There is no real Christianity in the man who hears and forgets or deliberately disregards.

That is all the more true because the time is short. The time is near (Rev 1:3). The early church lived in vivid expectation of the coming of Jesus Christ and that expectation was "the ground of hope in distress and constant heed to warning." Apart altogether from that, no man knows when the call will come to take him from this earth, and in order to meet God with confidence he must add the obedience of his life to the listening of his ear.

We may note that there are seven blesseds in the Revelation.

(i) There is the blessed we have just studied. We may call it the blessedness of reading, hearing and obeying the Word of God.

(ii) Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord henceforth (Rev 14:13). We may call it the blessedness in heaven of Christ's friends on earth.

(iii) Blessed is he who is awake, keeping his garments (Rev 16:15). We may call it the blessedness of the watchful pilgrim.

(iv) Blessed are those who are invited to the marriage supper of the Lamb (Rev 19:9). We may, call it the blessedness of the invited guests of God.

(v) Blessed is he who shares in the first resurrection (Rev 20:6). We may call it the blessedness of the man whom death cannot touch.

(vi) Blessed is he who keeps the words of the prophecy of this book (Rev 22:7). We may call it the blessedness of the wise reader of God's Word.

(vii) Blessed are those who do his commandments (Rev 22:14). We may call it the blessedness of those who hear and obey.

Such blessedness is open to every Christian.

Barclay: Rev 1:4-6

The Revelation is a letter, written to the seven Churches which are in Asia. In the New Testament Asia is never the continent but always the Roman province. Once the kingdom of Attalus the Third, he had willed it to the Romans at his death. It included the western sea-coast of Asia Minor, on the shores of the Mediterranean, with Phrygia, Mysia, Caria and Lycia in the hinterland; and its capital was the city of Pergamum.

The seven Churches are named in Rev 1:11--Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, Laodicea. These were by no means the only Churches in Asia. There were Churches at Colossae (Col 1:2); Hierapolis (Col 4:13); Troas (2Co 2:12; Act 20:5); Miletus (Act 20:17); Magnesia and Tralles, as the letters of Ignatius, the Bishop of Antioch, show. Why did John single out only these seven? There can be more than one reason for his selection.

(i) These Churches might be regarded as the centres of seven postal districts, being all on a kind of ring road which circled the interior of the province. Troas was off the beaten track. But Hierapolis and Colossae were within walking distance of Laodicea; and Tralles, Magnesia and Miletus were close to Ephesus. Letters delivered to these seven cities would easily circulate in the surrounding areas; and since every letter had to be hand-written, each letter would need to be sent where it would reach most easily the greatest number of people.

(ii) Any reading of the Revelation will show John's preference for the number seven. It occurs fifty-four times. There are seven candle-sticks (Rev 1:12), seven stars (Rev 1:16), seven lamps (Rev 4:5), seven seals (Rev 5:1), seven horns and seven eyes (Rev 5:6), seven thunders (Rev 10:3), seven angels, plagues and bowls (Rev 15:6-8). The ancient peoples regarded seven as the perfect number, and it runs all through the Revelation.

From this certain of the early commentators drew an interesting conclusion. Seven is the perfect number because it stands for completeness. It is, therefore, suggested that, when John wrote to seven Churches, he was, in fact, writing to the whole Church. The first list of New Testament books, called the Muratorian Canon, says of the Revelation: "For John also, though he wrote in the Revelation to seven Churches, nevertheless speaks to them all." This is all the more likely when we remember how often John says: "He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the Churches" (Rev 2:7; Rev 2:11, Rev 2:17; Rev 2:29; Rev 3:6; Rev 3:13; Rev 3:22).

(iii) Although the reasons we have adduced for the choice of these seven Churches may be valid, it may be still more valid that he chose them because in them he had a special authority. They were in a special sense his Churches, and by speaking to them he sent a message first to those who knew and loved him best, and then through them to every Church in every generation.

Barclay: Rev 1:4-6

He begins by sending them the blessing of God.

He sends them grace, and this means all the undeserved gifts of the wondrous love of God. He sends them peace, which R. C. Charles finely describes as "the harmony restored between God and man through Christ." But there are two extra-ordinary things in this greeting.

(i) John sends blessings from him who is and who was and who is to come. That is in itself a common title for God. In Exo 3:14the word of God to Moses is "I am who I am." The Jewish Rabbis explained that by saying that God meant: "I was; I still am; and in the future I will be." The Greeks spoke of "Zeus who was, Zeus who is, and Zeus who will be." The Orphic worshippers said: "Zeus is the first and Zeus is the last; Zeus is the head and Zeus is the middle; and from Zeus all things come." This is what in Hebrews so beautifully became: "Jesus Christ is the same yesterday, today and for ever" (Heb 13:8).

But to get the full meaning of this we must look at it in the Greek, for John bursts the bonds of grammar to show his reverence for God. We translate the first phrase from him who is; but that is not what the Greek says. A Greek noun is in the nominative case when it is the subject of a sentence, but, when it is governed by a preposition it changes its case and its form. It is so in English. He is the subject of a sentence; him is the object. When John says that the blessing comes from him who is he should have put him who is in the genitive case after the preposition; but quite ungrammatically he leaves it in the nominative. It is as if we said in English from he who is, refusing to change he into him. John has such an immense reverence for God that he refuses to alter the form of his name even when the rules of grammar demand it.

John is not finished with his amazing use of language. The second phrase is from him who was. Literally, John says from the he was. The point is that who was would be in Greek a participle. The odd thing is that the verb eimi (1510) (to be) has no past participle. Instead there is used the participle genomenos from the verb gignomai, which means not only to be but also to become. Becoming implies change and John utterly refuses to apply any word to God that will imply any change; and so he uses a Greek phrase that is grammatically impossible and that no one ever used before.

In the terrible days in which he was writing John stayed his heart on the changelessness of God and used defiance of grammar to underline his faith.

Barclay: Rev 1:4-6

Anyone who reads this passage must be astonished at the form of the Trinity which we meet here. We speak of Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Here we have God the Father and Jesus Christ the Son but instead of the Holy Spirit we have the seven Spirits who are before his throne. These seven Spirits are mentioned more than once in the Revelation (Rev 3:1; Rev 4:5; Rev 5:6). Three main explanations have been offered of them.

(i) The Jews talked of the seven angels of the presence, whom they beautifully called "the seven first white ones" (I Enoch 90:21). They were what we call the archangels, and "they stand and enter before the glory of the Lord" (Tob 12:15). Their names are not always the same but they are often called Uriel, Rafael, Raguel, Michael, Gabriel, Saiquael and Jeremiel. They had the care of the elements of the world--fire, air and water--and were the guardian angels of the nations. They were the most illustrious and the most intimate servants of God. Some think that they are the seven Spirits mentioned here. But that cannot be; great as the angels were, they were still created beings.

(ii) The second explanation connects them with the famous passage in Isa 11:2; as the Septuagint, the Greek version of the Old Testament, has it: "The spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him, the spirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit of counsel and might, the spirit of knowledge and piety; by this spirit he shall be filled with the fear of God." This passage is the basis of the great conception of the sevenfold gifts of the Spirit.

Come, Holy Ghost, our souls inspire

And lighten with celestial fire;

Thou the anointing Spirit art,

Who dost thy sevenfold gifts impart.

The Spirit, as Beatus said, is one in name but sevenfold in virtues. If we think of the sevenfold gift of the Spirit, it is not difficult to think of the Spirit as seven Spirits, each giving great gifts to men. So it is suggested that the conception of the sevenfold gifts of the Spirit gave rise to the idea of the seven Spirits before the throne of God.

(iii) The third explanation connects the idea of the seven Spirits with the fact of the seven Churches. In Heb 2:4we read of God giving "gifts of the Holy Spirit." The word translated gifts is merismos (3311), and it really means shares, as if the idea was that God gives a share of his Spirit to every man. So the idea here would be that the seven Spirits stand for the share of the Spirit which God gave to each of the seven Churches. It would mean that no Christian fellowship is left without the presence and the power and the illumination of the Spirit.

Barclay: Rev 1:4-6

In this passage three great titles are ascribed to Jesus Christ.

(i) He is the witness on whom we can rely. It is a favourite idea of the Fourth Gospel that Jesus is a witness of the truth of God. Jesus said to Nicodemus: "Truly, truly, I say to you, we speak of what we know, and bear witness to what we have seen" (Joh 3:11). Jesus said to Pilate: "For this I have come into the world, to bear witness to the truth" (Joh 18:37). A witness is essentially a person who speaks from first-hand knowledge. That is why Jesus is God's witness. He is uniquely the person with first-hand knowledge about God.

(ii) He is the first-born of the dead. The word for first-born is prototokos (4416). It can have two meanings. (a) It can mean literally first-born. If it is used in this sense, the reference must be to the Resurrection. Through his Resurrection Jesus gained a victory over death, which all who believe in him may share. (b) Since the first-born was the son who inherited his father's honour and power, prototokos (4416) comes to mean one with power and honour, one who occupies the first place, a prince among men. When Paul speaks of Jesus as the first-born of all creation (Col 1:15), he means that to him the first place of honour and glory belongs. If we take the word in this sense--and probably we should--it means that Jesus is Lord of the dead as he is Lord of the living. There is no part of the universe, in this world or in the world to come, and nothing in life or in death of which Jesus Christ is not Lord.

(iii) He is the ruler of kings on earth. There are two things to note here. (a) This is a reminiscence of Psa 89:27"I will make him the first-born, the highest of the kings of the earth." That was always taken by Jewish scholars to be a description of the coming Messiah; and, therefore, to say that Jesus is the ruler of kings on earth is to claim that he is the Messiah. (b) Swete very beautifully points out the connection between this title of Jesus and the temptation story. In that story the devil took Jesus up into a high mountain and showed him all the kingdoms of the earth and their glory and said: "All these I will give you, if you will fall down and worship me" (Mat 4:8-9; Luk 4:6-7). It was the devil's claim that the kingdoms of the earth were delivered into his power (Luk 4:6); and it was his suggestion that, if Jesus would strike a bargain with him, he would give him a share in them. The amazing thing is that what the devil promised Jesus--and could never have given him--Jesus won for himself by the suffering of the Cross and the power of the Resurrection. Not compromise with evil, but the unswerving loyalty and the unfailing love which accepted the Cross brought Jesus his universal lordship.

Barclay: Rev 1:4-6

Few passages set down with such splendour what Jesus did for men.

(i) He loves us and he set us free from our sins at the cost of his own blood. The King James Version is in error here. It reads: "Unto him that loved us and washed us from our sins in his own blood." The words "to wash" and "to set free" are in Greek very alike. "To wash" is louein (3068); "to set free" is luein (3089); and they are pronounced exactly in the same way. But there is no doubt that the oldest and best Greek manuscripts read luein (3089). Again "in his own blood" is a mistranslation. The word translated "in" is en (1722) which, indeed, can mean "in"; but here it is a translation of the Hebrew word "be-" (the e is pronounced very short as in "the"), which means "at the price of."

What Jesus did, as John sees it, is that he freed us from our sins at the cost of his own blood. This is exactly what he says later on when he speaks of those who were ransomed for God by the blood of the Lamb (Rev 5:9). It is exactly what Paul meant when he spoke of us being redeemed from the curse of the Law (Gal 3:13); and when he spoke of redeeming those who were under the Law (Gal 4:5). In both cases the word used is exagorazein (1805), which means to buy out from, to pay the price of buying a person or a thing out of the possession of him who holds that person or thing in his power.

This is a very interesting and important correction of the King James Version. It is made in all the newer translations and it means that the well-worn phrases which speak of being "washed in the blood of the Lamb" have little scriptural authority. These phrases convey a staggering picture; and it must come to many with a certain relief to know that what John said was that we are set free from our sins at the cost of the blood, that is, at the cost of the life of Jesus Christ.

There is another very significant thing here. We must carefully note the tenses of the verbs. John says that Jesus loves us and set us free. Loves is the present tense and it means that the love of God in Christ Jesus is something which is continuous. Set us free is the past tense, the Greek aorist, which tells of one act completed in the past and it means that in the one act of the Cross our liberation from sin was achieved. That is to say, what happened on the Cross was one availing act in time which was an expression of the continuous love of God.

(ii) Jesus made us a kingdom, priests to God. That is a quotation of Exo 19:6"You shall be to me a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation." Jesus has done two things for us.

(a) He has given us royalty. Through him we may become the true sons of God; and, if we are sons of the King of kings, we are of lineage than which there can be none more royal.

(b) He made us priests. The point is this. Under the old way, only the priest had the right of access to God. When a Jew entered the Temple, he could pass through the Court of the Gentiles, the Court of the Women, the Court of the Israelites--but there he must stop; into the Court of the Priests he could not go; no nearer the Holy of Holies could he come. In the vision of the great days to come Isaiah said: "You shall be called the priests of the Lord" (Isa 61:6). In that day every one of the people would be a priest and have access to God. That is what John means; because of what Jesus Christ did access to the presence of God is now open to every man. There is a priesthood of all believers. We can come boldly to the throne of grace (Heb 4:16), because for us there is a new and living way into the presence of God (Heb 10:19-22).

Barclay: Rev 1:7

From now on in almost every passage, we shall have to note John's continuous use of the Old Testament. He was so soaked in the Old Testament that it was almost impossible for him to write a paragraph without quoting it. This is interesting and significant. John was living in a time when to be a Christian was an agonizing thing. He himself knew banishment and imprisonment and hard labour; and there were many who knew death in its most cruel forms. The best way to maintain courage and hope in such a situation was to remember that God had never failed in the past; and that his power was not grown less now.

In this passage John sets down the motto and the text of his whole book, his confidence in the triumphant return of Christ, which would rescue Christians in distress from the cruelty of their enemies.

(i) To Christians the return of Christ is a promise on which to feed the soul. John takes as his picture of that return Daniel's vision of the four bestial powers who have held the world in their grip (Dan 7:1-14). There was Babylon, the power that was like a lion with eagle's wings (Dan 7:4). There was Persia, the power that was like a savage bear (Dan 7:5). There was Greece, the power that was like a winged leopard (Dan 7:6). There was Rome, a beast with iron teeth, beyond description (Dan 7:7). But the day of these bestial empires was over, and the dominion was to be given to a gentle power like a son of man. "I saw in the night visions, and, behold, with the clouds of heaven there came one like a son of man, and he came to the Ancient of Days, and was presented before him, and to him was given dominion, and glory, and kingdom, that all peoples, nations and languages should serve him" (Dan 7:13-14). It is from that passage in Daniel there emerges the ever-recurring picture of the Son of Man coming on the clouds (Mar 13:26; Mar 14:62; Mat 24:30; Mat 26:64). When we strip away the purely temporary imagery--we, for instance, no longer think of heaven as a localized place above the sky--we are left with the unchanging truth that the day will come when Jesus Christ will be Lord of all. In that hope have ever been the strength and the comfort of Christians for whom life was difficult and for whom faith meant death.

(ii) To the enemies of Christ, the return of Christ is a threat. To make this point John again quotes the Old Testament, from Zec 12:10which contains the words: "When they look on him whom they have pierced, they shall mourn for him, as one mourns for an only child, and weep bitterly over him, as one weeps over a first-born." The story behind the Zechariah saying is this. God gave his people a good shepherd; but the people in their disobedient folly killed him and took to themselves evil and self-seeking shepherds. But the day will come when in the grace of God they will bitterly repent, and in that day they will look on the good shepherd whom they pierced and will sorrowfully lament for him and for what they have done. John takes that picture and applies it to Jesus. Men crucified him but the day will come when they will look on him again; and this time, he will not be a broken figure on a cross but a regal figure to whom universal dominion has been given.

The first reference of these words is to the Jews and the Romans who actually crucified Jesus. But in every age all who sin crucify him again. The day will come when those who disregarded and those who opposed Jesus Christ will find him the Lord of the universe and the judge of their souls.

The passage closes with the two exclamations--"Even so. Amen!" In the Greek the words are nai (3483) and amen (281). Nai (3483) is the Greek and amen (281) is the Hebrew (comapre 0539) for a solemn affirmation--"Yes, indeed! So let it be!" By using the expression both in Greek and Hebrew John underlines its awful solemnity.

Barclay: Rev 1:8

Here is a tremendous description of the God in whom we trust and whom we adore.

(i) He is alpha and omega. Alpha (1) is the first letter and omega (5598) the last of the Greek alphabet; and the phrase alpha (1) to omega (5598) indicates completeness. The first letter of the Hebrew alphabet is aleph and the last is tau; and the Jews used the same kind of expression. The Rabbis said that Adam transgressed the Law and Abraham kept it from aleph to tau. They said that God had blessed Israel from aleph to tau. This expression indicates that God is absolutely complete: he has in himself what H. B. Swete called "the boundless life which embraces all and transcends all."

(ii) God is he who is and who was and who is to come. That is to say, he is the Eternal. He was before time began; he is now; and he will be when time ends. He has been the God of all who have trusted in him; he is the God in whom at this present moment we can put our trust; and there can be no event and no time in the future which can separate us from him.

Nor death nor life, nor earth nor hell,

nor time's destroying sway,

Can e'er efface us from his heart,

or make his love decay.

Each future period that will bless,

as it has bless'd the past;

He lov'd us from the first of time,

He loves us to the last.

(iii) God is the Almighty. The word for Almighty is pantokrator (3841) which describes the one who has dominion over all things.

The suggestive fact is that this word occurs in the New Testament seven times. Once it occurs in 2Co 6:18, in a quotation from the Old Testament, and all the six other instances are in the Revelation. This word is distinctive of John. Think of the circumstances in which he was writing. The embattled might of Rome had risen up to crush the Christian Church. No empire had ever been able to withstand Rome; what possible chance against Rome had "the panting, huddled flock whose crime was Christ"? Humanly speaking the Christian Church had none; but if men thought that, they had left the most important factor of all out of the reckoning--God the pantokrator (3841), in the grip of whose hand were all things.

It is this word which in the Greek Old Testament describes the Lord of Sabaoth, the Lord of hosts (Amo 9:5; Hos 12:5). It is this word which John uses in the tremendous text: "The Lord our God the Almighty reigns" (Rev 19:6). If men are in the hands of a God like that, nothing can pluck them away. If behind the Christian Church there is a God like that, so long as she the Church is true to her Lord, nothing can destroy her.

My times are in thy hand:

I'll always trust in thee;

And, after death, at thy right hand

I shall for ever be.

Barclay: Rev 1:9

John introduces himself, not by any official title but as your brother and partner in tribulation. His right to speak was that he had come through all that those to whom he was writing were going through. Ezekiel writes in his book: "Then I came to the exiles at Telabib, who dwelt by the river Chebar, and I sat there overwhelmed among them" (Eze 3:15). Men will never listen to one who preaches endurance from the comfort of an easy chair, nor to one who preaches heroic courage to others while he himself has sought a prudent safety. It is the man who has gone through it who can help others who are going through it. As the Indians have it: "No man can criticize another man until he has walked for a day in his moccasins." John and Ezekiel could speak because they had sat where their people were sitting.

John puts three words together--tribulation, kingdom, steadfast endurance. Tribulation is thlipsis (2347). Originally thlipsis meant simply pressure and could, for instance, describe the pressure of a great stone on a man's body. At first it was used quite literally, but in the New Testament it has come to describe that pressure of events which is persecution. Steadfast endurance is hupomone (5281). Hupomone (5281) does not describe the patience which simply passively submits to the tide of events; it describes the spirit of courage and conquest which leads to gallantry and transmutes even suffering into glory. The situation of the Christians was this. They were in thlipsis (2347) and, as John saw it, in the midst of the terrible events which preceded the end of the world. They were looking towards basileia (932), the kingdom, into which they desired to enter and on which they had set their hearts. There was only one way from thlipsis (2347) to basileia (932), from affliction to glory, and that was through hupomone (5281), conquering endurance. Jesus said: "He who endures to the end will be saved" (Mat 24:13). Paul told his people: "Through many tribulations we must enter the kingdom of God" (Act 14:22). In Second Timothy we read: "If we endure, we shall also reign with him" (2Ti 2:12).

The way to the kingdom is the way of endurance. But before we leave this passage we must note one thing. That endurance is to be found in Christ. He himself endured to the end and he is able to enable those who walk with him to achieve the same endurance and to reach the same goal.

Barclay: Rev 1:9

John tells us that, when the visions of the Revelation came to him, he was in Patmos. It was the unanimous tradition of the early church that he was banished to Patmos in the reign of Domitian. Jerome says that John was banished in the fourteenth year after Nero and liberated on the death of Domitian (Concerning Illustrious Men, 9). This would mean that he was banished to Patmos about A.D. 94 and liberated about A.D. 96.

Patmos, a barren rocky little island belonging to a group of islands called the Sporades, is ten miles long by five miles wide. It is crescent-shaped, with the horns Of the crescent pointing to the east. Its shape makes it a good natural harbour. It lies forty miles off the coast of Asia Minor and it was important because it was the last haven on the voyage from Rome to Ephesus and the first in the reverse direction.

Banishment to a remote island was a common form of Roman punishment. It was usually meted out to political prisoners and, as far as they were concerned, there were worse punishments. Such banishment involved the loss of civil rights and all property except enough for a bare existence. People so banished were not personally ill-treated and were not confined in prison on their island but free to move within its narrow limits. Such would be banishment for a political prisoner; but it would be very different for John. He was a leader of the Christians and Christians were criminals. The wonder is that he was not executed straight away. Banishment for him would involve hard labour in the quarries. Sir William Ramsay says his banishment would be "preceded by scourging, marked by perpetual fetters, scanty clothing, insufficient food, sleep on the bare ground, a dark prison, work under the lash of the military overseer."

Patmos left its mark on John's writing. To this day they show visitors a cave in a cliff overlooking the sea, where, they say, the Revelation was written. There are magnificent views of the sea from Patmos, and, as Strahan says, the Revelation is full of "the sights and the sounds of the infinite sea." The word thalassa (2281), sea, occurs in the Revelation no fewer than twenty-five times. Strahan writes: "Nowhere is 'the voice of many waters' more musical than in Patmos; nowhere does the rising and setting sun make a more splendid 'sea of glass mingled with fire'; yet nowhere is the longing more natural that the separating sea should be no more."

It was to all the hardships and pain and weariness of banishment and hard labour on Patmos that John went for the sake of the word given by God So far as the Greek goes, that phrase is capable of three interpretations. It could mean that John went to Patmos to preach the word of God. It could mean that he withdrew to the loneliness of Patmos to receive the word of God and the visions of the Revelation. But it is quite certain that it means that it was John's unshakeable loyalty to the word of God, and his insistence on preaching the message of Jesus Christ which brought him to banishment in Patmos.

Barclay: Rev 1:10-11

Historically this is an extremely interesting passage for it is the first reference in literature to the Lord's Day.

We have often spoken of the Day of the Lord, that day of wrath and judgment when this present age with all its evil was to be shatteringly changed into the age to come. Some think that John is saying that he was transported in a vision to that Day of the Lord and saw in advance all the astonishing things which were to happen then. Those who hold that view are very few and it is not a natural meaning for the words.

It is quite certain that when John uses the expression the Lord's Day he is using it as we use it--its very first mention in literature.

How did the Christian Church cease to observe the Sabbath, Saturday, and come to observe the Lord's Day, Sunday? The Sabbath commemorated the rest of God after the creation of the world; the Lord's Day commemorates the rising of Jesus from the dead.

The three earliest references to the Lord's Day may well be the following. The Didache, The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, the first manual of Christian worship and instruction, says of the Christian Church: "On the Lord's Day we meet and break bread" (Didache 14: 1). Ignatius of Antioch, writing to the Magnesians, describes the Christians as "no longer living for the Sabbath, but for the Lord's Day" (Ignatius, To the Magnesians, 9: 1). Melito of Sardis wrote a treatise Concerning the Lord's Day. By early in the second century the Sabbath had been abandoned and the Lord's Day was the accepted Christian day.

One thing seems certain. All these early references come from Asia Minor and it was there that the observance of the Lord's Day first came in. But what was it that suggested to the Christians a weekly observance of the first day of the week? In the east there was a day of the month and a day of the week called Sebaste (4575), which means The Emperor's Day; it was no doubt this which made the Christians decide that the first day of the week must be dedicated to their Lord.

John was in the Spirit. This phrase means that he was in an ecstasy in which he was lifted beyond the things of space and time into the world of eternity. "The Spirit lifted me up," said Ezekiel (Eze 3:12), "and I heard behind me the sound of a great earthquake." For John the voice was like the sound of a trumpet. The sound of the trumpet is woven into the language of the New Testament (Mat 24:31; 1Co 15:52; 1Th 4:16). There is no doubt that in the mind of John there is here another Old Testament picture. In the account of the giving of the Law it is said: "There were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the mountain, and a very loud trumpet blast" (Exo 19:16). The voice of God sounds with the commanding, unmistakable clarity of a trumpet call.

John is told to write the vision which he sees. It is his duty to share the message which God gives to him. A man must first hear and then transmit, even if the price of the transmission is costly indeed. It may be that a man must withdraw to see his vision, but he must also go forth to tell it.

Two phrases go together. John was in Patmos; and John was in the Spirit. We have seen what Patmos was like, and we have seen the pain and the hardship that John was undergoing. No matter where a man is, no matter how hard his life, no matter what he is passing through, he may still be in the Spirit. And, if he is in the Spirit, even on Patmos, the glory and the message of God will come to him.

Barclay: Rev 1:12-13

We now begin on the first of John's visions; and we shall see that his mind is so saturated with Scripture that element after element in the picture has an Old Testament background and counterpart.

He says that he turned to see the voice. We would say: "I turned to see whose was the voice which was speaking to me."

When he turned, he saw seven golden lampstands. John does not only allude to the Old Testament; he takes items from many places in it and out of them he forms a composite picture. The picture of the seven golden lampstands has three sources.

(a) It comes from the picture of the candlestick of pure gold in the Tabernacle. It was to have six branches, three on one side and three on the other, and seven lamps to give light (Exo 25:31-37).

(b) It comes from the picture of Solomon's Temple. In it there were to be five candlesticks of pure gold on the right hand and five on the left (1Ki 7:49).

© It comes from the vision of Zechariah. Zechariah saw "a candlestick all of gold, with a bowl on the top of it, and seven lamps on it" (Zec 4:2).

When John sees a vision, he sees it in terms of scenes from the Old Testament places and occasions when God had already revealed himself to his people. Surely there is a lesson here. The best way to prepare oneself for new revelation of truth is to study the revelation which God has already given.

In the midst of the lampstands he saw one like a son of man. Here we are back to the picture of Dan 7:13, in which the kingdom and the power and the dominion are given by the Ancient of Days to one like a son of man. As we well know from Jesus' use of it, Son of Man became nothing less than the title of the Messiah; and by using it here John makes it plain that the revelation which he is to receive is coming from Jesus Christ himself

This figure was clothed with a robe which reached down to his feet, and he was girt about the breasts with a golden girdle. Here again we have three pictures.

(a) The word which describes the robe is poderes (4158), reaching down to the feet. This is the word which the Greek Old Testament uses to describe the robe of the High Priest (Exo 28:4; Exo 29:5; Lev 16:4). Josephus also describes carefully the garments which the priests and the High Priest wore when they were serving in the Temple. They wore "a long robe reaching to the feet," and around the breast, "higher than the elbows," they wore a girdle which was loosely wound round and round the body. The girdle was embroidered with colours and flowers, with a mixture of gold interwoven (Josephus: The Antiquities of the Jews, 3.7: 2, 4). All this means that the description of the robe and the girdle of the glorified Christ is almost exactly that of the dress of the priests and of the High Priest. Here, then, is the symbol of the high priestly character of the work of the Risen Lord. A priest, as the Jews saw it, was a man who himself has access to God and who opens the way for others to come to him; even in the heavenly places Jesus, the great High Priest, is still carrying on his priestly work, opening the way for all men to the presence of God.

(b) But other people besides priests wore the long robe reaching to the feet and the high girdle. It was the dress of great ones, of princes and of kings. Poderes (4158) is the description of the robe of Jonathan (1Sa 18:4); of Saul (1Sa 24:5, 1Sa 24:11); of the princes of the sea (Eze 26:16). The robe the Risen Christ was wearing was the robe of royalty. No longer was he a criminal on a cross; he was dressed like a king.

Christ is Priest and Christ is King.

© There is still another part of this picture. In the vision of Daniel, the divine figure who came to tell him the truth of God was clothed in fine linen (the Greek Old Testament calls his garment poderes, 4158) and girt with fine gold (Dan 10:5). This, then, is the dress of the messenger of God. So this presents Jesus Christ as the supreme messenger of God.

Here is a tremendous picture. When we trace the origins of the thought of John, we see that by the very dress of the Risen Lord he is showing him to us in his threefold eternal office of Prophet, Priest and King, the one who brings the truth of God, the one who enables others to enter into the presence of God and the one to whom God has given the power and dominion for ever.

Barclay: Rev 1:14-18

Before we begin to look at this passage in detail, there are two general facts we must note.

(i) It is easy to miss seeing how carefully wrought the Revelation is. It is not a book which was flung together in a hurry; it is a closely integrated and artistic literary whole. In this passage we have a whole series of descriptions of the Risen Christ; and the interesting thing is that each of the letters to the seven Churches, which follow in the next two chapters, with the exception of the letter to Laodicea, opens with a description of the Risen Christ taken from this chapter. It is as if this chapter sounded a series of themes which were later to become the texts for the letters to the Churches. Let us set down the beginning of each of the first six letters and see how it corresponds to the description of the Risen Christ here.

To the angel of the Church in Ephesus, write: The words of him

who holds the seven stars in his right hand (Rev 2:1).

To the angel of the Church in Smyrna, write: The words of the

first and the last, who died and came to life (Rev 2:8).

To the angel of the Church in Pergamum, write: The words of

him who has the sharp two-edged sword (Rev 2:12).

To the angel of the Church in Thyatira, write: The words of the

Son of God, who has eyes like a flame of fire, and whose feel

are like burnished bronze (Rev 2:18).

To the angel of the Church in Sardis, write: The words of him

who has the seven spirits of God and the seven stars (Rev 3:1).

To the angel of the Church in Philadelphia, write: The words of

the holy one, the true one, who has the key of David, who opens

and no one shall shut, who shuts and no one opens (Rev 3:7).

This is literary craftsmanship of a very high standard.

(ii) The second thing to note is that in this passage John takes titles which in the Old Testament are descriptions of God and applies them to the Risen Christ.

His head and his hair were white, as white wool, like snow.

In Dan 7:9that is a description of the Ancient of Days.

His voice was as the sound of many waters.

In Eze 43:2that is a description of God's own voice.

He had the seven stars in his hand.

In the Old Testament it is God himself who controls the stars. It is God's question to Job: "Can you bind the chains of the Pleiades, or loose the cords of Orion?" (Job 38:31).

I am the first and the last.

Isaiah hears the voice of God saying: "I am the first and I am the last; besides me there is no God" (Isa 44:6; compare Isa 48:12).

I am the living one.

In the Old Testament God is characteristically "the living God" (Jos 3:10; Psa 42:2; Hos 1:10).

I have the keys of death and of Hades.

The Rabbis had a saying that there were three keys which belonged to God and which he would share with no other--of birth, rain and raising the dead.

Nothing could better show the reverence in which John holds Jesus Christ. He holds him so high that he can give him nothing less than the titles which in the Old Testament belong to God.

The highest place that heaven affords

Is his, is his by right,

The King of kings, and Lord of lords,

And heaven's eternal Light.

Barclay: Rev 1:14-18

Let us look very briefly at each of the titles by which the Risen Lord is here called.

His head and his hair were white, as white wool, like snow.

This, taken from the description of the Ancient of Days in Dan 7:9, is symbolic of two things. (a) It stands for great age; and it speaks to us of the eternal existence of Jesus Christ. (b) It speaks to us of divine purity. The snow and the white wool are the emblems of stainless purity. "Though your sins are like scarlet," said Isaiah, "they shall be as white as snow; though they are red like crimson, they shall become like wool" (Isa 1:18). Here we have the symbols of the preexistence and the sinlessness of Christ.

His eyes were as a flame of fire.

Daniel is always in John's mind, and this is part of the description of the divine figure who brought the vision to Daniel. "His eyes like flaming torches" (Dan 10:6). When we read the gospel story, we get the impression that he who had once seen the eyes of Jesus could never forget them. Again and again we have the vivid picture of his eyes sweeping round a circle of people (Mar 3:34; Mar 10:23; Mar 11:11); sometimes his eyes flashed in anger (Mar 3:5); sometimes they fastened on someone in love (Mar 10:21); and sometimes they had in them all the sorrow of one whose friends had wounded him to the quick (Luk 22:61).

His feet were like beaten brass, as if it had been refined by fire

in a furnace.

The word translated beaten brass is chalkolibanos (5474). No one really knows what the metal is. Perhaps it was that fabulous compound called electrum, which the ancients believed to be an alloy of gold and silver and more precious than either. Here again it is the Old Testament which gives John his vision. In Daniel it is said of the divine messenger that "his feet were like the gleam of burnished bronze" (Dan 10:6); in Ezekiel it is said of the angelic beings that "their feet sparkled like burnished bronze" (Eze 1:7). It may be that we are to see two things in the picture. The brass stands for strength, for the steadfastness of God; and the shining rays stand for speed, for the swiftness of the feet of God to help his own or to punish sin.

His voice was as the sound of many waters.

This is the description of the voice of God in Eze 43:2. But it may be that we can catch an echo of the little island of Patmos. As H. B. Swete has it: "The roar of the Aegean was in the ears of the seer." H. B. Swete goes on to say that the voice of God is not confined to one note. Here. it is like the thunder of the sea, but it can also be like a still small voice (1Ki 19:12), or, as the Greek version of the Old Testament has it, like a gentle breeze. It can thunder a rebuke; and it can croon with the soothing comfort of a mother over her hurt child.

He had seven stars in his right hand.

Here again, we have something which was the prerogative of God alone. But there is also something lovely. When the seer fell in awed terror before the vision of the Risen Christ, the Christ stretched out his right hand and placed it on him and bade him not to be afraid. The hand of Christ is strong enough to uphold the heavens and gentle enough to wipe away our tears.

Barclay: Rev 1:14-18

There was coming forth from his mouth a sharp, two-edged sword.

The sword referred to was not long and narrow like a fencer's blade; it was a short, tongue-shaped sword for close righting. Again the seer has gone here and there in the Old Testament for his picture. Isaiah says of God: "He shall smite the earth with the rod of his mouth" (Isa 11:4); and of himself: "He made my mouth like a sharp sword" (Isa 49:2). The symbolism tells us of the penetrating quality of the word of God. If we listen to it, no shield of self-deception can withstand it; it strips away our self-deludings, lays bare our sin and leads to pardon. "The word of God is living and active, sharper than any two-edged sword" (Heb 4:12). "The Lord will slay the wicked with the breath of his mouth" (2Th 2:8).

His face was as the sun shining in its strength.

In Judges there is a great picture which may well have been in John's mind, The enemies of God shall perish, "but thy friends be like the sun as he rises in his might" (Jdg 5:31). If that is true of them that love God, how much truer it must be of God's beloved Son. Swete sees something even lovelier here, nothing less than a memory of the Transfiguration. On that occasion Jesus was transfigured before Peter, James and John, "and his face shone like the sun" (Mat 17:2). No one who had seen that sight could ever forget the glow and if the writer of this book is that same John perhaps he saw again on the face of the Risen Christ the glory he had glimpsed on the Mount of Transfiguration.

When I saw him, I fell at his feet like a dead man.

This was the experience of Ezekiel when God spoke to him (Eze 1:28; Eze 3:23; Eze 43:3). But surely we can find again a memory of the Gospel story. On that day in Galilee when there was the great catch of fish and Peter glimpsed who Jesus was, he fell down at his knees, conscious only that he was a sinful man (Luk 5:1-11). To the end of the day there can be nothing but reverence in the presence of the holiness and the glory of the Risen Christ.

Stop being afraid.

Surely here, too, we have reminiscence of the Gospel story, for these were words which the disciples had heard more than once from the lips of Jesus. It was thus he spoke to them when he came to them across the water (Mat 14:27; Mar 6:50); and it was thus above all that he spoke to them on the Mount of Transfiguration, when they were terrified at the sound of the divine voice (Mat 17:7). Even in heaven, when we come near the unapproachable glory, Jesus is saying: "I am here; do not be afraid."

I am the first and the last.

In the Old Testament this is nothing other than the self-description of God (Isa 44:6; Isa 48:12). It is the promise of Jesus that he is there at the beginning and the end. He is there in the moment of birth and at the time of death. He is there when we set out upon the Christian way and when we finish our course. As F. W. H. Myers makes Paul say:

Yea thro' life, death, thro' sorrow and thro' sinning

He shall suffice me, for he hath sufficed:

Christ is the end, for Christ was the beginning,

Christ the beginning, for the end is Christ.

I am the living one, although I was dead and I am alive for ever

and for ever.

Here is at once the claim and the promise of Christ, the claim of one who conquered death and the promise of one who is alive for evermore to be with his people.

I have the keys of death and Hades.

Death has its gates (Psa 9:13; Psa 107:18; Isa 38:10); and Christ has the keys of these gates. There were those who took this claim--and some still do--as a reference to the descent into hell (1Pe 3:18-20). There was a conception in the ancient Church that when Jesus descended into Hades, he unlocked the doors and brought out Abraham and all God's faithful people who had lived and died in the generations before. But we may take it in an even wider sense; for we who are Christians believe that Jesus Christ has abolished death and brought life and immortality to light through the gospel (2Ti 1:10), that because he lives we shall live also (Joh 14:19), and that, therefore, for us and for those whom we love the bitterness of death is for ever past.

Constable: Rev 1:1-4

A. The Agent of God's Final Revelation 1:1-4

The writer began his epistle with an affirmation of Jesus Christ's greatness to introduce his readers to his subject. This section is one sentence in the Greek text. It contrasts God's old revelation with the new, specifically by presenting God's Son as superior to all other previous modes of revelation.

"It would be misleading to think of vv. 1-4 as stating a thesis to be proved, or as giving a précis of the following argument. The author proceeds rather by an interweaving of themes, as in musical composition."²⁰

"The literary structure of the exordium [vv. 1-4] exhibits a concentric symmetry (A [vv. 1-2a] B [v. 2b] C [v. 2c] C' [v. 3a-b] B' [v. 3c] A' [v. 4]): the conceptual correspondence of vv 1 and 4 serves to frame the several statements concerning the Son in vv 2 and 3 . . ."

"The core of the exordium (B C C' B') describes Jesus in an arresting way as the royal Son, divine Wisdom, and the royal Priest."²¹

1:1-2a "It is significant that the subject of the first verb is God,' for God is constantly before the author; he uses the word sixty-eight times, an average of about once every seventy-three words all through his epistle. Few NT books speak of God so often."²²

God gave many revelations of Himself to Old Testament believers, "fathers" being a shorthand way of referring to them (cf. v. 2).²³ He did so in many periods of history. He did this by various means and in various ways ("in many portions and in many ways"). For example, His means included visions, dreams, and face to face communication (cf. Num. 12:6-8). His ways included supernatural interventions into history as well as natural phenomena such as storms, plagues, and other historical events. They also included people, namely, the prophets, through whom He spoke (cf. 2 Tim. 3:16; 2 Pet. 1:21). The writer probably used the Greek words polymeros ("portions") and polytropos ("ways") partially for their alliterative value.

God's most recent revelation had come through His own Son. The writer was not denying divine revelation to the apostles. He was stressing the culminating character of God's revelation in Jesus Christ compared with what He had given the Old Testament prophets. His statement establishes the fact of progressive revelation and strongly suggests the cessation of revelation in the apostolic age.²⁴ Man has not taken the initiative to discover God, but God has taken the initiative to reveal Himself to man.

The translators have supplied the word "His" (v. 2a). Its absence in the original text stresses the character of "Son" as a vehicle of revelation. God's own Son is a superior revelation compared to "the prophets" (v. 1). There are seven references to Jesus Christ as the Son in Hebrews (1:2, 5, 8; 3:6; 4:14; 5:8; 6:6; 7:28; 10:29) plus others in some of the Old Testament passages the writer quoted.²⁵

1:2b-3 Seven facts in these verses stress the Son's unique greatness and the culminating character of His revelation. For the writer's original Jewish readers the number seven connoted a complete work of God, as in the Creation.

1. He is the "heir of all things." All things will fall under His authority. The writer introduced the concept of inheritance here and proceeded to develop it in this epistle (cf. Ps. 2:8; Heb. 2:5-9). The believer's inheritance is a major theme in Hebrews.

2. He "made the world" (Gr. aiones, lit. "ages," i.e., the whole created universe of time and space). The Son was God's agent in creation (John 1:3; Col. 1:16). He created both matter and history; both ideas are in view here.²⁶ However the emphasis is on the various dispensations through which the world has passed, is passing, and will pass.²⁷ Jesus Christ is not a created being, as Jehovah's Witnesses and some others claim. He is the Creator of all.

3. He is "the radiance of His glory." The Greek word apaugasma, translated "radiance," refers to what shines out from the source of light. Jesus Christ revealed the glory of God in a veiled way during His incarnation.

4. He is "the exact representation of His nature." The Greek word charakter, translated "representation," occurs only here in the New Testament. Greek writers used it to describe the emperor's picture on Roman coins. It did not express a general likeness but an exact duplication of its die. Jesus Christ let humankind know exactly what the nature of God, whom no one has seen, is like.

5. He "upholds all things by the word of His power" (i.e., His mighty, enabling word). The idea is not so much that Jesus upholds the universe as a dead weight similar to Atlas shouldering the world. Rather He carries all things forward (Gr. pheron) on their appointed course (Col. 1:17). Jesus Christ's word has tremendous power and authority. It is the greatest force in the universe (cf. Gen. 1:3; et al.).

6. He "made purification of sins" as no one else could. He did so by His self-sacrifice as a sin and trespass offering on the Cross and by His work as the ultimate priest. The Greek word katharismos, translated "purification," means both removal and cleansing (cf. Mark 1:44; 2 Pet. 1:9). "Sin" (hamartia) is a very common word in Hebrews occurring 25 times.²⁸

"Hebrews views sins and their remedy in cultic terms. The purification of sins by Christ's sacrifice is related, on the one hand, to the establishment of a new order of relationships between God and mankind, and on the other hand to obedience (10:1-18, especially vv. 8-10) and moral effort (12:1-4). Apart from passing references to adultery and the love of money (13:4f.), Hebrews says little about individual sins, and contains no list of vices comparable to Rom. 1:29-31; Gal. 5:19-21; or 1 Pet. 4:3. The fundamental sin for Hebrews is that of unfaithfulness to God, which may superficially appear as neglect or lassitude (amelesantes, 2:3; or nothroi, 5:11), but which in essence is rebellion against God's will, and more specifically apostasy (2:1-4; 3:7-19; 6:4-6; 10:26-31)."²⁹

7. He "sat down at the right hand of the Majesty on high" when He returned to heaven after His ascension. He took the choice place of honor and authority in relation to God the Father (cf. Eph. 4:10; Phil. 2:9; Luke 22:69). Here the writer introduced his key text, Psalm 110, which he proceeded to elaborate on in the chapters to follow.

Note that the writer referred to the place where Jesus now sits ruling as the Father's right hand in heaven. This is not the same as the Davidic throne, which will be on earth in the future (Isa. 9:6-7; Dan. 2:44; 7:13-14; et al.). Jesus will begin His rule over Israel on earth as the Davidic Messiah after He returns to the earth at His second advent (Rev. 20:1-6). Presently He rules over the church and the angelic host in heaven (Eph. 4:15; Col. 1:18; 2:10).³⁰

"The concept of enthronement at God's right hand would convey to contemporaries an impression of the Son's royal power and unparalleled glory."³¹

Each one of these seven actions points to the full deity of Jesus Christ. The original Jewish audience faced with temptation to abandon discipleship of Jesus for return to Judaism received a strong reminder of His deity at the very outset of this epistle. The writer also presented Him as Creator, Prophet, Priest, and King.

1:4 These seven facts also reveal clearly the Son's superiority to any other of God's messengers, even the angels. This superiority is clear too in the fact that His name is Son (singular) rather than sons (collectively). The Old Testament writers called angels sons of God (e.g., Job 2:1; 38:7). Jesus Christ "inherited" that name before creation (v. 2, cf. 5:8).

This is the first of the writer's 13 uses of the word "better" (Gr. kreitton) all of which contrast Jesus Christ and His order with what preceded Him (6:9; 7:7, 19, 22; 8:6 [twice]; 9:23; 10:34; 11:16, 35, 40; 12:24).³² The writer used many comparatives (e.g., "more excellent," "lesser," "better," "more," "greater," et al.) to support his argument that the new Christian order is superior to the old Jewish order.³³ This is also the first "signpost passage" in which a brief statement (in this case "much better than the angels") identifies a main subject the writer planned to develop (cf. 2:17; 5:9-10; 10:36-39; 12:11?).³⁴ "Angel" (Gr. angelos) is another of this writer's favorite words. It, too, appears 13 times in Hebrews.

"Opinions differ as to what is meant here by the name.' Some take this to mean that in his whole character and personality Christ was superior to any angel. Others think the reference is simply to the name Son,' which is a better name than angel' because it denotes superiority in character and personality. Either interpretation is possible."³⁵

The writer introduced several concepts in the prologue that he developed more fully later. These include the distinctive quality of the Son's revelation, the superiority of His sacrifice, and His greatness compared with the angels.

The differences in the beginning of this epistle compared with the beginnings of other New Testament epistles are striking. There is no introduction of the writer, no mention of the original readers, and no benediction, all of which were common features of letters in the first century. These omissions make the introduction even more striking. The writer obviously wanted his readers to give their full attention to the greatness of Jesus Christ. Some students of Hebrews have concluded that the writer did not identify himself or his readers because he wanted to make Jesus Christ primary in the readers' thinking throughout this epistle. I think this is very likely.

