Text -- Revelation 2:1-14 (NET)

To the Church in Ephesus

2:1 “To the angel of the church in Ephesus, write the following: “This is the solemn pronouncement of the one who has a firm grasp on the seven stars in his right hand– the one who walks among the seven golden lampstands: 2:2 ‘I know your works as well as your labor and steadfast endurance, and that you cannot cannot tolerate evil. You have even put to the test those who refer to themselves as apostles (but are not), and have discovered that they are false. 2:3 I am also aware that you have persisted steadfastly, endured much for the sake of my name, and have not grown weary. 2:4 But I have this against you: You have departed from your first love! 2:5 Therefore, remember from what high state you have fallen and repent! Do the deeds you did at the first; if not, I will come to you and remove your lampstand from its place– that is, if you do not repent. 2:6 But you do have this going for you: You hate what the Nicolaitans practice– practices I also hate. 2:7 The one who has an ear had better hear what the Spirit says to the churches. To the one who conquers, I will permit him to eat from the tree of life that is in the paradise of God.’

To the Church in Smyrna

2:8 “To the angel of the church in Smyrna write the following: “This is the solemn pronouncement of the one who is the first and the last, the one who was dead, but came to life: 2:9 ‘I know the distress you are suffering and your poverty (but you are rich). I also know the slander against you by those who call themselves Jews and really are not, but are a synagogue of Satan. 2:10 Do not be afraid of the things you are about to suffer. The devil is about to have some of you thrown into prison so you may be tested, and you will experience suffering for ten days. Remain faithful even to the point of death, and I will give you the crown that is life itself. 2:11 The one who has an ear had better hear what the Spirit says to the churches. The one who conquers will in no way be harmed by the second death.’

To the Church in Pergamum

2:12 “To the angel of the church in Pergamum write the following: “This is the solemn pronouncement of the one who has the sharp double-edged sword: 2:13 ‘I know where you live– where Satan’s throne is. Yet you continue to cling to my name and you have not denied your faith in me, even in the days of Antipas, my faithful witness, who was killed in your city where Satan lives. 2:14 But I have a few things against you: You have some people there who follow the teaching of Balaam, who instructed Balak to put a stumbling block before the people of Israel so they would eat food sacrificed to idols and commit sexual immorality.

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per phrase)

Robertson: Rev 2:1

In Ephesus ( en Ephesōi ).

Near the sea on the river Cayster, the foremost city of Asia Minor, the temple-keeper of Artemis and her wonderful temple (Act 19:35), the home of the magic arts (Ephesian letters, Act 19:19) and of the mystery-cults, place of Paul’ s three years’ stay (Act 19:1-10; 20:17-38), where Aquila and Priscilla and Apollos laboured (Act 18:24-28), where Timothy wrought (1 Tim. and 2 Tim.), where the Apostle John preached in his old age. Surely it was a place of great privilege, of great preaching. It was about sixty miles from Patmos and the messenger would reach Ephesus first. It is a free city, a seat of proconsular government (Act 19:38), the end of the great road from the Euphrates. The port was a place of shifting sands, due to the silting up of the mouth of the Cayster. Ramsay ( Letters to the Seven Churches , p. 210) calls it "the City of Change."

Robertson: Rev 2:1

These things ( tade ).

This demonstrative seven times here, once with the message to each church (Rev 2:1, Rev 2:8, Rev 2:12, Rev 2:18; Rev 2:1, Rev 2:7, Rev 2:14), only once elsewhere in N.T. (Act 21:11).

Robertson: Rev 2:1

He that holdeth ( ho kratōn ).

Present active articular participle of krateō , a stronger word than echōn in Rev 1:16, to which it refers.

Robertson: Rev 2:1

He that walketh ( ho peripatōn ).

Present active articular participle of peripateō , an allusion to Rev 1:13. These two epithets are drawn from the picture of Christ in Rev 1:13-18, and appropriately to conditions in Ephesus describe Christ’ s power over the churches as he moves among them.

Robertson: Rev 2:2

I know ( oida ).

Rather than ginōskō and so "emphasizes better the absolute clearness of mental vision which photographs all the facts of life as they pass"(Swete). So also in Rev 2:9, Rev 2:13, Rev 2:19; Rev 3:1, Rev 3:8, Rev 3:15. For the distinction see Joh 21:17, "where the universal knowledge passes into the field of special observation."

Robertson: Rev 2:2

Works ( erga ).

The whole life and conduct as in Joh 6:29.

Robertson: Rev 2:2

And thy toil and patience ( kai ton kopon kai tēn hupomonēn sou ).

"Both thy toil and patience,"in explanation of erga , and see 1Th 1:3, where all three words (ergon , kopos , hupomonē ) occur together as here. See Rev 14:13 for sharp distinction between erga (activities) and kopoi (toils, with weariness). Endurance (hupomonē ) in hard toil (kopos ).

Robertson: Rev 2:2

And that ( kai hoti ).

Further explanation of kopos (hard toil).

Robertson: Rev 2:2

Not able ( ou dunēi ).

This Koiné form for the Attic dunasai (second person singular indicative middle) occurs also in Mar 9:22; Luk 16:2.

Robertson: Rev 2:2

Bear ( bastasai ).

First aorist active infinitive of bastazō , for which verb see Joh 10:31; Joh 12:6; Gal 6:2. These evil men were indeed a heavy burden.

Robertson: Rev 2:2

And didst try ( kai epeirasas ).

First aorist active indicative of peirazō , to test, a reference to a recent crisis when these Nicolaitans (Rev 2:6) were condemned. The present tenses (dunēi , echeis ) indicate the continuance of this attitude. Cf. 1Jo 4:1.

Robertson: Rev 2:2

Which call themselves apostles ( tous legontas heautous apostolous ).

Perhaps itinerant missionaries of these Nicolaitans who posed as equal to or even superior to the original apostles, like the Judaizers so described by Paul (2Co 11:5, 2Co 11:13; 2Co 12:11). Paul had foretold such false teachers (Gnostics), grievous wolves, in Act 20:29; in sheep’ s clothing, Jesus had said (Mat 7:15).

Robertson: Rev 2:2

And they are not ( kai ouk eisin ).

A parenthesis in Johannine style (Joh 2:9; Joh 3:9; 1Jo 3:1) for kai ouk ontas to correspond to legontas .

Robertson: Rev 2:2

And didst find ( kai heures ).

Second aorist active indicative of heuriskō . Dropping back to the regular structure parallel with epeirasas .

Robertson: Rev 2:2

False ( pseudeis ).

Predicate accusative plural of pseudēs , self-deceived deceivers as in Rev 21:8.

Robertson: Rev 2:3

Thou hast ( echeis ).

Continued possession of patience.

Robertson: Rev 2:3

Didst bear ( ebastasas ).

First aorist indicative of bastazō , repeated reference to the crisis in Rev 2:2.

Robertson: Rev 2:3

And hast not grown weary ( kai ou kekopiakes ).

Perfect active indicative of kopiaō , old verb, to grow weary (Mat 6:28), play on the word kopos , late form in ̇es , for the regular ̇as (lelukas ). like aphēkes (Rev 2:4) and peptōkes (Rev 2:5). "Tired in loyalty, not of it. The Ephesian church can bear anything except the presence of impostors in her membership"(Moffatt).

Robertson: Rev 2:4

This against thee, that ( kata sou hoti ).

For the phrase "have against"see Mat 5:23. The hoti clause is the object of echō .

Robertson: Rev 2:4

Thou didst leave ( aphēkes ).

First aorist active (kappa aorist, but with ̇es instead of ̇as ) of aphiēmi , a definite and sad departure.

Robertson: Rev 2:4

Thy first love ( tēn agapēn sou tēn prōtēn ).

"Thy love the first."This early love, proof of the new life in Christ (1Jo 3:13.), had cooled off in spite of their doctrinal purity. They had remained orthodox, but had become unloving partly because of the controversies with the Nicolaitans.

Robertson: Rev 2:5

Remember ( mnēmoneue ).

Present active imperative of mnēmoneuō , "continue mindful"(from mnēmōn ).

Robertson: Rev 2:5

Thou art fallen ( peptōkes ).

Perfect active indicative of piptō , state of completion. Down in the valley, look up to the cliff where pure love is and whence thou hast fallen down.

Robertson: Rev 2:5

And repent ( kai metanoēson ).

First aorist active imperative of metanoeō , urgent appeal for instant change of attitude and conduct before it is too late.

Robertson: Rev 2:5

And do ( kai poiēson ).

First aorist active imperative of poieō , "Do at once."

Robertson: Rev 2:5

The first works ( ta prōta erga ).

Including the first love (Act 19:20; Act 20:37; Eph 1:3.) which has now grown cold (Mat 24:12).

Robertson: Rev 2:5

Or else ( ei de mē ).

Elliptical condition, the verb not expressed (metanoeis ), a common idiom, seen again in Rev 2:16, the condition expressed in full by ean mē in this verse and Rev 2:22.

Robertson: Rev 2:5

I come ( erchomai ).

Futuristic present middle (Joh 14:2.).

Robertson: Rev 2:5

To thee ( soi ).

Dative, as in Rev 2:16 also.

Robertson: Rev 2:5

Will move ( kinēsō ).

Future active of kineō . In Ignatius’ Epistle to Ephesus it appears that the church heeded this warning.

Robertson: Rev 2:5

Except thou repent ( ean mē metanoēsēis ).

Condition of third class with ean mē instead of ei mē above, with the first aorist active subjunctive of metanoeō .

Robertson: Rev 2:6

That thou hatest ( hoti miseis ).

Accusative object clause in apposition with touto (this). Trench tells of the words used in ancient Greek for hatred of evil (misoponēria ) and misoponēros (hater of evil), neither of which occurs in the N.T., but which accurately describe the angel of the church in Ephesus.

Robertson: Rev 2:6

Of the Nicolaitans ( tōn Nikolaitōn ).

Mentioned again in Rev 2:15 and really meant in Rev 2:2. Irenaeus and Hippolytus take this sect to be followers of Nicolaus of Antioch, one of the seven deacons (Act 6:5), a Jewish proselyte, who is said to have apostatized. There was such a sect in the second century (Tertullian), but whether descended from Nicolaus of Antioch is not certain, though possible (Lightfoot). It is even possible that the Balaamites of Rev 2:14 were a variety of this same sect (Rev 2:15).

Robertson: Rev 2:6

Which I also hate ( ha kagō misō ).

Christ himself hates the teachings and deeds of the Nicolaitans (ha , not hous , deeds, not people), but the church in Pergamum tolerated them.

Robertson: Rev 2:7

He that hath an ear ( ho echōn ous ).

An individualizing note calling on each of the hearers (Rev 1:3) to listen (Rev 2:7, Rev 2:11, Rev 2:17, Rev 2:28; Rev 3:3, Rev 3:6, Rev 3:13, Rev 3:22) and a reminiscence of the words of Jesus in the Synoptics (Mat 11:15; Mat 13:9, Mat 13:43; Mar 4:9, Mar 4:23; Luk 8:8; Luk 14:35), but not in John’ s Gospel.

Robertson: Rev 2:7

The spirit ( to pneuma ).

The Holy Spirit as in Rev 14:13; Rev 22:17. Both Christ and the Holy Spirit deliver this message. "The Spirit of Christ in the prophet is the interpreter of Christ’ s voice"(Swete).

Robertson: Rev 2:7

To him that overcometh ( tōi nikōnti ).

Dative of the present (continuous victory) active articular participle of nikaō , a common Johannine verb (Joh 16:33; 1Jo 2:13; 1Jo 4:4; 1Jo 5:4.; Rev 2:7, Rev 2:11, Rev 2:17, Rev 2:26; Rev 3:5, Rev 3:12, Rev 3:21; Rev 5:5; Rev 12:11; Rev 15:2; Rev 17:14; Rev 21:7). Faith is dominant in Paul, victory in John, faith is victory (1Jo 5:4). So in each promise to these churches.

Robertson: Rev 2:7

I will give ( dōsō ).

Future active of didōmi as in Rev 2:10, Rev 2:17, Rev 2:23, Rev 2:26, Rev 2:28; Rev 3:8, Rev 3:21; Rev 6:4; Rev 11:3; Rev 21:6.

Robertson: Rev 2:7

To eat ( phagein ).

Second aorist active infinitive of esthiō .

Robertson: Rev 2:7

Of the tree of life ( ek tou xulou tēs zōēs ).

Note ek with the ablative with phagein , like our "eat of"(from or part of). From Gen 2:9; Gen 3:22. Again in Rev 22:2, Rev 22:14 as here for immortality. This tree is now in the Garden of God. For the water of life see Rev 21:6; Rev 22:17 (Cf. Joh 4:10, Joh 4:13.).

Robertson: Rev 2:7

Which ( ho ).

The xulon (tree).

Robertson: Rev 2:7

In the Paradise of God ( en tōi paradeisōi tou theou ).

Persian word, for which see Luk 23:43; 2Co 12:4. The abode of God and the home of the redeemed with Christ, not a mere intermediate state. It was originally a garden of delight and finally heaven itself (Trench), as here.

Robertson: Rev 2:8

In Smyrna ( en Smurnēi ).

North of Ephesus, on a gulf of the Aegean, one of the great cities of Asia (province), a seat of emperor-worship with temple to Tiberius, with many Jews hostile to Christianity who later join in the martyrdom of Polycarp, poor church (rich in grace) which receives only praise from Christ, scene of the recent massacre of Greeks by the Turks. Ramsay ( op. cit. , p. 251) terms Smyrna "the City of Life."Christianity has held on here better than in any city of Asia.

Robertson: Rev 2:8

The first and the last ( ho prōtos kai ho eschatos ).

Repeating the language of Rev 1:17.

Robertson: Rev 2:8

Which was dead ( hos egeneto nekros ).

Rather, "who became dead"(second aorist middle indicative of ginomai ) as in Rev 1:18.

Robertson: Rev 2:8

And lived again ( kai ezēsen ).

First aorist (ingressive, came to life) active of zaō (ho zōn in Rev 1:18). Emphasis on the resurrection of Christ.

Robertson: Rev 2:9

Thy tribulation and thy poverty ( sou tēn thlipsin kai ptōcheian ).

Separate articles of same gender, emphasizing each item. The tribulation was probably persecution, which helped to intensify the poverty of the Christians (Jam 2:5; 1Co 1:26; 2Co 6:10; 2Co 8:2). In contrast with the wealthy church in Laodicea (Rev 3:17).

Robertson: Rev 2:9

But thou art rich ( alla plousios ei ).