"In 1:1-4 the writer gave christological precision to a cluster of ideas derived from hellenistic Judaism. He boldly applied the categories of Wisdom to a historical figure, Jesus. The writer to the Hebrews was a creative theologian who brought together wisdom motifs and priestly motifs in a tightly formulated statement concerning the dignity and achievement of the Son of God. The opening paragraph establishes a firm christological foundation for all that the writer has to say concerning the character and demands of the revelation mediated by the Son. The joining together of wisdom and priestly notes in the carefully orchestrated presentation of the Son provides the readers with the assurance of Jesus' sustained concern for them and his ability to strengthen and vindicate the people of God when they become objects of contempt in a hostile world."³⁶

Constable: Rev 1:1-20

I. THE PREPARATION of the prophet ch. 1

The first chapter contains a prologue to the book, which is similar to the one in John 1:1-18, the prologue to John's Gospel (cf. 1 John 1:1-4). It also relates a vision that God gave John that prepared him for what follows. This presentation has the effect of showing that Jesus Christ is the culminating figure in human history (cf. Heb. 1), and it prepares the reader for the revelation of His future acts that constitutes the bulk of this book.

Constable: Rev 1:1-3

1. The preface 1:1-3

The Apostle John wrote these opening verses to introduce to his readers the main subject dealt with in this book and his purpose for writing it.

1:1 "The revelation of Jesus Christ" is the subject of this book. "Revelation" means unveiling or disclosure and is a translation of the Greek word apokalypsis the transliteration of which is an alternative title for the book (i.e., the Apocalypse). Jesus Christ was the giver of this revelation (cf. Matt. 11:27; John 1:18; 5:19-23; 12:49; 17:8), and He is its main subject.⁹

"It will be vain to become occupied with sevens,' hundred-forty-four-thousands,' six-sixty-sixes,' the restoration of the Roman Empire, the person of the antichrist, the two wild beasts, the millennium,' or even the new Jerusalem; unless, along with God the Father, who has subjected all things unto Him, Christ is ever before our eyes!"¹⁰

God wanted the bond-servants of Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 2:18; 22:6) to have this revelation of things that will happen soon.

"If we are having difficulty with this blessed closing book of God's holy Word, let us surrender ourselves to Jesus Christ as His servants. The book was written to bondservants."¹¹

The idea behind the Greek words translated "shortly" (en tachei) is probably that the events to be revealed will appear soon rather than speedily.

". . . the view that sees en tachei meaning soon' and thereby focuses on the imminence of the predicted events is impressive. A major thrust of Revelation is its emphasis upon the shortness of time before the fulfillment. In the midst of persecution God's people do not have long to wait for relief to come. To say that the relief will come suddenly' offers no encouragement, but to say that it will come soon' does. . . .

"The presence of en tachei in 1:1 shows that for the first time the events predicted by Daniel and foreseen by Christ stood in readiness to be fulfilled. Therefore, John could speak of them as imminent, but earlier prophets could not."¹²

There are many similarities between how John wrote Revelation and how Daniel wrote the book that bears his name. Both prophecies deal with God's sovereign rule over the world.

Jesus Christ communicated this revelation to an angel (Gabriel? cf. Dan. 8:16; 9:21-22; Luke 1:26-31) who passed it on to the Apostle John.¹³ John used the traditional title of bond-servant (slave) to describe his relationship to Jesus Christ as did all the other apostles (cf. Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1; James 1:1; 2 Peter 1:1; Jude 1).

1:2 Forty-four times in this book John wrote "I saw" (1:12-13; 4:1, 4; 5:1, 2, 6, 11; 6:1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12; 7:1, 2, 9; 8:2, 13; 9:1, 17; 10:1; 13:1, 3, 11; 14:1, 6, 14; 15:1, 2, 5; 16:13; 17:3; 18:1; 19:11, 17, 19; 20:1, 4, 11, 12; 21:1, 2, 8). He saw many things and passed this revelation ("all that he saw") on to the church. By the time the original recipients of this book had read it, the visions that he had seen, which the book describes, were in the past. John regarded the book as an inspired word from God, specifically from Jesus Christ (cf. v. 1).

"No other book in the Bible is so strongly supported as to its divine inspiration."¹⁴

The "word of God" may refer to God the Father's word to Jesus Christ. "The testimony of Jesus" probably refers to the Lord Jesus' faithful communication of God's word to John who passed it on to his readers.

Verses 1 and 2 summarize the contents of the Book of Revelation and present them as testimony that Jesus Christ bore.

1:3 Those who read, hear, and obey this prophecy will receive a special blessing from God. John put himself on a par with the Old Testament prophets (cf. 10:8-11) and distinguished this book from Jewish apocalyptic literature.¹⁵ This is the first of seven blessings that John mentioned in Revelation (14:13; 16:15; 19:9; 20:6; 22:7, 14; cf. Luke 11:28).¹⁶ The Greek word translated "time" (kairos) describes a period of time rather than a point in time. The time when God will fulfill these prophecies was "near" when John wrote this book. "Near" is the translation of the Greek word eggus meaning at hand. It means relatively near in God's timetable in which a thousand years are as a day (2 Pet. 3:8).

"A revelation' of the end of history is given not for the satisfaction of curiosity, but to inspire living in accordance with the reality unveiled."¹⁷

Constable: Rev 1:4-6

2. The address and doxology 1:4-6

"As is true of NT epistles in general, the address of Revelation contains three elements: the writer, the addressees, and the greeting."¹⁸

1:4 John sent this letter to the seven churches mentioned in chapters 2 and 3, which were in the Roman province of Asia.¹⁹ The province of Asia lay in Asia Minor (modern western Turkey).

Since this book deals mainly with future events, John described the divine Author as God (the Father) who is, was, and is to come. This title occurs nowhere else in the Bible except in Revelation (4:8; cf. 11:17; 16:5; Exod. 3:14-15). This description stresses the continuity of God's dealings with humankind.

The phrase "seven Spirits" probably refers to seven principle angelic messengers (cf. v. 20; 8:2, 6; 15:1; 1 Kings 22:19-21; Heb. 1:14).²⁰ Another view is that the phrase refers to the Holy Spirit (cf. Isa. 11:2-3).²¹ If so, this title fills out a reference to the Trinity in this sentence (cf. 3:1, 4:5; and 5:6).

1:5 John described Jesus Christ as the "faithful witness (cf. 3:14; Ps. 89:37)."²²

"Jesus Christ is of the seed of David and will sit on the Davidic throne that will endure forever as the sun (Ps. 89:16)."²³

"Faithful witness" is Jesus Christ's present ministry of revealing what follows. John also called Him the "first-born from the dead" (cf. Ps. 89:27; Acts 2:29-32; 4:2; 26:23; Rom. 1:4; 1 Cor. 15:23). This title looks at the culmination of His past ministry when God raised Him to new life at His resurrection. He also referred to Him as the "ruler of the kings of the earth" (Ps. 89:27) That is His future ministry following His second coming (Matt. 2:6). The New Testament speaks much of believers entering into their rights as first-born sons of God and ruling with Jesus Christ in His millennial kingdom. This will be the privilege of faithful, obedient Christians (cf. 2 Tim. 2:12).²⁴

". . . the origination of all three expressions from Psalm 89 reflects a major authorial intent to direct attention to the fulfillment of the promises made to David regarding an eternal kingdom in 2 Samuel 7."²⁵

John ascribed eternal glory and dominion to Jesus Christ who is the subject and object of this revelation. He described Him as the One who always loves us and who loosed us from the bondage of our sins by His death.²⁶

1:6 Jesus Christ also has made us a kingdom (corporately) and priests (individually; cf. 5:10; 20:6; Exod. 19:6; Isa. 61:6; 1 Pet. 2:5, 9) to His God and Father, another evidence of His present love for us.²⁷ We are such now, but in the future faithful Christians, His bond-servants, will also reign with Jesus Christ on the earth (cf. 5:10).

"Amen" means "So be it!" Here it signifies the writer's assent to the truthfulness of these affirmations about Jesus Christ (cf. 1:7; 5:14; 7:12 [twice]; 19:4; 22:20)

It is interesting that John, the apostle of love, would emphasize God's love in this first doxology as the dominating divine emotion (cf. Deut. 4:37).

Constable: Rev 1:7-8

3. The theme 1:7-8

These verses contain the first prophetic oracle of the book. The only other one in which God speaks is in 21:5-8.

1:7 "Behold" (Gr. idou) indicates special divine intervention. This verse summarizes the main features of the revelation to follow. It is in this sense the key verse in the book.

"The theme of the book is the ultimate victory of Jesus Christ over all enemies and the establishment of His earthly kingdom."²⁸

Jesus Christ will return physically to earth as He ascended into heaven (1:4, 8; 2:5, 16; 3:11; 4:8; 16:15; 22:7, 12, 20 [twice]); Acts 1:9-11). "Every eye" of those alive at His second coming will see Him (Matt. 24:30; cf. Num. 11:25; Ps. 104:3; Isa. 19:1; Dan. 7:13). "Those who pierced Him" evidently refers to Jews particularly (Zech. 12:10, 12, 14; cf. John 19:37).²⁹ Another possibility is that these people stand for Jesus' enemies.³⁰ Representatives from all tribes on earth then will mourn (wail) because then the earth will be in rebellion against Him (cf. Matt. 24:30). These tribes represent all human beings, not just Jews.³¹

This great text announces the climactic event in Revelation, namely, the return of Jesus Christ to the earth at His second coming (19:11-16). All that intervenes between this verse and 19:11-16 leads up to that event. This verse does not refer to the Rapture as is clear from what John said will happen when it takes place. The Second Coming is a public gradual manifestation, but the Rapture will be a secret instantaneous coming (1 Cor. 15:52).

"The promise combines Daniel 7:13 with Zechariah 12:10 . . . Daniel 7 provides a key focus for John throughout the whole book (there are no fewer than thirty-one allusions to it)."³²

"Even so, amen," provides firm assurance that the coming of Christ will happen as prophesied in this verse.

1:8 God confirmed the preceding forecast with a solemn affirmation of His eternity and omnipotence. Alpha and omega are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet and signify here God's comprehensive control over all things including time.³³ John strengthened this point further with present, past, and future references (cf. 4:8; 11:17; Heb. 13:8). He is the originator and terminator of all things. God is not only Lord of the future. He is also powerful enough to bring what John just predicted to pass. He is the "Almighty."

"A weighing of evidence, especially in light of the OT flavor' of the expression and a recollection that the Father in the OT refers to Himself as I am' (i.e., the Tetragrammaton, Ex. 3:14; cf. Isa. 48:12), tips the balance ever so slightly to the side of concluding that God the Father speaks in v. 8. . . .

"God's declaration in v. 8 thus ends with a note of authority. The omnipotent one will surely implement what His prophet has predicted by way of future judgment."³⁴

"Almighty is a key name for God in Revelation (Rev. 1:8; 4:8; 11:17; 15:3; 16:7, 14; 19:6, 15; 21:22)."³⁵

This whole introduction points to the main event of the following revelation, the return of Jesus Christ at His second coming (19:11-16). It also presents the triune God as Lord of time (past, present, and future), faithful to His promises, and powerful enough to bring these events to pass. In Genesis, Moses also emphasized God's power and faithfulness more than any other of His attributes. The last Bible book stresses these qualities of God as does the first Bible book.

Constable: Rev 1:9-20

B. The commission of the prophet 1:9-20

John next explained a vision of the glorified Christ that God had given him (cf. Isa. 6; Ezek. 1). First, he related the circumstances of his first commission to write (vv. 9-11). Second, he provided a detailed description of the source of that commission (vv. 12-16). Third, he explained more about his commission and the one who gave it (vv. 17-20).

Constable: Rev 1:9-11

1. The first commission to write 1:9-11

1:9 John now addressed the seven churches to which he sent this epistolary prophecy directly. He described himself to his readers as their brother in Christ and a partaker with them in three things. These were, first, the religious persecution they were presently experiencing as a result of their faith in Jesus Christ.³⁶ Second, they shared in the future kingdom of Jesus Christ (cf. ch. 20; Luke 12:32; 22:29; 1 Thess. 2:12; 2 Thess. 1:5; James 2:5). Third, they were exercising perseverance as they remained steadfast in the midst of affliction.

"This illustrates the broad spectrum of other areas, besides afflictions, that are shared by believers, but fellowship in suffering is one of the most frequent, if not the most frequent, among the stock of primitive Christian ideas. This is an indispensable element of Christian discipleship and following the example of Jesus (1 Thess. 1:6; 1 Pet. 2:21; 4:13; cf. also 2 Cor. 1:7; Phil. 3:10; 1 Pet. 5:1)."³⁷

John was on Patmos as a result of his witness, not primarily to receive this revelation from God (cf. 6:9).³⁸ According to the writings of several early church fathers (i.e., Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius, and Victorinus), the Romans sent John as a prisoner from Ephesus, where he pastored, to the island of Patmos in A.D. 95.³⁹ There he worked in the mines (quarries). Patmos stood in the Aegean Sea just southwest of Ephesus. It was 10 miles long and six miles wide at its widest (northern) end, and it served as a penal colony for political prisoners of Rome. John remained there until shortly after the Emperor Domitian died in A.D. 96. Domitian's successor, Nerva, allowed John to return to Ephesus.⁴⁰

Roman Emperors in New Testament Times41
Emperor	Important Events	Bible Books Written
Augustus (31 B.C.-A.D. 15)	Ordered the census that took Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem (Luke 2:1).
Tiberius (A.D. 15-35)	Jesus' earthly ministry conducted during his reign (Luke 3:1; 20:22, 25; 23:2; John 19:12, 15).
Gaius (A.D. 35-41)	Appointed Herod Agrippa I king over Palestine (Acts 12:1).
Claudius (A.D. 41-54)	Extensive famines (Acts 11:28).Expelled the Jews, including Priscilla and Aquilla, from Rome (Acts 18:2).	James (A.D. 45-48) Galatians (A.D. 49) Matthew (ca. A.D. 50)1 & 2 Thess. (A.D. 51)
Nero (A.D. 54-68)	Paul appealed for trial before him (Acts 25:11). Favored Christianity early in his reign, but when Rome burned in A.D. 64 he blamed the Christians and thereafter persecuted them.Paul and Peter traditionally martyred by him.	1 & 2 Cor. (ca. A.D. 56) Romans (A.D. 57) Luke (A.D. 57-59) Prison Epistles (A.D. 60-62) Acts (A.D. 60-62) 1 Tim. & Titus (A.D. 62-66) Mark (A.D. 63-70) 1 Peter (A.D. 64) 2 Timothy (A.D. 67) 2 Peter (A.D. 67-68)Jude (A.D. 67-80)
Galba (A.D. 68-69)		Hebrews (A.D. 68-69)
Otho (A.D. 69)
Vitellius (A.D. 69)
Vespasian (A.D. 69-79)	Crushed the Jewish revolt against Rome (A.D. 66-70).His son, Titus, destroyed Jerusalem (A.D. 70).
Titus (A.D. 75-81)
Domition (A.D. 81-96)		John (A.D. 85-95) Johannine Epistles (A.D. 90-95)Revelation (A.D. 95-96)
Nerva (A.D. 96-98)

1:10 The Holy Spirit appears to have caught John up and projected him in his spirit to a future time in a vision (cf. 4:2; 17:3; 21:10; Ezek. 3:12, 14; 8:3; 11:1, 24; 43:5).⁴²

The "Lord's day" probably refers to Sunday,⁴³ but it could refer to the future day of the Lord spoken of frequently elsewhere in Scripture.⁴⁴

"Referring kyriake hemera to Sunday agrees with the terminology of a number of Christian writings from the same general area of Asia Minor a short time after the writing of the Apocalypse there. The Lord's day' came to be the customary way of referring to Sunday by the end of the second century because it was the day of the week on which the Lord was raised from the dead . . ."⁴⁵

The New Testament writers never called Sunday the Lord's day elsewhere in Scripture.

A loud trumpet-like voice instructed John to write down what he saw and send it to seven churches in Asia Minor. The trumpet reference probably implies that submission to its command was necessary. The voice belonged to Jesus Christ (vv. 12, 17-18).

1:11 This is the first of twelve times that John wrote that he received instruction to write what he saw (cf. v. 19; 2:1, 8, 12, 18; 3:1, 7, 14; 14:13; 19:9; 21:5). The "book" in view was a roll of papyrus made from a plant that grew in Egypt. Normally papyrus scrolls were about 15 feet long.⁴⁶

The cities where these churches met formed a wedge on the map pointing northwest. A messenger carrying John's revelation would have traveled north from Ephesus to Smyrna and on to Pergamum. He would then have turned southeast to reach Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. Note that all the Book of Revelation was to go to these churches, not just the special letter to each one contained in chapters 2 and 3.

Why did God select these churches in these particular towns? Obviously He did not do so because of their superior spirituality. Their popularity was not the criterion either since we read about only Ephesus and Laodicea elsewhere in Scripture. Probably they were representative congregations from which this book could circulate easily.⁴⁷

Constable: Rev 1:12-16

2. The source of the commission 1:12-16

John turned to see the person who had given him his commission. These verses describe what he saw.

1:12 When John turned to see the person who spoke to him he saw a majestic figure clothed in a long robe standing among seven lampstands (cf. Ezek. 25:31-40; Zech. 4:2; Matt. 18:20). This person would have been a priest in Israel ministering in the tabernacle or temple. The seven lampstands represent seven churches (v. 20).⁴⁸

1:13 The man looked like "a son of man." This expression refers to the divine Messiah in Daniel 7:13-14 (cf. Acts 7:56). "Son of Man" was Jesus' favorite title for Himself according to the writers of the Gospels (cf. Mark 13:26). The person John saw looked like a human man. His clothing was that of a priest: a long robe with a golden sash around it.⁴⁹ Jesus Christ's present office is that of our high priest (Heb. 4:14). However this long robe (Gr. poderes) was also a sign of rank or dignity in those who wore them (cf. Ezek. 9:2; Dan. 10:5).⁵⁰

"In Rev. 1:13, Christ is seen dressed in the type robe worn by both a priest and a judge; but the position of the girdle about the breasts rather than the waist indicates that Christ, in this passage, is exercising a judicial rather than a priestly role. A priest would be girded about the waist, signifying service; but the girdle placed about the shoulders or breasts indicates a magisterial function (cf. John 13:2-5; Rev. 15:6)."⁵¹

"The titles of Jesus Christ found in the introductions to six of the seven messages in chapters 2 and 3 are drawn largely from this vision of 1:12-20 and its descriptive phrases. Only the message to Laodicea (3:14-22) is devoid of one of these. One of the titles is used in two messages (cf. 2:1 and 3:1) . . . It is apparent that the appearance of Christ in this vision is designed to emphasize the aspects of His nature that are most relevant to the needs and circumstances of the seven churches who are the primary recipients of this book."⁵²

1:14 His head, even His hair, was very white, as Daniel described the Ancient of Days in Daniel 7:9 (i.e., God the Father).⁵³ White hair often represents wisdom and the dignity of age in Scripture.⁵⁴ John referred the images of God the Father in the Old Testament to Jesus Christ thus granting to Jesus the attributes and titles previously reserved for the Father (cf. v. 18; 2:8; 5:12; 22:13).⁵⁵ This is one way of stressing the equality of Jesus with the Father, here specifically His eternal pre-existence.

His eyes were similar to blazing fire, evidently an allusion to His piercing judgment and omniscient understanding (cf. 2:18, 19:12; Dan. 10:6; Mark 3:5, 34; 10:21, 23; 11:11; Luke 22:61).

1:15 His feet looked as though they were bronze glowing in the reflection of a fire. This is probably an allusion to His purity as He moves among the churches (cf. Luke 1:79; Acts 5:9; Rom. 3:15; 10:15; Heb. 12:13)⁵⁶ or perhaps as proved during His earthly walk that made Him a sympathetic high priest (Heb. 4:15; cf. 2:18).

His voice sounded like a rushing river such as the Niagara at its Falls, namely, authoritative, powerful, and irresistible (cf. 14:2; 19:6; Ps. 93:4; Isa. 17:13; Ezek. 43:2).

"Perhaps two ideas are suggested here: (1) Christ gathers together all the streams of revelation' and is the Father's last Word' to man (Heb. 1:1-3); (2) He speaks with power and authority and must be heard."⁵⁷

John would have hardly ever been away from the sound of waves beating on the shore while he lived on Patmos.

1:16 In His right hand, the symbol of official honor and sovereign control, He held seven stars protectively (cf. 9:1; 12:3; Job 38:7; John 10:28), the angels or messengers of the seven churches (v. 20; cf. 2:1; 3:1).

A sharp double-edged sword (Gr. hromphaia), the type the Romans used to kill with (2:12, 16; 6:8; 19:15, 21), proceeded from His mouth. His word will judge His enemies (Isa. 11:4; Eph. 6:17; 2 Thess. 2:8; Heb. 4:12; Rev. 19:13-15). This sword was tongue-shaped.⁵⁸

His face shone like the unclouded sun, a picture of pure holiness and righteousness (Judg. 5:31; Matt. 13:43). John saw Jesus at the Transfiguration with such a shining face (Matt. 17:2).

". . . Christ was presenting Himself to John in a character that would prepare the apostle for various aspects of the vision to follow."⁵⁹

"This first vision of John, then, included an indication of Jesus' Messianic office with its associated functions: judgment of the unrighteous and comfort of the suffering righteous, His high rank that fits Him as an agent of imposing divine wrath, His activity in imposing that wrath, His preexistence along with God the Father, His penetrating intelligence that enables Him to perform righteous judgment, His movement among the churches to enforce standards of moral purity, His identification with the Father in the power of His utterance, His authority over the seven messengers and the churches they represent, His power to overcome His enemies and pronounce judgment upon them, and His return to earth to implement judgment upon mankind."⁶⁰

It is primarily as Judge that Jesus Christ appears in Revelation (cf. Matt. 3:11). He judges the churches (chs. 2-3), the whole earth (chs. 4-16), Babylonianism (chs. 17-18), world rulers at Armageddon (19:19-21), and Satan (20:1-3, 10). He also judges the earth during the Millennium (20:4-6), the rebellious earth at the end of the Millennium (20:7-9), and all the unsaved dead (20:11-15). The first 20 chapters of the book deal with judgment and the last two with the new creation.

College: Rev 1:1-20

REVELATION 1

I. PROLOGUE (1:1-20)

Revelation begins with a Prologue (1:1-20) in which John relates how the risen Christ appeared to him on the island of Patmos, bringing an apocalyptic vision of the present and future. In describing this vision, John organizes the book according to the standard first century Hellenistic letter form. For further discussion of the Structure of Revelation, see Part V of the Introduction.

A. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROPHECY (1:1-3)

¹ The revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him to show his servants what must soon take place. He made it known by sending his angel to his servant John, ² who testifies to everything he saw-that is, the word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ. ³ Blessed is the one who reads the words of this prophecy, and blessed are those who hear it and take to heart what is written in it, because the time is near.

1:1 The revelation of Jesus Christ

The author's title for his book is "The Revelation of Jesus Christ." Old Testament prophets place similar titles at the beginning of their writings. By imitating such men, John places himself in their company as an authoritative spokesman for God. He describes Revelation as "words of prophecy" in 1:3 and himself as a "brother of the prophets" in 22:9.

In the first words of the book, John tells us the nature of his prophecy. It is a "revelation" (ajpokavluyi" , apokalypsis ), which was a recognized type of literature most popular from the second century B.C. through the second century A.D. Apocalyptic writings reflect a certain type of theology, or understanding of God and his dealings with the world. They communicate that theology in a distinctive manner by, for example, making heavy use of symbolism. They also focus on the future - on "what must soon take place" as God moves human history toward the goal of his kingdom rule. The Revelation of John probably represents the first Christian adaptation of the apocalyptic form. For a detailed discussion of these matters, see Parts I and III of the Introduction.

In Greek, the initial phrase (ajpokavluyi" =Ihsou' Cristou' , apokalypsis Içsou Christou ) may mean either "the revelation about Jesus Christ" (genitive of description) or "the revelation from Jesus Christ" (ablative of source). John probably means it in the second sense because the rest of verse 1 focuses on the source of John's apocalyptic prophecy.

which God gave him [i.e., Jesus] to show his servants what must soon take place. He made it known by sending his angel to his servant John,

Ultimately the message comes from God, but notice the chain of revelation involved: God gives the revelation to Jesus, who passes it on to an angel, who delivers it to John, who communicates it to the churches ("his servants"). John plays the role of a "servant" prophet, who brings a revelation from God to others. An angel is involved, but John does not seem to place as much importance on the mediating role of angels as do other apocalyptists. In this book, Jesus often bypasses the angel and speaks to John directly.

In the chain of revelation, Jesus stands between God and his creation. John's Apocalypse is theocentric, or "God-centered." The book reveals what God says and what God does, but Jesus is the one through whom God speaks and through whom God carries out his will. John emphasizes this mediating role of Jesus throughout the book.

He made it known

The Greek term translated "made known" is shmaivnw (sçmainô ), which is the verb form of the noun shmei'on (sçmeion ). A sçmeion is a "sign" that points beyond itself to some deeper reality, some deeper truth. For example, a traffic sign picturing a truck on a steep grade points beyond itself to a real hill. In the same way, the Gospel of John describes a number of miraculous "signs" (sçmeion ) performed by Jesus. The healing of the man born blind (John 9) points beyond the miracle itself to the truth that Jesus is "the light of the world." The resuscitation of Lazarus (John 11) points to Jesus as "the resurrection and the life."

John says that the Revelation was "signed" to him. If we view John's kaleidoscope of symbols only on the surface, then we miss a major portion of what the Lord intends to "reveal" to us. Revelation was never meant to be read literally - it is an apocalypse . The symbols point beyond themselves to deeper realities. We will try to uncover those truths as we work our way through the book.

1:2 who testifies to everything he saw-

In contrast to many Old Testament prophets who heard the word of the Lord, the revelation to John was largely an optical experience - an apocalyptic vision . As G.B. Caird writes, "Much of the New Testament is written for those who have ears to hear, but this book is written for those who have eyes to see."

that is, the word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ.

Since the Revelation comes ultimately from God through his mediator Christ (see above), John calls it "the word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ." The fact that John shares "the word of God," rather than the word of a mere human being, is extremely significant. We humans may say, "Let this pig sprout wings and fly," but our speaking the words will not make it happen. However, when the sovereign God speaks a word, then whatever he says is done. This is called "performance language" - language that accomplishes what it says. We see it, for example, in Genesis 1:3, where "God said, 'Let there be light,' and there was light." The same idea appears in Isaiah 55:10-11:

As the rain and the snow

come down from heaven,

and do not return to it

without watering the earth

and making it bud and flourish,

so that it yields seed for the sower and bread for the eater,

so is my word that goes out from my mouth:

It will not return to me empty,

but will accomplish what I desire

and achieve the purpose for which I sent it.

Jesus is called "the Word of God" (e.g., in John 1) because he "performs" or accomplishes God's will. In like manner, John calls Revelation "the word of God," which means that what God says in this book concerning the present and the future is reality. It will be accomplished.

1:3 Blessed is the one who reads the words of this prophecy, and blessed are those who hear it and take to heart what is written in it, because the time is near.

John expects the Revelation to be read aloud in the churches' assemblies (compare 1 Tim 4:13), just as the Jewish Scriptures were read aloud in the synagogues (see Acts 13:15). So he prays a blessing - a good gift from God - on "the one who reads," the one who shares God's word with others. The prophet also pronounces a blessing not on those who merely "hear" the word, but on those who "hear it and take [it] to heart ." Those who allow the Revelation to penetrate their minds and hearts so that it reshapes their lives - they are the ones who will be blessed.

Reader, this blessing is available for you as the time of Christ's return grows "near." However, the verse also contains an implicit warning - a warning that the person who refuses to hear, who refuses to act on God's word, will not be blessed.

B. SENDER (1:4a)

1:4 John,

The author identifies himself simply as "John." The Early Church Fathers provide significant evidence - but not conclusive evidence - that the author is John the son of Zebedee, one of the original Twelve Apostles of Jesus. For a more detailed discussion of authorship, see Parts IV.A.1 and IV.B.1 of the Introduction.

C. RECIPIENTS (1:4b)

To the seven churches in the province of Asia:

In verse 4 John addresses the Apocalypse "to the seven churches in the province of Asia." The Roman province of Asia made up the western third of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). In verse 11, John locates the seven churches in the cities of "Ephesus [the provincial capital], Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea." The Revelation may be intended for these seven congregations alone. However, since "seven" often symbolizes "completeness" in apocalyptic literature, the seven churches of Asia probably represent the entire body of Christian believers in that part of the Roman world. For further discussion of the recipients and their circumstances, see Part IV of the Introduction, along with the Commentary on Revelation 2-3.

D. PRESCRIPT (1:4c-5a)

Grace and peace to you from him who is, and who was, and who is to come, and from the seven spirits before his throne, ^{a 5} and from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth.

^a 4 Or the sevenfold Spirit

1:4c Grace and peace to you

"Grace" (cavri" , charis ) was the common greeting used by Greeks or Gentiles (non-Jews) in the first-century Roman world. The term meant "goodwill," so the greeting was simply a way of expressing positive feelings toward another person. In Christian circles, however, "grace" took on added meaning as the "goodwill" God has shown toward sinners, particularly by sending Christ to die as the sacrifice for sins (see, e.g., Rom 5:1-2; Eph 2:8). In a culture where the deities were often seen as wrathful gods, who must be constantly appeased through sacrifice, the message that God actually had "goodwill" toward his creatures was "good news" or "gospel" (eujaggevlion , euangelion ).

"Peace" (Greek, eijrhvnh [eirçnç ], Hebrew, shalom ) was the common greeting used by Jews. In Christian circles, the word became a technical term for the peaceful reconciliation to God and to one another that believers enjoy through the cross of Christ (see, e.g., Rom 5:1; Eph 4:3).

Combining "grace" and "peace" creates a universal greeting that takes in both Jews and Gentiles. In this greeting, the threefold God (see below) offers "grace and peace" to the entire world - to "every nation, tribe, people and language" (see Rev 7:9).

from him who is, and who was, and who is to come,

John describes God, both here and in verse 8, as "him who is, and who was, and who is to come." On one level, the author is simply saying that God is eternal - that he has always existed and will always exist, that he has no beginning and no end. Greeks would affirm the same about their gods. For example, Pausanias writes, "Zeus was, Zeus is, Zeus shall be; O mighty (megavlh , megalç ) Zeus." In this way, he expresses the god's eternity and immutability.

Yet John has more in mind than God's eternal existence . John's God is a God who also acts - he will "come." The prophet is thinking within his apocalyptic framework: God "was" - that is, he existed prior to "the beginning," when he acted to "create the heavens and the earth" (see Gen 1:1). God "is" - that is, he has continued to be alive and present during world history, when Adam's sin launched the "present evil age," but God acted through Christ to redeem his fallen creation. God will one day "come," in the person of Christ, to consummate his eternal kingdom. God's being and his actions embrace all of time and eternity. He shapes all and he directs all.

John communicates similar truths about God in verse 8, where the Lord calls himself "the Alpha and the Omega" and "the Almighty." Alpha and Omega are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet. (The English equivalent would be for the Lord to say, "I am the A and the Z.") The fuller formula appears in Revelation 22:13 (cf. 21:6):

I am the Alpha and the Omega,

the First and the Last,

the Beginning and the End.

God is our "Alpha and Omega," our "First and Last," our "Beginning and End," in the sense that he gives his creation both its origin (creation) and its goal (God's kingdom).

The Greek term translated "the Almighty" is pantokravtwr (pantokratôr ), a combination of pa'" ( pas , "all") and kratevw (krateô , "power"). God is "all powerful" or "almighty" in the sense that he holds ultimate power over all of creation for all of time and eternity. You exist right now, at this moment, reading this commentary, only because God - right now - actively wills it and sustains his creation! And what is the attitude of this God toward us - this God "who is, and who was, and who is to come," the "Alpha and the Omega," the "Almighty"? In verse 4 he wishes all nations "grace and peace."

and from the seven spirits before his throne,

The same greeting comes "from the seven spirits before his throne." Here in Revelation 1:4 (and again in 3:1) John speaks of "seven spirits" - that is, the Spirit of God in his fullness and completeness.

In 4:5 he writes: "Before the throne, seven lamps were blazing. These are the seven spirits of God." John uses seven lamps as a symbol for the sevenfold Spirit of God - that is, the Spirit of God in his fullness as one who "enlightens" like a lamp.

In 5:6 John speaks of Jesus' having "seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth." The "horn" is an ancient symbol for power. Picturing God's Spirit as "seven horns" speaks of his omnipotence, or his having all power. Portraying God's Spirit as "seven eyes . . . sent out into all the earth" speaks of his omniscience, his being all seeing and all knowing.

Much of this symbolism echoes Zechariah 4, where the prophet speaks of the Holy Spirit (v. 6) in the context of a lampstand with seven lights (v. 2) that represent the seven "eyes of the Lord which range throughout the earth" (v. 10). When we view John's Spirit imagery as a whole, it becomes clear that the "seven spirits" in Revelation 1:4 symbolize God the Holy Spirit, in the fullness of his omniscience and omnipotence, present and active throughout all the earth.

1:5 and from Jesus Christ,

Finally, the greeting of "grace and peace" comes to the readers "from Jesus," whom John identifies as the "Christ." This title has its roots in a long series of Old Testament promises regarding the Messiah as a descendant of David the king. John refers to these promises again and again in his Apocalypse. In order to gain the necessary scriptural background for understanding Revelation, we will examine several key texts.

The foundational passage appears in 2 Samuel, chapter 7. At this point in his life, David has conquered his enemies and his kingdom is secure. So David decides that he wants to build a great house, a great temple for the Lord. However, God has other plans. He speaks to David through the prophet Nathan and says, "No, you will not build me a house. Instead, I will build you a house." Yet God is not thinking of a house of wood or stone. He intends to build for David a royal "house," a kingly dynasty:

^' The LORD declares to you that the LORD himself will establish a house for you: When your days are over and you rest with your fathers, I will raise up your offspring to succeed you, who will come from your body, and I will establish his kingdom. He is the one who will build a house for my Name, and I will establish the throne of his kingdom forever (2 Sam 7:11b-13).

Solomon was the particular "offspring" of David who built a temple at Jerusalem, but the Lord's words do not concern Solomon alone. God also promises to establish a royal "house," or dynasty of kings descended from David through Solomon. Since they are blood descendants of David, we refer to these rulers as "Davidic kings." The Lord describes how he will treat Solomon and the other Davidic kings in verses 14-16:

I will be his father, and he will be my son. When he does wrong, I will punish him with the rod of men, with floggings inflicted by men. But my love will never be taken away from him, as I took it away from Saul, whom I removed from before you. Your house and your kingdom will endure forever before me; your throne will be established forever.

This prophecy contains several specific promises of great importance: First, in verse 12 God says he will "raise up" David's "offspring" - blood descendants who will come from David's "own body." Each Davidic king will be, then, a "son of David." Second, in verse 14 God promises: "I will be his father, and he will be my son." Each king descended from David will be a "son of God," receiving his heavenly "Father's" love and (if necessary) his discipline. In contrast to other ancient Near Eastern peoples who considered their kings to be literal blood descendants of gods, we will see that the Jewish people considered kings from David's line to be adopted "sons of God." Third, verses 12, 13, and 18 say that these "sons of God," these descendants of David, will rule as kings and their kingdom will never end.

These divine promises shaped the way that the Jewish people viewed David and his heirs for centuries. One place we see that influence is in the Book of Psalms. The Psalter served as the "hymnbook" for the Jewish people. The songs it contains were used in their worship services at the temple and elsewhere. Some of these songs are called "Royal Psalms" because they were sung at the coronation ceremonies when David's descendants were placed on the Jewish throne at Jerusalem. They include Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 72, 101, 110, and perhaps others. We will briefly examine three such Psalms, beginning with Psalm 2.

King David and some of his heirs conquered their Gentile neighbors (e.g., the Moabites and Ammonites) and compelled them to pay tribute or provide forced labor for the Jewish kingdom. When a Davidic king died and his son took the throne, these surrounding nations hoped for a weak ruler so that they could break free from his influence. Psalm 2 warns subject peoples against such rebellion. The first part of the Psalm was sung by the people or the worship leaders:

Why do the nations conspire / and the peoples plot in vain? / The kings of the earth take their stand / and the rulers gather together / against the LORD [i.e., God] / and against his Anointed One [i.e., the Davidic king]. / "Let us break their chains," they say, / "and throw off their fetters."

The One enthroned in heaven laughs; / the Lord scoffs at them. / Then he rebukes them in his anger / and terrifies them in his wrath, saying, / "I have installed my king / on Zion, my holy hill [a reference to the Jews's capital city, Jerusalem, which King David established on a hill called 'Zion']."

At this point in the coronation service, the newly-crowned Davidic king stepped forward and sang:

I will proclaim the decree of the LORD: / He said to me, "You are my Son; / today I have become your Father. / Ask of me, / and I will make the nations your inheritance, / the ends of the earth your possession. / You will rule them with an iron scepter; / you will dash them to pieces like pottery."

And then the people joined in again:

Therefore, you kings, be wise; / be warned, you rulers of the earth. / Serve the LORD with fear / and rejoice with trembling. / Kiss the Son, lest he be angry / and you be destroyed in your way, / for his wrath can flare up in a moment. / Blessed are all who take refuge in him.

This "Royal Psalm" offers several important insights concerning the Jews' understanding of David's dynasty: First, in verse 2, the Davidic king is called the Lord's "Anointed One." At his coronation, the Jewish king was anointed with oil as a symbol of God's setting him apart for a special work. The oil represented the Holy Spirit, whom God would send upon the king in order to empower him to carry out his duties as ruler and shepherd of God's people. The Hebrew word here translated "anointed one" is "messiah." The Greek equivalent is "christ." All the Davidic kings were called "the Lord's anointed one" or "messiah" or "christ" for this reason.

Second, the Psalm refers to the Davidic king as God's "son." In verse 7 the king says: "I will proclaim the decree of the LORD: He said to me, 'You are my Son.'" This proclamation of divine sonship simply repeats the promise of 2 Samuel 7:14, where God says to David: "I will be his father, and he will be my son." Notice that the Davidic king was not considered to be the "son of God" from birth. The Lord says, "Today" - that is, on this coronation day - "I have become your Father." The Jews viewed the Davidic king as the adopted "son of God" - adopted on the day he took the throne.

Third, God gives his "son," the Davidic king, authority to rule over the "nations." The Greek word rendered "nations" is e[qnh (ethnç ), from which we get the English term "ethnic groups." In the Bible, the word is often translated "Gentiles." Jews tended to think of themselves as God's covenant people and all other ethnic groups as outsiders - as the other "nations." Therefore the term "nations" or "Gentiles" refers to non-Jews. Psalm 2 shows that God had made the king descended from David ruler - at least in theory - over not only Israel, but over all other nations as well. "Ask of me, and I will make the nations your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession."

Psalm 110, another "Royal Psalm," also sheds light on the Jewish understanding of the Davidic kings. For our purposes, we will examine only verse 1:

The LORD [i.e., God ( Yahweh in Hebrew or kyrios in the Greek Septuagint)] says to my Lord [i.e., the Davidic King ( adonai in Hebrew or kyrios in Greek )]: "Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet."

Note, first of all, that God seats the Davidic king at his right hand, the place of the second in command under the king. God allows David's heir to rule over all nations as God's "vicar," God's representative, God's "right hand man." Note also that, in the Greek version used by most early Christians, both God and the Davidic King are called "Lord" ( kyrios ). Using the same title for the earthly ruler that is used for the heavenly ruler shows that the Davidic king bears the authority of God himself. How long will the Davidic king reign? Until God makes his enemies "a footstool for his feet" - until God subdues them all, bringing them under his "son's" kingly authority.

Psalm 72 - another "Royal Psalm" - contains many of the same ideas described above. For example, the author calls the Davidic king "the royal son" ( v. 1) and declares that "all nations will serve him" ( v. 11). However, verse 17 introduces a new concept: "All nations will be blessed through him, and they will call him blessed." The Psalmist here identifies the Davidic king as the one through whom God's promise to Abraham would be fulfilled: ". . . all peoples on earth will be blessed through you" (Gen 12:3).

We have seen that God's promises to David in 2 Samuel 7, together with the "Royal Psalms" that interpret those promises, describe the Davidic kings as persons "raised up" by God; offspring or descendants of David; and kings who sit at the right hand of God, ruling over all nations in a kingdom that lasts forever. They are "lords" who exercise the authority of God himself. They are "anointed ones" - "messiahs" or "christs" - on whom God's Spirit rests. Finally, they are adopted "sons of God," whom the Deity treats as his own and disciplines as needed. These promises form the beginnings and foundation of the Jewish expectation of " the Messiah" - the hope that one of David's descendants would not require God's discipline, but would fully realize his promise of a universal kingdom under a godly ruler.

There were many descendants of David, and many of them ruled over Israel, and many of them fulfilled the biblical promises - or fit the description of the "messiah" - to one extent or another. However, the first Christians saw for themselves that there is only one descendant of David who fulfills these promises completely - namely, Jesus of Nazareth. Jesus "full-fills" the Scriptures both in the sense of accomplishing what the biblical writers predict and also in the sense of "filling" the words of Scripture "full" of new meaning not grasped before his coming. In light of what Jesus said and did, the early Christians gained a new understanding of the Old Testament prophecies.

For example, they knew that Jesus was born to Mary, a descendant of David, and belonged to the family of Joseph, also a descendant of David. On both counts, Jesus was a "son of David" and a possible heir to David's throne (see the genealogies in Matt 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-37).

Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit of God and born to the virgin Mary, so that he lacked a human father (see Matt 1:18-25; Luke 1:26-35). This made him Deity, the "Son of God" in a fuller sense than any other Davidic king. Indwelt by the Spirit of God from his conception, Jesus was also the "Anointed One," the "Messiah," and the "Christ" in the deepest sense. His public anointing at his baptism simply confirmed this fact (see Matt 3:16-17; Luke 3:21-22).

The first disciples were present at the "Last Supper" when Jesus explained that his death on the cross would establish a "new covenant" offering eternal life to both Jews and Gentiles. This new covenant, based on faith in Christ as Lord, is the "blessing" for all nations promised to Abraham (see Gal 3:6-9).

The first Christians were witnesses to Jesus' death and then to his victorious emergence from the tomb. Not only was this descendant of David "raised up" by God in history (2 Sam 7:12); he was "raised up" from the dead to eternal life.

The first disciples also saw Jesus ascend into heaven, where he sat down at the right hand of God and began ruling over all nations as God's representative (see, e.g., Acts 7:56 where Stephen saw Jesus at God's right hand as he was being stoned). In other words, Jesus inaugurated the kingdom of God - not a temporary, earthly, Jewish kingdom, but a kingdom that includes people from all nations and that lasts forever and ever.

In view of these experiences, it is no wonder that the first disciples called Jesus "Lord," which refers both to his deity and his kingly authority. It is no wonder that they called Jesus "the Anointed One," "the Messiah," "the Christ." It is no wonder that they called him the "Son of David" and the "Son of God." These titles are abbreviated ways of referring to the entire complex of ideas surrounding God's promises to David. They have a very specific meaning and content grounded in the Old Testament promises. When John calls Jesus the "Christ" in Revelation 1:5, he is identifying Jesus as the ultimate Davidic King.

Christ, who is the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth.

In these titles, John reflects language and imagery from Psalm 89 in order to communicate certain truths about Jesus. Concerning the Davidic king the Psalmist writes:

I will sing of the LORD's great love forever; / with my mouth I will make your faithfulness known through all generations. / I will declare that your love stands firm forever, / that you established your faithfulness in heaven itself. / You said, "I have made a covenant with my chosen one, / I have sworn to David my servant, / 'I will establish your line forever / and make your throne firm through all generations'" [a reference to the promises God gives to David in 2 Samuel 7]. . . .

Once you spoke in a vision, / to your faithful people you said: / "I have bestowed strength on a warrior; / I have exalted a young man from among the people. / I have found David my servant; / with my sacred oil I have anointed him. / My hand will sustain him; / surely my arm will strengthen him. / No enemy will subject him to tribute; / no wicked man will oppress him. / I will crush his foes before him / and strike down his adversaries. / My faithful love will be with him, / and through my name his horn will be exalted. / I will set his hand over the sea, / his right hand over the rivers. / He will call out to me, 'You are my Father, / my God, the Rock my Savior.' / I will also appoint him my firstborn, / the most exalted of the kings of the earth. / I will maintain my love to him forever, / and my covenant with him will never fail. / I will establish his line forever, his throne as long as the heavens endure.

"If his sons forsake my law / and do not follow my statutes, / if they violate my decrees / and fail to keep my commands, / I will punish their sin with the rod, / their iniquity with flogging; / but I will not take my love from him, / nor will I ever betray my faithfulness. / I will not violate my covenant / or alter what my lips have uttered. / Once for all, I have sworn by my holiness- / and I will not lie to David- / that his line will continue forever / and his throne endure before me like the sun; / it will be established forever like the moon, / the faithful witness in the sky" (vv. 1-4, 19-37).

In Revelation 1:5 John first calls Jesus the "Christ" (Greek) - that is, the "Messiah" (Hebrew) or "Anointed One" (English). The title "Christ" identifies Jesus as the one who fulfills God's promises to David regarding the king who rules over an eternal kingdom (see above). The idea of the "Christ" appears in Psalm 89:20, where the writer describes David himself as "anointed" with "sacred oil."

Second, Psalm 89:27 says that God will appoint David and his descendants "the most exalted of the kings of the earth." In very similar fashion, John calls Jesus "the ruler of the kings of the earth." In doing so, he again ties Jesus to the Davidic prophecies. He also exalts Christ over Caesar as the true Lord of all.

Third, Psalm 89:27 says that God will appoint the Davidic king his "firstborn" son, exalting him over the other "kings of the earth." John likewise calls Jesus "firstborn," but he alters the title slightly by referring to him as "the firstborn from the dead". He is the one whom God has "raised up" (2 Samuel 7:12) to eternal life as the first participant in the eschatological age, the inaugurator of the kingdom of God.

Finally, John introduces Jesus as "the faithful witness." The language comes from Psalm 89:37 (cf. Isa 55:3-4), where the moon is called "the faithful witness in the sky." John borrows this phrase from Scripture, but fills it with new content.

The Greek word here translated "witness" is mavrtu" ( martys ), the noun form of the verb marturevw (martyreô) . It means "one who gives testimony" as in a court of law. Jesus was a "witness" in the sense that he testified concerning who God is (Creator and Lord) and what he is doing in the world (establishing his eternal kingdom or rule). That witness resulted in his death (see, e.g., John 18:37; 1 Tim 6:13). Jesus was "faithful" in his "witness" even to the point of death. He is "the faithful witness."

The first readers of John's Apocalypse face similar circumstances. They are called to be "witnesses," to testify to the world that Jesus Christ - not the Roman Caesar - is the true King of kings and Lord of lords. The only way that John's readers are able to faithfully carry out that witness in the face of Roman emperor worship is by dying like Jesus did. Martys (from which we get the word "martyr") is on its way to becoming a technical term for Christians who die in the process of carrying out their witness to the Lord. John's readers, in many cases, are being called upon to follow in the footsteps of Jesus by dying because of their testimony to him. By calling Jesus "the faithful witness," John reminds his readers that Jesus is not asking them to do anything that he himself has not already done.

E. PROEM (1:5b-6)

To him who loves us and has freed us from our sins by his blood, ⁶ and has made us to be a kingdom and priests to serve his God and Father-to him be glory and power for ever and ever! Amen.

1:5b-6 In his proem, or word of praise to God, John describes what Christ has done for his people. First, he "loves us." The term translated "love" is ajgavph (agapç), which is the selfless, giving kind of love Christ commands his disciples to show to one another (see John 13:34-35), to their neighbors (see Matt 19:19), and even to their enemies (see Matt 5:44-48). How has Christ demonstrated his own agapç love for us? The Lord "has freed us from our sins by his blood" and given us a place in God's eternal "kingdom" (compare Rev 1:9). For further discussion of Christ's sacrificial death and its relationship to the coming kingdom of God, see Part III.B.2.c.(4) of the Introduction, as well as the discussion of "Christ as 'Overcomer'" in the Commentary on Revelation 2-3.

John also says that Christ has made us "priests to serve his God and Father." He does not elaborate on just how Christians function as "priests" beyond saying that we "serve" God. However, there are many ways in which believers resemble priests. For example, we enter into God's presence through the death of Christ. We represent God to the world, testifying to who he is and his eternal purpose. Furthermore, we offer to the creator the worship from his creation that is rightfully his. It is with this kind of worship that John ends his poem in verse 6: "To him be glory and power for ever and ever! Amen."

F. PROPHETIC PRONOUNCEMENT (1:7)

⁷ Look, he is coming with the clouds,

and every eye will see him,

even those who pierced him;

and all the peoples of the earth will mourn because of him.

So shall it be! Amen.

1:7 Here we have a sort of prophetic pronouncement in which the prophet John introduces the Lord who speaks through him. He borrows language from two Old Testament passages - namely, Daniel 7:13 and Zechariah 12:10. Jesus himself combines these two texts in Matthew 24:30.

John proclaims that Jesus is "coming with the clouds," which is a reference to his imminent Second Coming. When the Lord returns, " every eye will see him," for there will be a universal revelation of Christ. That will be a day of victory and vindication for Christ's faithful servants. However, in this verse, John focuses on the defeat of Christ's enemies. "Those who pierced him" and "all the peoples of the earth will mourn because of him."

G. THE LORD'S SELF-INTRODUCTION (1:8)

⁸"I am the Alpha and the Omega," says the Lord God, "who is, and who was, and who is to come, the Almighty."

1:8 John introduces Christ to the readers in verse 7. Here in verse 8 the Lord, who speaks through the prophet, identifies himself. For analysis of "the Alpha and the Omega" and the other divine titles, see the comments on Revelation 1:4.

H. JOHN'S VISION OF THE LORD (1:9-20)

Revelation 1:9-20 describes the circumstances in which John receives his revelation from the Lord. In verses 9-11 John describes his own situation, and then in verses 12-20 he focuses on the words and appearance of the risen Christ.

1. John's Circumstances (1:9-11)

⁹ I, John, your brother and companion in the suffering and kingdom and patient endurance that are ours in Jesus, was on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus. ¹⁰ On the Lord's Day I was in the Spirit, and I heard behind me a loud voice like a trumpet, ¹¹ which said: "Write on a scroll what you see and send it to the seven churches: to Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea."

1:9 I, John, your brother and companion in the suffering and kingdom and patient endurance that are ours in Jesus

In describing the circumstances of himself and his fellow Christians in Asia, John says that they are "in Jesus" (ejn =Ihsou', en Iēsou ). The only real parallel to this expression is found in Revelation 14:12-13, where John speaks of persons who are "in the Lord" (ejn kurivw/ , en kyriô ):

This calls for patient endurance on the part of the saints who obey God's commandments and remain faithful to Jesus.

Then I heard a voice from heaven say, "Write: Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord from now on."

The context shows that, for John, to be "in the Lord" or "in Jesus" means to "obey God's commandments," to "remain faithful to Jesus," and to be a "saint" - that is, a person devoted to the Lord even to the point of "death." In other words, when John talks about people who are "in Jesus," he is simply talking about committed Christians.

John indicates that, "in Jesus," he and his fellow Christians are "companions" (literally "sharers," sugkoinwnov" , synkoinônos ) in three kinds of experiences - namely, "suffering and kingdom and patient endurance." The Greek word translated "suffering" is qlivyi" ( thlipsis ) (cf. 2:9,10,22). Elsewhere in the New International Version, this term is translated "tribulation." For example, Revelation 7:13-14 reads:

Then one of the elders asked me, "These in white robes-who are they, and where did they come from?"

I answered, "Sir, you know."

And he said, "These are they who have come out of the great tribulation [ thlipsis ]; they have washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb."

For John and other apocalyptic writers, thlipsis ("suffering" or "tribulation") is a technical term for the "labor pains," the time of intense suffering and persecution of God's people that immediately precedes the consummation of God's kingdom. This period of hardship begins with the First Coming of Christ and ends with his Second Coming. In other words, it is the period when the kingdom of God and kingdom of Satan coexist - the "overlap" of the ages.

Some interpreters of Revelation claim that a great "Tribulation" will come upon the world sometime in the future . Some even say that Christians will be "raptured" out of the world so that they will not have to endure the Tribulation. In Revelation 1:9 we find John's view: The "tribulation" is present . It is already under way in A.D. 95 or 96. Christians are not immune to it any more than Christ himself was immune to suffering. Christians are right in the middle of the tribulation, "sharing" in suffering together.

Believers are also "companions" or "sharers" in "patient endurance." The Greek term is uJpomonhv (hypomonç ), a key word in Revelation that is translated either "patient endurance" or "perseverance" (see Rev 2:2,3,19; 3:10; 13:10; 14:12). Hypomonç is the attitude that John encourages Christians to adopt in the face of the "tribulation" or "suffering" of the "labor pains." It is more than just stoicism - more than just "gritting your teeth and bearing it." It is persisting in faithfulness to God because we know that he is in control and his kingdom will ultimately prevail.

John and his fellow Christians are also participating in the "kingdom" (basileiva , basileia ) of God as they live their lives "in Jesus," or under the rule of God in Christ. Note that, for John, both the "labor pains" and the "kingdom" occur simultaneously in the present . What we have here is John expressing the Christian apocalyptic idea of the "overlap" of the two ages - the "present evil age" and the "eschatological age." As Christ was crucified under a placard proclaiming him king (see John 19:19), so do Christians - for the moment - "reign" from the "cross."

was on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus.

Here John describes his own individual "suffering" during the "labor pains." John is a "martyr," a "witness" to Christ. (See the comment on Jesus as the "faithful witness" in Rev 1:5.) As a result of his "witness," John is being forced to "patiently endure" banishment on Patmos, one of the Southern Sporades islands off the southwestern coast of Asia Minor. He fears that his Christian brothers and sisters in Asia may have to endure worse than that.

1:10a On the Lord's Day

John receives his apocalyptic revelation from Christ "on the Lord's Day." This term most probably refers to Sunday, the first day of the week. Even as early as the 50s, Sunday was the customary day of Christian worship in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ. The designation, "the Lord's Day," may have been patterned after the practice in Asia Minor of referring to the first day of the month as "Emperor's Day." Revelation 1:10 marks the first occurrence of this term in Christian literature.

I was in the Spirit,

The phrase "in the Spirit" occurs four times in the Revelation (1:10; 4:2; 17:3; 21:10). On each occasion it refers to John's exercising his prophetic gift. God always initiates this activity; John does not prophesy at will. God is the primary actor behind John's Revelation.

1:10b-11 and I heard behind me a loud voice like a trumpet, which said: "Write on a scroll what you see and send it to the seven churches: to Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea."

John first hears a voice. (On the sound of the voice, see the comment on 1:12.) He then turns around and, beginning in verse 12, receives a vision of the risen Christ. John describes what he sees in the language of Scripture. He bombards us with Scripture, leading the person who is familiar with God's word to think of passage after passage, promise after promise, prophecy after prophecy.

2. John's Vision (1:12-20)

a. Christ's Voice and His Appearance (1:12-16)

¹² I turned around to see the voice that was speaking to me. And when I turned I saw seven golden lampstands, ¹³ and among the lampstands was someone "like a son of man," ^a dressed in a robe reaching down to his feet and with a golden sash around his chest. ¹⁴ His head and hair were white like wool, as white as snow, and his eyes were like blazing fire. ¹⁵ His feet were like bronze glowing in a furnace, and his voice was like the sound of rushing waters. ¹⁶ In his right hand he held seven stars, and out of his mouth came a sharp double-edged sword. His face was like the sun shining in all its brilliance.

^a 13 Daniel 7:13

1:10,12 a loud voice like a trumpet . . . the voice that was speaking to me

John describes the Lord's voice using language from the Septuagint version of Exodus 19:16-19. This passage describes what Israel saw and heard at Mount Sinai when the nation received the Ten Commandments from God:

And it came to pass on the third day, as the morning drew nigh, there were voices and lightnings and a dark cloud on mount Sina[i]: the voice of the trumpet sounded loud , and all the people in the camp trembled. And Moses led the people forth out of the camp to meet God, and they stood by under the camp. The mount of Sina[i] was altogether on a smoke, because God had descended upon it in fire; and the smoke went up as the smoke of a furnace, and the people were exceedingly amazed. And the [voices (Brenton has "sounds")] of the trumpet were waxing very much louder. Moses spoke, and God answered him with a voice .

The meaning of the symbol of the "loud voice like a trumpet" is that, when John turns around and sees Jesus, he is in the presence of God, hearing the voice of God speaking the words of God.

1:13 And among the lampstands was someone "like a son of man"

John describes the Lord as "someone 'like a son of man'" (cf. 14:14). This symbol is capable of carrying several different shades of meaning: First, this language identifies Jesus as a human being. In Jewish idiom, the phrase "son of . . ." can express the idea of nature . To illustrate, Jesus calls James and John "sons of thunder" (Mark 3:17). Apparently their loud and boisterous personalities - or perhaps their fiery tempers - remind Jesus of characteristics of thunder. "Son of . . ." can also communicate function . For example, Jesus refers to young men in charge of a wedding celebration as "sons of the bride chamber" (Matt 9:15). Such language may also communicate destiny . For example, John 17:12 and 2 Thessalonians 2:3 speak of the "son of perdition" - that is, the person whose end is destruction. By calling Jesus a "son of man," John identifies him as a human, as one bearing human nature. Yet he is not quite the same as other humans - he is one " like a son of man." Jesus is human, but at the same time he is set apart from all other humans.

Second, the title "son of man" is a common designation in apocalyptic literature for the Messiah (e.g., in 1 Enoch 37:71, part of which is quoted below in the discussion of Jesus' hair and head). John may intend for the phrase "son of man" to carry messianic overtones as well.

Third, the Old Testament passage that the phrase "like a son of man" immediately brings to mind is in Daniel 7. In this passage, Daniel receives a vision of four great beasts, the last of which has a little horn that speaks "boastfully." Verses 9-14 tell what happens to this beast and its horn:

As I looked,

thrones were set in place,

and the Ancient of Days took his seat.

His clothing was as white as snow;

the hair of his head was white like wool.

His throne was flaming with fire,

and its wheels were all ablaze.

A river of fire was flowing,

coming out from before him.

Thousands upon thousands attended him;

ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him.

The court was seated,

and the books were opened.

Then I continued to watch because of the boastful words the horn was speaking. I kept looking until the beast was slain and its body destroyed and thrown into the blazing fire. (The other beasts had been stripped of their authority, but were allowed to live for a period of time.)

In my vision at night I looked, and there before me was one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven. He approached the Ancient of Days and was led into his presence. He was given authority, glory and sovereign power; all peoples, nations and men of every language worshiped him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion that will not pass away, and his kingdom is one that will never be destroyed.

In the rest of the chapter, Daniel receives the interpretation of this vision. The four beasts represent a succession of four world empires. The "one like a son of man" represents "the saints of the Most High" (see vv. 18,22,27). The first readers no doubt understood these "saints" to be righteous, Law-keeping Jews, who are faithful to the Mosaic Covenant. According to the vision, these Jewish saints are hated and persecuted by world rulers (one of which is represented by the "little horn"), but they will be vindicated by God, caused to enter his presence, highly exalted, and then given the everlasting kingdom of God. By using the language of Daniel 7 to describe Jesus as one "like a son of man," John may be representing Jesus as the embodiment of righteous Israel, ideal Israel, the one who fulfills everything that God intended Israel to be. Jesus is the first of many "saints of the Most High" to be raised and exalted to the kingdom.

By describing Jesus as "someone 'like a son of man,'" John invites his readers to think of Jesus' humanity, his messiahship, and his identity as the one who embodies God's hopes for Israel. Which is the correct interpretation of this symbol? In the case of Jesus, all three meanings apply equally well, and so John may intend for the symbol to communicate all three truths simultaneously. If so, this image serves as a very fine illustration of how apocalyptic symbols function. Eugene Boring states it well: "Revelation's symbols are tensive, evocative and polyvalent." They are "evocative" in that they draw forth, or elicit from the reader's mind, a number of different mental images from the Old Testament, apocalyptic literature, and/or Greco-Roman life. They are "tensive" in the sense that they create a tension in the mind, forcing the reader to reflect on the various possible interpretations and the relationship between them. In other words, the symbols force the reader to meditate on the meaning of the apocalyptic vision. The symbols are "polyvalent" in that they are able to communicate multiple meanings at the same time.

dressed in a robe reaching down to his feet

The Greek word translated "a robe reaching down to his feet" is podhvrh" (podçrçs ). In the Greek Old Testament and Apocrypha, this term is used to describe only one kind of garment - namely, the garments worn by the Jewish priests, and notably the High Priest. A person familiar with the Scriptures would read this verse in Revelation and immediately realize that Jesus is being pictured as the High Priest. That is the point of the symbol: Jesus is the Great High Priest, the Mediator through whom we approach God and through whom God deals with us. The Hebrews writer communicates this truth through didactic language (see Heb 2:14-18; 4:14- 10:18). John, in Revelation, communicates that same truth through apocalyptic symbolism.

a golden sash around his chest

How would John's first readers have interpreted the Lord's "golden sash"? They may have viewed it as a royal garment. In Joseph and Aseneth 10:10 (a Jewish "romance novel" dating somewhere from the second century B.C. to A.D. 200), the Egyptian princess Aseneth wears such a sash when she weds Joseph.

They may have linked it with John's identification of Jesus as "someone 'like a son of man'" (see above). Daniel 10:5 uses similar (but not identical) language to describe a golden belt worn by "the likeness of a son of man" (v. 16). However, in this text, "the likeness of a son of man" does not represent "the saints of the Most High," as in Daniel 7. Instead, he appears to be some sort of heavenly being - perhaps an archangel - in the company of the archangel Michael.

Christians in Asia may have linked the "golden sash" with John's identification of Jesus as the Great High Priest (see the comment on Christ's robe given above). In Exodus 39:5 the High Priest wears a similar (but not identical) garment around his waist.

The "golden sash" adds to the overall majesty of Jesus' appearance, and the symbol may carry some of these other connotations as well.

1:14 His head and hair were white like wool, as white as snow

This language is like that in Daniel 7:9, which is part of the vision of the four beasts and the "one like a son of man" discussed above. In Daniel, the Person with hair as white as wool is God himself, whom Daniel refers to as the "Ancient of Days." The prophet writes:

As I looked, thrones were set in place, and the Ancient of Days took his seat. His clothing was as white as snow; the hair of his head was white like wool.

The same sort of language appears in 1 Enoch 46:1-4. This passage resembles Daniel 7 inasmuch as God and the Son of Man are discussed together. It differs in that Daniel 7 uses the title "Son of Man" to refer to righteous Israelites, while 1 Enoch 46 uses the title "Son of Man" to refer to one particular righteous Israelite - the Messiah.

At that place, I saw the One [God] to whom belongs the time before time [i.e., he is preexistent, existing prior to creation]. And his head was white like wool [the mark of extreme old age, of an eternity], and there was with him another individual, whose face was like that of a human being. His countenance was full of grace like that of one among the holy angels. And I asked the one - from among the angels - who was going with me, and who had revealed to me all the secrets regarding the One who was born of human beings, "Who is this, and from whence is he who is going as the prototype of the Before-Time?" [The Messiah is a human, "born of human beings," but at the same time he is "like" the angels. Furthermore, he is "the prototype of the Before Time" - the very image of God.] And he answered me and said to me, "This is the Son of Man, to whom belongs righteousness, and with whom righteousness dwells. And he will open all the hidden storerooms; for the Lord of the Spirits [i.e., God] has chosen him, and he is destined to be victorious before the Lord of the Spirits in eternal uprightness. This Son of Man whom you have seen is the One who would remove the kings and the mighty ones from their comfortable seats and the strong ones from their thrones. He shall loosen the reigns of the strong and crush the teeth of the sinners. [In other words, he executes the eschatological judgment of God.] He shall depose the kings from their thrones and kingdoms. For they do not extol and glorify him, and neither do they obey him, the source of their kingship [In the language of Revelation, the Messiah is "King of the kings and Lord of the lords."] (1 Enoch 46:1-4).

By describing Jesus' "head and hair" as "white like wool" and "white as snow," John communicates the fact that Jesus is "Ancient of Days," eternal and preexistent. He is "the Alpha and the Omega, the First and the Last, the Beginning and the End" (see the comment on Rev 1:4). He is God.

1:14b,16 his eyes were like blazing fire. His feet were like bronze glowing in a furnace . . . . His face was like the sun shining in all its brilliance.

These symbols together speak of an intensely bright light radiating from the Lord. The Greek term for such light is dovx a ( doxa ), which is usually translated "glory." The term also carries connotations of "honor," for ancient peoples associated radiant light with honor. To illustrate, they placed many-pointed gold or silver crowns on the heads of kings. As the sun reflected off these crowns, it would create a "halo" of glory around the rulers' heads, signifying the honor associated with their position.

In the Old Testament and apocalyptic literature, basically three kinds of persons are described as "glorious." First, heavenly beings, such as the "archangel" (see v. 13) in Daniel 10:4-6, display this glorious radiance:

On the twenty-fourth day of the first month, as I was standing on the bank of the great river, the Tigris, I looked up and there before me was a man dressed in linen, with a belt of the finest gold around his waist. His body was like chrysolite, his face like lightning, his eyes like flaming torches, his arms and legs like the gleam of burnished bronze, and his voice like the sound of a multitude.

The "cherubim" (see 10:20) of Ezekiel 1 also emit this heavenly glory.

Second, Jewish writers often describe God himself as "glorious." Psalm 104:1-2 illustrates this point:

Praise the LORD, O my soul. / O LORD my God, you are very great; / you are clothed with splendor and majesty. / He wraps himself in light as with a garment . . . .

Exodus 24:15-17 also speaks of God's radiant glory:

When Moses went up on the mountain, the cloud covered it, and the glory of the LORD settled on Mount Sinai. For six days the cloud covered the mountain, and on the seventh day the LORD called to Moses from within the cloud. To the Israelites the glory of the LORD looked like a consuming fire on top of the mountain.

Another example comes from Ezekiel 1:26-28 (cf. 8:2), which describes "the likeness of the glory of the LORD":

Above the expanse over their heads [i.e., the heads of the four living creatures] was what looked like a throne of sapphire, and high above on the throne was a figure like that of a man. I saw that from what appeared to be his waist up he looked like glowing metal, as if full of fire, and that from there down he looked like fire; and brilliant light surrounded him. Like the appearance of a rainbow in the clouds on a rainy day, so was the radiance around him. This was the appearance of the likeness of the glory of the LORD.

Third, Jewish writers - particularly apocalyptic writers - use "glory" language to describe persons who have been raised from the dead to eschatological life in the kingdom of God. These theologians employ many adjectives to characterize the resurrection body, but the three ideas that appear most often are immortality, exaltation, and glory. Whereas our current bodies are subject to sickness, disease, aging, and death, the resurrection body will be immortal. Resurrection life will also be exalted - that is, a better, higher form of existence than what we have experienced thus far. Finally, the resurrection body will be characterized by "glory" ( doxa ), both in the sense of radiance and in the sense of the honor it signifies. The most detailed description of the resurrection body in Jewish apocalyptic appears in 2 Baruch 51. The most detailed description in first-century Christian literature appears in 1 Corinthians 15:39-44a:

Not all flesh is alike, but there is one kind for men, another for animals, another for birds, and another for fish. There are celestial bodies and there are terrestrial bodies; but the glory of the celestial is one [a bright light], and the glory of the terrestrial is another [a dimmer light]. There is one glory of the sun, and another glory of the moon, and another glory of the stars; for star differs from star in glory.

So is it with the resurrection of the dead. What is sown is perishable, what is raised is imperishable [i.e., immortal]. It is sown in dishonor, it is raised in glory. It is sown in weakness, it is raised in power. It is sown a physical body, it is raised a spiritual body (RSV).

When John, in Revelation 1:14-16, describes Jesus as having a "glorious" body, the symbolism communicates several truths: First, the Lord is a heavenly, supernatural being. Second, he is a divine being, the manifestation of the glory of God on earth. Third, he is a person who has already been raised from the dead to glorious eschatological life in the kingdom of God.

1:15 His voice was like the sound of rushing waters

This beautiful symbol comes from the prophecy of Ezekiel and concerns the temple of the Lord. Patterned after the tabernacle of Exodus, Solomon's temple in Jerusalem was divided into two rooms separated by a curtain. In the inner room, the "Most Holy Place," stood the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark was a wooden box, covered with gold, that held the tablets engraved with the Ten Commandments. Its lid was also made of gold and featured two golden cherubim with their wings overshadowing the Ark. This lid was called the "Atonement Cover." Over the Atonement Cover, the glory of the Lord hovered. This bright light signified the presence of the invisible God with his people Israel. The Psalmist refers to God's radiant glory in Psalm 80:1: "You who sit enthroned between the cherubim, shine forth."

In 587 B.C. the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and the temple and took most of the Jews into exile. Among their number was the prophet Ezekiel. In Ezekiel 10 the prophet receives a vision of the "glory of the Lord" departing from over the Ark of the Covenant. This symbolizes God removing his presence from his people because of their sin and idolatry. However, in Ezekiel 43 the prophet sees another vision of the Lord's glory returning to the temple. This latter vision shows that, in spite of their sin, God will not abandon his people forever. Verses 1-5 describe the Lord's return:

Then the man brought me to the gate facing east, and I saw the glory of the God of Israel coming from the east. His voice was like the roar of rushing waters [cf. 1:24], and the land was radiant with his glory. The vision I saw was like the vision I had seen when he came to destroy the city and like the visions I had seen by the Kebar River, and I fell facedown. The glory of the LORD entered the temple through the gate facing east. Then the Spirit lifted me up and brought me into the inner court, and the glory of the LORD filled the temple.

Echoing Ezekiel, John describes Jesus in Revelation 1:15 as having a voice "like the sound of rushing waters." Through this symbol, he communicates the idea that Jesus is the "glory of God" - the visible manifestation of God's presence on earth.

1:16 Out of his mouth came a sharp double-edged sword

The sword symbolizes the fact that Christ speaks the word of God (the gospel of the kingdom), which is both a word of salvation to those who serve God and - at the same time - a word of judgment to those who oppose him. The primary evidence for this interpretation appears in Revelation 19:11-16:

I saw heaven standing open and there before me was a white horse, whose rider is called Faithful and True. With justice he judges and makes war. His eyes are like blazing fire, and on his head are many crowns. He has a name written on him that no one knows but he himself. He is dressed in a robe dipped in blood, and his name is the Word of God. The armies of heaven were following him, riding on white horses and dressed in fine linen, white and clean. Out of his mouth comes a sharp sword with which to strike down the nations [i.e., the nations who oppose God and his Messiah - see the context of the following quote from Psalm 2:9, which is discussed above in the comment on the title "Christ" in Rev 1:5]. "He will rule them with an iron scepter." He treads the winepress of the fury of the wrath of God Almighty. On his robe and on his thigh he has this name written: KING OF KINGS AND LORD OF LORDS.

Note that, in verse 13, the Lord is identified as "the Word of God." Out of his mouth - where words are formed - comes a "sword," which apparently represents the words of God. With this "sword," Christ executes God's wrath against his enemies.

1:12-13,16,20 . . . And when I turned I saw seven golden lampstands, and among the lampstands was someone "like a son of man" . . . . In his right hand he held seven stars . . . . "The mystery of the seven stars that you saw in my right hand and of the seven golden lampstands is this: The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands are the seven churches."

In many apocalypses, God assigns a different angel responsibility for each nation. Evil angels, who have rebelled against God, direct their corresponding nations in evil paths. Good angels, who remain faithful to God, discharge their duties according to God's will. Each angel is rewarded or punished according to how he carries out his responsibility over his corresponding nation. In this way, apocalyptic writers communicate at least two theological truths: First, God is sovereign over all. He rules over the nations through his servants, the angels. Second, there is a spiritual world beyond the physical world. This spiritual world, which has been partially corrupted by sin, influences the physical world.

We find an example of this kind of thinking in Daniel 10:12-14. Here the archangel, who brings God's revelation to Daniel, explains that he has been delayed in his coming by demonic resistance:

Then he continued, "Do not be afraid, Daniel. Since the first day that you set your mind to gain understanding and to humble yourself before your God, your words were heard, and I have come in response to them. But the prince of the Persian kingdom [i.e., the fallen angel who has charge over Persia - which explains why Persia persecutes God's people, the Jews] resisted me twenty-one days. Then Michael, one of the chief princes [the archangel who has charge over the nation of Israel], came to help me, because I was detained there with the king of Persia. Now I have come to explain to you what will happen to your people in the future, for the vision concerns a time yet to come."

The Apostle Paul expresses the same sort of an idea in Ephesians 6:10-12, where he reminds Christians that they are dealing with more than just the realities that can be seen:

Finally, be strong in the Lord and in his mighty power. Put on the full armor of God so that you can take your stand against the devil's schemes. For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms.

Against this background, we can now understand the meaning of the symbolism in Revelation 1. The Lord explains that the seven golden lampstands represent the seven churches of Asia. The symbol of the lampstands carries connotations of "witness." Compare Isaiah 42:6, where the Servant of the Lord serves as "a light for the Gentiles," and Matthew 5:16, where Jesus instructs his disciples to "Let your light shine before men." By picturing them as lampstands, John indicates that the churches function as witnesses for Christ.

Note that Christ is "among the lampstands." He is not far away from the churches, but close at hand and present with them. Jesus expresses the same truth in a different manner in his Great Commission: "And surely I will be with you always, to the very end of the age" (Matt 28:20).

The "seven stars" are seven angels who direct the churches of Asia. These angels are in Christ's right hand, which means that Christ is in control of the churches' angels, and thus in control of the churches. We will see him exercise this lordship in chapters 2 and 3 as he addresses words of commendation and rebuke to the seven angels and, through them, to the churches themselves.

The image of the seven stars in Christ's right hand would have also spoken to the people of John's time in other ways. First, this is an antiastrology message. The stars do not control our destiny and are not to be feared. Christ is the Lord who holds the stars in his hand. Second, the symbol of the stars challenges the divine claims of certain Roman Caesars. To illustrate, the young son of the Emperor Domitian died in A.D. 83. Domitian proclaimed the child a god and minted coins picturing his mother, Domitia, as queen of heaven, and the child holding the stars in his hands. In Revelation 1, John removes the stars from human hands and places them where they rightfully belong - in the hand of Christ. He thus declares the Roman Caesars to be false imitations of the true cosmic ruler, who is Christ the Lord.

b. Christ's Words (1:17-20)

¹⁷ When I saw him, I fell at his feet as though dead. Then he placed his right hand on me and said: "Do not be afraid. I am the First and the Last. ¹⁸ I am the Living One; I was dead, and behold I am alive for ever and ever! And I hold the keys of death and Hades.

^19" Write, therefore, what you have seen, what is now and what will take place later. ²⁰ The mystery of the seven stars that you saw in my right hand and of the seven golden lampstands is this: The seven stars are the angels ^a of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands are the seven churches.

^a 20 Or messengers

1:17 When I saw him, I fell at his feet as though dead.

This is a typical response of persons who encounter the Deity. (Compare, for example, Daniel 8:17-18 [LXX]; Ezekiel 1:28; Luke 5:8.) As such, the action itself serves to highlight the divine nature of Christ.

Then he placed his right hand on me and said: "Do not be afraid. I am the First and the Last.

See the comment on "him who is, and who was, and who is to come" in Revelation 1:4.

1:18 I am the Living One; I was dead, and behold I am alive for ever and ever! And I hold the keys of death and Hades.

Jesus endured a painful death for his "faithful witness" to God, but then God raised him up to eschatological life. Where Christ once was, John's readers are now. The suffering Christians of Asia may be facing death, but John lays before them the certainty that - like Jesus - they will be raised up to victorious new life.

Why will they escape from death? Because Jesus holds "the keys of death and Hades." In Hellenistic mythology, "Hades" was the grave, the place of the dead. It is the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew "Sheol." Even if John's readers are dragged before the authorities and put to death for their faith, Jesus has the power to unlock the gates of the grave and set them free - forever.

1:19 "Write, therefore, what you have seen, what is now and what will take place later.

Christ promises to give John a revelation of the present ("what is now") and a revelation of the future ("what will take place later"). The revelation of the present appears in chapters 2-3, while the revelation of the future is found in 3:1-22:6. For further discussion of the Structure of Revelation, see Part V of the Introduction.

1:20 The mystery of the seven stars that you saw in my right hand and of the seven golden lampstands is this: The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands are the seven churches."

See the comments given above on Revelation 1:12-13,16,20.

c. Summary: John's Portrait of Christ in Revelation 1:9-20

In Revelation 1:9-20 John presents a striking portrait of Christ in apocalyptic symbolism. We have searched out the literary and cultural roots of these symbols in an effort to discern the truths they would have communicated to John's first readers in Asia. Who, then, is Jesus? Who is this person who will speak to us through the Revelation?

According to chapter 1, Jesus is divine . He is the presence of God himself with his spokesman John. As such, he is eternal ("head and hair white as wool, as white as snow"), preexistent or "ancient of days" ("head and hair white as wool, as white as snow"), and glorious ("eyes like blazing fire," "feet like glowing bronze," "face like the sun shining in its brilliance"). Christ is the visible manifestation of God's presence among his people ("voice like the sound of rushing waters"). He speaks with the voice of God ("a loud voice like a trumpet"), pronouncing the words of God, which are words of salvation for his people and words of judgment for those who oppose him ("out of his mouth came a sharp double-edged sword").

At the same time, Jesus is human ("someone 'like a son of man'"). As a human being, Jesus was susceptible to death ("I was dead"). However, he is the first of the "saints of the Most High" to be raised and exalted to glorious eschatological life in the kingdom of God ("someone 'like a son of man,'" "face like the sun shining in its brilliance," "alive for ever and ever"). Christ is the embodiment of righteous Israel - everything God wanted his covenant people to be ("someone 'like a son of man'").

Jesus is also the Messiah or "Anointed One" ("someone 'like a son of man'"). As Messiah, he functions as a prophet inasmuch as he speaks the words of God ("a loud voice like a trumpet"). He also serves as High Priest, as the Mediator between God and human beings ("a robe reaching down to his feet"), the person through whom we approach God and through whom God relates to us. He is also the ultimate Davidic King ("a golden sash around his chest"). He is sovereign over heaven and earth. He is sovereign over the churches, holding our lives and our destiny in his hand ("in his right hand he held seven stars"). He is sovereign over life and death ("I hold the keys of death and Hades").

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

Commentary -- Other

Critics Ask: Rev 1:4

REVELATION 1:4 —How can the Holy Spirit be seven spirits if He is one person?

PROBLEM: According to the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit is one person, the third person of the triune Godhead. Jesus referred to the Holy Spirit as “He” (singular). But John referred to “the seven Spirits who are before His [God’s] throne” ( Rev. 1:4 ), which many commentators see as a reference to the Holy Spirit. But how can the Holy Spirit be seven spirits?

SOLUTION: The Book of Revelation contains a good bit of symbolism, and this is only one example. There is similar symbolism in other portions of this book. For instance, most agree that Revelation 12:3 speaks about Satan, but he is called a “great red dragon” with “seven heads and ten horns.” Here, the seven heads and ten horns are attributed to one individual, Satan. Also, speaking of the beast from the sea, Revelation 13:1 says that he has “seven heads and ten horns.” The number seven symbolizes completeness, as there are seven days in a complete week.

Other symbols are used of the Holy Spirit in Scripture. For instance, He is spoken of as a dove in Mark 1:10 and is likened to the “wind” in John 3:8 and water in John 4:14 . He is also portrayed as “tongues as of fire” in Acts 2:3 . And Ephesians 1:13 says we are “sealed” by the Holy Spirit, signifying God’s ownership of us and the security of our salvation.

Many Bible students believe the sevenfold nature of the Holy Spirit may derive from the reference in Isaiah 11:2 where He is called the Spirit of the Lord, the Spirit of wisdom, of understanding, of counsel, of might, of knowledge, and of thefear of the Lord —seven different characteristics of one and the same Spirit.   

Evidence: Rev 1:7

Second coming of Jesus : See Rev 3:11 .

QUESTIONS & OBJECTIONS

"The Bible teaches that the earth is flat."

This is often claimed because the Bible says said that every eye will see Jesus at His Second Coming. However, it would seem that His coming will envelop the entire earth. (See Heb 11:3 footnote.)

Introduction / Outline

Robertson: Revelation (Book Introduction)

THE REVELATION OF JOHN

ABOUT a.d. 95

By Way of Introduction

Difficulty in the Problem

Perhaps no single book in the New Testament presents so many and so formidable problems as the Apocalypse of John. These difficulties concern the authorship, the date, the apocalyptic method, the relation to the other Johannine books, the purpose, the historical environment, the reception of the book in the New Testament canon, the use and misuse of the book through the ages, etc. In the eastern churches the recognition of the Apocalypse of John was slower than in the west, since it was not in the Peshitta Syriac Version. Caius of Rome attributed the book to Cerinthus the Gnostic, but he was ably answered by Hippolytus, who attributed it to the Apostle John. The Council of Laodicea (about a.d. 360) omitted it, but the third Council of Carthage (a.d. 397) accepted it. The dispute about millenarianism led Dionysius of Alexandria (middle of the third century, a.d.) to deny the authorship to the Apostle John, though he accepted it as canonical. Eusebius suggested a second John as the author. But finally the book was accepted in the east as Hebrews was in the west after a period of doubt.

Poor State of the Text

There are only five uncials that give the text of John’s Apocalypse (Aleph A C P Q). Of these Aleph belongs to the fourth century, A and C to the fifth, Q (really B2 , B ending with Heb_9:13, both in the Vatican Library) to the eighth, P to the ninth. Only Aleph A Q (= B2 ) are complete, C lacking Rev_1:1, 3:19-5:14, Rev_7:14-17, 8:5-9:16, 10:10-11:3, 14:13-18:2, 19:5-21, P lacking Rev 16:12 - 17:1, 19:21-20:9, 22:6-21. Both C and P are palimpsests. In the 400 verses of the book " over 1,600 variants have been counted" (Moffatt). Erasmus had only one cursive (of the twelfth century numbered Ir) for his first edition, and the last six verses of the Apocalypse, save Rev_22:20, were a translation from the Vulgate. The result is that the versions are of special importance for the text of the book, since in no single MS. or group of MSS. do we have a fairly accurate text, though Aleph A C and A C Vulgate are the best two groups.

The Apocalyptic Style

The book claims to be an apocalypse (Rev_1:1) and has to be treated as such. It is an unveiling ( apokalupsis , from apokaluptō ) or revelation of Jesus Christ, a prophecy, in other words, of a special type, like Ezekiel, Zechariah, and Daniel in the Old Testament. There was a considerable Jewish apocalyptic literature by this time when John wrote, much of it b.c., some of it a.d., like the Book of Enoch, the Apocalypse of Baruch, the Book of Jubilees, the Assumption of Moses, the Psalms of Solomon, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Sibylline Oracles, some of them evidently " worked over by Christian hands" (Swete). Jesus himself used the apocalyptic style at times (Mark 13; Matt 24, 25; Luke 21). Paul in 1 Cor 14 spoke of the unpremeditated apocalyptic utterances in the Christian meetings and suggested restraints concerning them. " The Revelation of John is the only written apocalypse, as it is the only written prophecy of the Apostolic age.... The first Christian apocalypse came on the crest of this long wave of apocalyptic effort" (Swete). The reason for this style of writing is usually severe persecution and the desire to deliver a message in symbolic form. The effort of Antiochus Epiphanes, who claimed to be " a god manifest," to hellenize the Jews aroused violent opposition and occasioned many apocalypses to cheer the persecuted Jews.

Emperor Worship as the Occasion for John’s Apocalypse

There is no doubt at all that the emperor cult (emperor worship) played a main part in the persecution of the Christians that was the occasion for this great Christian apocalypse. The book itself bears ample witness to this fact, if the two beasts refer to the Roman power as the agent of Satan. It is not possible to single out each individual emperor in the graphic picture. Most would take the dragon to be Satan and the first and the second beasts to be the imperial and provincial Roman power. The Roman emperors posed as gods and did the work of Satan. In particular there were two persecuting emperors (Nero and Domitian) who were responsible for many martyrs for Christ. But emperor worship began before Nero. Julius Caesar was worshipped in the provinces. Octavius was called Augustus ( Sebastos , Reverend). The crazy Emperor Caius Caligula not simply claimed to be divine, but actually demanded that his statue be set up for worship in the Holy of Holies in the Temple in Jerusalem. He was killed in January a.d. 41 before he could execute his dire purpose. But the madcap Nero likewise demanded worship and blamed in a.d. 64 the burning of Rome on the Christians, though guilty of it himself. He set the style for persecuting Christians, which slumbered on and burst into flames again under Domitian, who had himself commonly termed Dominus ac Deus noster (Our Lord and God). The worship of the emperor did not disturb the worshippers of other gods save the Jews and the Christians, and in particular the Christians were persecuted after the burning of Rome when they were distinguished from the Jews. Up till then Christians were regarded (as by Gallio in Corinth) as a variety of Jews and so entitled to tolerance as a religio licita , but they had no standing in law by themselves and their refusal to worship the emperor early gave offence, as Paul indicates in 1Co_12:3. It was Kurios Iēsous or Kurios Kaisar . On this very issue Polycarp lost his life. The emperors as a rule were tolerant about it, save Nero and Domitian, who was called Nero redivivus , or Nero back again. Trajan in his famous letter to Pliny advised tolerance except in stubborn cases, when the Christians had to be put to death. After Nero it was a crime to be a Christian and all sorts of slanders about them were circulated. We have seen already in 2Th_2:3., the man of sin who sets himself above God as the object of worship. We have seen also in 1Jo_2:18, 1Jo_2:22; 1Jo_4:3; 2Jo_1:7 the term antichrist applied apparently to Gnostic heretics. One may wonder if, as Beckwith argues, in the Apocalypse the man of sin and the antichrist are united in the beast.

The Author

The writer calls himself John (Rev_1:1, Rev_1:4, Rev_1:9; Rev_22:8). But what John? The book can hardly be pseudonymous, though, with the exception of the Shepherd of Hermas, that is the rule with apocalypses. There would have been a clearer claim than just the name. The traditional and obvious way to understand the name is the Apostle John, though Dionysius of Alexandria mentions John Mark as held by some and he himself suggests another John, like the so-called Presbyter John of Papias as quoted by Eusebius. The uncertain language of Papias has raised a deal of questioning. Swete thinks that the majority of modern critics ascribe the Apocalypse to this Presbyter John, to whom Moffatt assigns probably 2 John and 3 John. Irenaeus represents the Apostle John as having lived to the time of Trajan, at least to a.d. 98. Most ancient writers agree with this extreme old age of John. Justin Martyr states expressly that the Apostle John wrote the Apocalypse. Irenaeus called it the work of a disciple of Jesus. In the ninth century lived Georgius Hamartolus, and a MS. of his alleges that Papias says that John the son of Zebedee was beheaded by the Jews and there is an extract in an Oxford MS. of the seventh century which alleges that Papias says John and James were put to death by the Jews. On the basis of this slim evidence some today argue that John did not live to the end of the century and so did not write any of the Johannine books. But a respectable number of modern scholars still hold to the ancient view that the Apocalypse of John is the work of the Apostle and Beloved Disciple, the son of Zebedee.

Relation to the Fourth Gospel

Here scholars divide again. Many who deny the Johannine authorship of the Fourth Gospel and the Epistles accept the apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse, Baur, for instance. Hort, Lightfoot, and Westcott argued for the Johannine authorship on the ground that the Apocalypse was written early (time of Nero or Vespasian) when John did not know Greek so well as when the Epistles and the Gospel were written. There are numerous grammatical laxities in the Apocalypse, termed by Charles a veritable grammar of its own. They are chiefly retention of the nominative case in appositional words or phrases, particularly participles, many of them sheer Hebraisms, many of them clearly intentional (as in Rev_1:4), all of them on purpose according to Milligan ( Revelation in Schaff’s Pop. Comm.) and Heinrici ( Der Litterarische Charakter der neutest. Schriften , p. 85). Radermacher ( Neutestamentliche Grammatik , p. 3) calls it " the most uncultured literary production that has come down to us from antiquity," and one finds frequent parallels to the linguistic peculiarities in later illiterate papyri. J. H. Moulton ( Grammar , Vol. II, Part I, p. 3) says: " Its grammar is perpetually stumbling, its idiom is that of a foreign language, its whole style that of a writer who neither knows nor cares for literary form." But we shall see that the best evidence is for a date in Domitian’s reign and not much later than the Fourth Gospel. It is worth noting that in Act_4:13 Peter and John are both termed by the Sanhedrin agrammatoi kai idiōtai (unlettered and unofficial men). We have seen the possibility that 2 Peter represents Peter’s real style or at least that of a different amanuensis from Silvanus in 1Pe_5:12. It seems clear that the Fourth Gospel underwent careful scrutiny and possibly by the elders in Ephesus (Joh_21:24). If John wrote the Apocalypse while in Patmos and so away from Ephesus, it seems quite possible that here we have John’s own uncorrected style more than in the Gospel and Epistles. There is also the added consideration that the excitement of the visions played a part along with a certain element of intentional variations from normal grammatical sequence. An old man’s excitement would bring back his early style. There are numerous coincidences in vocabulary and style between the Fourth Gospel and the Apocalypse.

The Unity of the Apocalypse

Repeated efforts have been made to show that the Apocalypse of John is not the work of one man, but a series of Jewish and Christian apocalypses pieced together in a more or less bungling fashion. Spitta argued for this in 1889. Vischer was followed by Harnack in the view there was a Jewish apocalypse worked over by a Christian. Gunkel ( Creation and Chaos , 1895) argued for a secret apocalyptic tradition of Babylonian origin. In 1904 J. Weiss carried on the argument for sources behind the Apocalypse. Many of the Jewish apocalypses do show composite authorship. There was a current eschatology which may have been drawn on without its being a written source. It is in chapter Rev 12 where the supposed Jewish source is urged more vigorously about the woman, the dragon, and the man child. There are no differences in language (vocabulary or grammar) that argue for varied sources. The author may indeed make use of events in the reign of Nero as well as in the reign of Domitian, but the essential unity of the book has stood the test of the keenest criticism.

The Date

There are two chief theories, the Neronic, soon after Nero’s death, the other in the reign of Domitian. Irenaeus is quoted by Eusebius as saying expressly that the Apocalypse of John was written at the close of the reign of Domitian. This testimony is concurred in by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, by Eusebius, by Jerome. In harmony with this clear testimony the severity of the persecutions suit the later date better than the earlier one. There is, besides, in Rev_17:11. an apparent reference to the story that Nero would return again. The fifth king who is one of the seven is an eighth. There was a Nero legend, to be sure, that Nero either was not dead but was in Parthia, or would be redivivus after death. Juvenal termed Domitian " a bald Nero" and others called Domitian " a second Nero." But in spite of all this Hort, Lightfoot, Sanday, Westcott have argued strongly for the Neronic era. Peake is willing to admit allusions to the Neronic period as Swete is also, but both consider the Domitianic date the best supported. Moffatt considers any earlier date than Domitian " almost impossible."