Parenthesis to show the spiritual riches of this church in contrast with the spiritual poverty in Laodicea (Rev 3:17), this a rich poor church, that a poor rich church. Rich in grace toward God (Luk 12:21) and in good deeds (1Ti 6:18). Perhaps Jews and pagans had pillaged their property (Heb 10:34), poor as they already were.

Robertson: Rev 2:9

Blasphemy ( blasphēmian ).

Reviling believers in Christ. See Mar 7:22. The precise charge by these Jews is not indicated, but see Act 13:45.

Robertson: Rev 2:9

Of them which say ( ek tōn legontōn ).

"From those saying"(ek with the ablative plural of the present active articular participle of legō ).

Robertson: Rev 2:9

They are Jews ( Ioudaious einai heautous ).

This is the accusative of general reference and the infinitive in indirect discourse after legō (Act 5:36; Act 8:9) even though legontōn is here ablative (cf. Rev 3:9), common idiom. These are actual Jews and only Jews, not Christians.

Robertson: Rev 2:9

And they are not ( kai ouk eisin ).

Another parenthesis like that in Rev 2:2. These are Jews in name only, not spiritual Jews (Gal 6:15., Rom 2:28).

Robertson: Rev 2:9

A synagogue of Satan ( sunagōgē tou Satanā ).

In Rev 3:9 again and note Rev 2:13, Rev 2:24, serving the devil (Joh 8:44) instead of the Lord (Num 16:3; Num 20:4).

Robertson: Rev 2:10

Fear not ( mē phobou ).

As in Rev 1:17. Worse things are about to come than poverty and blasphemy, perhaps prison and death, for the devil "is about to cast"(mellei ballein ), "is going to cast."

Robertson: Rev 2:10

Some of you ( ex humōn ).

Without tinas (some) before ex humōn , a common idiom as in Rev 3:9; Rev 11:19; Luk 11:49.

Robertson: Rev 2:10

That ye may be tried ( hina peirasthēte ).

Purpose clause with hina and the first aorist passive subjunctive of peirazō . John himself is in exile. Peter and John had often been in prison together. James the brother of John, Paul, and Peter had all suffered martyrdom. In Rev 3:10 a general persecution is outlined by peirasmos .

Robertson: Rev 2:10

Ye shall have ( hexete ).

Future active, but some MSS. read echēte (present active subjunctive with hina, "that ye may have").

Robertson: Rev 2:10

Tribulation ten days ( thlipsin hēmerōn deka ).

"Tribulation of ten days"(or "within ten days"). It is unwise to seek a literal meaning for ten days. Even ten days of suffering might seem an eternity while they lasted.

Robertson: Rev 2:10

Be thou faithful ( ginou pistos ).

"Keep on becoming faithful"(present middle imperative of ginomai ), "keep on proving faithful unto death"(Heb 12:4) as the martyrs have done (Jesus most of all).

Robertson: Rev 2:10

The crown of life ( ton stephanon tēs zōēs ).

See this very image in Jam 1:12, a familiar metaphor in the games at Smyrna and elsewhere in which the prize was a garland. See also Rev 3:11. The crown consists in life (Rev 2:7). See Paul’ s use of stephanos in 1Co 9:25; 2Ti 4:8.

Robertson: Rev 2:11

Shall not be hurt ( ou mē adikēthēi ).

Strong double negative with first aorist passive subjunctive of adikeō , old verb, to act unjustly (from adikos ), here to do harm or wrong to one, old usage as in Rev 6:6; Rev 7:2.; Rev 9:4, Rev 9:10; Rev 11:5.

Robertson: Rev 2:11

Of the second death ( ek tou thanatou tou deuterou ).

Ek here used for the agent or instrument as often (Rev 3:18; Rev 9:2; Rev 18:1). See Rev 20:6, Rev 20:14; Rev 21:8 where "the second death"is explained as "the lake of fire."The idea is present in Dan 12:3; Joh 5:29 and is current in Jewish circles as in the Jerusalem Targum on Deu 33:6 and in Philo. It is not annihilation. The Christians put to death in the persecution will at least escape this second death (eternal punishment).

Robertson: Rev 2:12

In Pergamum ( en Pergamōi ).

In a north-easterly direction from Smyrna in the Caicus Valley, some fifty-five miles away, in Mysia, on a lofty hill, a great political and religious centre. Ramsay ( Op. cit. , p. 281) calls it "the royal city, the city of authority."Eumenes II (b.c. 197-159) extended it and embellished it with many great buildings, including a library with 200,000 volumes, second only to Alexandria. The Kingdom of Pergamum became a Roman province b.c. 130. Pliny termed it the most illustrious city of Asia. Parchment (charta Pergamena ) derived its name from Pergamum. It was a rival of Ephesus in the temples to Zeus, Athena, Dionysos, in the great grove Nicephorium (the glory of the city). Next to this was the grove and temple of Asklepios, the god of healing, called the god of Pergamum, with a university for medical study. Pergamum was the first city in Asia (a.d. 29) with a temple for the worship of Augustus (Octavius Caesar). Hence in the Apocalypse Pergamum is a very centre of emperor-worship "where Satan dwells"(Rev 2:13). Here also the Nicolaitans flourished (Rev 2:15) as in Ephesus (Rev 2:6) and in Thyatira (Rev 2:20.). Like Ephesus this city is called temple-sweeper (neōkoros ) for the gods.

Robertson: Rev 2:12

The sharp two-edged sword ( tēn romphaian tēn distomon tēn oxeian ).

This item repeated from Rev 1:16 in the same order of words with the article three times (the sword the two-mouthed the sharp) singling out each point.

Robertson: Rev 2:13

Where ( pou - hopou ).

Pou is interrogative adverb used here in an indirect question as in Joh 1:39. Hopou is relative adverb referring to pou . Satan’ s throne (ho thronos tou Satanā ). Satan not simply resided in Pergamum, but his "throne"or seat of power of king or judge (Mat 19:28; Luk 1:32, Luk 1:52). The symbol of Asklepios was the serpent as it is of Satan (Rev 12:9; Rev 20:2). There was, besides, a great throne altar to Zeus cut on the Acropolis rock, symbol of "rampant paganism"(Swete) and the new Caesar-worship with the recent martyrdom of Antipas made Pergamum indeed a very throne of Satan.

Robertson: Rev 2:13

Holdest fast my name ( krateis to onoma sou ).

Present active indicative of krateō , "dost keep on holding,"as in Rev 2:25, Rev 3:11. This church refused to say Kurios Kaisar ( Martyrd. Polyc. 8f.) and continued to say Kurios Iēsous (1Co 12:3). They stood true against the emperor-worship.

Robertson: Rev 2:13

Didst not deny ( ouk ērnēsō ).

First aorist middle second person singular of arneomai . Reference to a specific incident not known to us.

Robertson: Rev 2:13

My faith ( tēn pistin mou ).

Objective genitive, "thy faith in me."

Robertson: Rev 2:13

Of Antipas ( Antipas ).

Indeclinable in this form. It is possible that Antipa (genitive) was really written, though unimportant as the nominative follows in apposition. Nothing is really known of this early martyr in Pergamum before the writing of the Apocalypse. One legend is that he was burnt to death in a brazen bull. Other martyrs followed him at Pergamum (Agathonice, Attalus, Carpus, Polybus).

Robertson: Rev 2:13

My witness ( ho martus mou ).

Nominative in apposition with a genitive as in Rev 1:5 (with ablative), common solecism in the Apocalypse. "Witness"as Jesus had said they should be (Act 1:8) and Stephen was (Act 22:20) and others were (Rev 17:6). The word later (by third century) took on the modern meaning of martyr.

Robertson: Rev 2:13

My faithful one ( ho pistos mou ).

Nominative also, with mou also. Jesus gives Antipas his own title (Swete) as in Rev 1:5; Rev 3:14. Faithful unto death.

Robertson: Rev 2:13

Was killed ( apektanthē ).

First aorist passive indicative of apokteinō , this passive form common in the Apocalypse (Rev 2:13; Rev 6:11; Rev 9:5, Rev 9:15, Rev 9:18, Rev 9:20; Rev 11:13;Rev 13:10; Rev 19:21).

Robertson: Rev 2:13

Among you ( par humin ).

By your side. Proof of the throne of Satan, "where Satan dwells"(hopou ho Satanās katoikei ), repeated for emphasis.

Robertson: Rev 2:14

There ( ekei ).

That is par' humin (among you). A party in the church that resisted emperor-worship, to the death in the case of Antipas, yet were caught in the insidious wiles of the Nicolaitans which the church in Ephesus withstood.

Robertson: Rev 2:14

Some that hold ( kratountas ).

"Men holding"(present active participle of krateō ).

Robertson: Rev 2:14

The teaching of Balaam ( tēn didachēn Balaam ).

Indeclinable substantive Balaam (Num 25:1-9; Num 31:15.). The point of likeness of these heretics with Balaam is here explained.

Robertson: Rev 2:14

Taught Balak ( edidasken tōi Balak ).

Imperfect indicative of didaskō , Balaam’ s habit, "as the prototype of all corrupt teachers"(Charles). These early Gnostics practised licentiousness as a principle since they were not under law, but under grace (Rom 6:15). The use of the dative with didaskō is a colloquialism rather than a Hebraism. Two accusatives often occur with didaskō .

Robertson: Rev 2:14

To cast a stumbling-block ( balein skandalon ).

Second aorist active infinitive (accusative case after edidasken ) of ballō , regular use with skandalon (trap) like tithēmi skandalon in Rom 14:13. Balaam, as Josephus and Philo also say, showed Balak how to set a trap for the Israelites by beguiling them into the double sin of idolatry and fornication, which often went together (and do so still).

Robertson: Rev 2:14

To eat things sacrificed to idols ( phagein eidōlothuta ).

Second aorist active infinitive of esthiō and the verbal adjective (from eidōlon and thuō ), quoted here from Num 25:1., but in inverse order, repeated in other order in Rev 2:20. See Act 15:29; Act 21:25; 1Co 8:1. for the controversy over the temptation to Gentile Christians to do what in itself was harmless, but which led to evil if it led to participation in the pagan feasts. Perhaps both ideas are involved here. Balaam taught Balak how to lead the Israelites into sin in both ways.

Vincent: Rev 2:1

Ephesus

Ephesus was built near the sea, in the valley of the Cayster, under the shadows of Coressus and Prion. In the time of Paul it was the metropolis of the province of Asia. It was styled by Pliny the Light of Asia . Its harbor, though partly filled up, was crowded with vessels, and it lay at the junction of roads which gave it access to the whole interior continent. Its markets were the " Vanity Fair" of Asia. Herodotus says: " The Ionians of Asia have built their cities in a region where the air and climate are the most beautiful in the whole world; for no other region is equally blessed with Ionia. For in other countries, either the climate is over-cold and damp, or else the heat and drought are sorely oppressive" (i., 142).

In Paul's time it was the residence of the Roman proconsul; and the degenerate inhabitants descended to every species of flattery in order to maintain the favor of Rome. The civilization of the city was mingled Greek and Oriental. It was the head-quarters of the magical art, and various superstitions were represented by different priestly bodies. The great temple of Diana, the Oriental, not the Greek divinity, was ranked among the seven wonders of the world, and Ephesus called herself its sacristan (see on Act 19:27). To it attached the right of asylum. Legend related that when the temple was finished, Mithridates stood on its summit and declared that the right of asylum should extend in a circle round it, as far as he could shoot an arrow; and the arrow miraculously flew a furlong. This fact encouraged moral contagion. The temple is thus described by Canon Farrar: " It had been built with ungrudging magnificence out of contributions furnished by all Asia - the very women contributing to it their jewels, as the Jewish women had done of old for the Tabernacle of the Wilderness. To avoid the danger of earthquakes, its foundations were built at vast cost on artificial foundations of skin and charcoal laid over the marsh. It gleamed far off with a star-like radiance. Its peristyle consisted of one hundred and twenty pillars of the Ionic order, hewn out of Parian marble. Its doors of carved cypress wood were surmounted by transoms so vast and solid that the aid of miracles was invoked to account for their elevation. The staircase, which led to the roof, was said to have been cut out of a single vine of Cyprus. Some of the pillars were carved with designs of exquisite beauty. Within were the masterpieces of Praxiteles and Phidias and Scopas and Polycletus. Paintings by the greatest of Greek artists, of which one - the likeness of Alexander the Great by Apelles - had been bought for a sum equal in value to £5,000 of modern money, adorned the inner walls. The roof of the temple itself was of cedar-wood, supported by columns of jasper on bases of Parian marble. On these pillars hung gifts of priceless value, the votive offerings of grateful superstition. At the end of it stood the great altar adorned by the bas-relief of Praxiteles, behind which fell the vast folds of a purple curtain. Behind this curtain was the dark and awful shrine in which stood the most sacred idol of classic heathendom; and again, behind the shrine, was the room which, inviolable under divine protection, was regarded as the wealthiest and securest bank in the ancient world " (" Life and Work of St. Paul," ii., 12).

Next to Rome, Ephesus was the principal seat of Paul's labors. He devoted three years to that city. The commonly received tradition represents John as closing his apostolic career there. Nothing in early Church history is better attested than his residence and work in Ephesus, the center of the circle of churches established by Paul in Ionia and Phrygia.

Vincent: Rev 2:1

Who walketh ( ὁ περιπατῶν )

More than standeth . The word expresses Christ's activity on behalf of His Church.

Vincent: Rev 2:2

Thy works ( τὰ ἔργα σοῦ )

See on Joh 4:47.

Vincent: Rev 2:2

Labor ( κόπον )

Originally suffering , weariness ; hence exhausting labor. The kindred verb κοπιάω is often used of apostolic and ministerial labor (Rom 16:12; 1Co 15:10; Gal 4:11).

Vincent: Rev 2:2

Patience ( ὑπομονήν )

See on 2Pe 1:6; see on Jam 5:1. Compare Paul's exhortation to Timothy in Ephesus, 2Ti 2:25, 2Ti 2:26.

Vincent: Rev 2:2

Bear ( βαστάσαι )

See on Joh 10:31; see on Joh 12:6. Compare Gal 6:2, where the word is used of Christians bearing each others' burdens.

Vincent: Rev 2:2

Them which are evil ( κακοὺς )

Trench observes that " it is not a little remarkable that the grace or virtue here ascribed to the angel of the Ephesian Church (compare Rev 2:6) should have a name in classical Greek: μισοπονηρία hatred of evil ; the person of whom the grace is predicated being μισοπόνηρος hater of evil ; while neither of these words, nor yet any equivalent to them occurs in the New Testament. It is the stranger, as this hatred of evil, purely as evil, however little thought of or admired now, is eminently a Christian grace."