The Visions

No theory of authorship, sources, or date should ignore the fact that the author claims to have had a series of visions in Patmos. It does not follow that he wrote them down at once and without reflection, but it seems hardly congruous to think that he waited till he had returned from exile in Patmos to Ephesus before writing them out. In fact, there is a note of sustained excitement all through the book, combined with high literary skill in the structure of the book in spite of the numerous grammatical lapses. The series of sevens bear a relation to one another, but more in the fashion of a kaleidoscope than of a chronological panorama. And yet there is progress and power in the arrangement and the total effect. There is constant use of Old Testament language and imagery, almost a mosaic, but without a single formal quotation. There is constant repetition of words and phrases in true Johannine style. Each of the messages to the seven churches picks out a metaphor in the first picture of Christ in chapter 1 and there are frequent other allusions to the language in this picture. In fact there is genuine artistic skill in the structure of the book, in spite of the deflections from ordinary linguistic standards. In the visions and all through the book there is constant use of symbols, as is the fashion in apocalypses like the beasts, the scorpions, the horses, etc. These symbols probably were understood by the first readers of the book, though the key to them is lost to us. Even the numbers in the book (3 ½, 7, 3, 4, 12, 24, 1000) cannot be pressed, though some do so. Even Harnack called the Apocalypse the plainest book in the New Testament, by using Harnack’s key for the symbols.

Theories of Interpretation

They are literally many. There are those who make the book a chart of Christian and even of human history even to the end. These divide into two groups, the continuous and the synchronous. The continuous historical theory takes each vision and symbol in succession as an unfolding panorama. Under the influence of this theory there have been all sorts of fantastic identifications of men and events. The synchronous theory takes the series of sevens (seals, trumpets, bowls) as parallel with each other, each time going up to the end. But in neither case can any satisfactory program be arranged. Another historical interpretation takes it all as over and done, the preterist theory. This theory again breaks into two, one finding the fulfilment all in the Neronic period, the other in the Domitianic era. Something can be said for each view, but neither satisfies the whole picture by any means. Roman Catholic scholars have been fond of the preterist view to escape the Protestant interpretation of the second beast in chapter Rev 13 as papal Rome. There is still another interpretation, the futurist, which keeps the fulfilment all in the future and which can be neither proved nor disproved. There is also the purely spiritual theory which finds no historical allusion anywhere. This again can be neither proved nor disproved. One of the lines of cleavage is the millennium in chapter Rev_20:1-15. Those who take the thousand years literally are either pre-millennialists who look for the second coming of Christ to be followed by a thousand years of personal reign here on earth or the postmillennialists who place the thousand years before the second coming. There are others who turn to 2Pe_3:8 and wonder if, after all, in a book of symbols this thousand years has any numerical value at all. There seems abundant evidence to believe that this apocalypse, written during the stress and storm of Domitian’s persecution, was intended to cheer the persecuted Christians with a view of certain victory at last, but with no scheme of history in view.

A Practical Purpose

So considered, this vision of the Reigning Christ in heaven with a constant eye on the suffering saints and martyrs is a guarantee of certain triumph in heaven and ultimate triumph on earth. The picture of Christ in heaven is a glorious one. He is the Lamb that was slain, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Word of God, the Victor over his enemies, worshipped in heaven like the Father, the Light and Life of men. Instead of trying to fit the various symbols on particular individuals one will do better to see the same application to times of persecution from time to time through the ages. The same Christ who was the Captain of salvation in the time of Domitian is the Pioneer and Perfecter of our faith today. The Apocalypse of John gives glimpses of heaven as well as of hell. Hope is the word that it brings to God’s people at all times.

The Readers of the Book

The whole book is sent to the seven churches in Asia (Rev_1:4). There is a special message to each of the seven (chapters Rev 2; 3), suited to the peculiar needs of each church and with a direct reference to the geography and history of each church and city, so Ramsay holds ( The Letters to the Seven Churches ). The book is to be read aloud in each church (Rev_1:3). One can imagine the intense interest that the book would arouse in each church. Children are charmed to hear the Apocalypse read. They do not understand the symbols, but they see the pictures in the unfolding panorama. There were other churches in the Province of Asia besides these seven, but these form a circle from Ephesus where John had lived and wrought. They do present a variety of churches, not necessarily all types, and by no means a chart of seven dispensations of Christian history.

Vincent: Revelation (Book Introduction)

The Revelation

This document has given rise to voluminous controversy as to its author, its origin, its purpose, and its interpretation. It has been held to be a forgery in the name of John; to have been composed by another writer in the apostle's name, not in order to deceive, but in order to record an oral revelation of John; or to have been the work of another John. Some who deny that John wrote the Gospel, have attributed Revelation to him, and the authenticity of the latter is maintained by some prominent rationalistic critics.

The Apostle John was banished to the Island of Patmos, probably by the Emperor Domitian, a.d. 95 or 96, and the book, composed either during his exile, or, as is more likely, after his return to Ephesus, contains the revelation given him there in a series of visions. It is directly addressed to the Seven Churches of Proconsular Asia; the number seven being representative, and not including all the Asiatic Churches. Its design was to encourage the Church during that trying period, predicted by Jesus himself, between the close of direct revelation and the second coming of the Lord. This encouragement centers in the return of Jesus to give His people eternal life and to trample down His foes. As related to the progress of doctrine in the New Testament, it represents the final consummation in the redeemed Church, the heavenly Jerusalem, which is foreshadowed in the rise and growth of the Apostolic Church.

The style is figurative and symbolical. It deals with principles rather than with particular events. To the neglect of this characteristic, and the corresponding attempt to link the symbols and prophecies with specific historical incidents or personages, are due most of the extravagances of interpretation. No satisfactory argument against its authenticity can be drawn from its contents as related to the other writings of John. It proclaims the same eternal truths which are asserted and vindicated in the Gospel and in the Epistles - the sovereignty of God, the conflict of sin with righteousness, the temporary triumph of evil, and the final, decisive victory of holiness. As in the other writings, Christ is the central figure, the conqueror of sin and death, the crowning joy of the redeemed, and the object of their adoration. It emphasizes the divine hatred of sin and the certainty of the divine judgment of the wicked and of the future bliss of believers in Jesus. The main idea of the Gospel and of Revelation is the same - that of a decisive conflict between the powers of good and evil.

The symbolism of Revelation is Jewish, and not Greek or Roman. It is pervaded with the style and imagery of the Old Testament, and is molded by its historical and prophetical books. " The book," says Professor Milligan, " is absolutely steeped in the memories, the incidents, the thoughts, and the language of the Church's past. To such an extent is this the case that it may be doubted whether it contains a single figure not drawn from the Old Testament, or a single complete sentence not more or less built up of materials brought from the same source.... It is a perfect mosaic of passages from the Old Testament, at one time quoted verbally, at another referred to by distinct allusion; now taken from one scene in Jewish history, and now again from two or three together." Thus the heresy of the Nicolaitanes is the heresy of Balaam (Rev 2:14): the evil in the Church of Thyatira is personified in Jezebel (Rev 2:20): the angelic captain in the war against the dragon is the Michael of Daniel (Rev 7:7): Jerusalem, Mount Zion, Babylon, the Euphrates, Sodom, and Egypt are symbols of the holy bliss of the saints, of the transgressors against God, and of the judgment of the wicked (Rev 21:2; Rev 14:1; Rev 16:19; Rev 9:14; Rev 11:8). The battle of Har-Magedon carries us back to the great slaughters in the plain of Megiddo (Jdg 5:19; Psa 83:9; 2Ki 23:29). The promises to the churches are given under the figure of the tree of life, the hidden manna, the white stone, the iron scepter, the pillar in the temple of God (Rev 2:7, Rev 2:17, Rev 2:27, Rev 2:28; Rev 3:5, Rev 3:12, Rev 3:20). Heaven is described under the image of the tabernacle in the wilderness (Rev 11:1, Rev 11:19; Rev 6:9; Rev 8:3; Rev 4:6). The plagues of Rev 8:1-13 are the plagues of Egypt: the crossing of the Red Sea and the destruction of Korah are blended in the representation of the deliverance of God's people (Rev 12:15, Rev 12:16). Of the Prophets, Haggai contributes the earthquake of chapter 6, and Joel the sun changed into the blackness of sackcloth and the moon into blood: Isaiah the falling stars, the fig tree casting her untimely fruit, and the heavens departing as a scroll: Ezekiel the scorpions of chapter 9, the description of the New Jerusalem in chapter 21, the roll in Rev 5:1-14, and the little book in Rev 10:1-11 : Zechariah the opening of the seals in chapter 6 and the olive trees in chapter 11. The vision of the glorified Redeemer (Rev 1:12-20) is combined from Exodus, Zechariah Daniel, Ezekiel, Isaiah, and the Psalms.

Along with these coincidences there are certain contrasts, notably as respects the doctrine of Christ's coming, which, in the Gospel and Epistles lies in the background, while it is the main theme of Revelation. Revelation treats the impending judgment as external, the Gospel as spiritual. Revelation describes the triumph of Christianity under the imagery of Judaism; the consummation being an ideal Jerusalem and an ideal worship; while in the Gospel, Judaism appears in opposition to Christ, " standing without, isolated and petrified, and not taken up with it, quickened and glorified."

The symbols of the book are drawn from objects familiar to the writer - the locusts, the eagles, the millstone, the olive and palm and vine.

The principal objection urged against the common authorship of the Gospel and Revelation, is the difference in language and style. This difference must be frankly admitted. " The language," says Dr. Davidson, " departs materially from the usual Greek of the New Testament, presenting anomalies, incorrectnesses, peculiar constructions, and awkward dispositions of words, which have no parallel.... The language is so thoroughly Hebraistic as to neglect the usual rules of Greek." By many eminent critics these differences are regarded as irreconcilable on the assumption of a common authorship.

On the other hand, it may be urged that these differences are largely intentional; that the author departs from common usage under the peculiar demands of his subject, arising from the conditions under which he writes, and his intent to conform to the Old Testament style of address; and further, that his familiarity with correct usage is shown by other passages in the same book. Revelation, moreover, contains many of the words which are peculiar to the Gospel and Epistles, such as to witness , to tabernacle , to keep , to overcome , to name as the expression of character, true (ἀληθινός ) in the sense of real; and the figures of hungering and thirsting , the manna , the living water , the shepherd and the sheep . It is, indeed, answered that, where the same words occur, they are used in a different sense; but many of these alleged differences disappear upon closer examination. The Hebrew character is only superficially different from that of the Gospel, which is Hebrew in spirit, though the Greek is much purer, and " the absence of solecisms arises from the avoidance of idiomatic expressions."

JFB: Revelation (Book Introduction)

AUTHENTICITY.--The author calls himself John (Rev 1:1, Rev 1:4, Rev 1:9; Rev 2:8). JUSTIN MARTYR [Dialogue with Trypho, p. 308] (A.D. 139-161) quotes from the Apocalypse, as John the apostle's work, the prophecy of the millennium of the saints, to be followed by the general resurrection and judgment. This testimony of JUSTIN is referred to also by EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 4.18]. JUSTIN MARTYR, in the early part of the second century, held his controversy with TRYPHO, a learned Jew, at Ephesus, where John had been living thirty or thirty-five years before: he says that "the Revelation had been given to John, one of the twelve apostles of Christ." MELITO, bishop of Sardis (about A.D. 171), one of the seven churches addressed, a successor, therefore, of one of the seven angels, is said by EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 4.26] to have written treatises on the Apocalypse of John. The testimony of the bishop of Sardis is the more impartial, as Sardis is one of the churches severely reproved (Rev 3:1). So also THEOPHILUS OF ANTIOCH (about A.D. 180), according to EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 4.26], quoted testimonies from the Apocalypse of John. EUSEBIUS says the same of Apollonius, who lived in Asia Minor in the end of the second century. IRENÆUS (about A.D. 180), a hearer of POLYCARP, the disciple of John, and supposed by ARCHBISHOP USHER to be the angel of the Church of Smyrna, is most decided again and again in quoting the Apocalypse as the work of the apostle John [Against Heresies, 4.20.11; 4.21.3; 4.30.4; 5.36.1; 5.30.3; 5.35.2]. In [5.30.1], alluding to the mystical number of the beast, six hundred sixty-six (Rev 13:18), found in all old copies, he says, "We do not hazard a confident theory as to the name of Antichrist; for if it had been necessary that his name should be proclaimed openly at the present time, it would have been declared by him who saw the apocalyptic vision; for it was seen at no long time back, but almost in our generation, towards the end of Domitian's reign." In his work Against Heresies, published ten years after Polycarp's martyrdom, he quotes the Apocalypse twenty times, and makes long extracts from it, as inspired Scripture. These testimonies of persons contemporary with John's immediate successors, and more or less connected with the region of the seven churches to which Revelation is addressed, are most convincing. TERTULLIAN, of North Africa (about A.D. 220), [Against Marcion, 3.14], quotes the apostle John's descriptions in the Apocalypse of the sword proceeding out of the Lord's mouth (Rev 19:15), and of the heavenly city (Rev. 21:1-27). Compare On the Resurrection of the Flesh [27]; A Treatise on the Soul, [8, 9, &c.]; The Prescription Against Heretics, [33]. The MURATORI fragment of the canon (about A.D. 200) refers to John the apostle writing to the seven churches. HIPPOLYTUS, bishop of Ostia, near Rome (about A.D. 240) [On Antichrist, p. 67], quotes Rev. 17:1-18, as the writing of John the apostle. Among HIPPOLYTUS' works, there is specified in the catalogue on his statue, a treatise "on the Apocalypse and Gospel according to John." CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA (about A.D. 200) [Miscellanies, 6.13], alludes to the twenty-four seats on which the elders sit as mentioned by John in the Apocalypse (Rev 4:5); also, [Who Is the Rich Man Who Shall Be Saved? 42], he mentions John's return from Patmos to Ephesus on the death of the Roman tyrant. ORIGEN (about A.D. 233), [Commentary on Matthew, in EUSEBIUS Ecclesiastical History, 6.25], mentions John as the author of the Apocalypse, without expressing any doubts as to its authenticity; also, in Commentary on Matthew, [16.6], he quotes Rev 1:9, and says, "John seems to have beheld the Apocalypse in the island of Patmos." VICTORINUS, bishop of Pettau in Pannonia, who suffered martyrdom under Diocletian in A.D. 303, wrote the earliest extant commentary on the Apocalypse. Though the Old Syriac Peschito version does not contain the Apocalypse, yet EPHREM THE SYRIAN (about A.D. 378) frequently quotes the Apocalypse as canonical, and ascribes it to John.

Its canonicity and inspiration (according to a scholium of ANDREAS OF CAPPADOCIA) are attested by PAPIAS, a hearer of John, and associate of POLYCARP. PAPIAS was bishop of Hierapolis, near Laodicea, one of the seven churches. WORDSWORTH conjectures that a feeling of shame, on account of the rebukes of Laodicea in Revelation, may have operated on the Council of Laodicea, so as to omit Revelation from its list of books to be read publicly (?). The Epistle of the churches of Lyons and Vienne to the churches of Asia and Phrygia (in EUSEBIUS, [Ecclesiastical History, 5.1-3]), in the persecution under Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 77) quotes Rev 1:5; Rev 3:14; Rev 14:4; Rev 22:11, as Scripture. CYPRIAN (about A.D. 250) also, in Epistle 13, quotes Rev 2:5 as Scripture; and in Epistle 25 he quotes Rev 3:21, as of the same authority as the Gospel. (For other instances, see ALFORD'S Prolegomena, from whom mainly this summary of evidence has been derived). ATHANASIUS, in his Festival Epistle, enumerates the Apocalypse among the canonical Scriptures, to which none must add, and from which none must take away. JEROME [Epistle to Paulinus] includes in the canon the Apocalypse, adding, "It has as many mysteries as words. All praise falls short of its merits. In each of its words lie hid manifold senses." Thus an unbroken chain of testimony down from the apostolic period confirms its canonicity and authenticity.

The ALOGI [EPIPHANIUS, Heresies, 51] and CAIUS the Roman presbyter [EUSEBIUS, Ecclesiastical History, 3.28], towards the end of the second and beginning of the third century, rejected John's Apocalypse on mere captious grounds. CAIUS, according to JEROME [On Illustrious Men], about A.D. 210, attributed it to Cerinthus, on the ground of its supporting the millennial reign on earth. DIONYSIUS OF ALEXANDRIA mentions many before his time who rejected it because of its obscurity and because it seemed to support Cerinthus' dogma of an earthly and carnal kingdom; whence they attributed it to Cerinthus. This DIONYSIUS, scholar of ORIGEN, and bishop of Alexandria (A.D. 247), admits its inspiration (in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 7.10]), but attributes it to some John distinct from John the apostle, on the ground of its difference of style and character, as compared with John's Gospel and Epistle, as also because the name John is several times mentioned in the Apocalypse, which is always kept back in both the Gospel and Epistle; moreover, neither does the Epistle make any allusion to the Apocalypse, nor the Apocalypse to the Epistle; and the style is not pure Greek, but abounds in barbarisms and solecisms. EUSEBIUS wavers in opinion [Ecclesiastical History, 24.39] as to whether it is, or is not, to be ranked among the undoubtedly canonical Scriptures. His antipathy to the millennial doctrine would give an unconscious bias to his judgment on the Apocalypse. CYRIL OF JERUSALEM (A.D. 386), [Catechetical Lectures, 4.35,36], omits the Apocalypse in enumerating the New Testament Scriptures to be read privately as well as publicly. "Whatever is not read in the churches, that do not even read by thyself; the apostles and ancient bishops of the Church who transmitted them to us were far wiser than thou art." Hence, we see that, in his day, the Apocalypse was not read in the churches. Yet in Catechetical Lectures, 1.4 he quotes Rev 2:7, Rev 2:17; and in Catechetical Lectures, 1; 15.13 he draws the prophetical statement from Rev 17:11, that the king who is to humble the three kings (Dan 7:8, Dan 7:20) is the eighth king. In Catechetical Lectures, 15 and 27, he similarly quotes from Rev 12:3-4. ALFORD conjectures that CYRIL had at some time changed his opinion, and that these references to the Apocalypse were slips of memory whereby he retained phraseology which belonged to his former, not his subsequent views. The sixtieth canon (if genuine) of the Laodicean Council in the middle of the fourth century omits the Apocalypse from the canonical books. The Eastern Church in part doubted, the Western Church, after the fifth century, universally recognized, the Apocalypse. CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA [On Worship, 146], though implying the fact of some doubting its genuineness, himself undoubtedly accepts it as the work of St. John. ANDREAS OF CÆSAREA, in Cappadocia, recognized as genuine and canonical, and wrote the first entire and connected commentary on, the Apocalypse. The sources of doubt seem to have been, (1) the antagonism of many to the millennium, which is set forth in it; (2) its obscurity and symbolism having caused it not to be read in the churches, or to be taught to the young. But the most primitive tradition is unequivocal in its favor. In a word, the objective evidence is decidedly for it; the only arguments against it seem to have been subjective.

The personal notices of John in the Apocalypse occur Rev 1:1, Rev 1:4, Rev 1:9; Rev 22:8. Moreover, the writer's addresses to the churches of Proconsular Asia (Rev 2:1) accord with the concurrent tradition, that after John's return from his exile in Patmos, at the death of Domitian, under Nerva, he resided for long, and died at last in Ephesus, in the time of Trajan [EUSEBIUS, Ecclesiastical History, 3.20,23]. If the Apocalypse were not the inspired work of John, purporting as it does to be an address from their superior to the seven churches of Proconsular Asia, it would have assuredly been rejected in that region; whereas the earliest testimonies in those churches are all in its favor. One person alone was entitled to use language of authority such as is addressed to the seven angels of the churches--namely, John, as the last surviving apostle and superintendent of all the churches. Also, it accords with John's manner to assert the accuracy of his testimony both at the beginning and end of his book (compare Rev 1:2-3, and Rev 22:8, with Joh 1:14; Joh 21:24; 1Jo 1:1-2). Again, it accords with the view of the writer being an inspired apostle that he addresses the angels or presidents of the several churches in the tone of a superior addressing inferiors. Also, he commends the Church of Ephesus for trying and convicting "them which say they are apostles, and are not," by which he implies his own undoubted claim to apostolic inspiration (Rev 2:2), as declaring in the seven epistles Christ's will revealed through him.

As to the difference of style, as compared with the Gospel and Epistle, the difference of subject in part accounts for it, the visions of the seer, transported as he was above the region of sense, appropriately taking a form of expression abrupt, and unbound by the grammatical laws which governed his writings of a calmer and more deliberate character. Moreover, as being a Galilean Hebrew, John, in writing a Revelation akin to the Old Testament prophecies, naturally reverted to their Hebraistic style. ALFORD notices, among the features of resemblance between the styles of the Apocalypse and John's Gospel and Epistle: (1) the characteristic appellation of our Lord, peculiar to John exclusively, "the Word of God" (Rev 19:13; compare Joh 1:1; 1Jo 1:1). (2) the phrase, "he that overcometh" (Rev 2:7, Rev 2:11, Rev 2:17; Rev 3:5, Rev 3:12, Rev 3:21; Rev 12:11; Rev 15:2; Rev 17:14; Rev 21:7; compare Joh 16:33 1Jo 2:13-14; 1Jo 4:4; 1Jo 5:4-5). (3) The Greek term (alethinos) for "true," as opposed to that which is shadowy and unreal (Rev 3:7, Rev 3:14; Rev 6:10; Rev 15:3; Rev 16:7; Rev 19:2, Rev 19:9, Rev 19:11; Rev 21:5; Rev 22:6). This term, found only once in Luke (Luk 16:11), four times in Paul (1Th 1:9; Heb 8:2; Heb 9:24; Heb 10:22), is found nine times in John's Gospel (Joh 1:9; Joh 4:23, Joh 4:37; Joh 6:32; Joh 7:28; Joh 8:16; Joh 15:1 Joh 17:3; Joh 19:3, Joh 19:5), twice in John's First Epistle (1Jo 2:8; 1Jo 5:20), and ten times in Revelation (Rev 3:7, Rev 3:14; Rev 6:10; Rev 15:3; Rev 16:7; Rev 19:2, Rev 19:9, Rev 19:11; Rev 21:5 Rev 22:6). (4) The Greek diminutive for "Lamb" (arnion, literally, "lambkin") occurs twenty-nine times in the Apocalypse, and the only other place where it occurs is Joh 21:15. In John's writings alone is Christ called directly "the Lamb" (Joh 1:29, Joh 1:36). In 1Pe 1:19, He is called "as a lamb without blemish," in allusion to Isa 53:7. So the use of "witness," or "testimony" (Rev 1:2, Rev 1:9; Rev 6:9; Rev 11:7, &c.; compare Joh 1:7-8, Joh 1:15, Joh 1:19, Joh 1:32; 1Jo 1:2; 1Jo 4:14; 1Jo 5:6-11). "Keep the word," or "commandments" (Rev 3:8, Rev 3:10; Rev 12:17; compare Joh 8:51, Joh 8:55; Joh 14:15). The assertion of the same thing positively and negatively (Rev 2:2, Rev 2:6, Rev 2:8, Rev 2:13; Rev 3:8, Rev 3:17-18; compare Joh 1:3, Joh 1:6-7, Joh 1:20; 1Jo 2:27-28). Compare also 1Jo 2:20, 1Jo 2:27 with Rev 3:18, as to the spiritual anointing. The seeming solecisms of style are attributable to that,inspired elevation which is above mere grammatical rules, and are designed to arrest the reader's attention by the peculiarity of the phrase, so as to pause and search into some deep truth lying beneath. The vivid earnestness of the inspired writer, handling a subject so transcending all others, raises him above all servile adherence to ordinary rules, so that at times he abruptly passes from one grammatical construction to another, as he graphically sets the thing described before the eye of the reader. This is not due to ignorance of grammar, for he "has displayed a knowledge of grammatical rules in other much more difficult constructions" [WINER]. The connection of thought is more attended to than mere grammatical connection. Another consideration to be taken into account is that two-fifths of the whole being the recorded language of others, he moulds his style accordingly. Compare TREGELLES' Introduction to Revelation from Heathen Authorities.

TREGELLES well says [New Testament Historic Evidence], "There is no book of the New Testament for which we have such clear, ample, and numerous testimonies in the second century as we have in favor of the Apocalypse. The more closely the witnesses were connected with the apostle John (as was the case with IRENÆUS), the more explicit is their testimony. That doubts should prevail in after ages must have originated either in ignorance of the earlier testimony, or else from some supposed intuition of what an apostle ought to have written. The objections on the ground of internal style can weigh nothing against the actual evidence. It is in vain to argue, a priori, that John could not have written this book when we have the evidence of several competent witnesses that he did write it."

RELATION OF THE APOCALYPSE TO THE REST OF THE CANON.--GREGORY OF NYSSA [tom. 3, p. 601], calls Revelation "the last book of grace." It completes the volume of inspiration, so that we are to look for no further revelation till Christ Himself shall come. Appropriately the last book completing the canon was written by John, the last survivor of the apostles. The New Testament is composed of the historical books, the Gospels and Acts, the doctrinal Epistles, and the one prophetical book, Revelation. The same apostle wrote the last of the Gospels, and probably the last of the Epistles, and the only prophetical book of the New Testament. All the books of the New Testament had been written, and were read in the Church assemblies, some years before John's death. His life was providentially prolonged that he might give the final attestation to Scripture. About the year A.D. 100, the bishops of Asia (the angels of the seven churches) came to John at EPHESUS, bringing him copies of the three Gospels, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, and desired of him a statement of his apostolical judgment concerning them; whereupon he pronounced them authentic, genuine, and inspired, and at their request added his own Gospel to complete the fourfold aspect of the Gospel of Christ (compare MURATORI [Fragment on the Canon of Scripture]; EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 3.24]; JEROME [Commentary on Matthew]; VICTORINUS on the Apocalypse; THEODORET [Ecclesiastical History, 39]). A Greek divine, quoted in ALLATIUS, calls Revelation "the seal of the whole Bible." The canon would be incomplete without Revelation. Scripture is a complete whole, its component books, written in a period ranging over one thousand five hundred years, being mutually connected. Unity of aim and spirit pervades the entire, so that the end is the necessary sequence of the middle, and the middle of the beginning. Genesis presents before us man and his bride in innocence and blessedness, followed by man's fall through Satan's subtlety, and man's consequent misery, his exclusion from Paradise and its tree of life and delightful rivers. Revelation presents, in reverse order, man first liable to sin and death, but afterwards made conqueror through the blood of the Lamb; the first Adam and Eve, represented by the second Adam, Christ, and the Church. His spotless bride, in Paradise, with free access to the tree of life and the crystal water of life that flows from the throne of God. As Genesis foretold the bruising of the serpent's head by the woman's seed (Gen 3:15), so Revelation declares the final accomplishment of that prediction (Rev. 19:1-20:15).

PLACE AND TIME OF WRITING.--The best authorities among the Fathers state that John was exiled under Domitian (IRENÆUS [Against Heresies, 5; 30]; CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA; EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 3.20]). VICTORINUS says that he had to labor in the mines of Patmos. At Domitian's death, A.D. 95, he returned to Ephesus under the Emperor Nerva. Probably it was immediately after his return that he wrote, under divine inspiration, the account of the visions vouchsafed to him in Patmos (Rev 1:2, Rev 1:9). However, Rev 10:4 seems to imply that he wrote the visions immediately after seeing them. Patmos is one of the Sporades. Its circumference is about thirty miles. "It was fitting that when forbidden to go beyond certain bounds of the earth's lands, he was permitted to penetrate the secrets of heaven" [BEDE, Explanation of the Apocalypse on chap. 1]. The following arguments favor an earlier date, namely, under Nero: (1) EUSEBIUS [Demonstration of the Gospel] unites in the same sentence John's banishment with the stoning of James and the beheading of Paul, which were under Nero. (2) CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA'S'S story of the robber reclaimed by John, after he had pursued, and with difficulty overtaken him, accords better with John then being a younger man than under Domitian, when he was one hundred years old. Arethas, in the sixth century, applies the sixth seal to the destruction of Jerusalem (A.D. 70), adding that the Apocalypse was written before that event. So the Syriac version states he was banished by Nero the Cæsar. Laodicea was overthrown by an earthquake (A.D. 60) but was immediately rebuilt, so that its being called "rich and increased with goods" is not incompatible with this book having been written under the Neronian persecution (A.D. 64). But the possible allusions to it in Heb 10:37; compare Rev 1:4, Rev 1:8; Rev 4:8; Rev 22:12; Heb 11:10; compare Rev 21:14; Heb 12:22-23; compare Rev 14:1; Heb 8:1-2; compare Rev 11:19; Rev 15:5; Rev 21:3; Heb 4:12; compare Rev 1:16; Rev 2:12, Rev 2:16; Rev 19:13, Rev 19:15; Heb 4:9; compare Rev 20:1-15; also 1Pe 1:7, 1Pe 1:13; 1Pe 4:13, with Rev 1:1; 1Pe 2:9 with Rev 5:10; 2Ti 4:8, with Rev 2:26-27; Rev 3:21; Rev 11:18; Eph 6:12, with Rev 12:7-12; Phi 4:3, with Rev 3:5; Rev 13:8; Rev 17:8; Rev 20:12, Rev 20:15; Col 1:18, with Rev 1:5; 1Co 15:52, with Rev 10:7; Rev 11:15-18, make a date before the destruction of Laodicea possible. Cerinthus is stated to have died before John; as then he borrowed much in his Pseudo-Apocalypse from John's, it is likely the latter was at an earlier date than Domitian's reign. See TILLOCH'S Introduction to Apocalypse. But the Pauline benediction (Rev 1:4) implies it was written after Paul's death under Nero.

TO WHAT READERS ADDRESSED.--The inscription states that it is addressed to the seven churches of Asia, that is, Proconsular Asia. John's reason for fixing on the number seven (for there were more than seven churches in the region meant by "Asia," for instance, Magnesia and Tralles) was doubtless because seven is the sacred number implying totality and universality: so it is implied that John, through the medium of the seven churches, addresses in the Spirit the Church of all places and ages. The Church in its various states of spiritual life or deadness, in all ages and places, is represented by the seven churches, and is addressed with words of consolation or warning accordingly. Smyrna and Philadelphia alone of the seven are honored with unmixed praise, as faithful in tribulation and rich in good works. Heresies of a decided kind had by this time arisen in the churches of Asia, and the love of many had waxed cold, while others had advanced to greater zeal, and one had sealed his testimony with his blood.

OBJECT.--It begins with admonitory addresses to the seven churches from the divine Son of man, whom John saw in vision, after a brief introduction which sets forth the main subject of the book, namely, to "show unto His servants things which must shortly come to pass" (the first through third chapters). From the fourth chapter to the end is mainly prophecy, with practical exhortations and consolations, however, interspersed, similar to those addressed to the seven churches (the representatives of the universal Church of every age), and so connecting the body of the book with its beginning, which therefore forms its appropriate introduction. Three schools of interpreters exist: (1) The Preterists, who hold that almost the whole has been fulfilled. (2) The Historical Interpreters, who hold that it comprises the history of the Church from John's time to the end of the world, the seals being chronologically succeeded, by the trumpets and the trumpets by the vials. (3) The Futurists, who consider almost the whole as yet future, and to be fulfilled immediately before Christ's second coming. The first theory was not held by any of the earliest Fathers, and is only held now by Rationalists, who limit John's vision to things within his own horizon, pagan Rome's persecutions of Christians, and its consequently anticipated destruction. The Futurist school is open to this great objection: it would leave the Church of Christ unprovided with prophetical guidance or support under her fiery trials for 1700 or 1800 years. Now God has said, "Surely He will do nothing, but He revealeth His secrets unto His servants the prophets" (Amo 3:7). The Jews had a succession of prophets who guided them with the light of prophecy: what their prophets were to them, that the apocalyptic Scriptures have been, and are, to us.

ALFORD, following ISAAC WILLIAMS, draws attention to the parallel connection between the Apocalypse and Christ's discourse on the Mount of Olives, recorded in Mat. 24:4-28. The seals plainly bring us down to the second coming of Christ, just as the trumpets also do (compare Rev 6:12-17; Rev 8:1, &c.; Rev 11:15), and as the vials also do (Rev 16:17): all three run parallel, and end in the same point. Certain "catchwords" (as WORDSWORTH calls them) connect the three series of symbols together. They do not succeed one to the other in historical and chronological sequence, but move side by side, the subsequent series filling up in detail the same picture which the preceding series had drawn in outline. So VICTORINUS (on Rev 7:2), the earliest commentator on the Apocalypse, says, "The order of the things said is not to be regarded, since often the Holy Spirit, when He has run to the end of the last time, again returns to the same times, and supplies what He has less fully expressed." And PRIMASIUS [Commentary on the Apocalypse], "In the trumpets he gives a description by a pleasing repetition, as is his custom."

At the very beginning, John hastens, by anticipation (as was the tendency of all the prophets), to the grand consummation. Rev 1:7, "Behold, He cometh with clouds," &c. Rev 1:8, Rev 1:17, "I am the beginning and the ending . . . the first and the last." So the seven epistles exhibit the same anticipation of the end. Rev 3:12, "Him that overcometh, I will write upon Him the name of my God, and the name of the city of my God, which is new Jerusalem, which cometh down out of heaven"; compare at the close, Rev 21:2. So also Rev 2:28, "I will give him the morning star"; compare at the close, Rev 22:16, "I am the bright and morning star."

Again, the earthquake that ensues on the opening of the sixth seal is one of the catchwords, that is, a link connecting chronologically this sixth seal with the sixth trumpet (Rev 9:13; Rev 11:13): compare also the seventh vial, Rev 16:17-18. The concomitants of the opening of the sixth seal, it is plain, in no full and exhaustive sense apply to any event, save the terrors which shall overwhelm the ungodly just before the coming of the Judge.

Again, the beast out of the bottomless pit (Rev 11:7), between the sixth and seventh trumpets, connects this series with the section, twelfth through fourteenth chapters, concerning the Church and her adversaries.

Again, the sealing of the 144,000 under the sixth seal connects this seal with the section, the twelfth through fourteenth chapters.

Again, the loosing of the four winds by the four angels standing on the four corners of the earth, under the sixth seal, answers to the loosing of the four angels at the Euphrates, under the sixth trumpet.

Moreover, links occur in the Apocalypse connecting it with the Old Testament. For instance, the "mouth speaking great things" (Dan 7:8 Rev 13:5), connects the beast that blasphemes against God, and makes war against the saints, with the little horn (Dan 7:21; Rev 13:6-7), or at last king, who, arising after the ten kings, shall speak against the Most High, and wear out the saints (Dan 7:25); also, compare the "forty-two months" (Rev 13:5), or "a thousand two hundred and threescore days" (Rev 12:6), with the "time, times, and the dividing of time," of Dan 7:25. Moreover, the "forty-two months," Rev 11:2, answering to Rev 12:6; Rev 13:5, link together the period under the sixth trumpet to the section, Rev. 12:1-14:20.

AUBERLEN observes, "The history of salvation is mysteriously governed by holy numbers. They are the scaffolding of the organic edifice. They are not merely outward indications of time, but indications of nature and essence. Not only nature, but history, is based in numbers. Scripture and antiquity put numbers as the fundamental forms of things, where we put ideas." As number is the regulator of the relations and proportions of the natural world, so does it enter most frequently into the revelations of the Apocalypse, which sets forth the harmonies of the supernatural, the immediately Divine. Thus the most supernatural revelation leads us the farthest into the natural, as was to be expected, seeing the God of nature and of revelation is one. Seven is the number for perfection (compare Rev 1:4; Rev 4:5, the seven Spirits before the throne; also, Rev 5:6, the Lamb's seven horns and seven eyes). Thus the seven churches represent the Church catholic in its totality. The seven seals (Rev 5:1), the seven trumpets (Rev 8:2), and the seven vials (Rev 17:1), are severally a complete series each in itself, fulfilling perfectly the divine course of judgments. Three and a half implies a number opposed to the divine (seven), but broken in itself, and which, in the moment of its highest triumph, is overwhelmed by judgment and utter ruin. Four is the number of the world's extension; seven is the number of God's revelation in the world. In the four beasts of Daniel (Dan 7:3) there is a recognition of some power above them, at the same time that there is a mimicry of the four cherubs of Ezekiel (Eze 10:9), the heavenly symbols of all creation in its due subjection to God (Rev 4:6-8). So the four corners of the earth, the four winds, the four angels loosed from the Euphrates, and Jerusalem lying "foursquare" (Rev 21:16), represent world-wide extension. The sevenfoldness of the Spirits on the part of God corresponds with the fourfold cherubim on the part of the created. John, seeing more deeply into the essentially God-opposed character of the world, presents to us, not the four beasts of Daniel, but the seven heads of the beast, whereby it arrogates to itself the sevenfold perfection of the Spirits of God; at the same time that, with characteristic self-contradiction, it has ten horns, the number peculiar to the world power. Its unjust usurpation of the sacred number seven is marked by the addition of an eighth to the seven heads, and also by the beast's own number, six hundred sixty-six, which in units, tens, and hundreds, verges upon, but falls short of, seven. The judgments on the world are complete in six: after the sixth seal and the sixth trumpet, there is a pause. When seven comes, there comes "the kingdom of our Lord and His Christ." Six is the number of the world given to judgment. Moreover, six is half of twelve, as three and a half is the half of seven. Twelve is the number of the Church: compare the twelve tribes of Israel, the twelve stars on the woman's head (Rev 12:1), the twelve gates of new Jerusalem (Rev 21:12, Rev 21:21). Six thus symbolizes the world broken, and without solid foundation. Twice twelve is the number of the heavenly elders; twelve times twelve thousand the number of the sealed elect (Rev 7:4): the tree of life yields twelve manner of fruits. Doubtless, besides this symbolic force, there is a special chronological meaning in the numbers; but as yet, though a commanded subject of investigation, they have received no solution which we can be sure is the true one. They are intended to stimulate reverent inquiry, not to gratify idle speculative curiosity; and when the event shall have been fulfilled, they will show the divine wisdom of God, who ordered all things in minutely harmonious relations, and left neither the times nor the ways haphazard.

The arguments for the year-day theory are as follows: Dan 9:24, "Seventy weeks are determined upon," where the Hebrew may be seventy sevens; but MEDE observes, the Hebrew word means always seven of days, and never seven of years (Lev 12:5; Deu 16:9-10, Deu 16:16). Again, the number of years' wandering of the Israelites was made to correspond to the number of days in which the spies searched the land, namely, forty: compare "each day for a year," Num 14:33-34. So in Eze 4:5-6, "I have laid up on thee the years of their iniquity, according to the number of the days, three hundred and ninety days . . . forty days: I have appointed thee each day for a year." John, in Revelation itself, uses days in a sense which can hardly be literal. Rev 2:10, "Ye shall have tribulation ten days": the persecution of ten years recorded by EUSEBIUS seems to correspond to it. In the year-day theory there is still quite enough of obscurity to exercise the patience and probation of faith, for we cannot say precisely when the 1260 years begin: so that this theory is quite compatible with Christ's words, "Of that day and hour knoweth no man" [Mat 24:36; Mar 13:32]. However, it is a difficulty in this theory that "a thousand years," in Rev 20:6-7, can hardly mean one thousand by three hundred sixty days, that is, three hundred sixty thousand years. The first resurrection there must be literal, even as Rev 20:5 must be taken literally, "the rest of the dead lived not again until the thousand years were finished" (Rev 20:5). To interpret the former spiritually would entail the need of interpreting the latter so, which would be most improbable; for it would imply that "the rest of the (spiritually) dead lived not (spiritually)" until the end of the thousand years, and then that they did come spiritually to life. 1Co 15:23, "they that are Christ's at His coming," confirms the literal view.

JFB: Revelation (Outline)

• TITLE: SOURCE AND OBJECT OF THIS REVELATION: BLESSING ON THE READER AND KEEPER OF IT, AS THE TIME IS NEAR: INSCRIPTION TO THE SEVEN CHURCHES: APOSTOLIC GREETING: KEYNOTE, "BEHOLD HE COMETH" (Compare at the close, Rev 22:20, "Surely I come quickly"): INTRODUCTORY VISION OF THE SON OF MAN IN GLORY, AMIDST THE SEVEN CANDLESTICKS, WITH SEVEN STARS IN HIS RIGHT HAND. (Rev. 1:1-20)
• EPISTLES TO EPHESUS, SMYRNA, PERGAMOS, THYATIRA. (Rev. 2:1-29)
• THE EPISTLES TO SARDIS, PHILADELPHIA, AND LAODICEA. (Rev. 3:1-22)
• VISION OF GOD'S THRONE IN HEAVEN; THE FOUR AND TWENTY ELDERS; THE FOUR LIVING CREATURES. (Rev 4:1-11)
• THE BOOK WITH SEVEN SEALS: NONE WORTHY TO OPEN IT BUT THE LAMB: HE TAKES IT AMIDST THE PRAISES OF THE REDEEMED, AND OF THE WHOLE HEAVENLY HOST. (Rev 5:1-14)
• THE OPENING OF THE FIRST SIX OF THE SEVEN SEALS. (Rev. 6:1-17)
• SEALING OF THE ELECT OF ISRAEL. THE COUNTLESS MULTITUDE OF THE GENTILE ELECT. (Rev. 7:1-17)
• SEVENTH SEAL. PREPARATION FOR THE SEVEN TRUMPETS. THE FIRST FOUR AND THE CONSEQUENT PLAGUES. (Rev 8:1-13)
• THE FIFTH TRUMPET: THE FALLEN STAR OPENS THE ABYSS WHENCE ISSUE LOCUSTS. THE SIXTH TRUMPET. FOUR ANGELS AT THE EUPHRATES LOOSED. (Rev. 9:1-21) The last three trumpets of the seven are called, from Rev 8:13, the woe-trumpets.
• VISION OF THE LITTLE BOOK. (Rev 10:1-11)
• MEASUREMENT OF THE TEMPLE. THE TWO WITNESSES' TESTIMONY: THEIR DEATH, RESURRECTION, AND ASCENSION: THE EARTHQUAKE: THE THIRD WOE: THE SEVENTH TRUMPET USHERS IN CHRIST'S KINGDOM. THANKSGIVING OF THE TWENTY-FOUR ELDERS. (Rev. 11:1-19)
• VISION OF THE WOMAN, HER CHILD, AND THE PERSECUTING DRAGON. (Rev. 12:1-17) This episode (Rev. 12:1-15:8) describes in detail the persecution of Israel and the elect Church by the beast, which had been summarily noticed, Rev 11:7-10, and the triumph of the faithful, and torment of the unfaithful. So also the sixteenth through twentieth chapters are the description in detail of the judgment on the beast, &c., summarily noticed in Rev 11:13, Rev 11:18. The beast in Rev 12:3, &c., is shown not to be alone, but to be the instrument in the hand of a greater power of darkness, Satan. That this is so, appears from the time of the eleventh chapter being the period also in which the events of the twelfth and thirteenth chapters take place, namely, 1260 days (Rev 12:6, Rev 12:14; Rev 13:5; compare Rev 11:2-3).
• VISION OF THE BEAST THAT CAME OUT OF THE SEA: THE SECOND BEAST, OUT OF THE EARTH, EXERCISING THE POWER OF THE FIRST BEAST, AND CAUSING THE EARTH TO WORSHIP HIM. (Rev. 13:1-18)
• THE LAMB SEEN ON ZION WITH THE 144,000. THEIR SONG. THE GOSPEL PROCLAIMED BEFORE THE END BY ONE ANGEL: THE FALL OF BABYLON, BY ANOTHER: THE DOOM OF THE BEAST WORSHIPPERS, BY A THIRD. THE BLESSEDNESS OF THE DEAD IN THE LORD. THE HARVEST. THE VINTAGE. (Rev. 14:1-20)
• THE LAST SEVEN VIALS OF PLAGUES: SONG OF THE VICTORS OVER THE BEAST. (Rev 15:1-8)
• THE SEVEN VIALS AND THE CONSEQUENT PLAGUES. (Rev. 16:1-21)
• THE HARLOT BABYLON'S GAUD: THE BEAST ON WHICH SHE RIDES, HAVING SEVEN HEADS AND TEN HORNS, SHALL BE THE INSTRUMENT OF JUDGMENT ON HER. (Rev. 17:1-18)
• BABYLON'S FALL: GOD'S PEOPLE CALLED OUT OF HER: THE KINGS AND MERCHANTS OF THE EARTH MOURN, WHILE THE SAINTS REJOICE AT HER FALL. (Rev. 18:1-24)
• THE CHURCH'S THANKSGIVING IN HEAVEN FOR THE JUDGMENT ON THE HARLOT. THE MARRIAGE OF THE LAMB: THE SUPPER: THE BRIDE'S PREPARATION: JOHN IS FORBIDDEN TO WORSHIP THE ANGEL: THE LORD AND HIS HOSTS COME FORTH FOR WAR: THE BEAST AND THE FALSE PROPHET CAST INTO THE LAKE OF FIRE: THE KINGS AND THEIR FOLLOWERS SLAIN BY THE SWORD OUT OF CHRIST'S MOUTH. (Rev. 19:1-21) As in the case of the opening of the prophecy, Rev 4:8; Rev 5:9, &c.; so now, at one of the great closing events seen in vision, the judgment on the harlot (described in Rev. 18:1-24), there is a song of praise in heaven to God: compare Rev 7:10, &c., toward the close of the seals, and Rev 11:15-18, at the close of the trumpets: Rev 15:3, at the saints' victory over the beast.
• SATAN BOUND, AND THE FIRST-RISEN SAINTS REIGN WITH CHRIST, A THOUSAND YEARS; SATAN LOOSED, GATHERS THE NATIONS, GOG AND MAGOG, ROUND THE CAMP OF THE SAINTS, AND IS FINALLY CONSIGNED TO THE LAKE OF FIRE; THE GENERAL RESURRECTION AND LAST JUDGMENT. (Rev 20:1-15) The destruction of his representatives, the beast and the false prophet, to whom he had given his power, throne, and authority, is followed by the binding of Satan himself for a thousand years.
• THE NEW HEAVEN AND EARTH: NEW JERUSALEM OUT OF HEAVEN. (Rev. 21:1-27)
• THE RIVER OF LIFE: THE TREE OF LIFE: THE OTHER BLESSEDNESSES OF THE REDEEMED. JOHN FORBIDDEN TO WORSHIP THE ANGEL. NEARNESS OF CHRIST'S COMING TO FIX MAN'S ETERNAL STATE. TESTIMONY OF JESUS, HIS SPIRIT, AND THE BRIDE, ANY ADDITION TO WHICH, OR SUBTRACTION FROM WHICH, SHALL BE ETERNALLY PUNISHED. CLOSING BENEDICTION. (Rev. 22:1-21)

TSK: Revelation (Book Introduction)

The obscurity of this prophecy, which has been urged against its genuineness, necessarily results from the highly figurative and symbolical language in which it is delivered, and is, in fact, a strong internal proof of its authenticity and divine original. " For it is a part of this prophecy," as Sir Isaac Newton justly remarks, " that it should not be understood before the last age of the world; and therefore it makes for the credit of the prophecy that it is not yet understood. The folly of interpreters has been to foretell times and things by this prophecy, as if God designed to make them prophets. By this rashness they have not only exposed themselves, but brought the prophecy also into contempt. The design of God was much otherwise. He gave this, and the prophecies of the Old Testament, not to gratify men’s curiosities by enabling them to foreknow things, but that, after that they were fulfilled, they might be interpreted by the event; and his own providence, not the interpreter’s, be then manifested thereby to the world. For the event of things, predicted many ages before, will then be a convincing argument that the world is governed by Providence. For, as the few and obscure prophecies concerning Christ’s first coming were for setting up the Christian religion, which all nations have since corrupted, so the many and clear prophecies concerning the things to be done at Christ’s second coming, are not only for predicting, but also for effecting a recovery and re-establishment of the long-lost truth, and setting up a kingdom wherein dwells righteousness. The event will prove the Apocalypse; and this prophecy, thus proved and understood, will open the old prophets; and all together will make known the true religion, and establish it. There is already so much of the prophecy fulfilled, that as many as will take pains in this study may see sufficient instances of God’s promise; but then, the signal revolutions predicted by all the holy prophets, will at once both turn men’s eyes upon considering the predictions, and plainly interpret them. Till then we must content ourselves with interpreting what hath already been fulfilled." And, as Mr. Weston observes, " if we were in possession of a complete and particular history of Asia, not only of great events, without person or place, names or dates, but of the exactest biography, geography, topography, and chronology, we might, perhaps, still be able to explain and appropriate more circumstances recorded in the Revelation, under the emperors of the East and the West, and in Arabia, Persia, Tartary, and Asia, the seat of the most important revolutions with which the history of Christianity has ever been interwoven and closely connected." History is the great interpreter of prophecy. " Prophecy is, as I may say," observes Bp. Newton, " history anticipated and contracted; history is prophecy accomplished and dilated; and the prophecies of Scripture contain the fate of the most considerable nations, and the substance of the most memorable transactions in the world, from the earliest to the latest times. Daniel and St. John, with regard to those latter times, are more copious and particular than the other prophets. They exhibit a series and succession of the most important events from the first of the four great empires to the consummation of all things. Their prophecies may really be said to be a summary of the history of the world; and the history of the world is the best comment upon their prophecies....and the more you know of ancient and modern times, and the farther you search into the truth of history, the more you will be satisfied of the truth of prophecy." The Revelation was designed to supply the place of that continued succession of prophets, which demonstrated the continued providence of God to the patriarchal and Jewish churches. " The majority of commentators on the Apocalypse," says Mr. Townsend, " generally acted on these principles of interpretation. They discover in this Book certain predictions of events which were fulfilled soon after they were announced; they trace in the history of later years various coincidences, which so fully agree with the various parts of the Apocalypse, that they are justly entitled to consider them as the fulfilment of its prophecies; and, by thus tracing the one God of revelation through the clouds of the dark ages, through the storms of revolutions and wars, through the mighty convulsions which at various periods have agitated the world, their interpretations, even when they are most contradictory, when they venture to speculate concerning the future, are founded on so much undoubted truth that they have materially confirmed the wavering faith of thousands. Clouds and darkness must cover the brightness of the throne of God, till it shall please him to enable us to bear the brighter beams of his glory. In the mean time, we trace his footsteps in the sea of the Gentile world, his path in the mighty waters of the ambitions and clashing passions of man. We rejoice to anticipate the day when the bondage of Rome, which would perpetuate the intellectual and spiritual slavery of man, shall be overthrown, and day-spring of united knowledge and holiness bless the world."

TSK: Revelation 1 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

Rev 1:1, The preface; Rev 1:4, John’s salutation to the seven churches of Asia; Rev 1:7, The coming of Christ; Rev 1:8, His glorious power and majesty.

MHCC: Revelation (Book Introduction)

The Book of the Revelation of St. John consists of two principal divisions. 1. Relates to " the things which are," that is, the then present state of the church, and contains the epistle of John to the seven churches, and his account of the appearance of the Lord Jesus, and his direction to the apostle to write what he beheld, Rev 1:9-20. Also the addresses or epistles to seven churches of Asia. These, doubtless, had reference to the state of the respective churches, as they then existed, but contain excellent precepts and exhortations, commendations and reproofs, promises and threatenings, suitable to instruct the Christian church at all times. 2. Contains a prophecy of " the things which shall be hereafter," and describes the future state of the church, from the time when the apostle beheld the visions here recorded. It is intended for our spiritual improvement; to warn the careless sinner, point out the way of salvation to the awakened inquirer, build up the weak believer, comfort the afflicted and tempted Christian, and, we may especially add, to strengthen the martyr of Christ, under the cruel persecutions and sufferings inflicted by Satan and his followers.

MHCC: Revelation 1 (Chapter Introduction)

(Rev 1:1-3) The Divine origin, the design, and the importance of this book.

(Rev 1:4-8) The apostle John salutes the seven churches of Asia.

(Rev 1:9-11) Declares when, where, and how, the revelation was made to him.

(Rev 1:12-20) His vision, in which he saw Christ appear.

Matthew Henry: Revelation (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The Revelation of St. John the Divine

It ought to be no prejudice to the credit and authority of this book that it has been rejected by men of corrupt minds, such as Cerdon and Marcion, and doubted of by men of a better character; for this has been the lot of other parts of holy writ, and of the divine Author of the scripture himself. The image and superscription of this book are truly sacred and divine, and the matter of it agreeable with other prophetical books, particularly Ezekiel and Daniel; the church of God has generally received it, and found good counsel and great comfort in it. From the beginning, the church of God has been blessed with prophecy. That glorious prediction of breaking the serpent's head was the stay and support of the patriarchal age; and the many prophecies there were concerning the Messiah to come were the gospel of the Old Testament. Christ himself prophesied of the destruction of Jerusalem; and, about the time in which that was accomplished, he entrusted the apostle John with this book of revelation, to deliver it to the church as a prediction of the most important events that should happen to it to the end of time, for the support of the faith of his people and the direction of their hope. It is called the Revelation, because God therein discovers those things which could never have been sifted out by the reasonings of human understanding, those deep things of God which no man knows, but the Spirit of God, and those to whom he reveals them.

Matthew Henry: Revelation 1 (Chapter Introduction)

This chapter is a general preface to the whole book, and contains, I. An inscription, declaring the original and the design of it (Rev 1:1, Rev 1:2). II. The apostolic benediction pronounced on all those who shall pay a due regard to the contents of this book (Rev 1:3-8). III. A glorious vision or appearance of the Lord Jesus Christ to the apostle John, when he delivered to him this revelation (Rev 1:9 to the end).

Barclay: Revelation (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO THE REVELATION OF JOHN

The Strange Book

When a student of the New Testament embarks upon the study of the Revelation he feels himself projected into a different world. Here is something quite unlike the rest of the New Testament. Not only is the Revelation different; it is also notoriously difficult for a modern mind to understand. The result is that it has sometimes been abandoned as quite unintelligible and it has sometimes become the playground of religious eccentrics, who use it to map out celestial time-tables of what is to come or find in it evidence for their own eccentricities. One despairing commentator said that there are as many riddles in the Revelation as there are words, and another that the study of the Revelation either finds or leaves a man mad.

Luther would have denied the Revelation a place in the New Testament. Along with James, Jude, Second Peter and Hebrews he relegated it to a separate list at the end of his New Testament. He declared that in it there are only images and visions such as are found nowhere else in the Bible. He complained that, notwithstanding the obscurity of his writing, the writer had the boldness to add threats and promises for those who kept or disobeyed his words, unintelligible though they were. In it, said Luther, Christ is neither taught nor acknowledged; and the inspiration of the Holy Spirit is not perceptible in it. Zwingli is equally hostile to the Revelation. "With the Apocalypse," he writes, "we have no concern, for it is not a biblical book.... The Apocalypse has no savour of the mouth or the mind of John. I can, if I so will, reject its testimonies." Most voices have stressed the unintelligibility of the Revelation and not a few have questioned its right to a place in the New Testament.

On the other hand there are those in every generation who have loved this book. T. S. Kepler quotes the verdict of Philip Carrington and makes it his own: "In the case of the Revelation we are dealing with an artist greater than Stevenson or Coleridge or Bach. St. John has a better sense of the right word than Stevenson; he has a greater command of unearthly supernatural loveliness than Coleridge; he has a richer sense of melody and rhythm and composition than Bach.... It is the only masterpiece of pure art in the New Testament.... Its fullness and richness and harmonic variety place it far above Greek tragedy."

We shall no doubt find this book difficult and bewildering; but doubtless, too, we shall find it infinitely worthwhile to wrestle with it until it gives us its blessing and opens its riches to us.

Apocalyptic Literature

In any study of the Revelation we must begin by remembering the basic fact that although unique in the New Testament, it is nonetheless representative of a kind of literature which was the commonest of all between the Old and the New Testaments. The Revelation is commonly called the Apocalypse, being in Greek Apokalupsis. Between the Old and the New Testaments there grew up a great mass of what is called Apocalyptic literature, the product of an indestructible Jewish hope.

The Jews could not forget that they were the chosen people of God. To them that involved the certainty that some day they would arrive at world supremacy. In their early history they looked forward to the coming of a king of Davidline who would unite the nation and lead them to greatness. There was to come forth a shoot from the stump of Jesse (Isa_11:1 , Isa_11:10 ). God would raise up a righteous branch for David (Jer_23:5 ). Some day the people would serve David their king (Jer_30:9 ). David would be their shepherd and their king (Eze_34:23 ; Eze_37:24 ). The booth of David would be repaired (Amo_9:11 ); out of Bethlehem there would come a ruler who would be great to the ends of the earth (Mic_5:2-4 ).

But the whole history of Israel gave the lie to these hopes. After the death of Solomon, the kingdom, small enough to begin with, split into two under Rehoboam and Jeroboam and so lost its unity. The northern kingdom, with its capital at Samaria, vanished in the last quarter of the eighth century B.C. before the assault of the Assyrians, never again reappeared in history and is now the lost ten tribes. The southern kingdom, with its capital at Jerusalem, was reduced to slavery and exile by the Babylonians in the early part of the sixth century B.C. It was later the subject state of the Persians, the Greeks and the Romans. History for the Jews was a catalogue of disasters from which it became clear that no human deliverer could rescue them.

The Two Ages

Jewish thought stubbornly held to the conviction of the chosenness of the Jews but had to adjust itself to the facts of history. It did so by working out a scheme of history. The Jews divided all time into two ages. There was this present age, which is wholly bad and beyond redemption. For it there can be nothing but total destruction. The Jews, therefore, waited for the end of things as they are. There was the age which is to come which was to be wholly good, the golden age of God in which would be peace, prosperity and righteousness and Godchosen people would at last be vindicated and receive the place that was theirs by right.

How was this present age to become the age which is to come? The Jews believed that the change could never be brought about by human agency and, therefore, looked for the direct intervention of God. He would come striding on to the stage of history to blast this present world out of existence and bring in his golden time. The day of the coming of God was called The Day of the Lord and was to be a terrible time of terror and destruction and judgment which would be the birthpangs of the new age.

All apocalyptic literature deals with these events, the sin of the present age, the terrors of the time between, and the blessings of the time to come. It is entirely composed of dreams and visions of the end. That means that all apocalyptic literature is necessarily cryptic. It is continually attempting to describe the indescribable, to say the unsayable, to paint the unpaintable.

This is further complicated by another fact. It was only natural that these apocalyptic visions should flame the more brightly in the minds of men living under tyranny and oppression. The more some alien power held them down, the more they dreamed of the destruction of that power and of their own vindication. But it would only have worsened the situation, if the oppressing power could have understood these dreams. Such writings would have seemed the works of rebellious revolutionaries. Such books, therefore, were frequently written in code, deliberately couched in language which was unintelligible to the outsider; and there are many cases in which they must remain unintelligible because the key to the code no longer exists. But the more we know about the historical background of such books, the better we can interpret them.

The Revelation

All this is the precise picture of our Revelation. There are any number of Jewish Apocalypses--Enoch, The Sibylline Oracles, The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, The Ascension of Isaiah, The Assumption of Moses, The Apocalypse of Baruch, Fourth Ezra. Our Revelation is a Christian Apocalypse. It is the only one in the New Testament, although there were many others which did not gain admission. It is written exactly on the Jewish pattern and follows the basic conception of the two ages. The only difference is that for the day of the Lord it substitutes the coming in power of Jesus Christ. Not only the pattern but the details are the same. The Jewish apocalypses had a standard apparatus of events which were to happen at the last time; these events all have their place in Revelation.

Before we go on to outline that pattern of events, another question arises. Both apocalyptic and prophecy deal with the events which are to come. What, then, is the difference between them?

Apocalyptic And Prophecy

The difference between the prophets and the apocalyptists was very real. There were two main differences, one of message and one of method.

(i) The prophet thought in terms of this present world. His message was often a cry for social, economic and political justice; and was always a summons to obey and serve God within this present world. To the prophet it was this world which was to be reformed and in which Godkingdom would come. This has been expressed by saying that the prophet believed in history. He believed that in the events of history Godpurpose was being worked out. In one sense the prophet was an optimist, for, however sternly he condemned things as they were, he nonetheless believed that they could be mended, if men would accept the will of God. To the apocalyptist the world was beyond mending. He believed, not in the reformation, but in the dissolution of this present world. He looked forward to the creation of a new world, when this one had been shattered by the avenging wrath of God. In one sense, therefore, the apocalyptist was a pessimist, for he did not believe that things as they were could ever be cured. True, he was quite certain that the golden age would come, but only after this world had been destroyed.

(ii) The prophetmessage was spoken; the message of the apocalyptist was always written. Apocalyptic is a literary production. Had it been delivered by word of mouth, men would never have understood it. It is difficult, involved, often unintelligible; it has to be pored over before it can be understood. Further, the prophet always spoke under his own name; all apocalyptic writings--except our New Testament one--are pseudonymous. They are put into the mouths of great ones of the past, like Noah, Enoch, Isaiah, Moses, The Twelve Patriarchs, Ezra and Baruch. There is something pathetic about this. The men who wrote the apocalyptic literature had the feeling that greatness was gone from the earth; they were too self-distrusting to put their names to their works and attributed them to the great figures of the past, thereby seeking to give them an authority greater than their own names could have given. As Julicher put it: "Apocalyptic is prophecy turned senile."

The Apparatus Of Apocalyptic

Apocalyptic literature has a pattern; it seeks to describe the things which will happen at the last times and the blessedness which will follow; and the same pictures occur over and over again. It always, so to speak, worked with the same materials; and these materials find their place in our Book of the Revelation.

(i) In apocalyptic literature the Messiah was a divine, preexistent, otherworldly figure of power and glory, waiting to descend into the world to begin his all-conquering career. He existed in heaven before the creation of the world, before the sun and the stars were made, and he is preserved in the presence of the Almighty (Enoch 48:3, 6; 62:7; 4Ezra 13:25-26). He will come to put down the mighty from their seats, to dethrone the kings of the earth, and to break the teeth of sinners (Enoch 42:2-6; 48:2-9; 62:5-9; 69:26-29). In apocalyptic there was nothing human or gentle about the Messiah; he was a divine figure of avenging power and glory before whom the earth trembled in terror.

(ii) The coming of the Messiah was to be preceded by the return of Elijah who would prepare the way for him (Mal_4:5-6 ). Elijah was to stand upon the hills of Israel, so the Rabbis said, and announce the coming of the Messiah with a voice so great that it would sound from one end of the earth to the other.

(iii) The last terrible times were known as "the travail of the Messiah." The coming of the Messianic age would be like the agony of birth. In the Gospels Jesus is depicted as foretelling the signs of the end and is reported as saying: "All these things are the beginnings of sorrows" (Mat_24:8 ; Mar_13:8 ). The word for sorrows is odinai (G5604), and it literally means birthpangs.

(iv) The last days will be a time of terror. Even the mighty men will cry bitterly (Zep_1:14 ); the inhabitants of the land shall tremble (Joe_2:1 ); men will be affrighted with fear and will seek some place to hide and will find none (Enoch 102:1,3).

(v) The last days will be a time when the world will be shattered, a time of cosmic upheaval when the universe, as men know it, will be disintegrated. The stars will be extinguished; the sun will be turned into darkness and the moon into blood (Isa_13:10 ; Joe_2:30-31 ; Joe_3:15 ). The firmament will crash in ruins; there will be a cataract of raging fire, and creation will become a molten mass (Sibylline Oracles 3: 83-89). The seasons will lose their order, and there will be neither night nor dawn (Sibylline Oracles 3: 796-806).

(vi) The last days will be a time when human relationships will be destroyed. Hatred and enmity will reign upon the earth. Every manhand will be against his neighbour (Zec_14:13 ). Brothers will kill each other; parents will murder their own children; from dawn to sunset they shall slay one another (Enoch 100:1-2). Honour will be turned into shame, and strength into humiliation, and beauty into ugliness. The man of humility will become the man of envy; and passion will hold sway over the man who once was peaceful (Bar 48:31-37).

(vii) The last days will be a time of judgment. God will come like a refinerfire, and who can endure the day of his coming? (Mal_3:1-3 ). It is by the fire and the sword that God will plead with men (Isa_66:15-16 ). The Son of Man will destroy sinners from the earth (Enoch 69:27), and the smell of brimstone will pervade all things (Sibylline Oracles 3: 58-61). The sinners will be burned up as Sodom was long ago (Jubilees 36:10-11).

(viii) In all these visions the Gentiles have their place, but it is not always the same place.

(a) Sometimes the vision is that the Gentiles will be totally destroyed. Babylon will become such a desolation that there will be no place for the wandering Arab to plant his tent among the ruins, no place for the shepherd to graze his sheep; it will be nothing more than a desert inhabited by the beasts (Isa_13:19-22 ). God will tread down the Gentiles in his anger (Isa_63:6 ). The Gentiles will come over in chains to Israel (Isa_45:14 ).

(b) Sometimes there is depicted one last gathering of the Gentiles against Jerusalem, and one last battle in which they are destroyed (Eze_38:14-23 ; Eze_39:1-16 ; Zec_14:1-11 ). The kings of the nations will throw themselves against Jerusalem; they will seek to ravage the shrine of the Holy One; they will place their thrones in a ring round the city, with their infidel people with them; but it will be only for their final destruction (Sibylline Oracles 3: 663-672).

(c) Sometimes there is the picture of the conversion of the Gentiles through Israel. God has given Israel for a light to the Gentiles, that she may be Godsalvation to the ends of the earth (Isa_49:6 ). The isles wait upon God (Isa_51:5 ); the ends of the earth are invited to look to God and be saved (Isa_45:20-22 ). The Son of Man will be a light to the Gentiles (Enoch 48:4-5). Nations shall come from the ends of the earth to Jerusalem to see the glory of God (Wis 17:34).

Of all the pictures in connection with the Gentiles the commonest is that of the destruction of the Gentiles and the exaltation of Israel.

(ix) In the last days the Jews who have been scattered throughout the earth will be ingathered to the Holy City again. They will come back from Assyria and from Egypt and will worship the Lord in his holy mountain (Isa_27:12-13 ). The hills will be removed and the valleys will be filled in, and even the trees will gather to give them shade, as they come back (Bar 5:5-9). Even those who died as exiles in far countries will be brought back.

(x) In the last days the New Jerusalem, which is already prepared in heaven with God (4Ezra 10:44-59; 4Ezra 2Baruch 4Ezra 4:2-6), will come down among men. It will be beautiful beyond compare with foundations of sapphires, and pinnacles of agate, and gates of carbuncles, on borders of pleasant stones (Isa_54:12-13 ; Tob 13:16-17). The glory of the latter house will be greater than the glory of the former (Hag 2:7-9).

(xi) An essential part of the apocalyptic picture of the last days was the resurrection of the dead. "Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt" (Dan_12:2-3 ). Sheol and the grave will give back that which has been entrusted to them (Enoch 51:1). The scope of the resurrection of the dead varied. Sometimes it was to apply only to the righteous in Israel; sometimes to all Israel; and sometimes to all men everywhere. Whichever form it took, it is true to say that now for the first time we see emerging a strong hope of a life beyond the grave.

(xii) There were differences as to how long the Messianic kingdom was to last. The most natural--and the most usual--view was to think of it as lasting for ever. The kingdom of the saints is an everlasting kingdom (Dan_7:27 ). Some believed that the reign of the Messiah would last for 400 years. They arrived at this figure from a comparison of Gen_15:13 and Psa_90:15 . In Genesis Abraham is told that the period of affliction of the children of Israel will be 400 years; the psalmistprayer is that God will make the nation glad according to the days wherein he has afflicted them and the years wherein they have seen evil. In the Revelation the view is that there is to be a reign of the saints for a thousand years; then the final battle with the assembled powers of evil; then the golden age of God.

Such were the events which the apocalyptic writers pictured in the last days; and practically all of them find their place in the pictures of the Revelation. To complete the picture we may briefly summarize the blessings of the coming age.

The Blessings Of The Age To Come

(i) The divided kingdom will be united again. The house of Judah will walk again with the house of Israel (Jer_3:18 ; Isa_11:13 ; Hos_1:11 ). The old divisions will be healed and the people of God will be one.

(ii) There will be in the world an amazing fertility. The wilderness will become a field (Isa_32:15 ), it will become like the garden of Eden (Isa_51:3 ); the desert will rejoice and blossom like the crocus (Isa_35:1 ). The earth will yield its fruit ten thousandfold; on each vine will be a thousand branches, on each branch a thousand clusters, in each cluster a thousand grapes, and each grape will give a cor (120 gallons) of wine (2 Baruch 29:5-8). There will be a plenty such as the world has never known and the hungry will rejoice.

(iii) A consistent part of the dream of the new age was that in it all wars would cease. The swords will be beaten into ploughshares and the spears into pruning-hooks (Isa_2:4 ). There will be no sword or battle-din. There will be a common law for all men and a great peace throughout the earth, and king will be friendly with king (Sibylline Oracles 3: 751-760).

(iv) One of the loveliest ideas concerning the new age was that in it there would be no more enmity between the beasts or between man and the beasts. The leopard and the kid, the cow and the bear, the lion and the falling will play and lie down together (Isa_11:6-9 ; Isa_65:25 ). There will be a new covenant between man and the beasts of the field (Hos_2:18 ). Even a child will be able to play where the poisonous reptiles have their holes and their dens (Isa_11:6-9 ; Isa 2Baruch Isa_73:6 ). In all nature there will be a universal reign of friendship in which none will wish to do another any harm.

(v) The coming age will bring the end of weariness, of sorrow and of pain. The people will not sorrow any more (Jer_31:12 ); everlasting joy will be upon their heads (Isa_35:10 ). There will be no such thing as an untimely death (Isa_65:20-22 ); no man will say: "I am sick" (Isa_33:24 ); death will be swallowed up in victory and God will wipe tears from all faces (Isa_25:8 ). Disease will withdraw; anxiety, anguish and lamentation will pass away; childbirth will have no pain; the reaper will not grow weary and the builder will not be toilworn (Bar 73:2-74:4). The age to come will be one when what Virgil called "the tears of things" will be no more.

(vi) The age to come will be an age of righteousness. There will be perfect holiness among men. Mankind will be a good generation, living in the fear of the Lord in the days of mercy (Wis 17:28-49; Wis 18:9-10).

The Revelation is the New Testament representative of all these apocalyptic works which tell of the terrors before the end of time and of the blessings of the age to come; and it uses all the familiar imagery. It may often be difficult and even unintelligible to us, but for the most part it was using pictures and ideas which those who read it would know and understand.

The Author Of The Revelation

(i) The Revelation was written by a man called John. He begins by saying that God sent the visions he is going to relate to his servant John (Rev_1:1 ). He begins the body of his book by saying that it is from John to the Seven Churches in Asia (Rev_1:4 ). He speaks of himself as John the brother and companion in tribulation of those to whom he writes (Rev_1:9 ). "I John," he says, "am he who heard and saw these things" (Rev_22:8 ).

(ii) This John was a Christian who lived in Asia in the same sphere as the Christians of the Seven Churches. He calls himself the brother of those to whom he writes; and he says he too shares in the tribulations through which they are passing (Rev_1:9 ).

(iii) He was most probably a Jew of Palestine who had come to Asia Minor late in life. We can deduce that from the kind of Greek he writes. It is vivid, powerful, and pictorial; but from the point of view of grammar it is easily the worst Greek in the New Testament. He makes mistakes which no schoolboy who knew Greek could make. Greek is certainly not his native language; and it is often clear that he is writing in Greek and thinking in Hebrew. He is steeped in the Old Testament. He quotes it or alludes to it 245 times. These quotations come from about twenty Old Testament books; his favourites are Isaiah, Daniel, Ezekiel, Psalms, Exodus, Jeremiah, Zechariah. Not only does he know the Old Testament intimately; he is also familiar with the apocalyptic books written between the Testaments.

(iv) His claim for himself is that he is a prophet, and it is on that fact that he rests his right to speak. The command of the Risen Christ to him is that he must prophesy (Rev_10:11 ). It is through the spirit of prophecy that Jesus gives his witness to the Church (Rev_19:10 ). God is the God of the holy prophets and sends his angel to show his servants what is going to happen in the world (Rev_22:6 ). The angel speaks to him of his brothers the prophets (Rev_22:9 ). His book is characteristically prophecy or the words of prophecy (Rev_22:7 , Rev_22:10 ; Rev_22:18-19 ).

It is here that Johnauthority lies. He does not call himself an apostle, as Paul does when he wishes to underline his right to speak. He has no "official" or administrative position in the Church; he is a prophet. He writes what he sees; and since what he sees comes from God, his word is faithful and true (Rev_1:11 , Rev_1:19 ).

When John was writing, the prophets had a very special place in the Church. He was writing, as we shall see, about A.D. 90. By that time the Church had two kinds of ministry. There was the local ministry; those engaged in it were settled permanently in one congregation, the elders, the deacons and the teachers. And there was the itinerant ministry of those whose sphere of labour was not confined to any one congregation. In it were the apostles, whose writ ran throughout the whole Church; and there were the prophets, who were wandering preachers. The prophets were greatly respected; to question the words of a true prophet was to sin against the Holy Spirit, the Didache says (Rev_11:7 ). The accepted order of service for the celebration of the Eucharist is laid down in the Didache, but at the end comes the sentence: "But allow the prophets to hold the Eucharist as they will" (Rev_10:7 ). The prophets were regarded as uniquely the men of God, and John was a prophet.

(v) It is not likely that he was an apostle. Otherwise he would hardly have so stressed the fact that he was a prophet. Further, he speaks of the apostles as if he was looking back on them as the great foundations of the Church. He speaks of the twelve foundations of the wall of the Holy City and then says, "and on them were the twelve names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb" (Rev_21:14 ). He would scarcely have spoken of the apostles like that if he himself was one of them.

This conclusion is rendered even more likely by the title of the book. In the King James and English Revised Versions it is called The Revelation of St. John the Divine. In the Revised Standard Version and in Moffattand in J. B. Phillipsranslations the Divine is omitted, because it is absent from the majority of the oldest Greek manuscripts; but it does go very far back. The Greek is theologos (G2312 and the word is here used in the sense in which we speak of "the Puritan divines" and means, not John the saintly but John the theologian; and the very addition of that title seems to distinguish this John from the John who was the apostle.

As long ago as A.D. 250 Dionysius, the great scholar who was head of the Christian school at Alexandria, saw that it was well nigh impossible that the same man could have written the Revelation and the Fourth Gospel, if for no other reason than that the Greek is so different. The Greek of the Fourth Gospel is simple but correct; the Greek of the Revelation is rugged and vivid, but notoriously incorrect. Further, the writer of the Fourth Gospel studiously avoids any mention of his own name; the John of the Revelation repeatedly mentions it. Still further, the ideas of the two books are different. The great ideas of the Fourth Gospel, light, life, truth and grace, do not dominate the Revelation. At the same time there are enough resemblances in thought and language to make it clear that both books come from the same centre and from the same world of thought.

The Date Of The Revelation

We have two sources which enable us to fix the date.

(i) There is the account which tradition gives to us. The consistent tradition is that John was banished to Patmos in the time of Domitian; that he saw his visions there; at the death of Domitian was liberated and came back to Ephesus; and there set down the visions he had seen. Victorinus, who wrote towards the end of the third century A.D., says in his commentary on the Revelation: "John, when he saw these things, was in the island of Patmos, condemned to the mines by Domitian the Emperor. There, therefore, he saw the revelation... When he was afterwards set free from the mines, he handed down this revelation which he had received from God." Jerome is even more detailed: "In the fourteenth year after the persecution of Nero, John was banished to the island of Patmos, and there wrote the Revelation... Upon the death of Domitian, and upon the repeal of his acts by the senate, because of their excessive cruelty, he returned to Ephesus, when Nerva was emperor." Eusebius says: "The apostle and evangelist John related these things to the Churches, when he had returned from exile in the island after the death of Domitian." Tradition makes it certain that John saw his visions in exile in Patmos; the only thing that is doubtful--and it is not important--is whether he wrote them down during the time of his banishment or when he returned to Ephesus. On this evidence we will not be wrong if we date the Revelation about A.D. 95.

(ii) The second line of evidence is the material in the book. There is a completely new attitude to Rome and to the Roman Empire.

In Acts the tribunal of the Roman magistrate was often the safest refuge of the Christian missionaries against the hatred of the Jews and the fury of the mob. Paul was proud that he was a Roman citizen and again and again claimed the rights to which every Roman citizen was entitled. In Philippi he brought the local magistrates to heel by revealing his citizenship (Act_16:36-40 ). In Corinth Gallio dismissed the complaints against him with impartial Roman justice (Act_18:1-17 ). In Ephesus the Roman authorities were careful for his safety against the rioting mob (Act_19:13-41 ). In Jerusalem the Roman tribune rescued him from what might have become a lynching (Act_21:30-40 ). When the Roman tribune in Jerusalem heard that there was to be an attempt on Paullift on the way to Caesarea, he took every possible step to ensure his safety (Act_23:12-31 ). When Paul despaired of justice in Palestine, he exercised his right as a citizen and appealed direct to Caesar (Act_25:10-11 ). When he wrote to the Romans, he urged upon them obedience to the powers that be, because they were ordained by God and were a terror only to the evil, and not to the good (Rom_13:1-7 ). Peteradvice is exactly the same. Governors and kings are to be obeyed, for their task is given them by God. It is a Christianduty to fear God and honour the emperor (1Pe_2:12-17 ). In writing to the Thessalonians it is likely that Paul points to the power of Rome as the one thing which is controlling the threatening chaos of the world (2Th_2:7 ).

In the Revelation there is nothing but blazing hatred for Rome. Rome is a Babylon, the mother of harlots, drunk with the blood of the saints and the martyrs (Rev_17:5-6 ). John hopes for nothing but her total destruction.

The explanation of this change in attitude lies in the wide development of Caesar worship which, with its accompanying persecution, is the background of the Revelation.

By the time of the Revelation Caesar worship was the one religion which covered the whole Roman Empire; and it was because of their refusal to conform to its demands that Christians were persecuted and killed. Its essence was that the reigning Roman Emperor, as embodying the spirit of Rome, was divine. Once a year everyone in the Empire had to appear before the magistrates to burn a pinch of incense to the god-head of Caesar and to say: "Caesar is Lord." After he had done that, a man might go away and worship any god or goddess he liked, so long as that worship did not infringe decency and good order; but he must go through this ceremony in which he acknowledged the Emperordivinity.

The reason was very simple. Rome had a vast heterogeneous empire, stretching from one end of the known world to another. It had in it many tongues, races and traditions. The problem was how to weld this varied mass into a self-conscious unity. There is no unifying force like that of a common religion but none of the national religions could conceivably have become universal. Caesar worship could. It was the one common act and belief which turned the Empire into a unity. To refuse to burn the pinch of incense and to say: "Caesar is Lord," was not an act of irreligion; it was an act of political disloyalty. That is why the Romans dealt with the utmost severity with the man who would not say: "Caesar is Lord." And no Christian could give the title Lord to any other than Jesus Christ. This was the centre of his creed.

We must see how this Caesar worship developed and how it was at its peak when the Revelation was written

One basic fact must be noted. Caesar worship was not imposed on the people from above. It arose from the people; it might even be said that it arose in spite of efforts by the early emperors to stop it, or at least to curb it. And it is to be noted that of all the people in the Empire only the Jews were exempt from it.

Caesar worship began as a spontaneous outburst of gratitude to Rome. The people of the provinces well knew what they owed to Rome. Impartial Roman justice had taken the place of capricious and tyrannical oppression. Security had taken the place of insecurity. The great Roman roads spanned the world; and the roads were safe from brigands and the seas were clear of pirates. The pax Romana, the Roman peace, was the greatest thing which ever happened to the ancient world. As Virgil had it, Rome felt her destiny to be "to spare the fallen and to cast down the proud." Life had a new order about it. E. J. Goodspeed writes: "This was the pax Romana. The provincial under Roman sway found himself in a position to conduct his business, provide for his family, send his letters, and make his journeys in security, thanks to the strong hand of Rome."

Caesar worship did not begin with the deification of the Emperor. It began with the deification of Rome. The spirit of the Empire was deified under the name of the goddess Roma. Roma stood for all the strong and benevolent power of the Empire. The first temple to Roma was erected in Smyrna as far back as 195 B.C. It was no great step to think of the spirit of Rome being incarnated in one man, the Emperor. The worship of the Emperor began with the worship of Julius Caesar after his death. In 29 B.C. the Emperor Augustus granted to the provinces of Asia and Bithynia permission to erect temples in Ephesus and Nicaea for the joint worship of the goddess Roma and the deified Julius Caesar. At these shrines Roman citizens were encouraged and even exhorted to worship. Then another step was taken. To provincials who were not Roman citizens Augustus gave permission to erect temples in Pergamum in Asia and in Nicomedia in Bithynia, for the worship of Roma and himself. At first the worship of the reigning Emperor was considered to be something permissible for provincial non-citizens, but not for those who had the dignity of the citizenship.

There was an inevitable development. It is human to worship a god who can be seen rather than a spirit. Gradually men began more and more to worship the Emperor himself instead of the goddess Roma. It still required special permission from the senate to erect a temple to the living Emperor, but by the middle of the first century that permission was more and more freely given. Caesar worship was becoming the universal religion of the Roman Empire. A priesthood developed and the worship was organized into presbyteries, whose officials were held in the highest honour.

This worship was never intended to wipe out other religions. Rome was essentially tolerant. A man might worship Caesar and his own god. But more and more Caesar worship became a test of political loyalty; it became, as has been said, the recognition of the dominion of Caesar over a manlife and soul. Let us, then trace the development of this worship up to, and immediately beyond, the writing of the Revelation.

(i) Augustus, who died in A.D. 14, allowed the worship of Julius Caesar, his great predecessor. He allowed non-citizens in the provinces to worship himself but he did not permit citizens to do so; and he made no attempt to enforce this worship.

(ii) Tiberius (A.D. 14-37) could not halt Caesar worship. He forbade temples to be built and priests to be appointed for his own worship; and in a letter to Gython, a Laconian city, he definitely refused divine honours for himself. So far from enforcing Caesar worship, he actively discouraged it.

(iii) Caligula (A.D. 37-41), the next Emperor, was an epileptic, a madman and a megalomaniac. He insisted on divine honours. He attempted to enforce Caesar worship even on the Jews, who had always been and who always were to remain exempt from it. He planned to place his own image in the Holy of Holies in the Temple in Jerusalem, a step which would certainly have provoked unyielding rebellion. Mercifully he died before he could carry out his plans. But in his reign we have an episode when Caesar worship became an imperial demand.

(iv) Caligula was succeeded by Claudius (A.D. 41-54) who completely reversed his insane policy. He wrote to the governor of Egypt--there were a million Jews in Alexandria--fully approving the Jewish refusal to call the Emperor a god and granting them full liberty to enjoy their own worship. On his accession to the throne, he wrote to Alexandria saying: "I deprecate the appointment of a High Priest to me and the erection of temples, for I do not wish to be offensive to my contemporaries, and I hold that sacred fanes and the like have been by all ages attributed to the immortal gods as peculiar honours."

(v) Nero (A.D. 54-68) did not take his own divinity seriously and did nothing to insist on Caesar worship. It is true that he persecuted the Christians; but this was not because they would not worship him, but because he had to find scapegoats for the great fire of Rome.

(vi) On the death of Nero there were three Emperors in eighteen months--Galba, Otto and Vitellius, and in such a time of chaos the question of Caesar worship did not arise.

(vii) The next two Emperors, Vespasian (A.D. 69-79) and Titus (A.D. 79-81), were wise rulers, who made no insistence on Caesar worship.

(viii) The coming of Domitian (A.D. 81-96) brought a complete change. He was a devil. He was the worst of all things--a cold-blooded persecutor. With the exception of Caligula, he in as the first Emperor to take his divinity seriously and to demand Caesar worship. The difference was that Caligula was an insane devil; Domitian was a sane devil, which is much more terrifying. He erected a monument to "the deified Titus son of the deified Vespasian." He began a campaign of bitter persecution against all who would not worship the ancient gods--"the atheists" as he called them. In particular he launched his hatred against the Jews and the Christians. When he arrived in the theatre with his empress, the crowd were urged to rise and shout: "All hail to our Lord and his Lady!" He enacted that he himself was a god. He informed all provincial governors that government announcements and proclamations must begin: "Our Lord and God Domitian commands..." Everyone who addressed him in speech or in writing must begin: "Lord and God."

Here is the background of the Revelation. All over the Empire men and women must call Domitian god--or die. Caesar worship was the deliberate policy; all must say: "Caesar is Lord." There was no escape.

What were the Christians to do? What hope had they? They had not many wise and not many mighty. They had no influence or prestige. Against them had risen the might of Rome which no nation had ever resisted. They were confronted with the choice--Caesar or Christ. It was to encourage men in such times that the Revelation was written. John did not shut his eyes to the terrors; he saw dreadful things and he saw still more dreadful things on the way; but beyond them he saw glory for those who defied Caesar for the love of Christ. The Revelation comes from one of the most heroic ages in all the history of the Christian Church. It is true that Domitiansuccessor Nerva (A.D. 96-98) repealed the savage laws; but the damage was done, the Christians were outlaws, and the Revelation is a clarion call to be faithful unto death in order to win the crown of life.

b The Book Worth Studying

No one can shut his eyes to the difficulty of the Revelation. It is the most difficult book in the Bible; but it is infinitely worth studying, for it contains the blazing faith of the Christian Church in the days when life was an agony and men expected the end of the heavens and the earth as they knew them but still believed that beyond the terror was the glory and above the raging of men was the power of God.

FURTHER READING

Revelation

G. B. Caird, The Revelation of Saint John the Divine (ACB; E)

R. H. Charles, Revelation (ICC; G)

T. S. Kepler, The Book of Revelation

H. B. Swete, The Apocalypse of St John (MmC; G)

Abbreviations

ACB: A. and C. Black New Testament Commentary

ICC: International Critical Commentary

MmC: Macmillan Commentary

E: English Text

G: Greek Text

Barclay: Revelation 1 (Chapter Introduction)

God's Revelation To Men (Rev_1:1-3)

The Means Of God's Revelation (Rev_1:1-3 Continued)

Servants Of God (Rev_1:1-3 Continued)

The Blessed's Of God (Rev_1:1-3 Continued)

The Message And Its Destination (Rev_1:4-6)

The Blessing And Its Source (Rev_1:4-6 Continued)

The Sevenfold Spirit (Rev_1:4-6 Continued)

The Titles Of Jesus (Rev_1:4-6 Continued)

What Jesus Did For Men (Rev_1:4-6 Continued)

The Coming Glory (Rev_1:7)

The God In Whom We Trust (Rev_1:8)

Through Tribulation To The Kingdom (Rev_1:9)

The Island Of Banishment (Rev_1:9 Continued)

In The Spirit On The Lord's Day (Rev_1:10-11)

The Divine Messenger (Rev_1:12-13)

The Picture Of The Risen Christ (Rev_1:14-18)

(1) The Titles Of The Risen Lord (Rev_1:14-18 Continued)

(2) The Titles Of The Risen Lord (Rev_1:14-18 Continued)

The Churches And Their Angels (Rev_1:20)

Constable: Revelation (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Historical background

The opening verses of the book state that "John" wrote it (1:1, 4, 9; cf. 22:8). >From the first century to the present day almost all orthodox scholars have concluded that this means the Apostle John.¹ Two noteworthy exceptions were Luther and Zwingli.² Today many scholars who accept the divine inspiration of the book believe the Apostle John wrote it.

Some of the early church fathers (Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius, Irenaeus, and Victorinus) wrote that the Apostle John experienced exile on the island of Patmos during Domitian's reign.³ They wrote that the government allowed John to return to Ephesus after this emperor died. Domitian died in A.D. 96. Consequently many conservative interpreters date the writing of this book near A.D. 95 or 96.

"Perhaps more than any other book in the NT, the Apocalypse enjoyed wide distribution and early recognition."⁴

Where did John get the revelation that he wrote down in this book? He said that he received it from Jesus Christ through angelic mediation (1:1). Most of the details of this revelation were undoubtedly new to John. However there are remarkable parallels between this revelation and the Lord Jesus' teaching in the Olivet Discourse (Matt. 24-25; Mark 13; Luke 21). The Book of Revelation clearly builds on that foundation.⁵ The apocalyptic sections of certain books of the Old Testament--particularly Daniel, Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Psalms--contain former revelation that God gave His prophets about the end times.⁶ The revelation that Jesus gave in the Olivet Discourse and later to John on Patmos supplements that earlier revelation.

"Jesus in His [Olivet] discourse was clearly anticipating what He was to show John in much greater detail more than six decades later here on the island of Patmos."⁷

Message⁸

The subject of the Book of Revelation is Jesus Christ (1:1). It is an unveiling ("revelation") of Him. What does this book reveal about Christ? The Book of Revelation is the unveiling of the person of Jesus Christ, the power of Jesus Christ, and the program of Jesus Christ.

First, it is a revelation of the person of Jesus Christ. It unveils who He is and what He is. This book is the climax of Scriptural Christology.

Notice first what the Book reveals about who Jesus Christ is. Three emphases in the book clarify His essential being.

1. He is the same human Jesus Christ who was born on earth at His first coming. He is the same Jesus on whose chest John reclined (1:1, 2, 5). He is a "son of man," possessing a full human nature (1:13). Moreover He will always be that (22:20).

2. He is also fully divine, one with the Father (1:12-18; 3:14). He reveals God fully (19:13). He will share the throne of the universe with the Father eventually (22:1, 3).

3. He is the eternal God (1:8; 21:6; 22:13).

Notice also what the book of Revelation reveals about what Jesus Christ is. Seven titles give us a fuller appreciation of His place in history.

1. In the past He proved to be the Root of David, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the promised Messiah (3:7; 5:5; 22:16). This became clear at His baptism (Matt. 3:17).

2. In the past, also at His first advent, He proved to be the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (5:6, 12-13; 6:1). This became clear at His death.

3. In the past He proved to be the First-born from the dead, the victor over death and Hades (1:5-6, 2:8). This became clear at His resurrection.

4. In the present He is the Lord of the churches (2:1; 3:1; cf. 22:20).

5. In the future He will prove to be the Judge of all mankind (2:12, 18; 3:14; 6:1; et al.). This is His primary role during the Great Tribulation.

6. In the future He will prove to be King of kings and Lord of lords (1:5; 17:14; 19:16). This is His primary role during the Millennium.

7. In the future He will prove to be the Morning Star (22:16; cf. 2:28). His second coming will signal the dawning of a new day in history. This will find its clearest revelation in the new heavens and earth. The Millennium will only be a foretaste of that day.

This book is also a revelation of the power of Jesus Christ. Individuals have various kinds of power. Jesus Christ has all kinds of power and all power of all kinds.

He has all personal power.

1. He has inherent power. We see this in His control of all other beings and forces (e.g., believers, unbelievers, Satan, the beasts, human armies, etc.). He wields the power Himself.

2. He also has acquired power. His Father has given Him this power (5:1, 6-7; cf. Matt. 28:18). He exercises all the power of the Godhead.

Second, He has all instrumental power. That is He has authority over all things as He executes His power. All things are His instruments or tools.

1. He has power over all material objects and forces. He controls the physical universe. We can see this in His using individuals, storms, earthquakes, and even the heavenly bodies to accomplish His will.

2. He also has power over all spiritual entities and authorities. He controls the angels, demons, and Satan. Every power in the universe is under His control (e.g., 13:15).

Third, He has all effectual power. That is He has power to accomplish anything. He can affect any changes He desires.

1. He has all destructive power. He can destroy anything that exists: individuals, systems (e.g., Babylonianism), objects, even the heavens and earth.

2. He also has all constructive power. He can create new human bodies (by resurrection), new systems (new religious and economic orders), and new cities (the new Jerusalem). He will even create new heavens and a new earth.

The Book of Revelation also reveals the program of Jesus Christ (1:19). It gives us much detail about God's program and how it will unfold in the future. However let me point out God's purposes that this program unveils.

Christ's immediate purpose is to defeat and destroy Satan and sin.

We see Him doing this in the church age in Revelation as He deals with believers in the seven churches (chs. 2-3). His purpose is to purify to Himself a people who will be a kingdom and priests to God (1:6).

We also see Him doing this in the Tribulation in Revelation. We see it in His judgment of those who have not believed on Him (chs. 4-18). His purpose is to pour out God's wrath on His enemies for their refusal to receive His grace (16:1).

Christ's ultimate purpose is to dwell among His people and experience intimate fellowship with them.