Vincent: Rev 2:2

Hast tried ( ἐπειράσω )

Rev., didst try . See on tried , 1Pe 1:7; and compare 1Jo 4:1; 1Co 12:10.

Vincent: Rev 2:3

The best texts omit οὐ κέκμηκας hast not grown weary , and read καὶ οὐ κεκοπίακες hast not grown weary . The transcribers supposed the verb κοπιάω to mean only to labor ; whereas it includes the sense of weariness from labor.

Vincent: Rev 2:4

Somewhat

Not in the text, and unnecessary. The following clause is the object of I have . " I have against thee that thou hast left," etc. " It is indeed a somewhat which the Lord has against the Ephesian Church; it threatens to grow to be an everything ; for see the verse following" (Trench). For the phrase have against , see Mat 5:23; Mar 11:25; Col 3:13.

Vincent: Rev 2:4

Hast left ( ἀφῆκας )

Rev., more correctly, rendering the aorist, didst leave . The verb originally means to send , away or dismiss . See on Joh 4:3.

Vincent: Rev 2:4

First love

Compare Jer 2:2. The first enthusiastic devotion of the Church to her Lord, under the figure of conjugal love.

Vincent: Rev 2:5

Thou art fallen ( ἐκπέπτωκας )

Lit., hast fallen out .

Vincent: Rev 2:5

Repent ( μετανόησον )

See on Mat 3:2; see on Mat 21:29.

Vincent: Rev 2:5

I will come ( ἔρχομαι )

Rev., correctly, I come .

Vincent: Rev 2:5

Quickly

Omit.

Vincent: Rev 2:5

Will remove thy candlestick

" Its candlestick has been for centuries removed out of his place; the squalid Mohammedan village which is nearest to its site does not count one Christian in its insignificant population; its temple is a mass of shapeless ruins; its harbor is a reedy pool; the bittern booms amid its pestilent and stagnant marshes; and malaria and oblivion reign supreme over the place where the wealth of ancient civilization gathered around the scenes of its grossest superstitions and its most degraded sins" (Farrar, " Life and Work of Paul," ii., 43, 44).

John employs the verb κινέω remove (Rev., move ) only in Revelation, and only once besides the present instance, in Rev 6:14, where, as here, it signifies moving in judgment .

Vincent: Rev 2:6

The Nicolaitans

From νικᾶν to conquer , and λαός the people . There are two principal explanations of the term. The first and better one historical. A sect springing, according to credible tradition, from Nicholas a proselyte of Antioch, one of the seven deacons of Jerusalem (Act 6:5), who apostatized from the truth, and became the founder of an Antinomian Gnostic sect. They appear to have been characterized by sensuality, seducing Christians to participate in the idolatrous feasts of pagans, and to unchastity. Hence they are denoted by the names of Balaam and Jezebel, two leading agents of moral contamination under the Old Testament dispensation. Balaam enticed the Israelites, through the daughters of Moab and Midian, to idolatry and fornication (Numbers 25; Num 31:16). Jezebel murdered the Lord's prophets, and set up idolatry in Israel. The Nicolaitans taught that, in order to master sensuality, one must know the whole range of it by experience; and that he should therefore abandon himself without reserve to the lusts of the body, since they concerned only the body and did not touch the spirit. These heretics were hated and expelled by the Church of Ephesus (Rev 2:6), but were tolerated by the Church of Pergamum (Rev 2:15). The other view regards the name as symbolic, and Nicholas as the Greek rendering of Balaam, whose name signifies destroyer or corrupter of the people . This view is adopted by Trench (" Seven Churches" ), who says: " The Nicolaitans are the Balaamites; no sect bearing the one name or the other; but those who, in the new dispensation, repeated the sin of Balaam in the old, and sought to overcome or destroy the people of God by the same temptations whereby Balaam had sought to overcome them before." The names, however, are by no means parallel: Conqueror of the people not being the same as corrupter of the people . Besides, in Rev 2:14, the Balaamites are evidently distinguished from the Nicolaitans.

Alford remarks: " There is no sort of reason for interpreting the name otherwise than historically. It occurs in a passage indicating simple matters of historical fact, just as the name Antipas does in Rev 2:13."

Vincent: Rev 2:7

He that hath an ear, etc.

Compare Mat 11:15; Mar 4:9. The phrase is not found in John's Gospel. It is used always of radical truths, great principles and promises.

Vincent: Rev 2:7

To him that overcometh ( τῷ νικῶντι )

A formula common to all these Epistles. The verb is used absolutely without any object expressed. It is characteristic of John, occurring once in the Gospel, six times in the First Epistle, sixteen times in Revelation, and elsewhere only Luk 11:22; Rom 3:4; Rom 12:21.

Vincent: Rev 2:7

Will I give

This phrase has a place in every one of these Epistles. The verb is John's habitual word for the privileges and functions of the Son, whether as bestowed upon Him by the Father, or dispensed by Him to His followers. See Joh 3:35; Joh 5:22, Joh 5:27, Joh 5:36; Joh 6:65; Joh 13:3; Joh 17:6. Compare Rev 2:23; Rev 3:8; Rev 6:4; Rev 11:3.

Vincent: Rev 2:7

Of the tree ( ἐκ ξύλου )

The preposition ἐκ out of occurs one hundred and twenty-seven times in Revelation, and its proper signification is almost universally out of ; but this rendering in many of the passages would be so strange and unidiomatic, that the New Testament Revisers have felt themselves able to adopt it only forty-one times out of all that number, and employ of , from , by , with , on , at , because of , by reason of , from among . See, for instance, Rev 2:7, Rev 2:21, Rev 2:22; Rev 6:4, Rev 6:10; Rev 8:11; Rev 9:18; Rev 14:13; Rev 15:2; Rev 16:21. Compare Joh 3:31; Joh 4:13, Joh 6:13, Joh 6:39, Joh 6:51; Joh 8:23, Joh 8:44; Joh 9:6; Joh 11:1; Joh 12:3, Joh 12:27, Joh 12:32; Joh 17:5.

Tree , lit., wood . See on Luk 23:31; see on 1Pe 2:24. Dean Plumptre notes the fact that, prominent as this symbol had been in the primeval history, it had remained unnoticed in the teaching where we should most have looked for its presence - in that of the Psalmist and Prophets of the Old Testament. Only in the Proverbs of Solomon had it been used, in a sense half allegorical and half mystical (Pro 3:18; Pro 13:12; Pro 11:30; Pro 15:4). The revival of the symbol in Revelation is in accordance with the theme of the restitution of all things. " The tree which disappeared with the disappearance of the earthly Paradise, reappears with the reappearance of the heavenly." To eat of the tree of life expresses participation in the life eternal. The figure of the tree of life appears in all mythologies from India to Scandinavia. The Rabbins and Mohammedans called the vine the probation tree . The Zend Avesta has its tree of life called the Death-Destroyer . It grows by the waters of life, and the drinking of its sap confers immortality. The Hindu tree of life is pictured as growing out of a great seed in the midst of an expanse of water. It has three branches, each crowned with a sun, denoting the three powers of creation, preservation, and renovation after destruction. In another representation Budha sits in meditation under a tree with three branches, each branch having three stems. One of the Babylonian cylinders discovered by Layard, represents three priestesses gathering the fruit of what seems to be a palm-tree with three branches on each side. Athor, the Venus of the Egyptians, appears half-concealed in the branches of the sacred peach-tree, giving to the departed soul the fruit, and the drink of heaven from a vial from which the streams of life descend upon the spirit, a figure at the foot of the tree, like a hawk, with a human head and with hands outstretched.

In the Norse mythology a prominent figure is Igdrasil, the Ash-tree of Existence ; its roots in the kingdom of Eels or Death, its trunk reaching to heaven, and its boughs spread over the whole universe. At its foot, in the kingdom of Death, sit three Nornas or Fates, the Past, the Present, and the Future, watering its roots from the sacred well. Compare Rev 22:2, Rev 22:14, Rev 22:19. Virgil, addressing Dante at the completion of the ascent of the Purgatorial Mount, says:

" That apple sweet, which through so many branches

The care of mortals goeth in pursuit of,

Today shall put in peace thy hungerings."

" Purgatorio ," xxvii ., 115-117 .

Vincent: Rev 2:7

Paradise

See on Luk 23:43. Omit in the midst of . Παράδεισος Paradise " passes through a series of meanings, each one higher than the last. From any garden of delight, which is its first meaning, it comes to be predominantly applied to the garden of Eden, then to the resting-place of separate souls in joy and felicity, and lastly to the very heaven itself; and we see eminently in it, what we see indeed in so many words, how revealed religion assumes them into her service, and makes them vehicles of far higher truth than any which they knew at first, transforming and transfiguring them, as in this case, from glory to glory" (Trench).

Vincent: Rev 2:8

Smyrna

Lying a little north of Ephesus, on a gulf of the same name. The original city was destroyed about b.c. 627, and was deserted and in ruins for four hundred years. Alexander the Great contemplated its restoration, and his design was carried out after his death. The new city was built a short distance south of the ancient one, and became the finest in Asia Minor, being known as the glory of Asia . It was one of the cities which claimed the honor of being Homer's birthplace. A splendid temple was erected by the Smyrnaeans to his memory, and a cave in the neighborhood of the city was shown where he was said to have composed his poems. Smyrna's fine harbor made it a commercial center; but it was also distinguished for its schools of rhetoric and philosophy. Polycarp was the first bishop of its church, which suffered much from persecution, and he was said to have suffered martyrdom in the stadium of the city, a.d. 166. It is argued with some plausibility that Polycarp was bishop of Smyrna at the time of the composition of Revelation, and was the person addressed here. This question, however, is bound up with that of the date of composition (see Trench, " Epistles to the Seven Churches" ). The city was a seat of the worship of Cybele the Mother of the gods, and of Dionysus or Bacchus.

Vincent: Rev 2:8

Was dead ( ἐγένετο νεκρὸς )

Lit., became dead .

Vincent: Rev 2:8

Is alive ( ἔζησεν )

Lit., lived . Rev., properly, lived again ; the word being used of restoration to life. See, for a similar usage, Mat 9:18; Joh 5:25.

Vincent: Rev 2:9

Thy works and

Omit.

Vincent: Rev 2:9

Tribulation ( θλῖψιν )

See on Mat 13:21. Referring to the persecutions of Jewish and heathen oppressors. See on Smyrna , Rev 2:8.

Vincent: Rev 2:9

Poverty ( πτωχείαν )

Because, like all the other early Christian churches, the majority of its members were of the poorer classes, and also, perhaps, with reference to their robbery by persecutors. See on poor , Mat 5:3.

Vincent: Rev 2:9

Rich

In faith and grace. Compare Jam 2:6, Jam 2:7; 1Ti 6:17, 1Ti 6:18; Luk 12:21; Mat 19:21.

Vincent: Rev 2:9

Blasphemy ( βλασφημίαν )

See on Mar 7:22. Not primarily direct blasphemy against God, but reviling at believers.

Vincent: Rev 2:9

Jews

Literally. Not Christians, as in Phi 3:3; Rom 2:28, Rom 2:29. Actually Jews by birth, but not spiritually. The title is not given them by the Spirit, nor by the seer, but by themselves; and none would use that title except such as were Jews by birth and by religion. The enmity of the Jews against Christians is a familiar fact to all readers of the book of Acts; and it is a matter of history that their malignity was especially displayed toward the Church of Smyrna. In the circular letter addressed by the Church of Smyrna to the churches in the Christian world, it is related that Jews joined with heathen in clamoring that Polycarp should be cast to the lions or burned alive, and were foremost ὡς ἔθος αὐτοῖς ( as was their wont ) in bringing logs for the pile, and in the endeavor to prevent the remains of the martyr from being delivered to his Christian associates for burial.

Vincent: Rev 2:9

Synagogue of Satan

For synagogue , see on assembly , Jam 2:2, the only passage in which the word is used for a Christian assembly. This fact goes to support the literal explanation of the term Jews . For Satan , see on Luk 10:18. For John's use of the expression the Jews , see on Joh 1:19. The use of the word here in an honorable sense, so different from John's custom, has been urged against his authorship of Revelation. But John here only quotes the word, and, further, employs it without the article.

Vincent: Rev 2:10

Fear not ( υηδὲν φοβοῦ )

Lit., fear nothing . For the verb, see on Luk 1:50.

Vincent: Rev 2:10

Behold ( ἰδοὺ δὴ )

The particle δὴ for certain , which is not rendered, gives a quality of assurance to the prediction.

Vincent: Rev 2:10

The Devil ( διάβολος )

See on Mat 4:1. The persecution of the Christians is thus traced to the direct agency of Satan, and not to the offended passions or prejudices of men. Trench observes: " There is nothing more remarkable in the records which have come down to us of the early persecutions, than the sense which the confessors and martyrs and those who afterwards narrate their sufferings and their triumphs entertain and utter, that these great fights of affliction through which they were called to pass, were the immediate work of the Devil."

Vincent: Rev 2:10

Shall cast ( μέλλει βαλεῖν )

Rev., rightly, is about to cast .

Vincent: Rev 2:10

Prison ( φυλακὴν )

See on Act 5:21.

Vincent: Rev 2:10

May be tried ( πειρασθήτε )

Tempted. See on 1Pe 1:7.

Vincent: Rev 2:10

Tribulation ten days ( θλῖψιν ἡμερῶν δέκα )

Lit., a tribulation of ten days .

Vincent: Rev 2:10

Be thou ( γίνον )

The exact force of the word cannot be given by a corresponding word in English. Lit., " become thou ." There is to be a succession of trials demanding an increase in the power and a variety in the direction of faith. With reference to these trials, faithfulness is to be not only existent but becoming , developing with new strength and into new applications.

Vincent: Rev 2:10

Unto death ( ἄχρι θανάτου )

Not faithful until the time of death, but faithful up to a measure which will endure death for Christ's sake. " It is an intensive , not an extensive term."

Vincent: Rev 2:10

A crown ( τὸν στέφανον )

Rev., rightly, " the crown." See on 1Pe 5:4; see on Jam 1:12. Crown is used with a variety of words: crown of righteousness (2Ti 4:8); glory (1Pe 5:4); beauty Isa 62:3, Sept., A.V., glory ); pride (Isa 28:1); rejoicing (1Th 2:19).