We see Him doing this in the Millennium to an extent never before attained in history (20:6).

We see Him doing this in the new earth perfectly and eternally (22:3-5). This has always been God's ultimate purpose (e.g., Adam, Noah, the patriarchs, Israel, the church, the Millennium). He will achieve it completely in the new earth.

The Book of Revelation then is an unveiling of Jesus Christ--His person, His power, and His program--for the rest of history. This is the message statement. We must never forget that He is the subject of this book as we seek to understand what He has revealed here.

Constable: Revelation (Outline)

Outline

I. The preparation of the prophet ch. 1

A. The prologue of the book 1:1-8

1. The preface 1:1-3

2. The address and doxology 1:4-6

3. The theme 1:7-8

B. The commission of the prophet 1:9-20

1. The first commission to write 1:9-11

2. The source of the commission 1:12-16

3. The amplification of the commission 1:17-20

II. The letters to the seven churches chs. 2-3

A. The letter to the church in Ephesus 2:1-7

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:1

2. Commendation 2:2-3

3. Rebuke 2:4

4. Exhortation 2:5-6

5. Promise 2:7

B. The letter to the church in Smyrna 2:8-11

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:8

2. Commendation 2:9

3. Exhortation 2:10a

4. Promise 2:10b-11

C. The letter to the church in Pergamum 2:12-17

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:12

2. Commendation 2:13

3. Rebuke 2:14-15

4. Exhortation 2:16

5. Promise 2:17

D. The letter to the church in Thyatira 2:18-29

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:18

2. Commendation 2:19

3. Rebuke 2:20-23

4. Exhortation 2:24-25

5. Promise 2:26-29

E. The letter to the church in Sardis 3:1-6

1. Destination and description of Christ 3:1a-b

2. Commendation and rebuke 3:1c, 2b

3. Exhortation 3:2a, 3

4. Promise 3:4-6

F. The letter to the church in Philadelphia 3:7-13

1. Destination and description of Christ 3:7

2. Commendation 3:8

3. Promise 3:9-11a, 12

4. Exhortation 3:11b, 13

G. The letter to the church in Laodicea 3:14-22

1. Destination and description of Christ 3:14

2. Rebuke 3:15-17

3. Exhortation 3:18-19

4. Promise 3:20-22

III. The revelation of the future 4:1-22:5

A. Introduction to the judgments of the Tribulation chs. 4-5

1. The throne in heaven ch. 4

2. The Lamb on the throne ch. 5

B. The first six seal judgments ch. 6

1. The first seal 6:1-2

2. The second seal 6:3-4

3. The third seal 6:5-6

4. The fourth seal 6:7-8

5. The fifth seal 6:9-11

6. The sixth seal 6:12-17

C. Supplementary revelation of salvation in the Great Tribulation ch. 7

1. The sealing of 144,000 Israelites 7:1-8

2. The salvation of the great multitude 7:9-17

D. The first six trumpet judgments chs. 8-9

1. The first four trumpet judgments ch. 8

2. The fifth and sixth trumpet judgments ch. 9

E. Supplementary revelation of John's preparation for recording the remaining judgments in the Great Tribulation ch. 10

1. The appearance of the mighty angel 10:1-4

2. The announcement of the mighty angel 10:5-7

3. The instruction of the mighty angel 10:8-11

F. Supplementary revelation of the two witnesses in the Great Tribulation 11:1-14

1. The temple in Jerusalem 11:1-2

2. The ministry of the two witnesses 11:3-6

3. The death of the two witnesses 11:7-10

4. The resurrection of the two witnesses 11:11-13

5. The end of the second woe 11:14

G. The seventh trumpet judgment 11:15-19

H. Supplementary revelation of Satan's activity in the Great Tribulation chs. 12-13

1. The activity of Satan himself ch. 12

2. The activity of Satan's agents ch. 13

I. Supplementary revelation of preparations for the final judgments in the Great Tribulation chs. 14-15

1. Judgment at the end of the Great Tribulation ch. 14

2. Preparation for the bowl judgments ch. 15

J. The seven bowl judgments ch. 16

1. The commencement of the bowl judgments 16:1

2. The first bowl 16:2

3. The second bowl 16:3

4. The third bowl 16:4

5. Ascriptions of angelic and martyr praise 16:5-7

6. The fourth bowl 16:8-9

7. The fifth bowl 16:10-11

8. The sixth bowl 16:12-16

9. The seventh bowl 16:17-21

K. Supplementary revelation of the judgment of ungodly systems in the Great Tribulation chs. 17-18

1. Religion in the Great Tribulation ch. 17

2. Commerce in the Great Tribulation ch. 18

L. The Second Coming of Christ ch. 19

1. The praise of God in heaven 19:1-10

2. The return of Christ to earth 19:11-16

3. The destruction of the wicked on earth 19:17-21

M. The millennial reign of Christ ch. 20

1. The binding of Satan 20:1-3

2. The resurrection of tribulation martyrs 20:4-6

3. The final judgment of Satan 20:7-10

4. The judgment of the wicked 20:11-15

N. The eternal state 21:1-22:5

1. The vision of the new heaven and earth 21:1

2. John's first vision of the New Jerusalem 21:2-8

3. John's second vision of the New Jerusalem 21:9-22:5

IV. The epilogue to the book 22:6-21

A. The testimony of the angel 22:6-7

B. The testimony of John 22:8-11

C. The testimony of Jesus and John's response 22:12-20

D. The final benediction 22:21

Constable: Revelation

Revelation

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_____. "The Glorified Christ on Patmos." Bibliotheca Sacra 122:487 (July-September 1965):241-47.

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_____. Revelation 8-22: An Exegetical Commentary. Chicago: Moody Press, 1995.

_____. "The Spiritual Gift of Prophecy in Rev 22:18." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 32:2 (June 1989):201-16.

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_____. "Making Sense of Rev 20:1-10? Harold Hoehner Versus Recapitulation." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 37:4 (December 1994):539-51.

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_____. "Who Are The Outsiders? Revelation 22:14-17." Grace Evangelical Society News 8:6 (November-December 1993):2-3.

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_____. "The Two Witnesses in Revelation 11." Bibliotheca Sacra 154:615 (July-September 1997):344-54.

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Young, Richard, and Stewart Custer. "Annotated Bibliography on Revelation." Biblical Viewpoint 16:1 (April 1982):81-106.

Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: Revelation (Book Introduction)

THE

APOCALYPSE OF ST. JOHN,

THE APOSTLE.

INTRODUCTION.

Though some in the first ages [centuries] doubted whether this book was canonical, and who was the author of it, (see Eusebius, lib. 7, History of the Church, chap. xxv.) yet it is certain much the part of the ancient fathers acknowledged both that it was a part of the canon, and that it was written by St. John, the apostle and evangelist. See Tillemont, in his ninth note upon St. John, where he cites St. Justin Martyr, St. Irenæus, St. Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, St. Cyprian, St. Athanasius., Eusebius, St. Ambrose, St. Jerome, St. Augustine, &c. It was written in Greek to the churches in Asia [Asia Minor], under Domitian, about the year 96 or 97, long after the destruction of Jerusalem, when St. John was banished to the island of Patmos, in the Ægean Sea. It is by some called the prophecy of the New Testament, and the accomplishment of the predictions of all other prophets, by the first coming of Christ at his incarnation, and by his second coming at the end of the world. As to the time when the chief predictions should come to pass, we have no certainty, as appears by the different opinions, both of the ancient fathers, and late interpreters. Many think that most things set down from the fourth chapter to the end, will not be fulfilled till a little time before the end of the world. Others are of an opinion, that a great part of them, and particularly the fall of the wicked Babylon, happened at the destruction of paganism, by the destruction of heathen Rome, and its persecuting heathen emperors. Of these interpretations, see Alcazar in his long commentary, the learned Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, in his treatise on this book, and P. Alleman, in his notes on the same Apocalypse, tom. xii, who, in his preface, says, that this is in a great measure may be now looked upon as the opinion followed by the learned men. In fine, others think St. John's design was in a mystical way, by metaphors and allegories, to represent the attempts and persecutions of the wicked against the servants of God, the punishments that should in a short time fall upon Babylon, that is, upon all the wicked in general; the eternal happiness and reward which God had reserved for the pious inhabitants of Jerusalem, that is, for his faithful servants, after their short trials and tribulations of this mortal life. In the mean time we meet with many profitable instructions and admonitions, which we may easily enough understand; but we have no certainty, when we apply these predictions to particular events; for as St. Jerome takes notice, the Apocalypse has as many mysteries as words, or rather mysteries in every word. Apocalypsis Joannis tot habet sacramenta quot verba....parum dixi, in verbis singulus multiplices latent intelligentiæ . (Ep. ad Paulin. t. iv., p. 574. Edit. Benedict.) (Witham) --- In the first, second, and third chapters of this book are contained instructions and admonitions which St. John was commanded to write to the seven bishops of the churches in Asia. And in the following chapters, to the end, are contained prophecies of things that are to come to pass in the Church of Christ, particularly towards the end of the world, in the time of antichrist. It was written in Greek, in the island of Patmos, where St. John was in banishment by order of the cruel emperor Domitian, about sixty-four years after our Lord's ascension. (Challoner) --- This is the last in order of the sacred writings, and contains, in twenty-two chapters, revelations, as the name imports, extremely obscure, it must be acknowledged, yet undoubtedly of utmost importance to the Christian Church, if we may judge from the dignity of the author, who is the beloved disciple, or the grandeur and majesty of the ideas, which pervade every chapter of the work. Being a sealed book, or a hidden mystery, in the beginning of the Church, when nothing of this important prophecy had yet been fulfilled, it is no wonder we are deprived of the usual lights which we have hitherto followed in expounding the Scripture, viz. the works of the fathers. So little was it indeed understood at that time, that by many it was long considered as a reverie, and an extravagant composition, though the most learned always looked upon it as an inspired work. One reason, which may have led the faithful to class this among the apocryphal works, was the number of fables and illusions published by the misguided piety of the ignorant. We know at least, that on account of the heresy of Cerinthus, which was filled up with illusion and fanaticism, this book was not circulated among the faithful: a few copies were kept with care in the archives of the Churches, to be perused only by the bishop, or such as he thought not likely to abuse it. With regard to the interpretation of it, it will not be expected that it should be attempted in a work of this kind. We shall therefore only give a short account of the principal commentators, and their plans, that the enlightened reader may consult their works, if he wish to enter deeper into the subject. But it should never be forgotten, that the connection of sublime and prophetical ideas which compose this work, has at all times been a labyrinth, in which the greatest geniuses have lost themselves, and a rock on which most commentators have split, the great Sir Isaac Newton not excepted. Hence Scaliger's praise of Calvin; Calvinus sapuit, quia non scripsit in Apocalypsim. 1. The fathers living before the accomplishment of the events, have of course given us no interpretation. Those, therefore, who have written on it at all, have explained it in a mere moral sense, and drawn from it useful parables and instructions. None of them have given a regular systematic explanation. It must, however, be observed, as a circumstance of some moment, that many of them, particularly Sts. Augustine and Jerome, thought the Apocalypse contained prophecies regarding the whole time of the existence of the Church of Christ, till its triumphant state in the new Jerusalem. 2. Among the moderns we have abundant interpreters of the Apocalypse in all the reformed Churches. It has indeed grown into a mania among them, the only difference being their respective degrees of absurdity. This has been to all of them the common quarry, whence they have hewn the stones to cast at their mother Church. For to this day they have continued to disgrace themselves and Christianity, by depicting the Church of Rome as the scarlet whore of Babylon, popery the beast, and the pope antichrist. We must, however, except Grotius and Hammond, who have given historical interpretations, and some few others. 3. Among Catholic expositors stands eminently conspicuous the learned bishop of Meaux, Bosseut. This light of the Galican Church has improved upon and filled up the outlines which Grotius had only sketched. The first three chapters, according to him, regard only the Churches of Asia, to which they are addressed; the other chapters, to nineteen, have been fulfilled in the persecutions which the Church endured under the pagan emperors. The last three are merely allegorical of the triumphs which the Church finally gained over her persecutors. 4. Du Pin has taken a wider range. The last three chapters regard the final judgment, and the establishment of the Church in heaven. And all the chapters between the first three and last three, are mere general descriptions of persecutions, fall of tyrants, heresies, &c. which shall happen in the Church; represented under the various figures which the rich imagination of St. John supplied. This system certainly removes all difficulties at once, by saving the trouble of comparing each figure with corresponding historical facts; but substitutes a vague and indeterminate sense, which we do not expect in prophecy. 5. Calmet does not vary a great deal in the outlines with Bossuet; but their applications of the text to the history are in many points widely different. He conceives the intermediate chapters between the first three and last three to have been fulfilled in the general persecution begun by Diocletian, in 303, and the destruction of Rome, in 410, by Alaric. The last three chapters give the triumph of the martyrs at that period, as well as many things, which are to take place at the coming of antichrist, and the dissolution of the world. 6. Conceiving that all the above commentators had too much contracted the time for the accomplishment of the prophecy, by limiting it to the establishment of Christianity, Monsieur de la Chetardie established a new system upon the supposition that the Apocalypse includes the whole history of Christ's Church upon earth. In doing this, he had the authority of St. Augustine, and other fathers. Observing, therefore, upon an attentive perusal of this work, that there were seven seals, seven trumpets, seven vials, and that at the opening of such seals a new revelation was made, he ingeniously concluded, that the history of the whole Church was divided into seven periods or ages, and that to each period belonged one seal, one trumpet, and one vial. Six of these periods he conceives to be already accomplished, the seventh yet remains concealed in the womb of futurity. 7. Ingenious as is this system of Chetardie, it was not adopted, since Calmet, who wrote after him, preferred his own, which resembled that of Bossuet. It has, however, been renewed by this late bishop Walmsley, under the name of Signor Pastorini, who has taken up the idea and general outline from Chetardie, but illustrated the same with his own interpretation and application to historical facts. The erudition with which the latter author has clothed this system, and the striking aptness of his comparisons of the words of the prophecy to the events which have passed, have gained a very general approbation, and he is almost exclusively followed in the interpretation of this sealed book. How far he has succeeded in his explanation of the seventh age of the Church, cannot be determined by us, since it is shut up in the dark recess of futurity. Posterity will decide. To him we refer the English reader for any further information on the subject, convinced that his researches will be amply gratified, his education wonderfully improved. For, says the illustrious prelate Bossuet, "notwithstanding the obscurities of this book, we experience in its perusal an impression so sweet, and at the same time so magnificent, of the majesty of God; such sublime ideas present themselves of the mystery of Jesus Christ, such noble images of his victories and his reign, and such terrible effects of his judgment, that the soul is quite moved and penetrated. All the beauties of the Scriptures are collected in this book. Whatever there is melting, lively, and majestic in either the law or the prophets, acquires in this book an additional lustre." O truly adorable truths contained herein! of which God is the plentitude and eternal source; of which Jesus Christ is the prophet, the teacher and master; truths which have the angels for servants and ministers; the apostles and bishops for witnesses and depositaries; and all faithful souls, ver. 3. for children and disciples. Let us prepare our hearts to hear Jesus Christ arisen from the dead, discovering to us the mysteries of his kingdom, and the truths of the gospel of his glory. Let us hear his warning voice, and prepare for his speedy coming by a strict observance of every duty. Happy, thrice happy that Christian whom the death of sin, and the sleep of tepidity shall not render deaf to this voice!

====================

Gill: Revelation (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO REVELATION

That this book was written by the Apostle and Evangelist John, is clear not only from the express mention of his name, and from his office, a servant of Jesus Christ, Rev 1:1; but also from the character this writer gives of himself, Rev 1:2; as being an eyewitness of the essential Logos, or Word of God, and who bore a faithful record of him as such, as John did in his Gospel, in a very peculiar and remarkable manner, and from this writer's being in the isle of Patmos when he wrote, Rev 1:9; for of what other John can this be said? to which may be added the testimonies of the ancient writers, as Justin Martyr ^a, who lived within fifty years of the apostle, and Irenaeus ^b, who was the disciple of Polycarp, an hearer of this apostle, and Clemens Alexandrinus ^c, Tertullian ^d, Origen ^e, and others, who ascribe it to him. It was a most monstrously stupid notion of Caius, Dionysius of Alexandria mentions ^f, that it was written by Cerinthus the heretic, when his heresies concerning the divinity and humanity of Christ are most strongly refuted in it. What seems to have led to such a thought is, that the account of the thousand years' reign, and the descent of the new Jerusalem from heaven, seemed to favour the judaism of this man, and his carnal notions of an earthly paradise, whereas they have no such tendency. And as for its being written by another John, who is said to be presbyter at Ephesus, after the apostle, it is not certain there ever was such a man; and if there was, he must be too late to be the writer of this book; nor to him can the above characters agree. What is observed in favour of him, that the penman of this book is called, in the title, John the divine, and not the evangelist, or apostle, will do him no service; for to whom does this character so well agree, as to the Evangelist John, who wrote of divine things in so divine a manner, and particularly concerning the divinity of Christ? hence this book was sometimes called yeologia, "Divinity" ^g: besides, the title of the book is not original, but is what has been affixed to it by others, and varies; for in the Complutensian edition it runs thus,

"the Revelation of the holy Apostle and Evangelist John the Divine.''

In the Vulgate Latin version it is called the Apocalypse of the blessed John the Apostle; and in the Syriac version, the Revelation which was made to John the Evangelist; and in the Arabic version, the Vision of John, the Apostle and Evangelist, to wit, the Apocalypse. All which acknowledge the Apostle John to be the writer of it, and show the sense of the ancients concerning it. Nor is it of any moment what is alleged, that this writer makes mention of his name several times, whereas it was usual with John, both in his Gospel and epistles, to conceal his name; since there is a wide difference between writing an history and epistles to friends, and prophecy which requires the author's name, on whom the authority and truth of the prophecy greatly depend: and so likewise the disagreement of style observed in this book, with the other writings of John, has no force in it; since the prophetic style is always different from an historical and epistolary one; and yet, after all, in many things, there is an agreement; John in this, as in his other writings, speaks of Christ as the Word and Son of God and under the character of the Lamb; and likewise the following: passages may be compared together, as Rev 1:2 with Joh 19:35 and 1Jo 1:1, Rev 1:5 with 1Jo 1:7. All which being observed there no room to doubt, neither of the writer nor of the authority of this book; especially when the agreement of the doctrine contained in it with other parts of the Scripture, the majesty of its style, and above all the many prophecies of things to come to pass in it, several of which have been already fulfilled, are considered; and though it was called in question and rejected by some heretical men, because some things in it did not suit with their tenets, yet we have not the least reason to doubt of its being authentic who have lived to see so much of it already accomplished and which could come from no other but God. As for the time of its writing this is not agreed upon on all hands; the place where, seems to be the isle of Patmos, which yet some question. Some think it was written in the times of Claudius Caesar ^h, before the destruction of Jerusalem. In the title of the Syriac version, this revelation is said to be made to John in the isle of Patmos, into which he was cast by Nero Caesar. But the more commonly received opinion is, that he had this vision there, at the latter end of Domitian's reign ⁱ by whom he was there banished, about the year 95, or 96. But be this as it will, the book is certainly of divine authority, and exceeding useful and instructive; and contains in it the most momentous and important doctrines of the Gospel, concerning a trinity of persons in the Godhead, the deity and sonship of Christ, the divinity and personality of the Spirit, the offices of Christ, the state and condition of man by nature, justification, pardon, and reconciliation by the blood of Christ; and it recommends the several duties of religion, and encourages to the exercise of every grace and gives a very particular account of the rise, power, and fall of antichrist, and of the state of the church of Christ in all the periods of time to the end of the world. And though it is written in an uncommon style, yet may be understood, by the use of proper means, as by prayer and meditation, by comparing it with other prophetic writings, and the history of past times, by which many things in it will appear to have had their accomplishment; and it ought to be observed, that it is a revelation, and not a hidden thing; that it is now not a sealed book, but an open one; and that such are pronounced blessed that read and hear it, and observe the things in it, Rev 1:3; and which is no small encouragement to attempt an explanation of it.

Gill: Revelation 1 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO REVELATION 1

This chapter contains the preface and introduction to the book, and the first vision in it. The preface begins with the title of the book, in which the subject matter of it is pointed at, a Revelation; the author of it, Jesus Christ, who had it from his Father; the minister of it, an angel: the person to whom it was made known, described by his name, office, and the testimony he bore to Christ, his Gospel, and to whatever he saw; and for encouragement to persons to read, hear, and observe it, happiness is pronounced to them Rev 1:1; the inscription of the book follows, in which are the name of the writer, and the place where the churches to whom it is inscribed were, with a salutation of them; in which grace and peace are wished for them, from God the Father, from the Holy Spirit, and from Jesus Christ; who is described by characters expressing his prophetic, priestly, and kingly offices, and by the benefits, favours, and honours bestowed by him on his people, to whom a doxology or ascription of glory is made, Rev 1:4; who is further described, first by his future visible coming in the clouds, which will greatly affect the inhabitants of the earth, and then by himself, as the eternal and almighty God, Rev 1:7; and in order to introduce the vision, hereafter related in this chapter, he that saw it gives an account of himself, by his name, by his relation to the churches, and by his partnership with them in affliction, and of the place he was in; and for what, and of the time when he had the vision, and the frame he was in, and what awakened his attention to it, Rev 1:9; and how, that adverting to it he saw seven golden candlesticks, and in the midst of them one like the son of man, who is described by his clothes and girdle, by his head, hair, and eyes, by his feet and voice, by what he had in his right hand, and by what went out of his mouth, and by his face shining like the sun in its strength, Rev 1:12, next is related the effect this vision had on. John, who upon it fell down as one dead, but was comforted by Christ, laying his right hand on him, and telling him who he was, and bidding him write what he had seen, or should see, Rev 1:17; and the chapter is concluded with an interpretation of the mystery of the seven stars, and the seven candlesticks, Rev 1:20.

College: Revelation (Book Introduction)

PREFACE

This commentary on the Revelation of John has been prepared for general readers of the Bible who desire to deepen their understanding of God's inspired word. It is not a technical commentary, although it draws on the best in current biblical scholarship. It is not a devotional commentary, although the reader will find that Revelation certainly speaks to our day. My primary aim has been to provide a clear, concise explanation of what the biblical text means, showing the evidence on which my conclusions are based.

Extensive cross-referencing makes this volume a convenient reference tool for those seeking insight into a particular passage. However, I strongly recommend that users read through the entire commentary from beginning to end, considering each text in its broader context. It is particularly important to read the Introduction. There I define key terms ("kingdom of God," "labor pains," "apocalypse," etc.) and explain the historical, literary, and theological setting for John's work. Readers who truly desire to understand Revelation will find this approach most productive.

For many years I have taught Revelation at Minnesota Bible College and in other settings. Therefore most of the research for writing this commentary was already done. Nevertheless, completing this project on a tight deadline has been a major undertaking. Many people have provided assistance and support to make this book possible. MBC's President, Mr. Robert Cash, relieved me from certain duties as Vice President of Academics and Professor of New Testament so that I could make a research trip to Virginia. Dr. Mark Mangano, MBC's Professor of Old Testament and Biblical Languages, took over one of my classes to reduce my teaching load. The elders of the Meadow Park Church of Christ in Rochester, Minnesota, granted me a leave of absence from elders' duties so I could devote more time to writing. Dr. Harold Mahan, Director of the G.H. Cachiaras Memorial Library at MBC, provided research assistance. Dr. John Trotti and Mr. Roger Pittard, of Union Theological Seminary in Virginia, also provided library support. My dear wife Cathy read the entire manuscript and provided secretarial assistance. The series editors, Dr. Jack Cottrell and Dr. Tony Ash, also read the manuscript and offered helpful suggestions. Mr. John Hunter of College Press guided me through the publication process. My students and colleagues at MBC, my family members, and so many others offered help and encouragement along the way. The women of the Disciple's Prayer Life Sunday School class have bathed this entire project in prayer. To all these brothers and sisters in Christ, I offer my sincere thanks.

Christopher A. Davis

Rochester, Minnesota

July 2, 2000

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

INTRODUCTION

I. INTENDED TO REVEAL NOT TO CONCEAL

The Revelation of John is one of the most often read, but least understood books of the Bible. The first three words of the Greek text of Revelation are ajpokavluyi" =Ihsou' Cristou' (apokalypsis Içsou Christou), or "apocalypse from Jesus Christ." Apokalypsis is a combination of two Greek terms: The noun kaluvptra ( kalyptra ) refers to some sort of "covering," particularly a woman's "veil." The preposition ajpov ( apo ) communicates the idea of "movement away from" or "removing" something from one location to another. The term apokalypsis literally means, then, "the removal of that which conceals" or "the removal of the veil" (so that one may see what is under it). In English, the term is usually translated "revelation" - something that does not "conceal" or "cover," but which "unveils" or "reveals." So John's own title for his book is "Apocalypse from Jesus Christ" or "Revelation from Jesus Christ."

Beginning with the very first word of the book, the author claims to be revealing something. John expects that his Christian readers will not be puzzled, but able to comprehend his meaning. He does not intend the Revelation to be an enigma, but to be understood . For centuries, however, the book's mysterious symbolism has served to hide more than it reveals. Anyone who reads interpretations of Revelation - from Irenaeus in the second century, to Joachim of Fiore in the twelfth century, to Hal Lindsey in the twentieth century - finds very little agreement regarding what the book means. The reason is that Revelation is so unusual, so unique in the New Testament, that many Bible students simply do not know how to approach it. They lack the "key" for unlocking the secrets John intends to share.

II. APPROACH TO REVELATION

A. AN HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL APPROACH

A breakthrough has come in our own time. Before the mid-1800s, the Bible was viewed as little more than a vast collection of proof texts that could be taken apart and used to support the doctrinal systems of the various churches. No serious effort was made to understand each book as a whole or to seek insight into the meaning of the biblical books by examining the historical circumstances in which they were written. Beginning with Ferdinand Christian Baur in the mid-nineteenth century, a new group of scholars has urged a different approach to Scripture - an historical and critical approach. This is the kind of approach to Revelation adopted in this commentary.

By "critical" we do not mean mere "faultfinding." Instead, being "critical" involves asking questions, weighing evidence, and forming judgments. If we ask no questions of Revelation, then we get no answers. Since we wish to understand this word from God, we ask the same kinds of penetrating questions of it that we ask of any other piece of literature, whether it be the orations of Cicero, the plays of Shakespeare, or the novels of Mark Twain. We ask questions such as: Who wrote this book? When? Where? How? For what purpose? To what audience? In what circumstances? Using what sources? Why is the book structured in the way it is? What did the terminology used by the author mean to the readers of his time? What literary techniques does he employ?

We take an "historical" approach to Revelation because we believe that the Bible should not be studied in a vacuum as if it had no relationship to the events surrounding its writing. One of the primary convictions of the Christian faith is that God does not reveal himself in a vacuum, but in history. He is not just "God." He is the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob; the God of Moses and the Exodus; the God who made an eternal covenant with King David; the God who came among us in the person of Jesus Christ in history. For this reason, one of the best ways to gain an understanding of the Bible is to learn something about the historical settings in which it was produced.

In this commentary, we uncover the meaning of Revelation by asking an historical question: What did this book communicate to its first readers? What did Revelation reveal to the Christians for whom John wrote? How would they have understood its message? In order to answer this question, we must learn all we can about who the first readers were. We must acquaint ourselves with their time, their location, their circumstances, their language, their literature, and their culture. Only then will we be able to discern what Revelation meant to the believers for whom it was intended. Only then will we begin to work out an accurate interpretation of Revelation in its historical context. We will find that most of the truths Christ revealed to the first readers are applicable to his modern-day disciples as well.

B. RESOURCES FOR THE STUDY OF REVELATION

What resources from the ancient world assist us in our efforts to correctly understand and interpret Revelation? Primary texts include:

1. The Hebrew Old Testament

The Old Testament contains history and theological reflection regarding God's covenant relationship with the people of Israel. Christians consider the Old Testament and New Testament (see below) to be the inspired, authoritative word of God.

2. The Septuagint

The Septuagint is a Greek version of the Old Testament. This translation was begun in the third century B.C. after Alexander the Great made Greek the common language uniting his empire. According to legend, seventy Jewish scholars independently produced identical translations of the Hebrew Scriptures, thus attesting to divine inspiration of the Greek text. For this reason, "LXX" (the Roman numeral for "70") serves as the common abbreviation designating the Septuagint translation. The Septuagint was the "Bible" of most of the first Christians, who lived in the Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire. Nearly every line of Revelation contains allusions to either the Septuagint or the Hebrew Old Testament. The Septuagint also includes the Apocrypha.

3. The Old Testament Apocrypha

The Apocrypha is a collection of Jewish writings, most of which date from the second century B.C. through the first century A.D. Christians from the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox traditions consider them part of the authoritative Christian canon. Most Protestants view the Apocrypha as useful, edifying works, but do not give them a status equal to that of the Old and New Testaments.

4. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha

The Pseudepigrapha is a collection of Jewish and Christian documents, with the majority dating from the third century B.C. through the second century A.D. About one-third are called "apocalypses" because they resemble the Revelation of John in their language, style, use of symbolism, and/or shared concepts. Since they represent the same literary type, or "genre," they prove an invaluable aid to the study of John's vision (as discussed below in Part III). James H. Charlesworth has edited a two-volume collection of these writings in English.

5. Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Texts surviving from the Ancient Near East shed light on the cultural roots of ideas found in Revelation. To illustrate, the Babylonian Creation Myth offers insights into the symbolic meaning of the "sea" and the "sea monster" in John's vision. J.B. Pritchard has edited a useful collection of such texts in English translation.

6. The Dead Sea Scrolls

Called "the greatest manuscript discovery in modern times" by W.F. Albright, the Scrolls were produced by a Jewish community at Qumran on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea. Some of the texts are biblical manuscripts, while others describe the beliefs and rules of the Qumran sect. Dating from the end of third century B.C. to A.D. 70, the Dead Sea Scrolls shed light on Palestinian Judaism in the years prior to the writing of Revelation.

7. The New Testament

Written in the first century A.D., the New Testament draws together writings of the very first Christian communities. As such, it represents our earliest and most precious witness to Jesus and the church he founded.

8. Josephus

A contemporary of John, Flavius Josephus composed valuable histories of the Jewish people. He provides us, for example, with a vivid, first-hand description of the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 - an event alluded to in Revelation.

9. The New Testament Apocrypha

The New Testament Apocrypha is a collection of extracanonical Christian writings (some from Gnostic or other heretical groups) from the second century A.D. and beyond. It provides us with additional samples of early Christian apocalypses.

10. Early Christian Fathers

Writings of Christian leaders from the post-New Testament period cast light on the circumstances surrounding Revelation's composition. To illustrate, Eusebius's History of the Church (ca. A.D. 325) identifies the author and date of Revelation. Eusebius also describes two great persecutions suffered by first-century believers - events that play a role in John's vision.

11. Rabbinical Writings

Although most date to the post-New Testament period, teachings of ancient Jewish rabbis (Mishnah, Talmud, Midrashim, etc.) sometimes illuminate the biblical text. We turn to them, for example, when interpreting the symbolism of the four living creatures in Revelation 4.

12. Classical Greek and Latin Literature

Ancient Greek and Latin writers open a door to the world of the first readers of Revelation. To illustrate, Suetonius has left us biographies of the first twelve Roman emperors, some of whom play a role in Revelation. The correspondence of Governor Pliny and the Emperor Trajan explains Roman policy toward Christians in the early second century. The nearly five hundred volumes of the Loeb Classical Library (Harvard University Press) make this wealth of knowledge available to English readers.

We will utilize all these resources and more as we interpret the Revelation of John. We study other ancient writings not because we consider them to be inspired or authoritative - not because we place them on an equal level with the Bible. Rather, we study them because they help us to enter the thought world of John's first readers, so that we may understand Revelation as they understood it.

C. STRENGTHS OF THE HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL

APPROACH TO REVELATION

The weakness of alternative approaches to Revelation is seen in their failure to create a consensus regarding the meaning of the book. There have been nearly as many interpretations of Revelation as there have been interpreters. The weakness of alternative approaches is further highlighted by the erroneous predictions made on the basis of those approaches. To illustrate, when the former Soviet Union disintegrated, many scholars' interpretations of Revelation perished with it.

The strength of an historical and critical approach to Revelation is demonstrated by several facts: First, there is a great deal of agreement among historical and critical scholars regarding the meaning of John's vision. They have found the key to interpreting Revelation, while others must rely heavily on guesswork. Second, an historical and critical interpretation of Revelation makes sense today, and it would have made sense to the first-century Christians for whom the book was written. Third, an historical and critical interpretation reveals that the message of Revelation is wholly compatible and consistent with the message of the rest of the New Testament. Finally, the accuracy of an historical and critical interpretation of Revelation can be demonstrated with objective evidence drawn from other ancient writings. It does not rest on subjective speculation.

III. APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

Other New Testament writers communicate through narrative or epistle, but in Revelation John employs striking imagery and vivid symbolism. Although Revelation is unique in the New Testament, it was not at all unique in John's time. Revelation belongs to a genre, or type of literature, that was most popular in Palestine from the second century B.C. through the second century A.D. Such writings are called "apocalypses," or "apocalyptic literature," partly because they are revelatory in nature and partly because they resemble the Apocalypse of John (see Part I above).

A. JEWISH AND CHRISTIAN APOCALYPSES

The only apocalyptic writing in the Old Testament is the Book of Daniel. Some believe that Daniel is the oldest apocalypse and that later writers imitate its style. Others argue that the Book of the Watchers ( = 1 Enoch 1-36) is older. Whatever the case, Jewish theologians found apocalyptic to be a powerful tool for expressing their convictions concerning God and his dealings with the world. The most important Jewish apocalypses for our purposes are 1 Enoch (a compilation of five originally independent works dating from the second or third century B.C. to the first century A.D.), 2 Enoch (late first century A.D.), 2 Baruch (ca. A.D. 100), 3 Baruch (first to third century A.D.), 4 Ezra (ca. A.D. 100), the Apocalypse of Abraham (ca. A.D. 100), and the Apocalypse of Zephaniah (first century B.C. to first century A.D.). Beyond the apocalypses themselves, other writings from the period contain apocalyptic sections or features. Two examples are the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (second century B.C.) and the Sibylline Oracles (second century B.C. through seventh century A.D.). All of these writings are preserved in the Pseudepigrapha (described above in Part II.B.4).

Early Christian apocalypses include, for example, the Shepherd of Hermas, 5 Ezra, and the Apocalypse of Peter (all dating to the second century A.D.). The Revelation of John appears to be the first Christian apocalypse - the first Christian adaptation of the apocalyptic form. Other New Testament writings certainly contain apocalyptic ideas, but in Revelation alone do we find a fully developed apocalyptic vision. Since John's Christian apocalypse builds on the earlier Jewish apocalyptic tradition, those Jewish documents serve as one of the most valuable resources for understanding the nature and meaning of Revelation.

B. CHARACTERISTICS OF APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

But what exactly is an "apocalypse"? What sets these books apart and leads us to place them in a special class? First, Jewish apocalyptic literature is characterized by a particular kind of theology - a particular understanding of who God is and how he deals with his creation. Apocalyptic theology is rooted in the Jewish Scriptures since apocalyptic was initially a Jewish phenomenon. Christian apocalyptic writers later modified this theology in significant ways due to their encounter with Jesus Christ (see below).

Second, apocalyptic writers utilize a particular manner of communicating that theology - a distinctive form or style of writing . For example, they tend to make heavy use of symbolism.

So apocalyptic theology is a certain network of beliefs about God and the apocalyptic form is a certain means of expressing those beliefs. It is possible to have a message containing apocalyptic theology that is not communicated in the apocalyptic style. (An example would be the gospel preached by the Apostle Paul, which J. Christiaan Beker rightly describes as an "apocalyptic interpretation of the Christ-event.) However, true apocalypses - like the Revelation of John - display both apocalyptic form and apocalyptic theology.

1. Common Characteristics of the Apocalyptic Form

Some of the most common characteristics of the apocalyptic form are described below. Not every apocalypse includes every feature.

a. Visions or Revelations

Apocalypses take the form of visions or revelations from God. Whereas Old Testament prophets experience God directly ("The word of the Lord came to me" or "In the year that king Uzziah died, I saw the Lord"), the apocalyptic seers receive their revelations through an intermediary - often an angel. Their visions usually concern the future, giving apocalyptic a strong "eschatological" element.

b. Symbolism

Apocalyptic visions are filled with vivid symbolism. Over time, as various apocalyptists adopted and adapted the images used by others, a set of common symbols was developed. For example, the sea typically represents the forces of evil and chaos. Stars often represent angels. Beasts symbolize political powers opposed to God and his people. If we read Revelation alone (as so many do), then we may find John's symbolism puzzling and impenetrable. However, if we study other apocalypses as well, then we begin to see the patterns and Revelation becomes less intimidating.

c. Esoteric Elements

Apocalyptic writings are esoteric; they contain an element of mystery or secrecy. They are not meant for the general public, but for "insiders" who are acquainted, for example, with the meaning of the conventional apocalyptic symbols. John apparently considers his readers to be insiders able to grasp his meaning. By acquainting ourselves with their literature and culture, we can become insiders too.

d. Symbolic Numbers

Apocalyptic writers place symbolic meaning in numbers. Here, too, a set of conventional symbols emerge:

Two is the number of valid witness. Its Jewish roots are found in Deuteronomy 19:15 where the Lord requires at least two witnesses for a matter to be established in a court of law.

Three often relates to God. This symbol also has Old Testament roots in passages such as Isaiah 6:3 where the Lord receives the threefold worship of the seraphim: "Holy, holy, holy is the LORD Almighty." Christian writers tend to see Trinitarian connotations in this number since the Lord has revealed himself to us as God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.

Four often symbolizes the world, or God's creation. This goes back to the idea that the "four corners of the earth" (Ezek 7:2; cf. Rev 7:1), the "four quarters of the earth" (Isa 11:12), or the "four winds" (Jer 49:36; Ezek 7:9; Zech 6:5; Dan 7:2; cf. Matt 24:31//Mark 13:27; Rev 7:1) - i.e., north, south, east, and west - together encompass the whole of creation.

Five, the number of fingers on the human hand, describes a "handful" or a "few."

Ten - two "handfuls" - represents "several." Neither ten nor five should necessarily be interpreted literally in apocalyptic writings.

Seven is the number of "fullness," "completeness," "perfection." In some texts this number carries connotations of goodness or morality, for the author is thinking of persons or things being "complete" in the sense of being everything God intends them to be. However, the dominant meaning for seven is not "perfection" in the sense of being morally faultless, but "perfection" in the sense of being "complete" or "whole." We may trace the origin of this symbol to Old Testament texts such as Genesis 1-2, where seven days form a "complete" week.

Six is one less than seven; it does not "measure up" to seven or attain to the fullness of seven. Six, then, symbolizes "incompleteness," "imperfection," and sometimes evil.

Eight, in Christian apocalypses, symbolizes Jesus Christ. For an explanation, see the comments on Revelation 13:18.

Twelve tends to represent the people of God - those who love him and serve him faithfully (i.e., Law-keeping Jews in Jewish apocalypses and faithful Christians in Christian apocalypses). The idea no doubt comes from the Old Testament, where the twelve tribes of Israel together form the covenant community of God.

Multiples of these numbers typically represent the "fullness" or complete number of the thing symbolized. For example, the 144,000 (12 12 1000) in Revelation 7 represent the full number of the people of God. Other symbolic numbers used in Revelation will be explained at appropriate points in the commentary.

e. Pseudonymity

Rather than writing in their own names, apocalyptists typically employ pseudonyms, or false names. They attribute their works to an ancient hero such as Abraham, Jacob, or Ezra. What is the reason for this practice? Various theories have been put forward.

Many apocalypses (including Revelation) were composed in times of persecution. Some suggest that the pseudonyms and mysterious symbols are aimed at hiding the author's identity and message from hostile political authorities. One may question how successful this tactic would have been. Could any of John's neighbors read his description of the Whore of Babylon (Revelation 17) without seeing in it a criticism of Rome?

Apocalyptic literature became popular during the first and second centuries B.C., as Jewish prophecy declined and the Old Testament canon was being finalized. At the same time, Greco-Roman society tended to devalue the present and glorify the past. All of these factors would have made it difficult for newer theologians to gain a hearing. Perhaps they attributed their works to respected ancient luminaries in order to deceive their readers and add authority to their message. They pretended to predict events leading up to their own time, and thereby added credibility to their real predictions concerning the readers' future. The difficulty with this theory is that it assumes a great deal of gullibility on the part of the readers. Would many people really believe that writings of Enoch, the seventh descendant of Adam (Gen 5:18-24), had suddenly appeared in the second century B.C.?

It seems more likely that pseudonymity was openly used as a literary device. In other words, the readers knew very well that the writer was not Jacob or Moses or Ezra. Attributing a book to one of these Jewish heroes was a way of saying: What you are about to read is an apocalypse, so read and understand it as such. The "pen name" was chosen according to the subject matter of the apocalypse. For example, Baruch was the secretary of the prophet Jeremiah, who interprets the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in the sixth century B.C. (Jer 32:12-16; 36; 43:1-6; 45:1-2). Similarly, the author of the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch writes of the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in A.D. 70. He presents himself as a "second Baruch" helping his readers understand why God again allowed the holy city to fall.

Whereas most apocalypses are pseudonymous, Revelation proves the exception to the rule. As we will see below (Part IV), John writes in his own name.

2. Common Features of Apocalyptic Theology

In addition to sharing a distinctive form of writing, Jewish and Christian apocalyptists tend to hold a number of common convictions concerning God and his ways with the world. This distinctive apocalyptic theology, or worldview, is rooted in the Old Testament. At the risk of oversimplifying a complex matter, we will trace the historical development of the apocalyptic worldview through three primary, overlapping stages: the Old Testament period, the intertestamental period, and the New Testament period.

a. Roots of Apocalyptic Theology in the Old Testament Period

(1) Genesis 1-5. Several key elements of apocalyptic theology appear in the opening chapters of Genesis, the foundational book of the Old Testament. First, God exists and he is the creator of all that is, including human beings. "In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth" (Gen 1:1). God made humankind, both male and female, in his own image and his own likeness (Gen 1:26-27).

Second, by virtue of the fact that he is creator, God is also the owner, the king, the sovereign Lord over all creation. This truth is implicit in Genesis but is made explicit elsewhere in the Old Testament. For example, the Psalms proclaim that

The earth is the LORD's, and everything in it, the world, and all who live in it; for he founded it upon the seas and established it upon the waters (Ps 24:1-2).

God is the King of all the earth (Ps 47:7).

As creator and king, God alone has the right to decide what his world should be - what he considers "good" in his creation and what he considers "evil."

Third, as sovereign Lord, God created the world good. "God saw all that he had made, and it was very good" (Gen 1:31) - that is, pleasing to God, perfectly conforming to his will.

Fourth, Genesis does not state that human beings are immortal by nature. Instead, the first humans, Adam and Eve, were created mortal and their lives were sustained only by God's provision. God placed the tree of life in the center of the garden so that, by eating its fruit, the man and the woman could potentially live forever (Gen 2:9; 3:22). Life is the gift of God and is sustained by God alone at his good pleasure.

Fifth, God's creatures have rebelled against his sovereign will, thus introducing "sin" or "evil" into God's "good" creation. According to Genesis 2:16-17, God issued one command to Adam:

You are free to eat from any tree in the garden; but you must not eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, for when you eat of it you will surely die.

Chapter 3 describes how one of God's creatures, the serpent (discussed below), tempted Eve to sin - that is, to "be like God" by deciding good and evil for herself (Gen 3:5). (Note that the Book of Genesis implies a rebellion against God on the part of the serpent that preceded the rebellion of Adam and Eve.) As a result, she and Adam disobeyed God, ate the forbidden fruit, and thus introduced sin into the human race (Gen 3:6).

Sixth, God has responded to the sin of his creatures by pronouncing several terrible judgments: He cursed the serpent and promised that the woman's "offspring" would crush its head and thereby destroy it (Gen 3:14-15). He condemned the woman to pains in childbearing and domination by her husband (Gen 3:16). He cursed the ground so that it would resist Adam's efforts to cultivate it and would bear fruit only through painful toil (Gen 3:17-19). Finally, God kept the promise made in Genesis 2:17 by condemning Adam and Eve to death. Genesis 3:22-24 reads:

And the LORD God said, "The man has now become like one of us, knowing good and evil. He must not be allowed to reach out his hand and take also from the tree of life and eat, and live forever." So the LORD God banished him from the Garden of Eden to work the ground from which he had been taken. After he drove the man out, he placed on the east side of the Garden of Eden cherubim and a flaming sword flashing back and forth to guard the way to the tree of life.

Separated from the tree of life, "nature" took its course: Adam and Eve - and their descendants after them - eventually died (see Gen 5:5-31).

Note that, within the framework of Genesis, death is the destruction of God's creation. Furthermore, it is God's penalty for sin, for the idolatrous effort to be one's own "god" by deciding good and evil for oneself. Human beings die as a result of their own sin (e.g., Adam and Eve themselves) and/or as a result of their ancestor's sin (Adam and Eve's descendants - including, for example, innocent babies who sometimes die not because they have rebelled against God on their own, but because they have been cut off from the tree of life due to the sin of their ancestors) and as a result of the serpent's sin (since the serpent played a role in the fall of Adam and Eve, which led to their death and that of their descendants). As the Apostle Paul would later phrase it, "the wages of sin is death" (Rom 6:23).

(2) Promised Salvation from Sin and Death. However, throughout the Old Testament, God, in his grace and mercy, declares that he will not allow sin and death to have the last word. For example, he vows that Adam and Eve's "offspring" will crush the serpent's head (Gen 3:14-15). He swears to the nomad Abraham that "all people on earth will be blessed through you" (Gen 12:3). He promises King David that, "when your days are over and you rest with your fathers, I will raise up your offspring to succeed you, who will come from your own body, and I will establish his kingdom . . . forever" (2 Sam 7:12-13). To the prophet Isaiah God reveals his future plans: "Behold, I will create new heavens and a new earth. The former things will not be remembered, nor will they come to mind" (Isa 65:17).

b. Development of Jewish Apocalyptic Theology in the Intertestamental Period

(1) Rebellion in Heaven . In reading the Old Testament and attempting to discern the truths contained in it, Jewish apocalyptists draw the logical conclusion that the serpent of Genesis 3 must have been an angel who rebelled against God. After all, the Scripture says that, "in the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth" (Gen 1:1). The "heavens and earth" include everything that exists - both the natural, "earthly" realities and the supernatural, "heavenly" realities. Therefore the serpent must have been some sort of creature of God.

This talking "serpent" was certainly unlike other serpents; it apparently did not belong to the natural sphere. Therefore it must have been some sort of supernatural creature - a heavenly or angelic being.

Genesis states that " all that [God] had made" was "very good" (Gen 1:31), and yet the serpent reveals itself to be very evil by tempting humans to sin. Apparently, the "serpent" was an angel who had fallen away from God - a heavenly creature who had surrendered its original goodness and rebelled against the creator. Jewish apocalyptists conclude, then, that the "serpent" must have been a supernatural, angelic being (known to Christians as the "devil" or "Satan"), and that rebellion against God in the heavenly sphere must have preceded Adam and Eve's rebellion against God in the earthly sphere.

This type of interpretation of the Genesis story is found, for example, in 2 Enoch, a Jewish apocalypse dating to the late first century A.D.:

But [Satanail] from the order of the archangels deviated, together with the division [of angels] that was under his authority. He thought up the impossible idea, that he might place his throne higher than the clouds which are above the earth, and that he might become equal to my [i.e., God's] power.

And I hurled him out from the height, together with his angels [to the earthly sphere] . . . . And he will become a demon, because he fled from heaven; Sotona, because his name was Satanail. In this way he did become different from the angels. His nature did not change, [but] his thought did, since his consciousness of righteous and sinful things changed. And he became aware of his condemnation and of the sin which he sinned previously. And that is why he thought up the scheme against Adam. In such a form he entered paradise, and corrupted Eve (2 Enoch 29:4-5 and 31:4-6 [J]).

This passage from 2 Enoch also illustrates another important aspect of apocalyptic theology: While there was a rebellion against God in the heavenly sphere, this rebellion did not succeed. The rebels were put down and God maintained his sovereignty. Apocalyptic writers often express this conviction by speaking of God binding the devil and his angels in prison (e.g., 1 Enoch 10:4-6; cf. 18:12-19:1; 21:1-6; Test. Levi 18:12; Mark 3:26-27; 2 Pet 2:4; Jude 6) or casting them out of heaven onto the earth (as in the passage quoted above). Defeated on the supernatural plane, they continue their warfare on the natural plane by inciting human beings to join their fight against God.

(2) The Present Evil Age and the Kingdom of Satan . As noted above, Genesis 3 attributes pains in childbearing, painful toil, and human death to God's judgment against the sin of Adam and Eve. Jewish apocalyptists read the Scripture, consider the outcome of the Fall, and draw this conclusion: The sin of Adam and Eve caused the world to be afflicted not only with the judgments mentioned above, but with all manner of evils. To illustrate, 2 Baruch (ca. A.D. 100) maintains that

When [Adam] transgressed, untimely death came into being, mourning was mentioned, affliction was prepared, illness was created, labor accomplished, pride began to come into existence, the realm of death began to ask to be renewed with blood, the conception of children came about, the passion of the parents was produced, the loftiness of men was humiliated, and goodness vanished (2 Apoc. Bar. 56 @ :6).

Realizing that the entire human race has been adversely affected by Adam's sin, the author of 4 Ezra (ca. A.D. 100) comes close to despair:

It would have been better if the earth had not produced Adam, or else, when it had produced him, had restrained him from sinning. . . . O Adam, what have you done? For though it was you who sinned, the fall was not yours alone, but ours also who are your descendants (4 Ezra 7:46[116], 48[118]).

Yet Adam does not shoulder the whole blame for warping God's creation. All creatures (both human and angelic) who choose evil over the good, who ally themselves with Satan against God, contribute toward the ruin of God's handiwork. Second Baruch declares:

. . . although Adam sinned first and has brought death upon all who were not in his own time, yet each of them who has been born from him has prepared for himself the coming torment [i.e., the coming judgment/punishment for sin]. . . . Adam is, therefore, not the cause [of "destruction," or "retribution"], except only for himself, but each of us has become our own Adam (2 Apoc. Bar. 54:15a, 19).

Jewish apocalyptists and other writers of their era refer to this world corrupted with evils, this world marred by death, this world fallen away from its original goodness, using a number of different terms. For example, they call it "the present evil age" - they claim that the "present age" is characterized by "evil." They describe this fallen world as the "kingdom of Satan" - that is, a world where Satan and his allies (both human and angelic) exercise a degree of "kingdom" or "kingship" or "rule," a degree of power and influence. Human beings have collaborated with Satan to transform God's good creation into the "present evil age," the "kingdom of Satan," a world twisted and ruined by evil and death.

(3) The Eschatological Age and the Kingdom of God . The Jewish apocalyptists are hardheaded realists who see more clearly than most the nature and pervasiveness of evil in the created order. Still, they do not despair, for they believe the Old Testament promises of redemption. Though extremely pessimistic about the ability of human beings to purge the world of evil, they are extremely optimistic that God will prove true to his word. They trust that God will someday break into history and radically transform the cosmos, that he will "create new heavens and a new earth" through his promised Redeemer. Then sickness and death will be no more. No more will the untamed forces of nature maim and destroy. God will wipe away all tears and restore broken relationships. He will put an end to sin and evil and demonic activity in the world. Death will give way to eternal life. Now evil is tolerated, but then God will suffer evil no more. Now we are living in the "present evil age," but then God will inaugurate a "new age" or "last age" or "eschatological age" (from the Greek term e[scato" [ eschatos ], which means "last"). Now we know only the perversion of creation, but then God will make a "new creation." Now the world is the "kingdom of Satan," but then he will transform it into the "kingdom of God."

(4) The Shift of the Ages. Through what sequence of events will this radical reconfiguration of all things come about? In general, the Jewish apocalyptists anticipate that the world will first undergo a time of terrible "distress" or "tribulation" as Satan and his allies make one last attempt to overcome God and his people. They liken this period of turmoil to the "woes" or "birth pains" that a woman endures in childbirth. In their minds, this time of suffering for God's people will be the "labor pains" preceding the "birth" of the "new creation."

Second, God will send the promised Savior and Redeemer, the Messiah and Christ, the Son of David and Son of Abraham.

Third, they predict that the "labor pains" and the coming of the Messiah will be followed by a great day (sometimes called the "day of the Lord") in which God will suddenly raise the dead (either all the dead or only the servants of God, depending on the writer) to new life.

Fourth, the Messiah will carry out God's final judgment against all his enemies. In other words, God, through his Messiah, will set all wrongs right and put an end to the evil that pollutes his creation. Satan, his angels, and humans allied with them will either be annihilated or forced to suffer an eternal punishment (depending on the writer).

The end result will be a "new age" or "new creation" in which every aspect will conform to God's good and perfect will - the "consummation" of the kingdom of God, or the coming of God's sovereign rule in its fullness.

Who will participate in this new world? Virtually all the Jewish apocalyptists agree that only righteous, covenant-keeping Jews who obey the Law of Moses (not Gentiles) will inherit a place in the consummated kingdom of God.

These sorts of expectations are characteristic features of Jewish apocalyptic theology - common elements of the apocalyptists' understanding of God and his dealings with the world. To illustrate, most are found in two passages from the book of Daniel, a Jewish apocalypse included in the Christian canon.

In Daniel 2, King Nebuchadnezzar has a dream in which he sees an enormous statue with a head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of bronze, legs of iron, and feet made partly of iron and partly of baked clay. As the king watches, a rock "cut out, but not by human hands" (i.e., cut out by God) strikes the statue and shatters it to dust. Then the rock becomes a huge mountain that fills the whole earth (see Dan 2:31-35). In verses 36-45 Daniel interprets the vision, telling Nebuchadnezzar:

. . . You, O king, are the king of kings. . . . You are that head of gold.

After you, another kingdom will rise, inferior to yours. Next, a third kingdom, one of bronze, will rule over the whole earth. Finally, there will be a fourth kingdom, strong as iron - for iron breaks and smashes everything - and as iron breaks things to pieces, so it will crush and break all the others. Just as you saw that the feet and toes were partly of baked clay and partly of iron, so this will be a divided kingdom; yet it will have some of the strength of iron in it, even as you saw iron mixed with clay. . . .

In the time of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed, nor will it be left to another people. It will crush all those kingdoms and bring them to an end, but it will itself endure forever.

Daniel predicts that a series of temporal, human kingdoms (represented by the statue) will be replaced (on the "day of the Lord" at the "final judgment") by the eternal kingdom of God (represented by the rock).

Other common elements of Jewish apocalyptic theology appear in Daniel 12:1-3:

At that time [the archangel] Michael, the great prince who protects your people [ = the Jews], will arise. There will be a time of distress such as has not happened from the beginning of nations until then [ = the period of "labor pains"]. But at that time your people - everyone whose name is found written in the book - will be delivered. Multitudes who sleep in the dust of the earth will awake [ = the resurrection]: some to everlasting life, others to shame and everlasting contempt [ = the division made between the righteous and unrighteous at the final judgment]. Those who are wise will shine like the brightness of the heavens, and those who lead many to righteousness [ = obedience to the Mosaic Law], like the stars for ever and ever.

(5) Apocalyptic Transcendence, Dualism, and Pessimism. We have seen that the Jewish apocalyptists hold a transcendent worldview. They believe that beyond the visible, material, earthly, physical realities, there lie invisible, immaterial, heavenly, spiritual realities. Spiritual powers influence the material universe in significant ways. The apocalyptic worldview makes room for the supernatural.

Since some angels and some humans oppose God, apocalyptic theology also includes a strong element of dualism. In other words, there are two opposing powers in the world - the evil and the good. What we are witnessing in history is a struggle between the forces of good (God, his angels, his righteous servants) and the forces of evil (Satan, demonic powers, unrighteous persons who do not submit to the Lord). Apocalyptists do not believe in an absolute dualism, for the power of Satan and his allies is not equal to that of the creator and Lord of all. However, evil powers do exercise a degree of influence in the world because the sovereign God - for the time being - permits it. One of the reasons the righteous suffer is that they are being attacked and persecuted by the enemies of God, both human and demonic.

Most apocalypses come out of communities experiencing such persecution firsthand. Their prolonged struggle with evil has led them to a certain kind of pessimism. The Old Testament prophets look for God's good purposes to be worked out within the historical process - in the world as we know it. In contrast, Jewish apocalyptists do not expect the world to improve. They doubt that human beings will ever overcome evil to build a good, just, and godly society on their own.

(6) Apocalyptic Optimism, Determinism, and Triumph. Although they are pessimistic about humanity's ability to redeem a fallen world, the apocalyptists are optimistic that God will do just that. From the Old Testament, they know that God is good, just, powerful, and true. If he is good, then he will not allow evil to stand forever. If he is just, then he will punish the wicked and reward the righteous. If he is powerful, then he can do it; and if he can do it, then he will do it. But if this is so, then why do so many of God's faithful servants suffer hardship, poverty, and even violent death? If this is so, then why do so many of the wicked live prosperous lives and then die peacefully in bed? With remarkable faith, apocalyptic writers conclude that God will be true to himself and true to his promises. He will punish evildoers and vindicate his holy people - if not before death then after death, if not in this life then in another, if not in this world then in a new world created just for them. History has a goal predetermined by God: The Sovereign Lord will redeem his fallen creation, purging it from evil and bringing every detail into conformity with his good and perfect will. The Lord will indeed triumph; his kingdom will come.

c. Development of Christian Apocalyptic Theology in the New Testament Period

Against this background, we now turn our attention to the New Testament period. When the German theologian Ernst Käsemann identifies Jewish apocalyptic as "the mother of Christian theology," he is not far off the mark. When Jesus of Nazareth arrives on the scene, he confirms that much of the apocalyptists' interpretation of the Old Testament is correct. Influenced by Jesus and the first disciples taught by him, New Testament writers introduce many elements of Jewish apocalyptic theology into the Christian Bible. Some elements they adopt wholesale; others they modify or transform as their insight into God's purpose - enacted through Christ - surpasses that of their predecessors. Christian theology, then, is largely apocalyptic theology.

(1) Supernatural Forces of Evil . New Testament writers share the apocalyptists' belief in both the earthly and heavenly, the natural and supernatural spheres. Behind the evils plaguing this world - behind the deeply rooted systemic wickedness, behind the sophisticated lies that have for centuries held entire civilizations captive under false worldviews - lies an intelligence, a power beside and beyond that of mere human beings. As Paul says,

Our struggle is not against flesh and blood [i.e., human beings - creatures of the earthly, natural sphere], but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly [supernatural] realms (Eph 6:12).

(2) Adam and the Present Evil Age. New Testament writers also hold to the notion of the "kingdom of Satan" or "present evil age" - an era marred by sin and death that begins with the rebellion of Adam and ends with the consummation of God's kingdom. To illustrate, Paul maintains that

. . . sin entered the world through one man [Adam], and death through sin, . . . many died by the trespass of the one man . . . . The judgment [of God] followed one sin and brought condemnation . . . . by the trespass of the one man, death reigned through that one man . . . (Rom 5:12,15,16,17).

The creation waits in eager expectation for the sons of God to be revealed [at the resurrection]. For the creation was subjected to frustration, not by its own choice, but by the will of the one who subjected it, in hope that the creation itself will be liberated from its bondage to decay [including death] and brought into the glorious freedom [from decay] of the children of God (Rom 8:19-21).

(3) The Kingdom of God and the Ministry of Jesus . Working from within this kind of apocalyptic worldview, New Testament writers show that Jesus - in his words and even more so in his deeds - claimed to be the promised Messiah, the one sent by God to annihilate the kingdom of Satan and inaugurate the kingdom of God. As 1 John 3:8 words it, "The reason the Son of God appeared was to destroy the devil's work."

That this was Jesus' purpose and mission is seen in every aspect of his ministry. For example, the coming of God's kingdom was the subject of Jesus' preaching, as shown by the summary of his message found in Mark 1:14-15:

After John [the Baptist] was put in prison, Jesus went into Galilee, proclaiming the good news [or "gospel"] of God. "The time has come," he said. "The kingdom of God is near. Repent and believe the good news!"

Note that the "gospel" message, according to Jesus, is the proclamation of the "good news" - the apocalyptic promise - that God will soon annihilate evil and transform the entire cosmos to conform to his will.

God's coming kingdom was also the focus of Jesus' teaching. For example, in teaching his disciples to pray, Jesus tells them:

This, then, is how you should pray: "Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name, your kingdom come, your will be done on earth as it is in heaven" (Matt 6:9-10).

When Jesus calls on people to repent and "leave your life of sin" (John 8:11), he is urging them to turn away from evil - to renounce their alliance with Satan (whether conscious or unconscious) and conform their lives to the coming "kingdom" or "rule" or "Lordship" of God. When Jesus forgives sins as only God can (see, e.g., Luke 5:17-26), he shows that God - through his Messiah Jesus - is in the process of doing away with evil, in the process of wiping away the sin that has corrupted his creation for so long. When Jesus gathers disciples to himself and commands them to "love each other as I have loved you" (see, e.g., John 15:12), then he is beginning to form the community of the "eschatological age," when men and women from all nations will live together in peace forever under the beneficent kingship of God.

Jesus' miracles also proclaim the "good news" of God's emerging kingdom. They show that, in the person of Jesus the Christ, God has entered into his sinful, fallen, perverted creation in order to set things right - to reestablish his kingdom rule over it. For example, by healing the sick, Jesus shows that God is going to put an end to the pain and suffering and misery that have warped his good creation. This is why Jesus, in Luke 10:8-9, gives these instructions to his disciples when he sends them out with authority to preach and heal in his name:

When you enter a town and are welcomed, eat what is set before you. Heal the sick who are there and tell them, "The kingdom of God is near you" (italics added for emphasis here and throughout the commentary).

He says, when you heal the sick, you must not forget to tell them what it means - what it signifies. The healings are intended to show that the kingdom or lordship of God is near - that it is becoming a reality through the Messiah Jesus (here working through his disciples).

When Jesus exorcises demons, he shows that God is in the process of destroying the kingdom of Satan and establishing the kingdom of God. To illustrate, Luke 11:14-20 recounts how, on one occasion,

Jesus was driving out a demon that was mute. When the demon left, the man who had been mute spoke, and the crowd was amazed. But some of them said, "By Beelzebub [another name for Satan], the prince of demons, he is driving out demons." Others tested him by asking for a sign from heaven.

Jesus knew their thoughts and said to them: "Any kingdom divided against itself will be ruined, and a house divided against itself will fall. If Satan is divided against himself, how can his kingdom stand? I say this because you claim that I drive out demons by Beelzebub. Now if I drive out demons by Beelzebub, by whom do your followers drive them out? So then, they will be your judges. But if I drive out demons by the finger of God [i.e., by the power of God], then the kingdom of God has [already] come to you."

When Jesus calms the storm and walks on water (see Matt 14:22-33; Mark 6:45-52; John 6:16-21), he shows that even the forces of nature - all God's creation - will be brought under his lordship so that they bend to his will and no longer hurt and destroy. When Jesus resuscitates the dead (e.g., Lazarus in John 11), he points forward to the day when all God's people will be raised up to eternal life in his consummated kingdom.

(4) The Kingdom of God and the Death of Jesus . What is the relationship between Jesus' death on the cross and the kingdom of God? During the Old Testament period, covenants - i.e., formal relationships between two parties - were established or sealed through animal sacrifices. To illustrate, Exodus 24:1-11 describes how God established a covenant with the people of Israel that was mediated by Moses (the so-called "Mosaic Covenant"). The Law of the Lord was read to the people, specifying the behavior that would be required of them in their new relationship with God. Israel then "responded with one voice, 'Everything the Lord has said we will do'" ( vv. 3,7). They agreed to enter into the type of covenantal relationship with God described by the Law. Next, animals were sacrificed and Moses sealed the covenant with blood: He "took the blood, sprinkled it on the people and said, 'This is the blood of the covenant that the Lord has made with you'" ( v. 8) - i.e., the sacrificial blood that seals or establishes the Mosaic Covenant. Finally, the elders of Israel, on behalf of the entire nation, ascended Mount Sinai, saw God, and ate and drank with him. They shared a "covenant meal" celebrating the new relationship with God Israel now enjoyed through the blood sacrifices.

During his last meal with his disciples - on the evening before his crucifixion - Jesus took simple bread and a cup of wine, and he used them to offer the most detailed explanation of his death in the Gospels:

When the hour came, Jesus and his apostles reclined at the table. And he said to them, "I have eagerly desired to eat this Passover with you before I suffer. For I tell you, I will not eat it again until it finds fulfilllment in the kingdom of God."

After taking the cup, he gave thanks and said, "Take this and divide it among you. For I tell you I will not drink again of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God comes."

And he took bread, gave thanks and broke it, and gave it to them, saying, "This is my body given for you; do this in remembrance of me."

In the same way, after the supper he took the cup, saying, "This cup is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you" (Luke 22:14-20).

Jesus says, "This is my body given for you (uJpeÉr uJmw'n, hyper hymôn) . . . . my blood, which is poured out for you (hyper hymôn)." Although not readily apparent in English translation, this is sacrificial language from the Greek version of the Old Testament. Jesus is saying that his impending death will be a sacrifice. But what kind of sacrifice? The Lord tells them: "This cup is the new covenant in my blood." He uses language nearly identical to that employed in Exodus 24:8 ("This is the blood of the covenant") to identify his death precisely as the kind of sacrifice that establishes a covenant. What covenant? Not the Mosaic Covenant, but a "new covenant." What, then, is the significance of the ritual meal of bread and wine - the "Eucharist" or "Lord's Supper" Jesus commands his disciples to observe "in remembrance of me"? It is the "covenant meal" celebrating the establishment of the "new covenant" through Jesus' sacrifice. Who participates in this "new covenant"? God, who sent Jesus to establish the covenant, and Jesus' disciples - those from "all nations" (see Matt 28:19), Jews and Gentiles alike , who accept God's lordship over their lives as exercised through his Messiah. In other words, those persons to whom the "covenant meal" is offered. Finally, when may Jesus' disciples participate in this "new covenant" relationship with God? The answer is: Both now and, more completely, in the future. The "new covenant" was established in the past by Jesus' sacrificial death. It is in place now, in the present , so that Jesus' disciples - who were once "God's enemies" - are now at "peace with God" and "reconciled to him through the death of his Son" (Rom 5:1,10). Yet disciples of Christ will experience this new relationship with God on an even deeper, more intimate level, in the future - when they are raised from the dead, when they "see him as he is" (1 John 3:2), when the new covenant "finds fulfilllment in the [consummated] kingdom of God."

Who participates in the Kingdom of God - the coming "new creation" in which every detail will conform to the will of God? All those who share in the "new covenant." And who participates in the "new covenant"? All those who choose to be disciples of Jesus. All those who conform to the will of God as he makes that will known through his Messiah. All those who embrace God's kingdom rule over their lives in Christ. In essence, Jesus offers "all nations" a place in the kingdom of God now in the form of the "new covenant" established by his sacrificial death. This truth is extremely important: Jesus' death on the cross forgives sins not merely in the sense that, through it, God pardons wrong deeds. (The sinner receiving such a pardon would still be trapped in a fallen world and doomed to death.) Jesus' death forgives sins in the sense that it provides an escape from the "present evil age" - and entrance into the emerging kingdom of God - in the form of a "new covenant" relationship with God. By his sacrificial death, Jesus shattered the kingdom of Satan, the powers of sin and death, and thus established the kingdom of God. The New Testament writers testify to this wonderful truth:

. . . the Lord Jesus Christ . . . gave himself for our sins to rescue us from the present evil age, according to the will of our God and Father . . . (Gal 1:3-4).

Since the children have flesh and blood, he too shared in their humanity so that by his death he might destroy him who holds the power of death - that is, the devil - and free those who all their lives were held in slavery by their fear of death (Heb 2:14-15).

[God] has rescued us from the dominion of darkness and brought us into the kingdom of the Son he loves, in whom we have redemption, the forgiveness of sins (Col 1:13-14).

. . . our Savior, Christ Jesus, . . . has destroyed death and has brought life and immortality to light through the gospel (2 Tim 1:10).

Since death came through a man [Adam], the resurrection of the dead comes also through a man [Jesus Christ] (1 Cor 15:21).

Jesus is the full realization of the Old Testament and apocalyptic hopes. He is the "son of Adam" who crushes the serpent's head for his disciples by dying to make a place for them in God's kingdom. He is the "Son of Abraham" who offers this blessing to "all people on earth." He is the "Son of David" who rules over an eternal Kingdom - not through military force, but by dying as a sacrifice for his people. He is the promised one who freely offers "new heavens and a new earth" to all who desire it - to everyone willing to live as his disciple, willing to accept the beneficent rule of God over his or her life.

(5) The Kingdom of God and the Resurrection of Jesus . Jesus died on the cross, and on the third day - much to the surprise of his disciples - God raised him from the dead. What is the meaning and significance of his resurrection? Many answers to that question are found in the New Testament, but we shall mention only four: First, the fact that Jesus was raised from the dead means that he is our contemporary, that he continues to live and work among us. His Spirit is continuously present with us today in accordance with the promise he gave to his first disciples: "Surely I am with you always, to the consummation of the age" (Matt 28:20).

Second, Jesus' return from the grave shows that life after death is possible. Furthermore, such life takes the form of resurrection, by which the biblical writers mean transformed, bodily existence in the eschatological age . Resurrection is a bodily form of existence in the sense that, like the risen Jesus, raised persons possess bodies (sw'ma, sôma). They are not ghosts or disembodied spirits. Like Jesus, they also retain their memories, their personalities, their identities - everything that made them who they were before death, everything that made them some body . (The Greek idea of the sôma includes both the "body" in the sense of the "physical frame" and the "body" in the sense of the "person.") Resurrection is a transformed kind of existence in the sense that, like Jesus, raised persons enjoy a better, higher, more glorious, more exalted, more lasting form of existence than they knew before death. Resurrection is existence in the eschatological age in the sense described below.

Third, the resurrection of Jesus marks the beginning of the general resurrection of the righteous anticipated by the apocalyptists. Thus Paul calls Christ "the firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep" (1 Cor 15:20) and "the firstborn from among the dead" (Col 1:18) - that is, the first of many to rise from death to eternal life. This is why Christ's resurrection was more than an anomaly, why it gives Christians sure hope for their own resurrection. Jesus' emergence from the tomb shows that the apocalyptists' hopes were not misplaced - that there is indeed such a thing as the resurrection, that it has begun, and that we should expect for many more to be raised in the future. When will this "general resurrection" take place? Jesus indicated that it would occur at his "Second Coming" or "Parousia" (from the Greek term parousiva for "coming," "arrival" or "appearing"), when he returns to carry out the final judgment and consummate the kingdom of God. Paul describes this event in 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18:

Brothers, we do not want you to be ignorant about those who fall asleep, or to grieve like the rest of men, who have no hope. We believe that Jesus died and rose again and so we believe that God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him. According to the Lord's own word, we tell you that we who are still alive, who are left till the coming [ parousia ] of the Lord, will certainly not precede those who have fallen asleep. For the Lord himself will come down from heaven, with a loud command, with the voice of the archangel and with the trumpet call of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. After that, we who are still alive and are left will be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air. And so we will be with the Lord forever. Therefore encourage each other with these words (1 Thess 4:13-18).

From that time forward, "there will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away" (Rev 21:4).

Fourth, the resurrection of Jesus marks the beginning of the eschatological age and the kingdom of God. The Jewish apocalyptists had predicted that the resurrection of the dead would announce the coming of God's kingdom (see above). The resurrection of Jesus, "the firstborn from among the dead," showed his first disciples that the anticipated event had begun - that God was beginning to fulfilll his eschatological promises, that the kingdom of God had arrived. At the same time, the fact that sin and evil continued to mar the world, the fact that human beings continued to die, demonstrated to first century Christians that the kingdom of Satan had not yet entirely passed away. In light of these two undeniable realities (the continued presence of evil in the world and the eschatological event of Christ's resurrection), they concluded that God's intention must be to establish his kingdom more gradually than the Jewish apocalyptists had anticipated. In other words, the "present evil age" and the "eschatological age" would coexist - or "overlap" - for a time.

Day of the

Sin of Adam Lord

& Eve

PRESENT EVIL AGE

(Kingdom of Satan)

Eternal life for

"Labor pains" righteous Jews and Gentiles

Rebellion ("overlap" of the ages)

in heaven

ESCHATOLOGICAL AGE

(Kingdom of God)

Creation Messiah comes Messiah returns

Resurrection

Final Judgment

Fig. 2. The Shape of Christian Apocalyptic Theology

In the recent past, the kingdom of God had invaded the kingdom of Satan with the coming, the ministry, the death, and the resurrection of the Messiah. In the present (which becomes the period of "labor pains" in Christian theology - see below), God is allowing the two kingdoms, the two realities, to coexist. The "new covenant" is in place and Christians are embracing the kingdom of God over their lives; but death, the "last enemy," has not yet been completely "destroyed." In the future, however, Christ will return a second time to annihilate the kingdom of Satan and consummate the kingdom of God. In this way, Jesus' resurrection from the dead gave Christian theology its distinctive shape as compared to Jewish apocalyptic theology (compare Fig. 2 with Fig. 1).

Romans 13:11-14 shows that the Apostle Paul arrived at this understanding of God's actions in Christ. In this text, he compares the kingdom of Satan to the darkness or nighttime and the kingdom of God to the light or daytime:

And do this [i.e., live as kingdom people by obeying Christ's command to "love one another"], understanding the present time [oJ nu'n kairov" ( ho nyn kairos ), Paul's technical term for the "overlap" of the ages]. The hour has come for you to wake up from your slumber [i.e., act as if the daytime/kingdom of God has arrived and the nighttime/kingdom of Satan has ended], because our salvation [i.e., our resurrection to eternal life in the consummated kingdom of God] is nearer now than when we first believed. The night is nearly over [i.e., the kingdom of Satan has not entirely ended, but its days are numbered]; the day is almost here [i.e., the kingdom of God has not yet completely arrived, but it has "dawned"]. So let us put aside the deeds of darkness and put on the armor of light. Let us behave decently, as in the daytime [i.e., as if God's kingdom rule had already fully come], not in orgies and drunkenness, not in sexual immorality and debauchery, not in dissension and jealousy. Rather, clothe yourselves with the Lord Jesus Christ, and do not think about how to gratify the desires of the sinful nature.

That the "overlap" of the ages was Jesus' own understanding of God's plan is shown by his masterful Parable of the Weeds:

Jesus told them another parable: "The kingdom of heaven [ = the kingdom of God - the sovereignty God exercises from the heavenly sphere, rather than any human sovereignty exercised from the earthly sphere] is like a man who sowed good seed in his field. But while everyone was sleeping, his enemy came and sowed weeds among the wheat, and went away. When the wheat sprouted and formed heads, then the weeds also appeared.

"The owner's servants came to him and said, 'Sir, didn't you sow good seed in your field? Where then did the weeds come from?'

"'An enemy did this,' he replied.

"The servants asked him, 'Do you want us to go and pull them up?'

"'No,' he answered, 'because while you are pulling the weeds, you may root up the wheat with them. Let both grow together [ = the "overlap" of the ages when the kingdom of Satan and kingdom of God coexist - see the interpretation of the parable given below] until the harvest. At that time I will tell the harvesters: First collect the weeds and tie them in bundles to be burned; then gather the wheat and bring it into my barn.'"

Then he left the crowd and went into the house. His disciples came to him and said, "Explain to us the parable of the weeds in the field."

He answered, "The one who sowed the good seed is the Son of Man [i.e., Jesus, the Messiah, who inaugurates the kingdom of God by preaching the gospel and dying as the sacrifice that makes it possible for people to become disciples/participants in the "new covenant"/"sons of the kingdom"]. The field is the world, and the good seed stands for the sons of the kingdom. The weeds are the sons of the evil one, and the enemy who sows them is the devil. The harvest is the end of the age [i.e., the final judgment when a division is made between the wicked and the righteous, when the "present evil age" is ended and the "eschatological age" comes in its fullness], and the harvesters are angels.

"As the weeds are pulled up and burned in the fire, so it will be at the end of the age. The Son of Man will send out his angels, and they will weed out of his kingdom everything that causes sin and all who do evil. [Note that Jesus considers the field/world to be his kingdom. God has never surrendered his good creation to the evil one, but at the final judgment will root out and destroy his evil works.] They will throw them into the fiery furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth [i.e., eschatological condemnation for the wicked]. Then the righteous will shine like the sun [i.e., the radiant glory of the resurrection body] in the kingdom of their Father. He who has ears, let him hear" (Matt 13:24-30,36-43).

d. Major Differences between Jewish and Christian Apocalyptic Theology

Jewish apocalyptic is indeed "the mother of Christian theology." The first Christians interpret Jesus in apocalyptic terms, as the Lord himself taught them to do. However, while Jesus does fulfill apocalyptic expectations, he does not do it in the way most Jews expect. Consequently, their first-hand experience with God's Messiah leads the early Christians to recast apocalyptic theology in several significant ways (again, compare Fig. 1 with Fig. 2).

(1) Identity of the Messiah . Christian apocalyptic writers name Jesus of Nazareth as the promised Messiah who destroys the kingdom of Satan and establishes the kingdom of God. Non-Christian Jewish apocalyptists do not, of course, make that identification.

(2) The Coming of God's Kingdom. From the point of view of Jewish apocalyptists, the coming of God's kingdom rule lies in the future, at the long-anticipated "Day of the Lord." In contrast, Jesus' first disciples see the kingdom as both a present and a future reality. They proclaim not that God has made promises that he will someday fulfill, but that he has made promises that he has already begun to fulfill in their own lifetime. The kingdom of God has begun to appear with the first coming of Jesus. With his Second Coming it will reach its sudden and swift consummation. In other words, for Jewish apocalyptists the kingdom of God comes suddenly in the future. For Christian apocalyptists it comes more gradually, in two stages.

Scholars sometimes refer to this idea as "the already, but not yet" of Christian theology. The kingdom of God has already broken into history with the coming of Jesus, but it has not yet come in its fullness. Another way of saying this is that Christian theology contains a strong element of "realized eschatology." This is the belief that many of the eschatological events (e.g., the "labor pains," the coming of the Messiah, the resurrection, the coming of God's kingdom) are already, to some extent, being "realized" or experienced in the present.

(3) The "Labor Pains." Jewish apocalyptists view the period immediately preceding the consummation of God's kingdom as the "labor pains" - a time of intense suffering and persecution for God's people. Christian writers agree that the "labor pains" precede the consummation. However, they differ from their predecessors by identifying the "labor pains" with the period between Christ's first and second comings - the "overlap" of the ages.

(4) Participants in God's Kingdom . Both Jewish and Christian apocalyptists agree that resurrection to eternal life in the consummated kingdom of God is for the "righteous" - that is, for covenant-keepers. They disagree regarding which covenant leads to this salvation. Jewish apocalyptists reserve resurrection to life for persons who participate in the Mosaic covenant and obey the Mosaic Law. In most cases, this limits salvation to Jews, since the Mosaic Law was given to the Jewish people. Christian apocalyptists believe that salvation comes to those who share in the new covenant established by Christ's sacrificial death. This new covenant is based not on Jewish descent, but on "faith" or commitment to God/Christ as Lord. It therefore opens the way for both Jews and Gentiles to enter the rule of God.

(5) Expectation and Fulfillment. The gap between Jewish expectation and the actual fulfilllment of God's promises proved a stumbling block to many Jews of the first century. Luke shows that even John the Baptist was bewildered by the way in which Jesus carried out his messianic mission:

John's disciples told him about all these things [Jesus was doing]. Calling two of them, he sent them to the Lord to ask, "Are you the one who was to come, or should we expect someone else?"

When the men came to Jesus, they said, "John the Baptist sent us to you to ask, 'Are you the one who was to come, or should we expect someone else?'"

At that very time Jesus cured many who had diseases, sicknesses and evil spirits, and gave sight to many who were blind. So he replied to the messengers, "Go back and report to John what you have seen and heard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosy are cured, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good news is preached to the poor. [As we have seen, all these activities are manifestations of the end of Satan's rule and the coming of God's rule through Jesus the Messiah.] Blessed is the man who does not fall away on account of me" (Luke 7:18-23//Matt 11:2-6).

In other words, blessed is the one who does not miss the coming of the Messiah and God's kingdom because Jesus does not fulfill the apocalyptic prophecies in the way that most Jews expect.

The Revelation of John is an expression of Christian apocalyptic theology in the apocalyptic form. For this reason, its message goes far beyond that of non-Christian apocalypses. Christian theology is rooted in Jewish apocalyptic theology, but Jesus Christ transforms apocalyptic expectation in significant ways.

IV. AUTHOR, DATE, PLACE OF WRITING,

OCCASION, AND FIRST READERS

Before examining the message of Revelation, we must first address several important introductory questions concerning this book: Who is the author? When was the book written? Where was the author when he wrote the book? To whom was Revelation written? What occasion or situation does the author address? In seeking answers to these questions, we will examine both internal evidence (i.e., answers found within Revelation itself) and external evidence (i.e., clues to the origin of Revelation from outside the book).

A. INTERNAL EVIDENCE

In the first chapter of Revelation, the author provides us with important information concerning himself and his intended readers:

John,

To the seven churches in the province of Asia: (Rev 1:4)

I, John, your brother and companion in the suffering and kingdom and patient endurance that are ours in Jesus, was on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus. On the Lord's Day I was in the Spirit, and I heard behind me a loud voice like a trumpet, which said: "Write on a scroll what you see and send it to the seven churches: to Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea" (Rev 1:9-11).

1. First Readers

The author identifies his audience as "the seven churches in the province of Asia" - specifically the Christian congregations in the cities of "Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea." The Roman "province of Asia" made up the western third of Asia Minor (modern Turkey), with Ephesus serving as the provincial capital. The churches here had historical ties to the Apostle Paul, who established several congregations in this region during the late 40s and early 50s. For two or three years, Paul used Ephesus as his base of operations for training leaders and evangelizing the whole province (see Acts 19:8-10). John's "seven churches" may refer to seven literal churches. However, since the number "seven" tends to symbolize "completeness" in apocalyptic literature, these churches probably represent the whole of the Christian community in Asia.

The Asian churches were mixed bodies of Gentile and Jewish believers, reflecting the ethnic diversity of the province. By the late first century, about one million Jews made their homes in Asia Minor where they established more than fifty synagogues. Some had migrated to Asia from Palestine after the Jewish revolt against Rome in A.D. 66-73. Jewish Christians from Palestine would have been familiar with apocalyptic, for many apocalypses were produced in Palestine during this period.

2. Author

The author's name is "John." He calls himself a "brother" - that is, a Christian. He functions as a prophet or spokesman for God.

Revelation contains several indications that the author was a Palestinian Jew: First, the name "John" (=Iwavnnh", Iôannçs), a Greek form of the Hebrew "Johanan" (meaning "the LORD is gracious"), was common among first century Jews. Second, the structure and phrasing of Revelation suggest that the author thought in Hebrew (the original language of the Jewish Scriptures) and/or Aramaic (the closely related language spoken by ethnic Jews in Palestine). He spoke Greek only as a second language. Third, through over one hundred allusions to the Scriptures, the author demonstrates extensive knowledge of the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, as well as the Greek. Fourth, John writes in the apocalyptic genre, which was most popular in Jewish circles in Palestine. Finally, symbols such as Armageddon (Rev 16:16), the new Jerusalem (21:2), and the temple (11:1-2) are based on actual places located in Palestine (although such knowledge could have been drawn not from firsthand exposure but from the Old Testament). It may be, then, that the author of Revelation was one of the Jewish Christians who moved to Asia from Palestine due to the war with Rome. Who this "John" was cannot be determined from the book of Revelation in itself.

3. Occasion and Place of Writing

John identifies with his readers by describing himself as their "companion in suffering . . . and patient endurance." John himself has been exiled to the island of Patmos, just off the western coast of Asia, "because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus." Other portions of Revelation (particularly the letters to the seven churches in chs. 2-3) show that at least some of John's readers are also being persecuted for their faith. To Ephesus and Smyrna the Lord writes:

You have persevered and have endured hardships for my name, and have not grown weary (Rev 2:3).

I know your afflictions and your poverty - yet you are rich! I know the slander of those who say they are Jews and are not, but are a synagogue of Satan. Do not be afraid of what you are about to suffer. I tell you, the devil will put some of you in prison to test you, and you will suffer persecution for ten days. Be faithful, even to the point of death, and I will give you the crown of life (Rev 2:9-10).

Christ mentions past afflictions, hardships, poverty, and slanders from Jews. When he speaks of "what you are about to suffer," he anticipates still more difficulties to come - persecution, imprisonment, and perhaps even death.

The Lord addresses these words to the church in Pergamum:

I know where you live - where Satan has his throne. Yet you remain true to my name. You did not renounce your faith in me, even in the days of Antipas, my faithful witness, who was put to death in your city - where Satan lives (Rev 2:13).

At the time when John writes Revelation, Christians in Asia are under intense pressure to renounce their faith in Christ. At least one martyrdom (Antipas) has already occurred.

Philadelphia and Laodicea receive these assurances:

I know your deeds, your love and faith, your service and perseverance, and that you are now doing more than you did at first (Rev 2:19).

I know your deeds. See, I have placed before you an open door that no one can shut. I know that you have little strength, yet you have kept my word and have not denied my name. I will make those who are of the synagogue of Satan, who claim to be Jews though they are not, but are liars - I will make them come and fall down at your feet and acknowledge that I have loved you. Since you have kept my command to endure patiently, I will also keep you from the hour of trial that is going to come upon the whole world to test those who live on the earth (Rev 3:8-10).

Again we see pressure to deny Christ, troubles with Jews, and an expectation of further hardships to come ("the hour of trial that is going to come upon the whole world").

The vision of the fifth seal describes multiple Christian martyrs, whose numbers will continue to grow:

When he opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar the souls of those who had been slain because of the word of God and the testimony they had maintained. They called out in a loud voice, "How long, Sovereign Lord, holy and true, until you judge the inhabitants of the earth and avenge our blood?" Then each of them was given a white robe, and they were told to wait a little longer, until the number of their fellow servants and brothers who were to be killed as they had been was completed (Rev 6:9-11).

John later sees a woman symbolizing Rome, with a golden cup, "drunk with the blood of the saints, the blood of those who bore testimony to Jesus" (Rev 17:6). She has not merely sipped from her gruesome cup; she has gorged herself with the blood of God's people to the point of intoxication. Numerous Christians are being murdered for their loyalty to Christ.

4. Summary

Internal evidence suggests that Revelation was written by a Jewish Christian from Palestine named "John." John received the Revelation on the island of Patmos, where he had been banished for witnessing to Christ. The book addresses all the churches in the Roman province of Asia. Together with John, these believers are being harassed and persecuted because of their commitment to Christ - some to the point of death. At the time of writing, the author expects the suffering to continue and the number of martyrs to grow.

B. EXTERNAL EVIDENCE

Revelation itself gives us a good start in discovering the origins of this book. Yet important questions remain unanswered: When was Revelation written? Precisely why were the first readers being persecuted and killed? Who is John? For insights into these issues, we turn to "external evidence" from outside the New Testament.

1. Author

Regarding the identity of "John," three possibilities seem most likely: First, the author could be John the Apostle, brother of James and son of Zebedee, one of the original Twelve disciples of Jesus (see Matt 10:2). Second, he could be someone writing in the name of John the Apostle, in which case Revelation would be pseudonymous like so many other apocalypses. Third, the writer could be some other person named "John" writing in his own name.

a. "John" a Pseudonym?

Of these three possibilities, we may eliminate the second immediately. Revelation is certainly not pseudonymous - not because such a practice would be unthinkable in a Christian apocalypse, but because the evidence makes this theory untenable. The author of Revelation never gives any indication that he is an Apostle. He simply calls himself a "servant" of God (21:1) and "your brother" (21:9). He recounts no stories or sayings from the ministry of Jesus, nor does he give any other indication that he had known Jesus during his earthly ministry. Many scholars (this writer not included) think that the author actually distinguishes himself from the Apostles in Revelation 21:14: "The wall of the city had twelve foundations, and on them were the names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb" - that is, the past founders of the people of God.

If the author of Revelation is someone other than John the Apostle, then this easily explains why he does not identify himself as the Apostle. If the author actually is John the Apostle, then we could attribute his silence to modesty. (The author of the Gospel and letters attributed to John displays similar modesty, being more interested in telling others about Jesus than in telling them about himself.) However, if what we have in Revelation is someone who wants to present himself as John the Apostle, then he fails miserably by never clearly identifying himself as that hero of the faith. The theory of pseudonymity seems quite implausible in the case of Revelation.

b. Evidence from the Early Christian Fathers

We are left, then, with two possibilities: Is the author of Revelation John the Apostle, or is he some other "John" entirely? Perhaps the Early Christian Fathers can help us with this question. As leaders of the Church in the postapostolic period, they were certainly closer to John in time and space than we are. What do they tell us regarding the origin of Revelation?

(1) Timeline. Before we put the Fathers on the "witness stand," we should acquaint ourselves with the time period in question. Revelation - like all New Testament books - was written during the first century A.D. Thirteen Roman emperors reigned during that century, as outlined below:

Augustus (30 B.C.-A.D 14) was emperor at the time of Jesus' birth (which took place in 4-6 B.C. - see Luke 2:1) and also during his boyhood.

Tiberius (A.D. 14-37) ruled throughout the period of Jesus' adulthood, his public ministry (see Luke 3:1), and his death and resurrection (which occurred in A.D. 33).

Caligula, Claudius (mentioned in Acts 11:28

Caligula (37-41) and 18:2), and Nero reigned during the period when the Apostle Paul carried out

Claudius (41-54) his mission to the Gentiles and Christianity spread across the Mediterranean world.

Nero (54-68) According to the Church Fathers, both Peter and Paul died under a persecution of Christians sparked by Nero.

Galba, Otho, and Vitellius (68-69) held power only briefly as the Empire suffered through a period of murder, intrigue, and civil war.

Vespasian (69-79) was the Roman general charged with putting down the Jewish revolt that began in A.D. 66. When his forces defeated Vitellius and made him emperor, Vespasian left the siege of Jerusalem to return to Rome.

Titus (79-81), the son of Vespasian, took over his father's command and destroyed Jerusalem in A.D. 70. He later succeeded his father as emperor.

Domitian (81-96) According to the Church Fathers, Domitian (another son of Vespasian), Nerva, and Trajan

Nerva (96-98) played a role in the events surrounding the writing of Revelation (see below).

Trajan (98-117)

Against this background, what do the Church Fathers tell us about "John" and the writing of Revelation? Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Eusebius prove particularly helpful to our inquiry.

(2) The Testimony of Justin Martyr. Our earliest evidence that Revelation was written by John the Apostle comes from Justin Martyr, a teacher of the church at Rome in the mid-second century. In his Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, Justin recalls:

. . . a man among us [Christians] named John, one of Christ's Apostles, received a revelation and foretold that the followers of Christ would dwell in Jerusalem for a thousand years, and that afterwards the universal and, in short, everlasting resurrection and judgment would take place. (Justin refers to John's vision in Rev 20:4-22:5.)

As we will see, some of Justin's fellow believers agree that the Apostle wrote Revelation, while others have their doubts.

(3) The Testimony of Irenaeus. During the late second century, Irenaeus served as bishop of Lyons in what is now France. In Against Heresies (ca. 180), a refutation of Gnosticism, he defends the apostolic origin of the Christian gospel. In the process, he provides details concerning the later life of John the Apostle.