Vincent: Rev 2:10

Of life ( τῆς ζωῆς )

The full phrase is the crown of the life: i.e., the crown which consists in life eternal. The image is not taken from the Greek games, although Smyrna contained a temple of Olympian Jupiter, and Olympian games were celebrated there. It is the diadem of royalty rather than the garland of victory, though more commonly used in the latter sense. It is not likely that John would use an image from the games, since there was the most violent prejudice against them on the part of Jewish Christians; a prejudice which, on occasions of their celebration, provoked the special ferocity of the pagans against what they regarded as the unpatriotic and unsocial character of Christ's disciples. It was at the demand of the people assembled in the stadium that Polycarp was given up to death. Moreover, it is doubtful whether any symbol in Revelation is taken from heathenism. The imagery is Jewish.

Vincent: Rev 2:11

Be hurt ( ἀδικηθῇ )

Strictly, wronged .

Vincent: Rev 2:11

Second death

An expression peculiar to the Revelation. See Rev 20:6, Rev 20:14; Rev 21:8. In those two passages it is defined as the lake of fire . The death awaiting the wicked after judgment.

Vincent: Rev 2:12

Pergamos

The proper form of the name is Pergamum . It was situated in Teuthrania in Mysia, in a district watered by three rivers, by one of which it communicated with the sea. The original city was built on a lofty hill, which afterward became the citadel as houses sprang up around its base. The local legends attached a sacred character to the place, which, together with its natural strength, made it a place of deposit for royal treasure. The city was mainly indebted to Eumenes II. (b.c. 197-159) for its embellishment and extension. In addition to walks and public buildings, he founded the library, which contained two-hundred-thousand volumes, and was second only to that of Alexandria. The kingdom of Pergamum became a Roman province b.c. 130; but the city continued to flourish, so that Pliny styled it by far the most illustrious of Asia . All the main roads of Western Asia converged there. Pergamum was celebrated for the manufacture of ointments, pottery, tapestries, and parchment, which derives its name ( charta Pergamena ) from the city. It contained a celebrated and much-frequented temple of Aesculapius, who was worshipped in the form of a living serpent fed in the temple. Hence Aesculapius was called the God of Pergamum, and on the coins struck by the town he often appears with a rod encircled by a serpent. The great glory of the city was the Nicephorium, a grove of great beauty containing an assemblage of temples. The city has been described as a sort of union of a pagan cathedral-city, a university-town, and a royal residence, embellished during a succession of years by kings who all had a passion for expenditure and ample means of gratifying it. The streams which embraced the town irrigated the groves of Nicephorium and of Aesculapius, in which flourished the licentious rites of pagan antiquity. The sacred character of the city appears in coins and inscriptions which described the Pergamenes by the title claimed by the worshippers of Diana at Ephesus, νεωκόροι temple-sweepers or sacristans .

Vincent: Rev 2:12

The sharp sword with two edges

See on Rev 1:16.

Vincent: Rev 2:13

Dwellest ( κατοικεῖς )

See on Luk 11:26; see on Act 2:5.

Vincent: Rev 2:13

Seat ( θρόνος )

Rev., rightly, throne , which is a transcript of the Greek word. Better than seat , because it is intended to represent Satan as exercising dominion there. The word is used in the New Testament of a kingly throne (Luk 1:32, Luk 1:52; Act 2:30): of the judicial tribunal or bench (Mat 19:28; Luk 22:30): of the seats of the elders (Rev 4:4; Rev 11:16). Also, by metonymy, of one who exercises authority , so, in the plural, of angels (Col 1:16), thrones belonging to the highest grade of angelic beings whose place is in the immediate presence of God.

Vincent: Rev 2:13

Holdest fast ( κρατεῖς )

See on Mat 7:3; see on Act 3:11.

Vincent: Rev 2:13

My name

See on 1Jo 1:7.

Vincent: Rev 2:13

My faith

See on Act 6:7.

Vincent: Rev 2:13

Antipas

There is no other record of this martyr.

Vincent: Rev 2:14

Doctrine ( διδαχὴν )

Rev., better, teaching .

Vincent: Rev 2:14

Balaam

See Num 25:1-9; Num 31:15, Num 31:16. Compare 2Pe 2:15; Jud 1:11.

Vincent: Rev 2:14

A stumbling-block ( σκάνδαλον )

See on offend , Mat 5:29, and see on offense , Mat 16:23.

Vincent: Rev 2:14

Before ( ἐνώπιον )

Lit., in the sight of . See on Luk 24:11.

Vincent: Rev 2:14

Things sacrificed to idols ( εἰδωλόθυτα )

In the A.V. the word is rendered in four different ways: meats offered to idols (Act 15:29): things offered to idols (Act 21:25): things that are offered in sacrifice unto idols (1Co 8:4); and as here Rev., uniformly, things sacrificed to idols .

The eating of idol meats, which was no temptation to the Jewish Christian, was quite otherwise to the Gentile. The act of sacrifice, among all ancient nations, was a social no less than a religious act. Commonly only a part of the victim was consumed as an offering, and the rest became the portion of the priests, was given to the poor, or was sold again in the markets. Hence sacrifice and feast were identified. The word originally used for killing in sacrifice (θύειν ) obtained the general sense of killing (Act 10:13). Among the Greeks this identification was carried to the highest pitch. Thucydides enumerates sacrifices among popular entertainments. " We have not forgotten," he says, " to provide for our weary spirits many relaxations from toil. We have regular games and sacrifices throughout the year" (ii., 38). So Aristotle: " And some fellowships seem to be for the sake of pleasure; those of the followers of Love, and those of club-diners; for these are for the sake of sacrifice and social intercourse" (" Ethics," viii., 9, 5). Suetonius relates of Claudius, the Roman Emperor, that, on one occasion, while in the Forum of Augustus, smelling the odor of the banquet which was being prepared for the priests in the neighboring temple of Mars, he left the tribunal and placed himself at the table with the priests (" Claudius," 33). Also how Vitellius would snatch from the altar-fire the entrails of victims and the corn, and consume them (" Vitellius," 13). Thus, for the Gentile, " refusal to partake of the idol-meats involved absence from public and private festivity, a withdrawal, in great part, from the social life of his time." The subject is discussed by Paul in Romans 14:2-21, and 1 Corinthians 8:1-11:1. The council of Jerusalem (Acts 15) forbade the eating of meat offered to idols, not as esteeming it forbidden by the Mosaic law, but as becoming a possible occasion of sin to weak Christians. In his letter to the Corinthians, among whom the Jewish and more scrupulous party was the weaker, Paul, in arguing with the stronger and more independent party, never alludes to the decree of the Jerusalem council, but discusses the matter from the stand-point of the rights of conscience. While he admits the possibility of a blameless participation in a banquet, even in the idol-temple, he dissuades from it on the ground of its dangerous consequences to weak consciences, and as involving a formal recognition of the false worship which they had renounced at their baptism. " In the Epistle to the Romans we see the excess to which the scruples of the weaker brethren were carried, even to the pitch of abstaining altogether from animal food; as, ill the Nicolaitans of the Apocalyptic churches, we see the excess of the indifferentist party, who plunged without restraint into all the pollutions, moral as well as ceremonial, with which the heathen rites were accompanied" (Stanley, " On Corinthians" ). " It may be noted as accounting for the stronger and more vehement language of the Apocalypse, considered even as a simply Human book, that the conditions of the case had altered. Christians and heathen were no longer dwelling together, as at Corinth, with comparatively slight interruption to their social intercourse, but were divided by a sharp line of demarcation. The eating of things sacrificed to idols was more and more a crucial test, involving a cowardly shrinking from the open confession of a Christian's faith. Disciples who sat at meat in the idol's temple were making merry with those whose hands were red with the blood of their fellow-worshippers, and whose lips had uttered blaspheming scoffs against the Holy Name" (Plumptre).

In times of persecution, tasting the wine of the libations or eating meat offered to idols, was understood to signify recantation of Christianity.

Wesley: Rev 2:1

So Christ dictated to him every word.

Wesley: Rev 2:1

Such is his mighty power! Such his favour to them and care over them, that they may indeed shine as stars, both by purity of doctrine and holiness of life! Who walketh - According to his promise, "I am with you always, even to the end of the world." In the midst of the golden candlesticks - Beholding all their works and thoughts, and ready to "remove the candlestick out of its place," if any, being warned, will not repent. Perhaps here is likewise an allusion to the office of the priests in dressing the lamps, which was to keep them always burning before the Lord.

Wesley: Rev 2:2

Jesus knows all the good and all the evil, which his servants and his enemies suffer and do. Weighty word, "I know," how dreadful will it one day sound to the wicked, how sweet to the righteous! The churches and their angels must have been astonished, to find their several states so exactly described, even in the absence of the apostle, and could not but acknowledge the all - seeing eye of Christ and of his Spirit. With regard to us, to every one of us also he saith, "I know thy works." Happy is he that conceives less good of himself, than Christ knows concerning him.

Wesley: Rev 2:2

After the general, three particulars are named, and then more largely described in an inverted order, Thy labour Thy patience: Thou canst not bear evil men: Thou hast patience: Thou hast tried those who say they are apostles and are not, and hast found them liars. Thou hast borne for my name's sake and hast not fainted.

Wesley: Rev 2:2

Notwithstanding which thou canst not bear that incorrigibly wicked men should remain in the flock of Christ. And thou hast tried those who say they are apostles, and are not - For the Lord hath not sent them.

Wesley: Rev 2:4

That love for which all that church was so eminent when St. Paul wrote his epistle to them. He need not have left this. He might have retained it entire to the end. And he did retain it in part, or there could not have remained so much of what was commendable in him. But he had not kept, as he might have done, the first tender love in its vigour and warmth. Reader, hast thou?

Wesley: Rev 2:5

It is not possible for any to recover the first love, but by taking these three steps, 1. Remember: 2. Repent: 3. Do the first works.

Wesley: Rev 2:5

From what degree of faith, love, holiness, though perhaps insensibly.

Wesley: Rev 2:5

Which in the very lowest sense implies a deep and lively conviction of thy fall. Of the seven angels, two, at Ephesus and at Pergamos, were in a mixed state; two, at Sardis and at Laodicea, were greatly corrupted: all these are exhorted to repent; as are the followers of Jezebel at Thyatira: two, at Smyrna and Philadelphia, were in a flourishing state, and are therefore only exhorted to steadfastness.

There can be no state, either of any pastor, church, or single person, which has not here suitable instructions. All, whether ministers or hearers, together with their secret or open enemies, in all places and all ages, may draw hence necessary self - knowledge, reproof, commendation, warning, or confirmation. Whether any be as dead as the angel at Sardis, or as much alive as the angel at Philadelphia, this book is sent to him, and the Lord Jesus hath something to say to him therein. For the seven churches with their angels represent the whole Christian church, dispersed throughout the whole world, as it subsists, not, as some have imagined, in one age after another, but in every age. This is a point of deep importance, and always necessary to be remembered: that these seven churches are, as it were, a sample of the whole church of Christ, as it was then, as it is now, and as it will be in all ages.

Wesley: Rev 2:5

Outwardly and inwardly, or thou canst never regain the first love.

Wesley: Rev 2:5

By this word is the warning sharpened to those five churches which are called to repent; for if Ephesus was threatened, how much more shall Sardis and Laodicea be afraid! And according as they obey the call or not, there is a promise or a threatening, Rev 2:5, Rev 2:16, Rev 2:22; Rev 3:3, Rev 3:20. But even in the threatening the promise is implied, in case of true repentance. I come to thee, and will remove thy candlestick out of its place - I will remove, unless thou repent, the flock now under thy care to another place, where they shall be better taken care of. But from the flourishing state of the church of Ephesus after this, there is reason to believe he did repent.

Wesley: Rev 2:6

Divine grace seeks whatever may help him that is fallen to recover his standing.

Wesley: Rev 2:6

Probably so called from Nicolas, one of the seven deacons, Act 6:5. Their doctrines and lives were equally corrupt. They allowed the most abominable lewdness and adulteries, as well as sacrificing to idols; all which they placed among things indifferent, and pleaded for as branches of Christian liberty.

Wesley: Rev 2:7

Every man, whoever can hear at all, ought carefully to hear this.

Wesley: Rev 2:7

In these great and precious promises.

Wesley: Rev 2:7

And in them to every one that overcometh; that goeth on from faith and by faith to full victory over the world, and the flesh, and the devil. In these seven letters twelve promises are contained, which are an extract of all the promises of God. Some of them are not expressly mentioned again in this book, as "the hidden manna," the inscription of "the name of the new Jerusalem," the "sitting upon the throne." Some resemble what is afterwards mentioned, as "the hidden name," Rev 19:12; "the ruling the nations," Rev 19:15; "the morning star," Rev 22:16. And some are expressly mentioned, as "the tree of life," Rev 22:2; freedom from "the second death," Rev 20:6; the name in "the book of life," Rev 20:12; Rev 21:27; the remaining "in the temple of God," Rev 7:15; the inscription of "the name of God and of the Lamb," Rev 14:1; Rev 22:4. In these promises sometimes the enjoyment of the highest goods, sometimes deliverance from the greatest evils, is mentioned. And each implies the other, so that where either part is expressed, the whole is to be understood. That part is expressed which has most resemblance to the virtues or works of him that was spoken to in the letter preceding.

Wesley: Rev 2:7

The first thing promised in these letters is the last and highest in the accomplishment, Rev 22:2, Rev 22:14, Rev 22:19. The tree of life and the water of life go together, Rev 22:1-2; both implying the living with God eternally.

Wesley: Rev 2:7

The word paradise means a garden of pleasure. In the earthly paradise there was one tree of life: there are no other trees in the paradise of God.

Wesley: Rev 2:8

How directly does this description tend to confirm him against the fear of death! Rev 2:10-11. Even with the comfort wherewith St. John himself was comforted, Rev 1:17-18, shall the angel of this church be comforted.

Wesley: Rev 2:9

A poor prerogative in the eyes of the world! The angel at Philadelphia likewise had in their sight but "a little strength." And yet these two were the most honourable of all in the eyes of the Lord.

Wesley: Rev 2:9

In faith and love, of more value than all the kingdoms of the earth.

Wesley: Rev 2:9

God's own people.

Wesley: Rev 2:9

They are not Jews inwardly, not circumcised in heart.

Wesley: Rev 2:9

Who, like them, was a liar and a murderer from the beginning.

Wesley: Rev 2:10

The first and last words of this verse are particularly directed to the minister; whence we may gather, that his suffering and the affliction of the church were at the same time, and of the same continuance.

Wesley: Rev 2:10

Probably by means of the false Jews.

Wesley: Rev 2:10

This intimates the nearness of the affliction. Perhaps the ten days began on the very day that the Revelation was read at Smyrna, or at least very soon after.

Wesley: Rev 2:10

Who sets all persecutors to work; and these more particularly.

Wesley: Rev 2:10

Christians at Smyrna; where, in the first ages, the blood of many martyrs was shed. Into prison, that ye may be tried - To your unspeakable advantage, 1Pe 4:12, 1Pe 4:14.

Wesley: Rev 2:10

Either in your own persons, or by sympathizing with your brethren.

Wesley: Rev 2:10

(Literally taken) in the end of Domitian's persecution, which was stopped by the edict of the emperor Nerva.

Wesley: Rev 2:10

Our Lord does not say, "till I come," as in the other letters, but unto death - Signifying that the angel of this church should quickly after seal his testimony with his blood; fifty years before the martyrdom of Polycarp, for whom some have mistaken him.

Wesley: Rev 2:10

The peculiar reward of them who are faithful unto death.

Wesley: Rev 2:11

The lake of fire, the portion of the fearful, who do not overcome, Rev 21:8.

Wesley: Rev 2:12

With which I will cut off the impenitent, Rev 2:16.

Wesley: Rev 2:13

Pergamos was above measure given to idolatry: so Satan had his throne and full residence there.

Wesley: Rev 2:13

Openly and resolutely confessing me before men.

Wesley: Rev 2:13

Martyred under Domitian.

Wesley: Rev 2:13

Happy is he to whom Jesus, the faithful and true witness, giveth such a testimony!

Wesley: Rev 2:14

Whom thou oughtest to have immediately cast out from the flock.

Wesley: Rev 2:14

Doctrine nearly resembling his.

Wesley: Rev 2:14

And the rest of the Moabites.

Wesley: Rev 2:14

They are generally termed, the children, but here, the sons, of Israel, in opposition to the daughters of Moab, by whom Balaam enticed them to fornication and idolatry.

Wesley: Rev 2:14

Which, in so idolatrous a city as Pergamos, was in the highest degree hurtful to Christianity.

Wesley: Rev 2:14

Which was constantly joined with the idol - worship of the heathens.

JFB: Rev 2:1

Famed for the temple of Diana, one of the seven wonders of the world. For three years Paul labored there. He subsequently ordained Timothy superintending overseer or bishop there: probably his charge was but of a temporary nature. John, towards the close of his life, took it as the center from which he superintended the province.

JFB: Rev 2:1

Greek, "holdeth fast," as in Rev 2:25; Rev 3:11; compare Joh 10:28-29. The title of Christ here as "holding fast the seven stars (from Rev 1:16 : only that, for having is substituted holding fast in His grasp), and walking in the midst of the seven candlesticks," accords with the beginning of His address to the seven churches representing the universal Church. Walking expresses His unwearied activity in the Church, guarding her from internal and external evils, as the high priest moved to and fro in the sanctuary.

JFB: Rev 2:2

Expressing His omniscience. Not merely "thy professions, desires, good resolutions" (Rev 14:13, end).

JFB: Rev 2:2

Two oldest manuscripts omit "thy"; one supports it. The Greek means "labor unto weariness."

JFB: Rev 2:2

Persevering endurance.

JFB: Rev 2:2

Evil men are a burden which the Ephesian Church regarded as intolerable. We are to "bear (the same Greek, Gal 6:2) one another's burdens" in the case of weak brethren; but not to bear false brethren.

JFB: Rev 2:2

By experiment; not the Greek for "test," as 1Jo 4:1. The apostolical churches had the miraculous gift of discerning spirits. Compare Act 20:28-30, wherein Paul presciently warned the Ephesian elders of the coming false teachers, as also in writing to Timothy at Ephesus. TERTULLIAN [On Baptism, 17], and JEROME [On Illustrious Men, in Lucca 7], record of John, that when a writing, professing to be a canonical history of the acts of Paul, had been composed by a presbyter of Ephesus, John convicted the author and condemned the work. So on one occasion he would not remain under the same roof with Cerinthus the heretic.

JFB: Rev 2:2

Probably Judaizers. IGNATIUS [Epistle to the Ephesians, 6], says subsequently, "Onesimus praises exceedingly your good discipline that no heresy dwells among you"; and [Epistle to the Ephesians, 9], "Ye did not permit those having evil doctrine to sow their seed among you, but closed your ears."

JFB: Rev 2:3

The oldest manuscripts transpose these words. Then translate as Greek, "persevering endurance . . . borne." "Thou hast borne" My reproach, but "thou canst not bear the evil" (Rev 2:2). A beautiful antithesis.

JFB: Rev 2:3

The two oldest manuscripts and oldest versions read, "and . . . hast not labored," omitting "and hast fainted." The difficulty which transcribers by English Version reading tried to obviate, was the seeming contradiction, "I know thy labor . . . and thou hast not labored." But what is meant is, "Thou hast not been wearied out with labor."

JFB: Rev 2:4

Translate, "I have against thee (this) that," &c. It is not a mere somewhat"; it is everything. How characteristic of our gracious Lord, that He puts foremost all He can find to approve, and only after this notes the shortcomings!

JFB: Rev 2:4

To Christ. Compare 1Ti 5:12, "cast off their first faith." See the Ephesians' first love, Eph 1:15. This epistle was written under Domitian, when thirty years had elapsed since Paul had written his Epistle to them. Their warmth of love had given place to a lifeless orthodoxy. Compare Paul's view of faith so called without love, 1Co 13:2.

JFB: Rev 2:5

From what a height.

JFB: Rev 2:5

The works which flowed from thy first love. Not merely "feel thy first feelings," but do works flowing from the same principle as formerly, "faith which worketh by love."

JFB: Rev 2:5

Greek, "I am coming" in special judgment on thee.

JFB: Rev 2:5

Omitted in two oldest manuscripts, Vulgate and Coptic versions: supported by one oldest manuscript.

JFB: Rev 2:5

I will take away the Church from Ephesus and remove it elsewhere. "It is removal of the candlestick, not extinction of the candle, which is threatened here; judgment for some, but that very judgment the occasion of mercy for others. So it has been. The seat of the Church has been changed, but the Church itself survives. What the East has lost, the West has gained. One who lately visited Ephesus found only three Christians there, and these so ignorant as scarcely to have heard the names of St. Paul or St. John" [TRENCH].

JFB: Rev 2:6

How graciously, after necessary censure, He returns to praise for our consolation, and as an example to us, that we would show, when we reprove, we have more pleasure in praising than in fault-finding.

JFB: Rev 2:6

We should hate men's evil deeds, not hate the men themselves.

JFB: Rev 2:6

IRENÆUS [Against Heresies, 1.26.3] and TERTULLIAN [Prescription against Heretics, 46] make these followers of Nicolas, one of the seven (honorably mentioned, Act 6:3, Act 6:5). They (CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA [Miscellanies, 2.20 3.4] and EPIPHANIUS [Heresies, 25]) evidently confound the latter Gnostic Nicolaitanes, or followers of one Nicolaos, with those of Revelation. MICHAELIS' view is probable: Nicolaos (conqueror of the people) is the Greek version of Balaam, from Hebrew "Belang Am," "Destroyer of the people." Revelation abounds in such duplicate Hebrew and Greek names: as Apollyon, Abaddon: Devil, Satan: Yea (Greek, "Nai"), Amen. The name, like other names, Egypt, Babylon, Sodom, is symbolic. Compare Rev 2:14-15, which shows the true sense of Nicolaitanes; they are not a sect, but professing Christians who, like Balaam of old. tried to introduce into the Church a false freedom, that is, licentiousness; this was a reaction in the opposite direction from Judaism, the first danger to the Church combated in the council of Jerusalem, and by Paul in the Epistle to Galatians. These symbolical Nicolaitanes, or followers of Balaam, abused Paul's doctrine of the grace of God into a plea for lasciviousness (2Pe 2:15-16, 2Pe 2:19; Jud 1:4, Jud 1:11 who both describe the same sort of seducers as followers of Balaam). The difficulty that they should appropriate a name branded with infamy in Scripture is met by TRENCH: The Antinomian Gnostics were so opposed to John as a Judaizing apostle that they would assume as a name of chiefest honor one which John branded with dishonor.

JFB: Rev 2:7

This clause precedes the promise in the first three addresses, succeeds it in the last four. Thus the promises are enclosed on both sides with the precept urging the deepest attention as to the most momentous truths. Every man "hath an ear" naturally, but he alone will be able to hear spiritually to whom God has given "the hearing ear"; whose "ear God hath wakened" and "opened." Compare "Faith, the ears of the soul" [CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA].

JFB: Rev 2:7

What Christ saith, the Spirit saith; so one are the Second and Third Persons.

JFB: Rev 2:7

Not merely to the particular, but to the universal Church.

JFB: Rev 2:7

In John's Gospel (Joh 16:33) and First Epistle (1Jo 2:13-14; 1Jo 5:4-5) an object follows, namely, "the world," "the wicked one." Here, where the final issue is spoken of, the conqueror is named absolutely. Paul uses a similar image (1Co 9:24-25; 2Ti 2:5; but not the same as John's phrase, except Rom 12:21).

JFB: Rev 2:7

As the Judge. The tree of life in Paradise, lost by the fall, is restored by the Redeemer. Allusions to it occur in Pro 3:18; Pro 11:30; Pro 13:12; Pro 15:4, and prophetically, Rev 22:2, Rev 22:14; Eze 47:12; compare Joh 6:51. It is interesting to note how closely these introductory addresses are linked to the body of Revelation. Thus, the tree of life here, with Rev 22:1; deliverance from the second death (Rev 2:11), with Rev 20:14; Rev 21:8; the new name (Rev 2:17), with Rev 14:1; power over the nations, with Rev 20:4; the morning star (Rev 2:28), with Rev 22:16; the white raiment (Rev 3:5), with Rev 4:4; Rev 16:15; the name in the book of life (Rev 3:5), with Rev 13:8; Rev 20:15; the new Jerusalem and its citizenship (Rev 3:12), with Rev 21:10.

JFB: Rev 2:7

The thing promised corresponds to the kind of faithfulness manifested. They who refrain from Nicolaitane indulgences (Rev 2:6) and idol-meats (Rev 2:14-15), shall eat of meat infinitely superior, namely, the fruit of the tree of life, and the hidden manna (Rev 2:17).

JFB: Rev 2:7

The oldest manuscripts omit "the midst of." In Gen 2:9 these words are appropriate, for there were other trees in the garden, but not in the midst of it. Here the tree of life is simply in the paradise, for no other tree is mentioned in it; in Rev 22:2 the tree of life is "in the midst of the street of Jerusalem"; from this the clause was inserted here. Paradise (a Persian, or else Semitic word), originally used of any garden of delight; then specially of Eden; then the temporary abode of separate souls in bliss; then "the Paradise of God," the third heaven, the immediate presence of God.

JFB: Rev 2:7

(Eze 28:13). One oldest manuscript, with Vulgate, Syriac, and Coptic, and CYPRIAN, read, "MY God," as in Rev 3:12. So Christ calls God, "My God and your God" (Joh 20:17; compare Eph 1:17). God is our God, in virtue of being peculiarly Christ's God. The main bliss of Paradise is that it is the Paradise of God; God Himself dwelling there (Rev 21:3).

JFB: Rev 2:8

In Ionia, a little to the north of Ephesus. POLYCARP, martyred in A.D. 168, eighty-six years after his conversion, was bishop, and probably "the angel of the Church in Smyrna" meant here. The allusions to persecutions and faithfulness unto death accord with this view. IGNATIUS [The Martyrdom of Ignatius 3], on his way to martyrdom in Rome, wrote to POLYCARP, then (A.D. 108) bishop of Smyrna; if his bishopric commenced ten or twelve years earlier, the dates will harmonize. TERTULLIAN [The Prescription against Heretics, 32], and IRENÆUS, who had talked with POLYCARP in youth, tell us POLYCARP was consecrated bishop of Smyrna by St. John.

JFB: Rev 2:8

The attributes of Christ most calculated to comfort the Church of Smyrna under its persecutions; resumed from Rev 1:17-18. As death was to Him but the gate to life eternal, so it is to be to them (Rev 2:10-11).

JFB: Rev 2:9

Omitted in two oldest manuscripts, Vulgate, and Coptic. Supported by one oldest manuscript.

JFB: Rev 2:9

Owing to persecution.

JFB: Rev 2:9

Owing to "the spoiling of their goods."

JFB: Rev 2:9

In grace. Contrast Laodicea, rich in the world's eyes and her own, poor before God. "There are both poor rich-men, and rich poor-men in God's sight" [TRENCH].

JFB: Rev 2:9

Blasphemous calumny of thee on the part of (or arising from) them.

JFB: Rev 2:9

Jews by national descent, but not spiritually of "the true circumcision." The Jews blaspheme Christ as "the hanged one." As elsewhere, so at Smyrna they bitterly opposed Christianity; and at POLYCARP'S martyrdom they joined the heathens in clamoring for his being cast to the lions; and when there was an obstacle to this, for his being burnt alive; and with their own hands they carried logs for the pile.

JFB: Rev 2:9

Only once is the term "synagogue" in the New Testament used of the Christian assembly, and that by the apostle who longest maintained the union of the Church and Jewish Synagogue. As the Jews more and more opposed Christianity, and it more and more rooted itself in the Gentile world, the term "synagogue" was left altogether to the former, and Christians appropriated exclusively the honorable term "Church"; contrast an earlier time when the Jewish theocracy is called "the Church in the wilderness." Compare Num 16:3; Num 20:4, "congregation of the Lord." Even in Jam 2:2 it is "your (not the Lord's) assembly." The Jews, who might have been "the Church of God," had now, by their opposition and unbelief, become the synagogue of Satan. So "the throne of Satan" (Rev 2:13) represents the heathens' opposition to Christianity; "the depths of Satan" (Rev 2:24), the opposition of heretics.

JFB: Rev 2:10

The oldest manuscripts read, "Fear not those things," &c. "The Captain of our salvation never keeps back what those who faithfully witness for Him may have to bear for His name's sake; never entices recruits by the promise they shall find all things easy and pleasant there" [TRENCH].

JFB: Rev 2:10

"the accuser." He acted, through Jewish accusers against Christ and His people. The conflict of the latter was not with mere flesh and blood, but with the rulers of the darkness of this world.

JFB: Rev 2:10

With temptation by "the devil." The same event is often both a temptation from the devil, and a trial from God--God sifting and winnowing the man to separate his chaff from his wheat, the devil sifting him in the hope that nothing but chaff will be found in him [TRENCH].

JFB: Rev 2:10

Not the ten persecutions from Nero to Diocletian. LYRA explains ten years on the year-day principle. The shortness of the duration of the persecution is evidently made the ground of consolation. The time of trial shall be short, the duration of your joy shall be for ever. Compare the use of "ten days" for a short time, Gen 24:55; Num 11:19. Ten is the number of the world powers hostile to the Church; compare the ten horns of the beast, Rev 13:1.

JFB: Rev 2:10

So as even to endure death for My sake.

JFB: Rev 2:10

Jam 1:12; 2Ti 4:8, "crown of righteousness"; 1Pe 5:4, "crown of glory." The crown is the garland, the mark of a conqueror, or of one rejoicing, or at a feast; but diadem is the mark of a KING.

JFB: Rev 2:11

Greek, "shall not by any means (or possibly) be hurt."

JFB: Rev 2:11

"the lake of fire." "The death in life of the lost, as contrasted with the life in death of the saved" [TRENCH]. The phrase "the second death" is peculiar to the Apocalypse. What matter about the first death, which sooner or later must pass over us, if we escape the second death? "It seems that they who die that death shall be hurt by it; whereas, if it were annihilation, and so a conclusion of their torments, it would be no way hurtful, but highly beneficial to them. But the living torments are the second death" [BISHOP PEARSON]. "The life of the damned is death" [AUGUSTINE]. Smyrna (meaning myrrh) yielded its sweet perfume in being bruised even to death. Myrrh was used in embalming dead bodies (Joh 19:39); was an ingredient in the holy anointing oil (Exo 30:23); a perfume of the heavenly Bridegroom (Psa 45:8), and of the bride (Son 3:6). "Affliction, like it, is bitter for the time being, but salutary; preserving the elect from corruption, and seasoning them for immortality, and gives scope for the exercise of the fragrantly breathing Christian virtues" [VITRINGA]. POLYCARP'S noble words to his heathen judges who wished him to recant, are well known: "Fourscore and six years have I served the Lord, and He never wronged me, how then can I blaspheme my King and Saviour?" Smyrna's faithfulness is rewarded by its candlestick not having been removed out of its place (Rev 2:5); Christianity has never wholly left it; whence the Turks call it, "Infidel Smyrna."

JFB: Rev 2:12

TRENCH prefers writing Pergamus, or rather, Pergamum, on the river Caicus. It was capital of Attalus the Second's kingdom, which was bequeathed by him to the Romans, 133 B.C. Famous for its library, founded by Eumenes (197-159), and destroyed by Caliph Omar. Parchment, that is, Pergamena charta, was here discovered for book purposes. Also famous for the magnificent temple of Æsculapius, the healing god [TACITUS, Annals, 3.63].

JFB: Rev 2:12

Appropriate to His address having a twofold bearing, a searching power so as to convict and convert some (Rev 2:13, Rev 2:17), and to convict and condemn to punishment others (Rev 2:14-16, especially Rev 2:16; compare also see on Rev 1:16).

JFB: Rev 2:13

Two oldest manuscripts omit this clause; one oldest manuscript retains it.

JFB: Rev 2:13

Rather as the Greek is translated all through Revelation, "throne." Satan, in impious mimicry of God's heavenly throne, sets up his earthly throne (Rev 4:2). Æsculapius was worshipped there under the serpent form; and Satan, the old serpent, as the instigator (compare Rev 2:10) of fanatical devotees of Æsculapius, and, through them, of the supreme magistracy at Pergamos, persecuted one of the Lord's people (Antipas) even to death. Thus, this address is an anticipatory preface to Rev. 12:1-17; Note: "throne . . . the dragon, Satan . . . war with her seed," Rev 12:5, Rev 12:9, Rev 12:17.

JFB: Rev 2:13

Two oldest manuscripts omit "even"; two retain it.

JFB: Rev 2:13

Two oldest manuscripts omit this (then translate, "in the days of Antipas, My faithful witness," or "martyr"); two retain it. Two oldest manuscripts read, "My witness, MY faithful one"; two read as English Version. Antipas is another form for Antipater. SIMEON METAPHRASTES has a palpably legendary story, unknown to the early Fathers, that Antipas, in Domitian's reign, was shut up in a red-hot brazen bull, and ended his life in thanksgivings and prayers. HENGSTENBERG makes the name, like other apocalyptic names, symbolical, meaning one standing out "against all" for Christ's sake.

JFB: Rev 2:14

In comparison of the many tokens of thy faithfulness.

JFB: Rev 2:14

"the teaching of Balaam," namely, that which he "taught Balak." Compare "the counsel of Balaam," Num 31:16. "Balak" is dative in the Greek, whence BENGEL translates, "taught (the Moabites) for (that is, to please) Balak." But though in Numbers it is not expressly said he taught Balak, yet there is nothing said inconsistent with his having done so; and JOSEPHUS [Antiquities,4. 6. 6], says he did so. The dative case is a Hebraism for the accusative case.

JFB: Rev 2:14

Greek, "sons of Israel."

JFB: Rev 2:14

Literally, that part of a trap on which the bait was laid, and which, when touched, caused the trap to close on its prey; then any entanglement to the foot [TRENCH].

JFB: Rev 2:14

The act common to the Israelites of old, and the Nicolaitanes in John's day; he does not add what was peculiar to the Israelites, namely, that they sacrificed to idols. The temptation to eat idol-meats was a peculiarly strong one to the Gentile converts. For not to do so involved almost a withdrawal from partaking of any social meal with the heathen around. For idol-meats, after a part had been offered in sacrifice, were nearly sure to be on the heathen entertainer's table; so much so, that the Greek "to kill" (thuein) meant originally "to sacrifice." Hence arose the decree of the council of Jerusalem forbidding to eat such meats; subsequently some at Corinth ate unscrupulously and knowingly of such meats, on the ground that the idol is nothing; others needlessly tortured themselves with scruples, lest unknowingly they should eat of them when they got meat from the market or in a heathen friend's house. Paul handles the question in 1Co 8:1-13; 1Co 10:25-33.

JFB: Rev 2:14

Often connected with idolatry.

Clarke: Rev 2:1

Unto the angel of the Church of Ephesus - By αγγελος, angel, we are to understand the messenger or person sent by God to preside over this Church; and to him the epistle is directed, not as pointing out his state, but the state of the Church under his care. Angel of the Church here answers exactly to that officer of the synagogue among the Jews called שליח ציבור sheliach tsibbur , the messenger of the Church, whose business it was to read, pray, and teach in the synagogue. The Church at Ephesus is first addressed, as being the place where John chiefly resided; and the city itself was the metropolis of that part of Asia. The angel or bishop at this time was most probably Timothy, who presided over that Church before St. John took up his residence there, and who is supposed to have continued in that office till a.d. 97, and to have been martyred a short time before St. John’ s return from Patmos

Clarke: Rev 2:1

Holdeth the seven stars - Who particularly preserves, and guides, and upholds, not only the ministers of those seven Churches, but all the genuine ministers of his Gospel, in all ages and places

Clarke: Rev 2:1

Walketh in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks - Is the supreme Bishop and Head, not only of those Churches, but of all the Churches or congregations of his people throughout the world.

Clarke: Rev 2:2

I know thy works - For the eyes of the Lord are throughout the earth, beholding the evil and the good; and, being omnipresent, all things are continually open and naked before him. It is worthy of remark, that whatsoever is praiseworthy in any of these Churches is first mentioned; thereby intimating that God is more intent on finding out the good than the evil in any person or Church; and that those who wish to reform such as have fallen or are not making sufficient advances in the Divine life, should take occasion, from the good which yet remains, to encourage them to set out afresh for the kingdom of heaven. The fallen or backsliding who have any tenderness of conscience left are easily discouraged, and are apt to think that there is no seed left from which any harvest can be reasonably expected. Let such be told that there is still a seed of godliness remaining, and that it requires only watching and strengthening the things which remain, by prompt application to God through Christ, in order to bring them back to the full enjoyment of all they have lost, and to renew them in the spirit of their mind. Ministers continually harping on Ye are dead, ye are dead; there is little or no Christianity among you, etc., etc., are a contagion in a Church, and spread desolation and death wheresoever they go. It is far better to say, in such cases, "Ye have lost ground, but ye have not lost all your ground; ye might have been much farther advanced, but through mercy ye are still in the way. The Spirit of God is grieved by you, but it is evident he has not forsaken you. Ye have not walked in the light as ye should, but your candlestick is not yet removed, and still the light shines. Ye have not much zeal, but ye have a little. In short, God still strives with you, still loves you, still waits to be gracious to you; take courage, set out afresh, come to God through Christ; believe, love, obey, and you will soon find days more blessed than you have ever yet experienced."Exhortations and encouragements of this kind are sure to produce the most blessed effects; and under such the work of God infallibly revives

Clarke: Rev 2:2

And thy labor - He knew their works in general. Though they had left their first love, yet still they had so much love as excited them to labor, and enabled them to bear persecution patiently, and to keep the faith; for they could not tolerate evil men, and they had put fictitious apostles to the test, and had found them to be liars, pretending a Divine commission while they had none, and teaching false doctrines as if they were the truths of God.

Clarke: Rev 2:3

And hast borne - The same things mentioned in the preceding verse, but in an inverted order, the particular reason of which does not appear; perhaps it was intended to show more forcibly to this Church that there was no good which they had done, nor evil which they had suffered, that was forgotten before God

Clarke: Rev 2:3

And hast not fainted - They must therefore have had a considerable portion of this love remaining, else they could not have thus acted.

Clarke: Rev 2:4

Nevertheless I have somewhat against thee - The clause should be read, according to the Greek, thus: But I have against thee that thou hast left thy first love. They did not retain that strong and ardent affection for God and sacred things which they had when first brought to the knowledge of the truth, and justified by faith in Christ.

Clarke: Rev 2:5

Remember - Consider the state of grace in which you once stood; the happiness, love, and joy which you felt when ye received remission of sins; the zeal ye had for God’ s glory and the salvation of mankind; your willing, obedient spirit, your cheerful self-denial, your fervor in private prayer, your detachment from the world, and your heavenly-mindedness. Remember - consider, all these

Clarke: Rev 2:5

Whence thou art fallen - Fallen from all those blessed dispositions and gracious feelings already mentioned. Or, remember what a loss you have sustained; for so εκπιπτειν is frequently used by the best Greek writers

Clarke: Rev 2:5

Repent - Be deeply humbled before God for having so carelessly guarded the Divine treasure

Clarke: Rev 2:5

Do the first works - Resume your former zeal and diligence; watch, fast, pray, reprove sin, carefully attend all the ordinances of God, walk as in his sight, and rest not till you have recovered all your lost ground, and got back the evidence of your acceptance with your Maker

Clarke: Rev 2:5

I will come unto thee quickly - In the way of judgment

Clarke: Rev 2:5

And will remove thy candlestick - Take away my ordinances, remove your ministers, and send you a famine of the word. As there is here an allusion to the candlestick in the tabernacle and temple, which could not be removed without suspending the whole Levitical service, so the threatening here intimates that, if they did not repent, etc., he would unchurch them; they should no longer have a pastor, no longer have the word and sacraments, and no longer have the presence of the Lord Jesus.

Clarke: Rev 2:6

The deeds of the Nicolaitanes - These were, as is commonly supposed, a sect of the Gnostics, who taught the most impure doctrines, and followed the most impure practices. They are also supposed to have derived their origin from Nicolas, one of the seven deacons mentioned Act 6:5 (note). The Nicolaitanes taught the community of wives, that adultery and fornication were things indifferent, that eating meats offered to idols was quite lawful; and mixed several pagan rites with the Christian ceremonies. Augustine, Irenaeus, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Tertullian, have spoken largely concerning them. See more in my preface to 2d Peter, where are several particulars concerning these heretics.

Clarke: Rev 2:7

He that hath an ear - Let every intelligent person, and every Christian man, attend carefully to what the Holy Spirit, in this and the following epistles, says to the Churches. See the note on Mat 11:15, where the same form of speech occurs

Clarke: Rev 2:7

To him that overcometh - To him who continues steadfast in the faith, and uncorrupt in his life; who faithfully confesses Jesus, and neither imbibes the doctrines nor is led away by the error of the wicked; will I give to eat of the tree of life. As he who conquered his enemies had, generally, not only great honor, but also a reward; so here a great reward is promised τῳ νικωντι, to the conqueror: and as in the Grecian games, to which there may be an allusion, the conqueror was crowned with the leaves of some tree; here it is promised that they should eat of the fruit of the tree of life, which is in the midst of the paradise of God; that is, that they should have a happy and glorious immortality. There is also here an allusion to Gen 2:9, where it is said, God made the tree of life to grow out of the midst of the garden; and it is very likely that by eating the fruit of this tree the immortality of Adam was secured, and on this it was made dependent. When Adam transgressed, he was expelled from this garden, and no more permitted to eat of the tree of life; hence he became necessarily mortal. This tree, in all its sacramental effects, is secured and restored to man by the incarnation, death, and resurrection of Christ. The tree of life is frequently spoken of by the rabbins; and by it they generally mean the immortality of the soul, and a final state of blessedness. See many examples in Schoettgen. They talk also of a celestial and terrestrial paradise. The former, they say, "is for the reception of the souls of the just perfect; and differs as much from the earthly paradise as light from darkness.

The Epistle to the Church at Smyrna

Clarke: Rev 2:8

Unto the angel - This was probably the famous Polycarp. See below

Clarke: Rev 2:8

These things saith the first and the last - He who is eternal; from whom all things come, and to whom all things must return. Which was dead, for the redemption of the world; and is alive to die no more for ever, his glorified humanity being enthroned at the Father’ s right hand.

Clarke: Rev 2:9

I know thy works - As he had spoken to the preceding Church, so he speaks to this: I know all that ye have done, and all that ye have suffered. The tribulation here mentioned must mean persecution, either from the Jews, the heathens, or from the heretics, who, because of their flesh-pampering doctrines might have had many partisans at Smyrna

Clarke: Rev 2:9

And poverty - Stripped probably of all their temporal possessions, because of their attachment to the Gospel

Clarke: Rev 2:9

But thou art rich - Rich in faith, and heir of the kingdom of Christ

Clarke: Rev 2:9

The blasphemy of them which say they are Jews - There were persons there who professed Judaism, and had a synagogue in the place, and professed to worship the true God; but they had no genuine religion, and they served the devil rather than God. They applied a sacred name to an unholy thing: and this is one meaning of the word blasphemy in this book.

Clarke: Rev 2:10

Fear none of those things which thou shalt suffer - This may be addressed particularly to Polycarp, if he was at that time the bishop of this Church. He had much to suffer; and was at last burnt alive at Smyrna, about the year of our Lord 166. We have a very ancient account of his martyrdom, which has been translated by Cave, and is worthy of the reader’ s perusal. That account states that the Jews were particularly active in this martyrdom, and brought the fagots, etc., by which he was consumed. Such persons must indeed have been of the synagogue of Satan

Clarke: Rev 2:10

Ten days - As the days in this book are what is commonly called prophetic days, each answering to a year, the ten years of tribulation may denote ten years of persecution; and this was precisely the duration of the persecution under Diocletian, during which all the Asiatic Churches were grievously afflicted. Others understand the expression as implying frequency and abundance, as it does in other parts of Scripture. Gen 31:7, Gen 31:41 : Thou hast changed my wages Ten Times; i.e. thou hast frequently changed my wages Num 14:22 : Those men have tempted me now these Ten Times; i.e. they have frequently and grievously tempted and sinned against me. Neh 4:12 : The Jews that dwelt by them came and said unto us Ten Times, i.e. they were frequently coming and informing us, that our adversaries intended to attack us, Job 19:3; These Ten Times have ye reproached me; i.e. ye have loaded me with continual reproaches. Dan 1:20 : In all matters of wisdom, he found them Ten Times better than all the magicians; i.e. the king frequently consulted Daniel and his companions, and found them more abundantly informed and wise than all his counsellors

Some think the shortness of the affliction is here intended, and that the ten days are to be understood as in Terence, Heaut., Act v., scen. 1, ver. 36, Decem dierum vis mi est familia . "I have enjoyed my family but a short time.

Clarke: Rev 2:10

Be thou faithful unto death - Be firm, hold fast the faith, confess Christ to the last, and at all hazards, and thou shalt have a crown of life - thou shalt be crowned with life, have an eternal happy existence, though thou suffer a temporal death. It is said of Polycarp that when brought before the judge, and commanded to abjure and blaspheme Christ, he firmly answered, "Eighty and six years have I served him, and he never did me wrong, how then can I blaspheme my king who hath saved me?"He was then adjudged to the flames, and suffered cheerfully for Christ his Lord and Master.

Clarke: Rev 2:11

He that overcometh - The conqueror who has stood firm in every trial, and vanquished all his adversaries

Clarke: Rev 2:11

Shall not be hurt of the second death - That is, an eternal separation from God and the glory of his power; as what we commonly mean by final perdition. This is another rabbinical mode of speech in very frequent use, and by it they understand the punishment of hell in a future life

The Epistle to the Church at Pergamos

Clarke: Rev 2:12

The angel of the Church in Pergamos - See the description of this place, Rev 1:11

Clarke: Rev 2:12

Which hath the sharp sword - See on Rev 1:16 (note). The sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God, cuts every way; it convinces of sin, righteousness, and judgment; pierces between the joints and the marrow, divides between the soul and spirit, dissects the whole mind, and exhibits a regular anatomy of the soul. It not only reproves and exposes sin, but it slays the ungodly, pointing out and determining the punishment they shall endure. Jesus has the sword with the two edges, because he is the Savior of sinners, and the Judge of quick and dead.

Clarke: Rev 2:13

Where Satan’ s seat is - Ὁπου ὁ θρονος του Σατανα· Where Satan has his throne - where he reigns as king, and is universally obeyed. It was a maxim among the Jews, that where the law of God was not studied, there Satan dwelt; but he was obliged to leave the place where a synagogue or academy was established

Clarke: Rev 2:13

Thou holdest fast my name - Notwithstanding that the profession of Christianity exposed this Church to the bitterest persecution, they held fast the name of Christian, which they had received from Jesus Christ, and did not deny his faith; for when brought to the trial they openly professed themselves disciples and followers of their Lord and Master

Clarke: Rev 2:13

Antipas was my faithful martyr - Who this Antipas was we cannot tell. We only know that he was a Christian, and probably bore some office in the Church, and became illustrious by his martyrdom in the cause of Christ. There is a work extant called The Acts of Antipas, which makes him bishop of Pergamos, and states that he was put to death by being enclosed in a burning brazen bull. But this story confutes itself, as the Romans, under whose government Pergamos then was, never put any person to death in this way. It is supposed that he was murdered by some mob, who chose this way to vindicate the honor of their god Aesculapius, in opposition to the claims of our Lord Jesus.

Clarke: Rev 2:14

I have a few things against thee - Their good deeds are first carefully sought out and commended; what was wrong in them is touched with a gentle but effectual hand

The followers of Balaam, the Nicolaitanes, and the Gnostics, were probably all the same kind of persons; but see on Rev 2:6 (note). What the doctrine of Balaam was, see the notes on Num 24:1 (note) through Num 25:18; and Numbers 31:1-54 (note). It appears that there were some then in the Church at Pergamos who held eating things offered to idols in honor of those idols, and fornication, indifferent things. They associated with idolaters in the heathen temples, and partook with them in their religious festivals.

Defender: Rev 2:1

Ephesus was an important seaport on the Aegean Sea where the Apostle Paul had spent a long period of time (Act 20:31). It was a very immoral city and the location of the great temple of Artemis (or Diana - see Act 19:27), considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. As the first church addressed in the seven epistles, it is often considered typical of the apostolic-era church, with the later epistles representing successive later periods of church history. The supposed correlations, however, are arbitrary. Since each type of church is represented in every period of church history, it is more realistic to understand the seven churches as depicting all churches in general, thereby surveying all the merits and defects of churches everywhere."

Defender: Rev 2:2

These false apostles were also of great concern to Paul (2Co 11:13-15). John had no doubt warned the Ephesians to "try the spirits whether they are of God," for they might well be "false prophets" (1Jo 4:1). They had done just that, and Christ commended them for it."

Defender: Rev 2:6

The "Nicolaitans" are mentioned only here and in Rev 2:15. There was no known sect or movement with this name during the apostolic period, so this is probably a descriptive term rather than a proper noun. Since these messages were meant ultimately for all churches, it is certain that the term has meaning for all churches. In context, it almost certainly is referring to the false apostles of Rev 2:2. Practically all churches have been plagued at one time or another by false teachers, false prophets, false apostles and sometimes even by false Christs. The word "nicolaitans" means literally "overcomers of the people." That is precisely what false apostles seek to do. They desire to turn the love and allegiance of the people in the church to themselves rather than to Christ. Christ hates both the deeds and doctrines (Rev 2:15) of Nicolaitanism, and we should do the same."

Defender: Rev 2:7

Note that each of the seven letters was intended to be heard, not by just the one church to which it was addressed, but by all "the churches."

Defender: Rev 2:7

Each epistle has a special promise to those who overcome. We are urged to "overcome the wicked one" (1Jo 2:13), "by the blood of the Lamb, and by the word of their testimony; and they loved not their lives unto the death" (Rev 12:11).

Defender: Rev 2:7

John confirms that "the tree of life" and "paradise" were historical realities and will also be future realities (Rev 22:1, Rev 22:2)."

Defender: Rev 2:8

Smyrna was also a port city about thirty-five miles north of Ephesus. It survives today as Izmir, in Turkey. Polycarp, supposedly a convert of John, later served as pastor there until his martyrdom in about a.d. 155."

Defender: Rev 2:9

These must have been Gentile converts of the Judaizers, who were trying to impose Judaism, with its law and priesthood, on Christianity. Just as false apostles were disturbing the church at Ephesus, so at Smyrna men claiming to have become Jews but had not were plaguing the church. These two groups of heretics were beginning a corruption of Christianity which would eventually pervade the church for a thousand years, imposing an imagined apostolic succession and continuing priesthood, both of which would subjugate the ordinary people in the churches in a "Nicolaitan" hierarchy. As the false apostles were spoken of as "ministers of Satan" (2Co 11:13-15), so these false Jews had become - unknowingly perhaps - a synagogue of Satan."

Defender: Rev 2:10

It should be kept in mind that these letters to the churches had universal relevance as well as immediate applications to the particular churches addressed. Consequently the "ten days" must suggest a general Biblical principle which was intended to sustain any group of Christians facing persecution. The only other Biblical reference to "ten days" is in Dan 1:12, Dan 1:14, Dan 1:15. There, Daniel experienced "ten days" of testing, but then God blessed him with seventy years of vital ministry. Just so, if we endure our "ten days" of tribulation, even unto death if need be, God will give us a "crown of life" for eternity (see note on Jam 1:15)."

Defender: Rev 2:12

Pergamos, a center of idolatry, was sixty miles north of Smyrna. The great altar of Zeus, the largest altar in the world, was located there. As the church at Ephesus had been infiltrated by false apostles, and the Smyrna church by Judaizers, so Pergamos was impacted by compromise with the paganism surrounding it. Ever since the beginning of the church age, sacerdotalism, legalism, evolutionary pantheism, or all of these have affected the Church."

Defender: Rev 2:13

"Satan's seat" is literally "Satan's throne." This may be a reference to the great altar of Zeus at Pergamos, but there is also some evidence that the priesthood of Babylonian idolatry had moved to Pergamos when Babylon fell to the Persians.

Defender: Rev 2:13

"Antipas" means "against all." Although Antipas may have been an otherwise unknown martyr ("witness") at Pergamos, the Lord may have included his name here to represent all His faithful witnesses who take a clear stand for Christ "against all" the forces of Satan, even at the possible cost of martyrdom."

Defender: Rev 2:14

The "doctrine of Balaam," which had apparently infiltrated the Pergamos church, was that of compromise with the immoral and ungodly life style of the pagans in similar fashion to the way Balaam had influenced the Israelites to take Moabite wives (Num 31:15, Num 31:16)."

TSK: Rev 2:1

the angel : Rev 2:8, Rev 2:12, Rev 2:18, Rev 3:1, Rev 3:7, Rev 3:14

church : Rev 1:11

holdeth : Rev 1:16, Rev 1:20, Rev 8:10-12, Rev 12:1; Joh 5:35

walketh : Rev 1:12, Rev 1:13; Eze 28:13, Eze 28:14; Mat 18:20, Mat 28:20

TSK: Rev 2:2

know : Rev 2:9, Rev 2:13, Rev 2:19, Rev 3:1, Rev 3:8, Rev 3:15; Psa 1:6; Mat 7:23; 1Th 1:3; 2Ti 2:19; Heb 6:10

how : Rev 2:6, Rev 2:14, Rev 2:15, Rev 2:20,Rev 2:21; Gal 1:7; Eph 4:14; 1Th 5:21; 2Pe 2:1-3; 1Jo 4:1

thou hast : 2Co 11:13-15; 1Jo 2:21, 1Jo 2:22, 1Jo 4:1

TSK: Rev 2:3

hast borne : Psa 69:7; Mic 7:9; Mar 15:21; Luk 14:27; 1Co 13:7; Gal 6:2; Heb 13:13

hast patience : Rev 1:9, Rev 3:10; Psa 37:7; Luk 8:15, Luk 21:19; Rom 2:7, Rom 5:3, Rom 5:4, Rom 8:25, Rom 12:12, Rom 15:4, Rom 15:5; Col 1:11; 2Th 3:5; Heb 6:12, Heb 6:15, Heb 10:36, Heb 12:1; Jam 1:3, Jam 1:4, Jam 5:7-11; 2Pe 1:6

hast laboured : Rom 16:12; 1Co 16:16; 2Co 5:9, 2Co 6:5, 2Co 10:15, 2Co 11:23; Phi 2:16, Phi 4:3; 1Th 1:3, 1Th 2:9, 1Th 5:12; 2Th 3:8; 1Ti 4:10, 1Ti 5:17; Heb 6:10

hast not : Luk 18:1; 2Co 4:1, 2Co 4:16; Gal 6:9; 2Th 3:13; Heb 12:3-5

TSK: Rev 2:4

I have : Rev 2:14, Rev 2:20

because : Rev 3:14-17; Jer 2:2-5; Mat 24:12, Mat 24:13; Phi 1:9, Phi 3:13-16; 1Th 4:9, 1Th 4:10; 2Th 1:3; Heb 6:10,Heb 6:11

TSK: Rev 2:5

Remember : Rev 3:3, Rev 3:19; Eze 16:61-63, Eze 20:43, Eze 36:31; 2Pe 1:12, 2Pe 1:13

thou art : Isa 14:12; Hos 14:1; Gal 5:4; Jud 1:24

and repent : Rev 2:16, Rev 2:21, Rev 2:22, Rev 3:3, Rev 3:19, Rev 9:20,Rev 9:21, Rev 16:9; Act 17:30,Act 17:31

and do : Rev 2:19, Rev 3:2, Rev 3:3; Isa 1:26; Jer 2:2, Jer 2:3; Hos 9:10; Mal 3:4, Mal 4:6; Luk 1:17

else : Rev 2:16, Rev 3:3; Mat 21:41-43, Mat 24:48-51; Mar 12:9; Luk 12:45, Luk 12:46, Luk 20:16

TSK: Rev 2:6

that : Rev 2:14, Rev 2:15; 2Ch 19:2; Psa 26:5, Psa 101:3, Psa 139:21, Psa 139:22; 2Jo 1:9, 2Jo 1:10

TSK: Rev 2:7

that hath : Rev 2:11, Rev 2:17, Rev 2:29, Rev 3:6, Rev 3:13, Rev 3:22, Rev 13:9; Mat 11:15, Mat 13:9, Mat 13:43; Mar 7:16

let him : Rev 14:13, Rev 22:17; 1Co 2:10, 1Co 12:4-12

To him : Rev 2:11, Rev 2:17, Rev 2:26-28, Rev 3:5, Rev 3:12, Rev 3:21, Rev 12:10,Rev 12:11, Rev 15:2, Rev 21:7; Joh 16:33; 1Jo 5:4, 1Jo 5:5

the tree : Rev 22:2, Rev 22:14; Gen 2:9, Gen 3:22-24; Pro 3:18, Pro 11:30, Pro 13:12, Pro 15:4

the paradise : Luk 23:43; 2Co 12:4

TSK: Rev 2:8

the angel : Rev 2:1

the first : Rev 1:8, Rev 1:11, Rev 1:17, Rev 1:18

TSK: Rev 2:9

know : Rev 2:2

tribulation : Rev 7:14; Joh 16:33; Act 14:22; Rom 5:3, Rom 8:35, Rom 12:12; 1Th 3:4; 2Th 1:6, 2Th 1:7

poverty : Luk 4:18, Luk 6:20; 2Co 8:2, 2Co 8:9; Jam 2:5, Jam 2:6

thou art : Rev 3:17, Rev 3:18; Luk 12:21; 2Co 6:10; 1Ti 6:18; Jam 2:5, Jam 2:6

the blasphemy : Luk 22:65; Act 26:11; 1Ti 1:13

which : Rom 2:17, Rom 2:28, Rom 2:29, Rom 9:6

the synagogue : Rev 3:9

TSK: Rev 2:10

Fear : Mat 10:22

shalt : Dan 3:16-18; Mat 10:28; Luk 12:4-7

the devil : Rev 12:9-11, Rev 13:2, Rev 13:7, Rev 13:15-17; Luk 21:12; Joh 13:2, Joh 13:27; Eph 2:2, Eph 6:12; 1Pe 5:8

ye shall : Rev 2:9

ten days : Hab 2:3; 1Pe 1:6, 1Pe 1:7

be thou : Rev 12:11; Mat 10:22, Mat 24:13; Mar 8:35, Mar 13:13; Luk 21:16-19; Joh 12:25; Act 20:24, Act 21:13; 2Ti 4:7, 2Ti 4:8

a crown : Rev 3:11; Jam 1:12; 1Pe 5:4

TSK: Rev 2:11

that hath : Rev 2:7, Rev 13:9

the second : Rev 20:6, Rev 20:14, Rev 21:8

TSK: Rev 2:12

the angel : Rev 2:1, Rev 1:11

Pergamos : Pergamos, now Bergamo, the ancient metropolis of Mysia, and the residence of the Attalian kings, is situated on the river Caicus, about sixty miles north of Smyrna, in long. 27 degrees e lat. 39 degrees 11 minutes n. It still retains some measure of its ancient importance; containing a population of 15,000 souls, and having nine or ten mosques, two churches, and one synagogue.

which hath : Rev 2:16, Rev 1:16, Rev 19:15, Rev 19:21; Isa 11:4; Heb 4:12

TSK: Rev 2:13

know : Rev 2:2, Rev 2:9

Satan’ s : Rev 2:9, Rev 2:10,Rev 2:24, Rev 3:9

thou holdest : Rev 2:25, Rev 3:3, Rev 3:11; 1Th 5:21; 2Ti 1:13; Heb 3:6, Heb 10:23

my name : Rev 3:8; Mat 24:9; Luk 21:17; Act 9:14; Jam 2:7

denied : Mat 10:23; 1Ti 5:8; 2Ti 2:12; Jud 1:3, Jud 1:4

was : Act 22:20

TSK: Rev 2:14

I have : Rev 2:4, Rev 2:20

Balaam : Num 24:14, Num 25:1-3, Num 31:8, Num 31:16; Jos 24:9; 2Pe 2:15; Jud 1:11

a stumblingblock : Isa 57:14; Jer 6:21; Eze 3:20, Eze 44:12; Mat 18:7; Rom 9:32, Rom 11:9; Rom 14:13, Rom 14:21; 1Co 1:23, 1Co 8:9; 1Pe 2:8

eat : Rev 2:20; Act 15:20,Act 15:21, Act 15:29, Act 21:25; 1Co 8:4-13, 1Co 10:18-31

to commit : Rev 21:8, Rev 22:15; 1Co 6:13-18, 1Co 7:2; Heb 13:4

Commentary -- Word/Phrase Notes (per Verse)

Barnes: Rev 2:1

The Epistle to the Church at Ephesus

The contents of the epistle to the church at Ephesus - the first addressed - are these:

(1)    The attribute of the Saviour referred to is, that he "holds the stars in his right hand, and walks in the midst of the golden candlesticks,"Rev 2:1.

(2)\caps1     h\caps0 e commends them for their patience, and for their opposition to those who are evil, and for their zeal and fidelity in carefully examining into the character of some who claimed to be apostles, but who were, in fact, impostors; for their perseverance in bearing up under trial, and not fainting in his cause, and for their opposition to the Nicolaitanes, whom, he says, he hates, Rev 2:2-3, Rev 2:6.

(3)\caps1     h\caps0 e reproves them for having left their first love to him, Rev 2:4.

(4)\caps1     h\caps0 e admonishes them to remember whence they had fallen, to repent, and to do their first works Rev 2:5.

(5)\caps1     h\caps0 e threatens them that, if they do not repent, he will come and remove the candlestick out of its place, Rev 2:5; and,

(6)\caps1     h\caps0 e assures them, and all others, that whosoever overcomes he will "give him to eat of the tree of life, which is in the midst of the paradise of God,"Rev 2:7.

Unto the angel - The minister; the presiding presbyter; the bishop - in the primitive sense of the word "bishop"- denoting one who had the spiritual charge of a congregation. See the notes on Rev 1:20.

Of the church - Not of the churches of Ephesus, but of the one church of that city. There is no evidence that the word is used in a collective sense to denote a group of churches, like a diocese; nor is there any evidence that there was such a group of churches in Ephesus, or that there was more than one church in that city. It is probable that all who were Christians there were regarded as members of one church - though for convenience they may have met for worship in different places. Thus, there was one church in Corinth 1Co 1:1; one church in Thessalonica 1Th 1:1, etc.

Of Ephesus - On the situation of Ephesus, see the notes on Act 18:19, and the introduction to the notes on the Epistle to the Ephesians, section 1, and the engraving there. It was the capital of Ionia; was one of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia Minor in the Mythic times, and was said to have been founded by the Amazons. It was situated on the river Cayster, not far from the Icarian Sea, between Smyrna and Miletus. It was one of the most considerable cities of Asia Minor, and while, about the epoch when Christianity was introduced, other cities declined, Ephesus rose more and more. It owed its prosperity, in part, to the favor of its governors; for Lysimachus named the city Arsinoe, in honor of his second wife, and Attalus Philadelphus furnished it with splendid wharves and docks. Under the Romans it was the capital not only of Ionia, but of the entire province of Asia, and bore the honorable title of the first and greatest metropolis of Asia. John is supposed to have resided in this city, and to have preached the gospel there for many years; and on this account, perhaps, it was, as well as on account of the relative importance of the city, that the first epistle of the seven was addressed to that church. On the present condition of the ruins of Ephesus, see the notes on Rev 2:5. We have no means whatever of ascertaining the size of the church when John wrote the Book of Revelation. From the fact, however, that Paul, as is supposed (see the introduction to the Epistle to the Ephesians, section 2), labored there for about three years; that there was a body of "elders"who presided over the church there Act 20:17; and that the apostle John seems to have spent a considerable part of his life there in preaching the gospel, it may be presumed that there was a large and flourishing church in that city. The epistle before us shows also that it was characterized by distinguished piety.

These things saith he that holdeth the seven stars in his right hand - See the notes on Rev 1:16. The object here seems to be to turn the attention of the church in Ephesus to some attribute of the Saviour which deserved their special regard, or which constituted a special reason for attending to what he said. To do this, the attention is directed, in this case, to the fact that he held the seven stars - emblematic of the ministers of the churches - in his hand, and that he walked in the midst of the lampbearers - representing the churches themselves; intimating that they were dependent on him, that he had power to continue or remove the ministry, and that it was by his presence only that those lamp-bearers would continue to give light. The absolute control over the ministry, and the fact that he walked amidst the churches, and that his presence was necessary to their perpetuity and their welfare, seem to be the principal ideas implied in this representation. These truths he would impress on their minds, in order that they might feel how easy it would be for him to punish any disobedience, and in order that they might do what was necessary to secure his continual presence among them. These views seem to be sanctioned by the character of the punishment threatened Rev 2:5, "that he would remove the candlestick representing their church out of its place."See the notes on Rev 2:5.

Who walketh in the midst, ... - In Rev 1:13 he is represented simply as being seen amidst the golden candlesticks. See the notes on that place. Here there is the additional idea of his "walking"in the midst of them, implying perhaps constant and vigilant supervision. He went from one to another, as one who inspects and surveys what is under his care; perhaps also with the idea that he went among them as a friend to bless them.

Barnes: Rev 2:2

I know thy works - The common formula with which all the epistles to the seven churches are introduced. It is designed to impress upon them deeply the conviction that he was intimately acquainted with all that they did, good and bad, and that therefore he was abundantly qualified to dispense rewards or administer punishments according to truth and justice. It may be observed that, as many of the things referred to in these epistles were things pertaining to the heart - the feelings, the state of the mind - it is implied that he who speaks here has an intimate acquaintance with the heart of man, a prerogative which is always attributed to the Saviour. See Joh 2:25. But no one can do this who is not divine; and this declaration, therefore, furnishes a strong proof of the divinity of Christ. See Psa 7:9; Jer 11:20; Jer 17:10; 1Sa 16:7; 1Ki 8:39.

And they labor - The word used here ( κόπος kopos ) means properly "a beating,"hence wailing, grief, with beating the breast; and then it means excessive labor or toil adapted to produce grief or sadness, and is commonly employed in the New Testament in the latter sense. It is used in the sense of trouble in Mat 26:10, "Why trouble ye (literally, why give ye trouble to) the woman?"(compare also Mar 14:6; Luk 11:7; Luk 18:5; Gal 6:17); and in the sense of labor, or wearisome toil, in Joh 4:38; 1Co 3:8; 1Co 15:58; 2Co 6:5; 2Co 10:15; 2Co 11:23, 2Co 11:27, et al. The connection here would admit of either sense. It is commonly understood, as in our translation, in the sense of labor, though it would seem that the other signification, that of trouble, would not be inappropriate. If it means labor, it refers to their faithful service in his cause, and especially in opposing error. It seems to me, however, that the word "trouble"would better suit the connection.

And thy patience - Under these trials; to wit, in relation to the efforts which had been made by the advocates of error to corrupt them, and to turn them away from the truth. They had patiently borne the opposition made to the truth, they had manifested a spirit of firm endurance amidst many arts of those opposed to them to draw them off from simple faith in Christ.

And how thou canst not bear them which are evil - Canst not "endure"or "tolerate"them. Compare the notes on 2Jo 1:10-11. That is, they had no sympathy with their doctrines or their practices, they were utterly opposed to them. They had lent them no countenance, but had in every way shown that they had no fellowship with them. The evil persons here referred to were, doubtless, those mentioned in this verse as claiming that "they were apostles,"and those mentioned in Rev 2:6 as the Nicolaitanes.

And thou hast tried them which say they are apostles - Thou hast thoroughly examined their claims. It is not said in what way they had done this, but it was probably by considering attentively and candidly the evidence on which they relied, whatever that may have been. Nor is it certainly known who these persons were, or on what grounds they advanced their pretensions to the apostolic office. It cannot be supposed that they claimed to have been of the number of apostles selected by the Saviour, for that would have been too absurd; and the only solution would seem to be that they claimed either:

(1)\caps1     t\caps0 hat they had been called to that office after the Saviour ascended, as Paul was; or,

(2)\caps1     t\caps0 hat they claimed the honor due to this name or office, in virtue of some election to it; or,

(3)\caps1     t\caps0 hat they claimed to be the successors of the apostles, and to possess and transmit their authority.

If the first of these, it would seem that the only ground of claim would be that they had been called in some miraculous way to the rank of apostles, and, of course, an examination of their claims would be an examination of the alleged miraculous call, and of the evidence on which they would rely that they had such a call. If the second, then the claim must have been founded on some such plea as that the apostolic office was designed to be elective, as in the case of Matthias Act 1:23-26, and that they maintained that this arrangement was to be continued in the church; and then an examination of their claims would involve an investigation of the question, whether it was contemplated that the apostolic office was designed to be perpetuated in that manner, or whether the election of Matthias was only a temporary arrangement, designed to answer a particular purpose. If the third, then the claim must have been founded on the plea that the apostolic office was designed to be perpetuated by a regular succession, and that they, by ordination, were in a line of that succession; and then the examination and refutation of the claim must have consisted in showing, from the nature of the office, and the necessary qualifications for the office of apostle, that it was designed to be temporary, and that there could be properly no successors of the apostles, as such. On either of these suppositions, such a line of argument would be fatal to all claims to any succession in the apostolic office now. If each of these points should fail, of course their claims to the rank of apostles would cease; just as all claims to the dignity and rank of the apostles must fail now. The passage becomes thus a strong argument against the claims of any persons to be "apostles,"or to be the "successors"of the apostles, in the uniqueness of their office.

And are not - There were never any apostles of Jesus Christ but the original twelve whom he chose, Matthias, who was chosen in the place of Judas Act 1:26, and Paul, who was specially called to the office by the Saviour after his resurrection. On this point, see my work on the Apostolic Church (pp. 49-57, London ed.).

And hast found them liars - Hast discovered their pretensions to be unfounded and false. In 2Co 11:13, "false apostles"are mentioned; and, in an office of so much honor as this, it is probable that there would be not a few claimants to it in the world. To set up a claim to what they knew they were not entitled to would be a falsehood, and as this seems to have been the character of these people, the Saviour, in the passage before us, does not hesitate to designate them by an appropriate term, and to call them liars. The point here commended in the Ephesian church is, that they had sought to have a "pure ministry,"a ministry whose claims were well founded. They had felt the importance of this, had carefully examined the claims of pretenders, and had refused to recognize those who could not show, in a proper manner, that they had been designated to their work by the Lord Jesus. The same zeal, in the same cause, would be commended by the Saviour now.

Barnes: Rev 2:3

And hast borne - Hast borne up under trials; or hast borne with the evils with which you have been assailed. That is, you have not given way to murmuring or complaints in trial, you have not abandoned the principles of truth and yielded to the prevalence of error.

And hast patience - That is, in this connection, hast shown that thou canst bear up under these things with patience. This is a repetition of what is said in Rev 2:2, but in a somewhat different connection. There it rather refers to the trouble which they had experienced on account of the pretensions of false apostles, and the patient, persevering, and enduring spirit which they had shown in that form of trial; here the expression is more general, denoting a patient spirit in regard to all forms of trial.

And for my name’ s sake hast laboured - On account of me, and in my cause. That is, the labor here referred to, whatever it was, was to advance the cause of the Redeemer. In the word rendered "hast labored"( κεκοπιακας kekopiakas ) there is a reference to the word used in the previous verse - "thy labor"( κόπον σου kopon sou ); and the design is to show that the "labor,"or trouble there referred to, was on account of him.

And hast not fainted - Hast not become exhausted, or wearied out, so as to give over. The word used here ( κάμνω kamnō ) occurs in only three places in the New Testament: "Lest ye be wearied, and faint,"Heb 12:3; "The prayer of faith shall save the sick,"Jam 5:15; and in the passage before us. It means properly to become weary and faint from toil, etc.; and the idea here is, that they had not become so wearied out as to give over from exhaustion. The sense of the whole passage is thus rendered by Prof. Stuart: "Thou canst not bear with false teachers, but thou canst bear with troubles and perplexities on account of me; thou