For we learned the plan of our salvation from no others than from those through whom the gospel came to us. They first preached it abroad, and then later by the will of God handed it down to us in Writings, to be the foundation and pillar of our faith. For it is not right to say that they preached before they had come to perfect knowledge, as some [Gnostics] dare to say, boasting that they are the correctors of the apostles. For after our Lord had risen from the dead, and they were enclothed with the power from on high when the Holy Spirit came upon them, they were filled with all things and had perfect knowledge. They went out to the ends of the earth, preaching the good things that come to us from God, and proclaiming peace from heaven to men, all and each of them equally being in possession of the gospel of God. So Matthew among the Hebrews issued a Writing of the gospel in their own tongue, while Peter and Paul were preaching the gospel at Rome, and founding the Church. After their decease Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, also handed down to us in writing what Peter had preached. Then Luke, the follower of Paul, recorded in a book the gospel as it was preached by him. Finally John, the disciple of the Lord, who had also lain on his breast, published the Gospel, while he was residing at Ephesus in Asia. All of these handed down to us that there is one God, maker of heaven and earth, proclaimed by the Law and the Prophets, and one Christ the Son of God. If anyone does not agree with them he despises the companions of the Lord, he despises Christ the Lord himself, he even despises the Father, and he is self-condemned, resisting and refusing his own salvation, as all the heretics do.

Note that, according to Irenaeus, the Fourth Gospel was written by the Apostle John (whom he identifies with the "disciple whom Jesus loved," who reclined next to the Lord at the "Last Supper" - see John 13:23). The bishop also identifies John's home at the time of the writing as Ephesus in the Roman province of Asia.

Elsewhere in Against Heresies , Irenaeus writes:

The church in Ephesus also, which was founded by Paul, and where John survived until the time of Trajan, is a true witness of the tradition of the apostles.

Here the writer again locates John at Ephesus. Furthermore, he dates John's death to the reign of Trajan (A.D. 98-117). If John was as young as fifteen when called to be Jesus' disciple in about A.D. 30, then the Apostle would have been eighty-three years old when Trajan's reign began in A.D. 98. The Apostle John could have been in his nineties - or even one hundred years old - when he died (hence the rumors that he would not die mentioned in John 21).

(4) The Testimony of Eusebius, Origen, and Papias. Eusebius was bishop of Caesarea in Palestine and a confidant of Constantine, the first Christian emperor of Rome. After Constantine legalized Christianity, Eusebius wrote a History of the Church from its origins with Jesus and the Apostles to his own time in A.D. 325. In constructing this history, he used a number of sources, including the writings of Origen (Christian teacher in Caesarea active during the first half of the third century) and Papias (a bishop from Phyrgia who lived in the early second century). In several passages, Eusebius discusses the authorship of Revelation.

Meanwhile the holy apostles and disciples of our Saviour were scattered over the whole world. Thomas, tradition tells us, was chosen for Parthia, Andrew for Scythia, John for Asia, where he remained till his death at Ephesus. Peter seems to have preached in Pontus, Galatia and Bithynia, Cappadocia and Asia, to the Jews of the Dispersion. Finally, he came to Rome where he was crucified, head downwards at his own request. What need be said of Paul, who from Jerusalem as far as Illyricum preached in all its fulness the gospel of Christ, and later was martyred in Rome under Nero? This is exactly what Origen tells us in Volume III of his Commentary on Genesis.

Note that Peter and Paul were martyred at Rome during the reign of Nero, who persecuted Christians there. Furthermore, Eusebius - like Irenaeus - places John's death at Ephesus.

Elsewhere Eusebius describes a later persecution carried out against Christians by another emperor after Nero:

Many were victims of Domitian's appalling cruelty. At Rome great numbers of men distinguished by birth and attainments were executed without a fair trial, and countless other eminent men were for no reason at all banished from the country and their property confiscated. Finally, he showed himself the successor of Nero in enmity and hostility to God. He was, in fact, the second to organize persecution against us, though his father Vespasian had had no mischievous designs against us.

There is ample evidence that at that time the apostle and evangelist John was still alive, and because of his testimony to the word of God was sentenced to confinement on the island of Patmos. Writing about the number of the name given to antichrist in what is called the Revelation of John, Irenaeus has this to say about John in Book V of his Heresies Answered :

Had there been any need for his name to be openly announced at the present time, it would have been stated by the one who saw the actual revelation. For it was seen not a long time back, but almost in my own lifetime, at the end of Domitian's reign. . . .

After fifteen years of Domitian's rule Nerva succeeded to the throne. By vote of the Roman senate Domitian's honours were removed, and those unjustly banished returned to their homes and had their property restored to them. This is noted by the chroniclers of the period. At that time too the apostle John, after his exile on the island, resumed residence at Ephesus, as early Christian tradition records.

According to Eusebius, Domitian carried out an organized persecution against Christians involving confiscation of property, banishment, and executions. He was the second Roman emperor to persecute Christians after Nero. During this time, John the Apostle was exiled to the island of Patmos. There he wrote the Revelation "at the end of Domitian's reign" (i.e., A.D. 95-96). After Domitian's death and during the reign of Nerva (A.D. 96-98), John was released from Patmos and allowed to return to his home at Ephesus.

The author of Revelation identifies himself as "John" (Rev 1:1,4, 9). Eusebius quotes Irenaeus, who suggests that this was probably ("ample evidence") the same John who wrote the Fourth Gospel - that is, John the Apostle. Irenaeus also says that the "antichrist" mentioned in Revelation refers to Domitian, and that his identity would have been clear to anyone living at that time.

If Eusebius' information is correct, then we have the author, date, occasion, and an important key to understanding the book of Revelation here in his History of the Church . We will see, however, that Eusebius and other Christians of his time were not certain that this tradition was entirely accurate.

The bishop continues:

Now let me indicate the unquestioned writings of this apostle [John]. Obviously his gospel, recognized as it is by all the churches in the world, must first be acknowledged. . . .

Of John's writings, besides the gospel, the first of the epistles has been accepted as unquestionably his by scholars both of the present and of a much earlier period: the other two are disputed. As to the Revelation, the views of most people to this day are evenly divided.

Note that, by A.D. 325 (when Eusebius writes his History ), the fourth Gospel and 1 John are generally considered compositions of John the Apostle. However, the authorship of 2-3 John and Revelation are still disputed. Many Christians doubt the "ample evidence" given by Irenaeus and the other Church Fathers.

Eusebius therefore suggests an alternative theory:

Papias has left us five volumes entitled The Sayings of the Lord Explained . These are mentioned by Irenaeus as the only works from his pen:

To these things Papias, who had listened to John and was later a companion of Polycarp, and who lived at a very early date, bears written testimony in the fourth of his books; he composed five.

That is what Irenaeus says; but Papias himself in the preface of his work makes it clear that he was never a hearer or eyewitness of the holy apostles, and tells us that he learnt the essentials of the Faith from their former pupils:

I shall not hesitate to furnish you, along with the interpretations, with all that in days gone by I carefully learnt from the presbyters and have carefully recalled, for I can guarantee its truth. Unlike most people, I felt at home not with those who had a great deal to say, but with those who taught the truth; not with those who appeal to commandments from other sources but with those who appeal to the commandments given by the Lord to faith and coming to us from truth itself. And whenever anyone came who had been a follower of the presbyters, I inquired into the words of the presbyters, what Andrew or Peter had said, or Philip or Thomas or James or John or Matthew, or any other disciple of the Lord, and what Aristion [the reputed author of the present ending of the Second Gospel - i.e., Mark 16:9-20] and the presbyter John, disciples of the Lord, were still saying. For I did not imagine that things out of books would help me as much as the utterances of a living and abiding voice.

Here it should be observed that he twice includes the name of John. The first John he puts in the same list as Peter, James, Matthew, and the rest of the apostles, obviously with the evangelist in mind; the second, with a changed form of expression, he places in a second group outside the number of the apostles, giving precedence to Aristion and clearly calling John a presbyter. He thus confirms the truth of the story that two men in Asia had the same name, and that there were two tombs in Ephesus, each of which is still called John's. This is highly significant, for it is likely that the second - if we cannot accept the first - saw the Revelation that bears the name of John. Papias, whom we are now discussing, owns that he learnt the words of the apostles from their former followers, but says that he listened to Aristion and the presbyter John with his own ears. Certainly he often mentions them by name, and reproduces their teachings in his writings.

Eusebius raises the possibility that there were two Christian leaders, living in Ephesus, who shared the name "John" - namely, John the Apostle and John the Presbyter. He suggests that perhaps John the Presbyter is the "John" who was exiled to Patmos and who wrote the Revelation.

c. Conclusions

We possess significant external evidence from the Early Christian Fathers that John the Apostle wrote Revelation. Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Origen, Papias, and others, together suggest that, later in life, the Apostle moved from Palestine to Ephesus in the Roman province of Asia. There he wrote the fourth Gospel and three New Testament epistles (1-3 John). During the persecution carried out by Domitian, he was exiled to the island of Patmos, where he received the Revelation. After Domitian's death, during the reign of Nerva, John returned to Ephesus. He died during the reign of Trajan after living an unusually long life. The external evidence meshes well with internal evidence suggesting that the author was a Palestinian Jew, exiled to Patmos, writing to Christians in Asia during a time of severe persecution. That John the Apostle wrote Revelation has been the traditional view of the church for centuries.

However, we have seen that - even in ancient times - there were many Christians who doubted this conclusion. As late as A.D. 325, when Eusebius wrote his History of the Church , opinions regarding the apostolic origin of Revelation were "evenly divided." As far back as A.D. 250, Dionysius of Alexandria questioned whether the same person who composed the simple yet profound language of the fourth Gospel and Johannine Epistles could have written the complicated prose of Revelation. (Of course, some of the differences must be attributed to the radically different genre of an apocalypse.) The controversy over whether or not Revelation should be included in the Christian canon was not finally settled until the Councils of Hippo (A.D. 393) and Carthage (A.D. 397).

Did early Church Fathers, such as Justin and Irenaeus, attribute the Revelation to John because they had solid, reliable information that the Apostle did indeed write the book? Or were they making an intelligent (but not necessarily correct) guess based on what evidence they had? For example, did they say that the Apostle John moved to Asia because they knew that he did? Or did they assume that the "John" who wrote Revelation was the Apostle, take note that this "John" was in Asia, and therefore assume that John the Apostle moved to Asia?

The fact that the authorship of Revelation was still heavily debated in Eusebius's time indicates that the early Church lacked solid proof one way or the other. For this reason, we must acknowledge the very real possibility that Revelation was written by someone other than John the Apostle - perhaps by John the Presbyter. We possess very good evidence that Revelation was written by John the Apostle, but not conclusive evidence.

2. Date

According to Irenaeus (see above), John wrote Revelation at the end of Domitian's reign - that is, about A.D. 95 or 96. This date is almost certainly accurate for the reasons given below.

We have already seen that Revelation was written at a time when Christians were beginning to be persecuted and killed by Roman authorities in Asia. The author expected the harassment and killings to escalate. We have also seen that, according to the Church Fathers, second century Christians possessed an historical recollection of two great persecutions during the first century. The earliest occurred during the reign of Nero in A.D. 64 or 65. At that time there was a great fire in Rome. Rumor had it that Nero wanted to build some new buildings, so he had the fire started in order to burn down a lower class part of town to make room for new construction. The fire burned out of control and destroyed a large portion of the city. Nero first tried to use the Jews as scapegoats. When that tactic failed, he blamed the Christians. Large numbers were executed with tortures that sickened even the Romans. Tacitus, a Roman historian writing about fifty years later, describes that terrible time:

But neither human help, nor imperial munificence, nor all the modes of placating Heaven, could stifle scandal or dispel the belief that the fire had taken place by order [of Nero]. Therefore, to scotch the rumor, Nero substituted as culprits, and punished with the utmost refinements of cruelty, a class of men, loathed for their vices, whom the crowd styled Christians. Christus, the founder of the name, had undergone the death penalty in the reign of Tiberius, by sentence of the procurator Pontius Pilate, and the pernicious superstition was checked for a moment, only to break out once more, not merely in Judaea, the home of the disease, but in the capital itself, where all things horrible or shameful in the world collect and find a vogue. First, then, the confessed members of the sect were arrested; next, on their disclosures, vast numbers were convicted, not so much on the count of arson as for hatred of the human race. And derision accompanied their end: they were covered with wild beasts' skins and torn to death by dogs; or they were fastened on crosses, and, when daylight failed were burned to serve as lamps by night. Nero had offered his Gardens for the spectacle, and gave an exhibition in his Circus, mixing with the crowd in the habit of a charioteer, or mounted on his car[riage]. Hence, in spite of a guilt which had earned the most exemplary punishment, there arose a sentiment of pity, due to the impression that they were being sacrificed not for the welfare of the state but to the ferocity of a single man.

Christians remembered Nero as a bloodthirsty "beast" from this time forward.

The second systematic persecution of Christians occurred late in the reign of Domitian, in A.D. 95-96. Roman historians leave no clear record of Domitian himself ever ordering such a persecution. However, church leaders such as Irenaeus and Eusebius testify to at least a localized persecution, in the province of Asia, carried out in Domitian's name (see above). The question, then, is which persecution prompted the writing of Revelation?

Revelation was probably written during the persecution of Domitian, rather than during the persecution of Nero, for the following reasons: First, John (like the authors of 1 Peter, 4 Ezra, and 2 Baruch) uses "Babylon" as a symbol for Rome. He views Rome as a second "Babylon" because, just as Babylon had destroyed Jerusalem and the temple in 587 B.C., so did Rome destroy Jerusalem and its temple in A.D. 70. At the time of Nero's reign (A.D. 54-68) the temple was still standing, so Rome had not yet become "Babylon." However, by Domitian's rule (A.D. 81-96), this potent symbol had become available to John.

Second, Revelation contains many allusions to Roman emperor worship (discussed below in Part 3). As we shall see, such worship was much more prevalent during the reign of Domitian than it was during the reign of Nero.

Third, Revelation frequently portrays Roman political authorities as Nero redivivus ("Nero revivified" or "Nero come back to life") because, like Nero before them, they persecute Christ's church. If he speaks of "Nero come back to life," then John must be writing after Nero's death rather than during the persecution he instigated. Nero redivivus imagery, then, is a symbolic way of referring to Domitian and his deadly agents. (For a fuller explanation of the Nero redivivus idea in Revelation, see the comments on 13:3.)

Finally, the Church Fathers say that John wrote Revelation late in the reign of Domitian (see above), which dates John's Apocalypse to A.D. 95-96.

3. Occasion: Persecution Related to

Emperor Worship in Asia Minor

Domitian's persecution of the church was partly due to the Christians' refusal to engage in emperor worship. What were the issues at stake in this practice, and how did believers respond to it?

a. Historical Background

Although worshiping kings as deities had a long history in the east, the practice did not enter the western world until the time of Alexander the Great (late fourth century B.C.). As the young ruler won victory after victory over Babylonia, Persia, and other eastern lands, the conquered peoples began to proclaim him a god. Alexander encouraged such worship because he thought it would help to unify the diverse peoples making up his empire.

Following his assassination on March 15, 44 B.C., Julius Caesar was declared a god by the Roman Senate. Afterwards it became customary to honor dead emperors in this way. On his deathbed Vespasian announced sarcastically, "I am already becoming a god!"

Tiberius and Claudius discouraged worship of living emperors. However, Nero, Vespasian, and Titus tolerated the practice for its political benefits. Caligula, who suffered from mental illness, was the first emperor who actually believed himself divine.

Domitian insisted on being worshiped as a god during his lifetime, which scandalized his biographer Suetonius:

When [Domitian] became emperor, he did not hesitate to boast in the senate that he had conferred their power on both his father (Vespasian) and his brother (Titus), and that they had but returned him his own; nor on taking back his wife after their divorce, that he had "recalled her to his divine couch." He delighted to hear the people in the amphitheatre shout on his feast day: "Good Fortune attend our Lord [ Dominus ] and Mistress.". . . With no less arrogance he began as follows in issuing a circular letter in the name of his procurators, "Our Master [ Dominus ] and our God [ Deus ] bids that this be done." And so the custom arose of henceforth addressing him in no other way even in writing or in conversation. He suffered no statues to be set up in his honour in the Capitol, except of gold and silver and of a fixed weight. He erected so many and such huge vaulted passage-ways and arches in the various regions of the city, adorned with chariots and triumphal emblems, that on one of them someone wrote in Greek: "It is enough."

During Domitian's reign, at least three of the seven cities to which John addressed the Revelation had temples dedicated to the worship of Caesar - namely, Ephesus, Smyrna and Pergamum. Since 29 B.C., Pergamum (called "the place where Satan has his throne" in Rev 2:13) had been the official center of emperor worship in Asia.

b. Emperor Worship in Daily Life

By the late first century, emperor worship touched many aspects of Roman life, embracing the political, the economic, and the social. Civic events and legal transactions included pledges of allegiance to Caesar as "Lord" and "God" (i.e., dominus and deus in Latin, or kuvrio" ( kyrios ) and qeov" ( theos ) in Greek - the biblical titles Christians used for God the Creator and his Son Jesus Christ). As they entered the theater, sporting competitions, gladiatorial games, or public festivals, citizens tossed a pinch of incense on a small altar as a sacrifice to the "divine Caesar." When animals were slaughtered to provide meat for the marketplace, a small portion was set aside as a sacrifice for the gods. Collegia (private men's clubs) and trade guilds (similar clubs made up of people who practiced the same vocation) held banquets honoring the emperor and their patron gods as silent guests.

Such practices were not necessarily taken seriously as major religious events. Rather, they were expressions of patriotism, national unity, and gratitude for the benevolent rule of the Roman emperor. They were the equivalent of saluting the flag or removing one's hat at the playing of the national anthem. However, refusal to participate called into question one's loyalty to the emperor, and this could lead to the most severe of consequences.

c. Exemptions for Jews and Christians

The only groups really troubled by such practices were Jews and Christians, who were monotheists believing in one God alone. To them, honoring Caesar (a mere man) as "Lord and God" was idolatry. To avoid this sin, Jews of the first century B.C. worked out an agreement that convinced the Romans of their loyalty to the empire: They agreed to pray for the emperor, but not to him. In the temple at Jerusalem they offered sacrifices for the benefit of Caesar, but not to Caesar. This arrangement satisfied the Romans that the Jews were not dangerous rebels, and it was preferable to fighting a war against irrational religious zealots. So Jews were exempted from worship of the Roman gods - including the emperor - and permitted to practice their own religion. Titus instituted a two-drachma tax on each Jew for continuing this special privilege.

At first, the Romans viewed Christians as simply another variety of Jew - messianic Jews. Christians therefore enjoyed the same exemption from emperor worship given to other Jews. Over time, several events altered their status: First, through the successful missionary activity of Paul and others, Christianity became a predominantly Gentile faith. Second, when Jews rebelled against Rome in A.D. 66-73, Christians began to distinguish themselves from that group in order to keep themselves out of trouble. Finally, after the war, Judaism closed ranks and expelled "heretics" such as Christians from the synagogues. Jews quit saying that the Christians were part of their community, which removed the churches' exemption from emperor worship.

d. Christian Responses to the Emperor Cult

How did Christians respond to this situation? Some favored acknowledging the emperor as "Lord," offering sacrifice to his image, and eating with the collegia as harmless expressions of patriotism. After all, they could hail Caesar as "god," giving him that title of honor, without really believing that he was a deity in the literal sense. Did not Jesus himself command us to "Give to Caesar what is Caesar's, and to God what is God's" (Matt 22:21)? Did not our beloved Apostle Paul teach us to "Submit to the governing authorities" (Rom 13:1)? Should we give up our social life, invite financial ruin, and even risk death over a pinch of incense that means nothing?!

Others argued that confessing Caesar as "Lord and god," and offering sacrifice to the "divine Caesar," was rank idolatry. And did not Christ also say, "Worship the Lord your God, and serve him only" (Matt 4:10)? Did not Paul also say that "for us there is but one God ( theos ) . . . and there is but one Lord ( kyrios )"? John belonged to this latter camp that wanted nothing to do with worshiping the emperor or the other Roman gods. He has harsh words for compromisers in Revelation 2-3.

To avoid committing idolatry, Christians tended to withdraw from much of the social life of the city. Over time, they gained a reputation for being a rather strange and suspicious group, antisocial and lacking community spirit. Eventually the gossip mill started up, and vicious rumors spread:

These Christians are so unpatriotic! They refuse to honor the emperor! And what do they do in those secret meetings of theirs? You don't suppose they are plotting some sort of rebellion, do you? Hmmm . . . wasn't their own leader, Christos, crucified for claiming to be a king?

I heard that those "love feasts" of theirs are incestuous orgies. They say Christos taught them to love their "brothers" and "sisters"!

It's even worse! I heard them talking about eating the flesh and drinking the blood of the "Son." They are sacrificing babies and practicing cannibalism!

These "Christ people" are impious atheists! They say idols are not real and refuse to worship any of our gods.

As their neighbors turned against them, Christians became subject to social and economic discrimination, pressures and harassment, unofficial mob violence, and the plundering of their property. Later books of the New Testament mention these kinds of persecution (see, e.g., Heb 10:34; 13:3; 1 Pet 4:14-16; 5:9).

Tensions focused on Christians' refusal to worship the emperor, for this was not simply a religious infraction but apparent political subversion. Domitian, who had once said, "Not good is a number of rulers," prosecuted this crime without mercy. A possible reference to Christians being punished for such transgressions appears in Dio Cassius' Roman History :

. . . the same year (i.e., A.D. 95) Domitian slew, along with many others, Flavius Clemens the consul, although he was a cousin and had to wife Flavia Domitilla, who was also a relative of the emperor's. The charge brought against them both was that of atheism (i.e., refusal to worship the Roman gods - including the emperor?), a charge on which many others who drifted into Jewish ways (i.e., many Christians?) were condemned . Some of these were put to death, and the rest were at least deprived of their property. Domitilla was merely banished to [the island of] Pandateria.

Note that Dio describes events of the year 95, the very time period in which John wrote Revelation. Note also the kinds of penalties Domitian prescribed for "atheism" - namely, confiscation of property, banishment to an island (as John was exiled to Patmos), and death (as Antipas was killed in Pergamum).

There were political, social, and economic benefits to be gained by turning Christians over to the Roman authorities. For example, if there were two silversmiths in a city, and one was a Christian, then the other could eliminate his competitor by accusing the "disloyal" Christian. Jews could purge their synagogues of "heretics" by reporting that Christians were not true Jews and therefore not entitled to exemption from emperor worship. One's social or political rivals could be removed by posting an anonymous notice exposing them as Christians. The emperor cult handed a deadly weapon to anyone with a grudge or petty jealousy against any Christian.

e. The Correspondence of Pliny and Trajan

Unfortunately, we have no historical documents from Domitian's reign detailing governmental policy toward Christians in Asia. However, we do possess a series of official letters exchanged by Pliny Secundus, the Roman governor of Bithynia, and the Emperor Trajan. Bithynia was just north of Asia, and the letters were written only fifteen or sixteen years after Revelation, in A.D. 111-112. So this correspondence may offer a glimpse into the kinds of pressures faced by Christians during John's time.

Pliny to the Emperor Trajan

It is my custom to refer all my difficulties to you, Sir, for no one is better able to resolve my doubts and to inform my ignorance.

I have never been present at an examination of Christians. Consequently, I do not know the nature or the extent of the punishments usually meted out to them, nor the grounds for starting an investigation and how far it should be pressed. Nor am I at all sure whether any distinction should be made between them on the grounds of age, or if young people and adults should be treated alike; whether a pardon ought to be granted to anyone retracting his beliefs, or if he has once professed Christianity, he shall gain nothing by renouncing it; and whether it is the mere name of Christian which is punishable, even if innocent of crime, or rather the crimes associated with the name.

For the moment this is the line I have taken with all persons brought before me on the charge of being Christians. I have asked them in person if they are Christians, and if they admit it, I repeat the question a second and third time, with a warning of the punishment awaiting them. If they persist, I order them to be led away for execution; for, whatever the nature of their admission, I am convinced that their stubbornness and unshakeable obstinacy ought not to go unpunished. There have been others similarly fanatical who are Roman citizens. I have entered them on the list of persons to be sent to Rome for trial.

Now that I have begun to deal with this problem, as so often happens, the charges are becoming more widespread and increasing in variety. An anonymous pamphlet has been circulated which contains the names of a number of accused persons. Among these I considered that I should dismiss any who denied that they were or ever had been Christians when they had repeated after me a formula of invocation to the gods and had made offerings of wine and incense to your statue (which I had ordered to be brought into court for this purpose along with the images of the gods), and furthermore had reviled the name of Christ: none of which things, I understand, any genuine Christian can be induced to do.

Others, whose names were given to me by an informer, first admitted the charge and then denied it; they said that they had ceased to be Christians two or more years previously, and some of them even twenty years ago. They all did reverence to your statue and the images of the gods in the same way as the others, and reviled the name of Christ. They also declared that the sum total of their guilt or error amounted to no more than this: they had met regularly before dawn on a fixed day to chant verses alternately among themselves in honour of Christ as if to a god, and also to bind themselves by oath, not for any criminal purpose, but to abstain from theft, robbery and adultery, to commit no breach of trust and not to deny a deposit when called upon to restore it. After this ceremony it had been their custom to disperse and reassemble later to take food of an ordinary, harmless kind; but they had in fact given up this practice since my edict, issued on your instructions, which banned all political societies. This made me decide it was all the more necessary to extract the truth by torture from two slave-women, whom they call deaconesses. I found nothing but a degenerate sort of cult carried to extravagant lengths. I have therefore postponed any further examination and hastened to consult you. The question seems to me to be worthy of your consideration, especially in view of the number of persons endangered; for a great many individuals of every age and class, both men and women, are being brought to trial, and this is likely to continue. It is not only the towns, but villages and rural districts too which are infected through contact with this wretched cult. I think though that it is still possible for it to be checked and directed to better ends, for there is no doubt that people have begun to throng the temples which had been almost entirely deserted for a long time; the sacred rites which had been allowed to lapse are being performed again, and flesh of sacrificial victims is on sale everywhere, though up till recently scarcely anyone could be found to buy it. It is easy to infer from this that a great many people could be reformed if they were given an opportunity to repent.

Trajan's Reply to Pliny

You have followed the right course of procedure, my dear Pliny, in your examination of the cases of persons charged with being Christians, for it is impossible to lay down a general rule to a fixed formula. These people must not be hunted out; if they are brought before you and the charge against them is proved, they must be punished, but in the case of anyone who denies that he is a Christian, and makes it clear that he is not by offering prayers to our gods, he is to be pardoned as a result of his repentance however suspect his past conduct may be. But pamphlets circulated anonymously must play no part in any accusation. They create the worst sort of precedent and are quite out of keeping with the spirit of our age.

The Pliny/Trajan correspondence illustrates that, if Christians were hauled before a Roman magistrate, they were required to prove their patriotism in three basic ways: They must sacrifice wine and incense to images of Caesar and the other Roman gods. They must declare Kyrios Kaisaros ("Caesar is Lord," an exact counterpart to the basic Christian confession "Jesus is Lord"). They must "repent" of their faith and curse Christ. If they refused, they would be executed.

f. The Christians' Choice

In such a terrible circumstance, what choices did Christians have? Dr. Boring summarizes them nicely: They could surrender their faith in Christ, but for John this would be to surrender "the crown of life" (see Rev 2:10). They could lie about their loyalty to Christ, but John reserves a place in the "fiery lake of burning sulfur" for liars (see Rev 21:8). They could try to change the laws, but this was not possible since Rome was not a democracy and Domitian would never accept a rival "Lord." They could fight the Roman government, but this was not practical. They could "adjust" by confessing Caesar as "god" without meaning it, but John rejects even feigned idolatry as unworthy of Christ. Finally, they could die, as Jesus himself had died. John affirms death for Christ's sake as the only truly "Christian" response. There is no other way.

He who has an ear, let him hear: If anyone is to go into captivity, into captivity he will go. If anyone is to be killed with the sword, with the sword he will be killed. Here is the patient endurance and the faithfulness of the saints. (Rev 13:10)

This is the challenge faced by the churches of Asia when John writes Revelation. It is a terribly hard book for terribly hard times.

V. THE STRUCTURE OF REVELATION

In Part III of the Introduction we identify Revelation as a Christian apocalypse - probably the first Christian apocalypse. Such writings often incorporate elements of other genres. For example, Daniel 1-6 consists largely of a narrative prologue to the apocalypse proper found in chapters 7-12. In the case of Revelation, John's apocalyptic vision is presented within the framework of a first-century letter.

A. THE FIRST CENTURY HELLENISTIC

LETTER FORM IN REVELATION

Letters written today generally bear certain standard features that conform to cultural norms (e.g., the name and address of the sender and receiver, a greeting formula such as "Dear Sir," and a closing formula such as "Sincerely yours"). New Testament epistles likewise conform to the standard Hellenistic letter form used in the Roman world of the first century A.D. The elements of this common letter form are listed below, along with examples of each element from Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians and his Letter to Philemon:

The name of the sender(s) (see 1 Cor 1:1; Phlm 1a)

The name of the recipient(s) (see 1 Cor 1:2; Phlm 1b-2)

The prescript , which is a greeting formula (see 1 Cor 1:3; Phlm 3)

The proem , which is a word of thanks, praise, or petition to a god (see 1 Cor 1:4-9; Phlm 4-7).

The introductory formula , which serves as the transition into the primary subject matter of the letter (see 1 Cor 1:10; Phlm 8-9).

The main body of the letter (see 1 Cor 1:11-16:18; Phlm 10-22)

Greetings (see 1 Cor 16:19-20; Phlm 23-24)

Benedictory wishes in the sender's own hand (rather than that of a secretary, if used), which serve to personalize the letter (see 1 Cor 16:21-24; Phlm 25)

Revelation bears most of the features of a first century Hellenistic letter, as shown below. This observation is important because it explains why certain elements appear in Revelation and why they are arranged as they are. John is simply following the conventions of his culture.

Name of Sender (Rev 1:4a):

John

Name of Recipient(s) (Rev 1:4b):

To the seven churches in the province of Asia:

Prescript (Rev 1:4c-5a):

Grace and peace to you from him who is, and who was, and who is to come, and from the seven spirits before his throne, and from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth.

Proem (Rev1:5b-6): In this part of the letter, a pagan would often call upon the gods to grant good health and prosperity to the addressee(s). John Christianizes this portion of the standard letter form and transforms it into a doxology of praise to God:

To him who loves us and has freed us from our sins by his blood, and has made us to be a kingdom and priests to serve his God and Father - to him be glory and power for ever and ever! Amen.

Introductory Formula (Rev 1:9):

I, John, your brother and companion in the suffering and kingdom and patient endurance that are ours in Jesus, was on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus.

Main Body of the Letter (Rev 1:10-22:20)

Greetings are not found in Revelation.

Benedictory Wishes in the Sender's Own Hand (Rev 22:21):

The grace of the Lord Jesus be with God's people. Amen.

B. THE STRUCTURE OF JOHN'S VISION

Within the Hellenistic letter form, John structures Revelation in four main parts, as a careful examination clearly shows. The book begins with a Prologue (1:1-20) in which the author describes how Christ commissioned him to deliver a revelation to the seven churches of Asia. Near the end of this Prologue, in 1:19, the Lord summarizes the contents of the revelation itself:

Write, therefore, what you have seen, what is now and what will take place later.

Notice that the vision contains two main elements: First, there is a revelation of the present - a revelation of "what is now." The "present," of course, refers to "what is now" from John's perspective. Christ offers John a vision of the late first century A.D. in Asia. Second, the Lord promises a revelation of the future - a vision of "what will take place later." Again, this is the "future" from John's point of view - the period from A.D. 95-96 through Christ's return and the consummation of the kingdom of God.

Which part of the book reveals John's "present" and which part reveals the "future"? John treats these two subjects in the order in which they are mentioned. His discussion of the "present" appears in 2:1-3:22 and takes the form of seven letters to the churches of Asia. This part of the vision describes the "present" circumstances of the Asian churches from Christ's point of view.

The Lord's revelation of the "future" appears in 4:1-22:6, as the structure of the passage makes clear. The first verse of this section (4:1) reads:

After this I looked, and there before me was a door standing open in heaven. And the voice I had first heard speaking to me like a trumpet said, "Come up here, and I will show you what must take place after this."

The initial phrase "After this," in and of itself, marks a transition - the end of one discussion and the beginning of another. Christ then introduces the next major portion of the book when he says, "I will show you what must take place after this" - that is, "after" the "present" described in chapters 2 and 3. Revelation 4:1 marks the beginning of the promised vision of "what will take place later."

Where does the vision of the future end? After a long series of images we come to Revelation 22:6:

The angel said to me, "These words are trustworthy and true. The Lord, the God of the spirits of the prophets, sent his angel to show his servants the things that must soon take place ."

This verse marks the end of John's discussion of the future. The remainder of the book (22:7-21) consists of a short Epilogue.

By far the largest portion of Revelation describes John's vision of the future (4:1-22:6). How has the author structured this important part of the book? The revelation of "what will take place later" begins with an introduction (4:1-5:14) in which John describes his new vantage point in heaven ("Come up here , and I will show you"). The prophet will see the future from God's point of view.

The rest of the section (6:1-22:6) contains the revelation of the future itself. However, a careful reading shows that John does not receive one long, sequential vision of the future. Instead, he receives three separate revelations of the complete future from John's time through the consummation of the kingdom of God . John describes how the future unfolds in 6:1-8:1. Then he starts over and describes the same period again in 8:2-11:19. Then he reviews the same period a third time in 12:1-22:6. The approach is cyclical, with each vision examining the future from a slightly different angle, and the third vision offering the most detail.

In view of these considerations, we outline Revelation as follows. The Commentary is structured accordingly.

I. Prologue (1:1-20)

II. The Revelation of "What Is Now" (2:1-3:22)

III. The Revelation of "What Will Take Place Later" (4:1-22:6)

A. Introduction: John's Heavenly Vantage Point (4:1-5:14)

B. The First Vision of the Future (6:1-8:1)

C. The Second Vision of the Future (8:2-11:19)

D. The Third Vision of the Future (12:1-22:6)

IV. Epilogue (22:7-21)

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

Barr, J. "Jewish Apocalyptic in Recent Scholarly Study." Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 58 (1975): 9-35.

Charlesworth, James H., ed. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Volume 1 - Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments . Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983.

Collins, John J., ed. "Apocalypse: The Morphology of a Genre." Semeia 14. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1979.

. The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to the Jewish Matrix of Christianity . 2 ^nd ed. The Biblical Resource Series. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.

. "Apocalyptic Literature." In Early Judaism and Its Modern Interpreters. Eds. Robert A. Kraft and George W.E. Nickelsburg, 345-370. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986.

Collins, John J., and James H. Charlesworth, eds. Mysteries and Revelations: Apocalyptic Studies Since the Uppsala Colloquium. Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Supplement Series, 9. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991.

Funk, Robert W., ed. Journal for Theology and the Church 6 (1969) [issue on "Apocalypticism"].

Hanson, Paul D. The Dawn of Apocalyptic . Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1975.

. Old Testament Apocalyptic . Interpreting Biblical Texts. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1987.

Hellholm, David, ed. Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean World and the Near East: Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Apocalypticism, Uppsala, August 12-17, 1979. Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1983.

Koch, Klaus. The Rediscovery of Apocalyptic: A Polemical Work on a Neglected Area of Biblical Studies and Its Damaging Effects on Theology and Philosophy . Studies in Biblical Theology, Second Series, 22. London: SCM Press Ltd, 1972.

Marcus, Joel, and Marion L. Soards, eds. Apocalyptic and the New Testament: Essays in Honor of J. Louis Martyn . Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series, 24. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989.

Minear, Paul S. New Testament Apocalyptic . Interpreting Biblical Texts. Nashville: Abingdon, 1981.

Morris, Leon. Apocalyptic . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972.

Murphy, Frederick J. "Apocalypses and Apocalypticism: The State of the Question." Currents in Research: Biblical Studies 2 (1994): 147-179.

Rowley, H.H. The Relevance of Apocalyptic: A Study of Jewish and Christian Apocalypses from Daniel to the Revelation . New York: Association Press, 1964.

Russell, D.S. Divine Disclosure: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992.

. The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic: 200 B.C.-A.D. 100. The Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1964.

Yarbro-Collins, Adela, ed. Early Christian Apocalypticism: Genre and Social Setting . Semeia 36. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986.

THE APOCALYPSE OF JOHN

Aune, David. Revelation . 3 Vols. Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word, 1997-98.

Barclay, William. Letters to the Seven Churches . New York: Abingdon Press, 1957.

. The Revelation of John . 2 Vols. The Daily Bible Study Series. Rev. ed. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1976.

Bauckham, Richard. The Theology of the Book of Revelation . New Testament Theology. Cambridge: University Press, 1993.

Boring, M. Eugene. Revelation . Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1989.

Caird, G.B. The Revelation of St. John the Divine . Harper's New Testament Commentaries. New York and Evanston: Harper & Row, 1966.

Hemer, Colin J. The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting . Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series, 11. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1986.

Murphy, Frederick J. "The Book of Revelation." Currents in Research: Biblical Studies 2 (1994): 181-225.

Pilch, John J. What Are They Saying about the Book of Revelation? New York: Paulist Press, 1978.

Ramsay, W.M. The Letters to the Seven Churches . Updated ed. Edited by Mark W. Wilson. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

College: Revelation (Outline)

OUTLINE

I. PROLOGUE - 1:1-20

A. Introduction to the Prophecy - 1:1-3

B. Sender - 1:4a

C. Recipients - 1:4b

D. Prescript - 1:4c-5a

E. Proem - 1:5b-6

F. Prophetic Pronouncement - 1:7

G. The Lord's Self-Introduction - 1:8

H. John's Vision of the Lord - 1:9-20

1. John's Circumstances - 1:9-11

2. John's Vision - 1:12-20

a. Christ's Voice and His Appearance - 1:12-16

b. Christ's Words - 1:17-20

c. Summary: John's Portrait of Christ in Revelation - 1:9-20

II. THE REVELATION OF "WHAT IS NOW" - 2:1-3:22

A. The Seven Churches

B. The Structure of the Letters to the Seven Churches

1. Addressed to the Angels of the Seven Churches

2. A Renewal of the New Covenant

a. Typical Elements of Covenants

b. Covenantal Elements in the Letters to the Seven Churches

c. The Letter to Ephesus - 2:1-7

d. The Letter to Smyrna - 2:8-11

e. The Letter to Pergamum - 2:12-17

f. The Letter to Thyatira - 2:18-29

g. The Letter to Sardis - 3:1-6

h. The Letter to Philadelphia - 3:7-13

i. The Letter to Laodicea - 3:14-22

C. Pressures and Opposition in Asia

1. Pressures and Opposition from Within the Christian Community

a. False Apostles and the Nicolaitans - 2:2,6

b. The Teaching of Balaam - 2:14

c. The Sins of Jezebel - 2:20-25

d. Assessment

2. Pressures and Opposition from Outside the Christian Community

D. "Overcomers" in Revelation

1. Satan as "Overcomer"

2. Christ as "Overcomer"

a. Whom Jesus "Overcomes"

b. How Jesus "Overcomes"

c. The Results of Jesus' "Overcoming"

3. Christians as "Overcomers"

a. Whom Christians "Overcome"

b. How Christians "Overcome"

c. The Result of Christians' "Overcoming"

E. Christ's Promises to "Him Who Overcomes"

1. The Tree of Life - 2:7

2. Escape from the Second Death - 2:11

3. The Hidden Manna, White Stone, and Secret Name - 2:17

a. The Hidden Manna, the Messianic Banquet, Behemoth and Leviathan

b. The White Stone

c. The Secret Name

4. Authority over the Nations and the Morning Star - 2:26-28

5. White Garments and the Book of Life - 3:4-5

6. A Pillar in God's Temple - 3:12

7. A Place on Christ's Throne - 3:21

III. THE REVELATION OF "WHAT WILL TAKE PLACE LATER - 4:1-22:6

A. Introduction: John's Heavenly Vantage Point - 4:1-5:14

1. Transition to the Threefold Vision of the Future - 4:1

2. The Throne of God and the Twenty-Four Elders - 4:2-6a

3. The Four Living Creatures - 4:6b-8

4. The Heavenly Worship - 4:9-11

5. The Scroll with Seven Seals - 5:1

6. The Lion of Judah and the Root of David - 5:2-5

7. The Lamb Who Was Slain - 5:6-14

B. The First Vision of the Future - 6:1-8:1

1. The "Labor Pains:" Seals One through Five - 6:1-11

a. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse - 6:1-8

b. The Souls of the Martyrs - 6:9-11

2. The Final Judgment: Seal Six - 6:12-17

3. Summary of Revelation 6 (Seals 1-6) and Comparison with Matthew 24

4. Interlude: The 144,000 Sealed for Salvation - 7:1-17

a. The Sealing of the 144,000 - 7:1-8

b. A Song of Salvation - 7:9-17

5. The Consummation of God's Kingdom: Seal Seven - 8:1

6. Summary: John's First Vision of the Future - 6:1-8:1

C. The Second Vision of the Future - 8:2-11:19

1. The Structure of the Second Vision

a. Seven Trumpets versus Seven Seals

b. Major Elements of the Vision

c. The Dominant Image: God's Coming Kingdom as a "Second Exodus" for His People

d. Subordinate Imagery in Revelation 8:2-9:21

2. The "Present Evil Age/Labor Pains": Trumpets One through Six - 8:2-9:21

a. Hail, Blood, Bitter Waters, Darkness, Locusts, and Death: The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as Eschatological "Plagues"

1) Present Evils as "Plagues"

2) The First Trumpet - 8:6-7

3) The Second Trumpet - 8:8-9

4) The Third Trumpet - 8:10-11

5) The Fourth Trumpet - 8:12

6) The Fifth Trumpet - 8:13-9:12

7) The Sixth Trumpet - 9:13-21

8) Heightened Imagery Portraying Eschatological Events

9) Partial Destruction versus Total Destruction

b. Earth, Trees, Grass, Springs, Rivers, Sea, and Sea Creatures: The Effect of the "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" on the Natural World

c. The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as God's Judgment on Sin and Call to Repentance

d. The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as a Source of Hope and a Call to Perseverance

e. The Blazing Mountain, Falling Stars, Wormwood, Demon Locusts from the Abyss, Abaddon, Apollyon, and a Demon Army: The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as God's Unleashing Demonic Forces on the Earth

f. Fire from the Altar: The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as an Answer to Prayer

g. The Sounding of Seven Trumpets: The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as the Announcement of the Day of the Lord

h. The Eagle and the Three "Woes"

3. Interlude: The Mighty Angel and the Two Witnesses - 10:1-11:14

a. The Mighty Angel with the Little Scroll - 10:1-11

1) The Angel's Appearance

2) The Angel's Voice

3) The Little Scroll

4) Comparison with Daniel 12

b. The Measuring of the Temple and the Two Witnesses - 11:1-14

1) A Note on the "Rapture"

2) A Note on the "Protection" of the "New Israel" from the "Plagues"

4. The Final Judgment and Consummation of God's Kingdom: Trumpet Seven - 11:15-19

5. Summary: John's Second Vision of the Future - 8:2-11:19

D. The Third Vision of the Future - 12:1-22:6

1. The Structure of the Third Vision

2. The "Labor Pains": The Dragon's War against the Saints - 12:1-13:18

a. The Dragon, the Woman, and the Male Child - 12:1-17

1) The Identity of the Male Child

2) The Identity of the Red Dragon

3) Five Theories Regarding the Identity of the Woman

4) A Sixth Theory: John's Adaptation of the Apollo Myth

5) Interpretation of Revelation 12

b. The Beast from the Sea - 13:1-10

c. The Beast from the Land - 13:11-18

d. Satan's Parody of Christ

e. Summary of Revelation 12-13: The "Labor Pains"

3. The Final Judgment and Consummation of God's Kingdom - 14:1-22:6

a. The Relationship between Salvation and Condemnation, Final Judgment and Consummation

b. The Structure of Revelation 14:1-22:6

c. Announcement of the Final Judgment - 14:1-13

1) The 144,000 - 14:1-5

2) Threefold Announcement of the Judgment - 14:6-13

d. The Harvest of the Earth - 14:14-20

e. The Seven Last Plagues or Seven Bowls of God's Wrath - 15:1-16:21

1) The Structure of Revelation 15-16

2) The Sea of Glass and Fire - 15:1-4

3) The Heavenly Tabernacle - 15:5-8

4) The Meaning of the Seven Bowls of God's Wrath - 16:1

5) The First Bowl of Wrath - 16:2

6) The Second Bowl of Wrath - 16:3

7) The Third Bowl of Wrath - 16:4-7

8) The Fourth Bowl of Wrath - 16:8-9

9) The Fifth Bowl of Wrath - 16:10-11

10) The Sixth Bowl of Wrath - 16:12-14,16

11) Interlude - 16:15

12) The Seventh Bowl of Wrath - 16:17-21

f. God's Final Judgment against Babylon - 17:1-19:4

1) The Great Prostitute - 17:1-18

2) The Scarlet Beast - 17:1-18

3) The Fall of Babylon - 18:1-19:4

g. Announcement of the Wedding Supper of the Lamb - 19:5-10

1) The Wedding of the Lamb - 19:5-9

2) The Testimony of Jesus - 19:10

h. The Victorious Christ - 19:11-21

1) The King of Kings - 19:11-16

2) The Great Supper of God - 19:17-21

i. Deliverance from Babylonian Captivity - 20:1-22:6

1) Element One: The Binding of Satan - 20:1-3

2) Element Two: The Resurrection of Christian Martyrs - 20:4a

3) Element Three: The Millennial Reign of Christ - 20:4b-6

4) Element Four: God's Judgment of Gog and Magog - 20:7-15

5) Element Five: The New Jerusalem - 21:1-22:5

6) Comparison of Revelation 20:1-22:5 with Ezekiel 37-48

7) Conclusions Regarding the Meaning of Revelation 20:1-22:5

8) Climax: The Consummated Kingdom of God - 21:1-22:5

9) Conclusion of the Third Vision of the Future - 22:6

IV. EPILOGUE - 22:7-21

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV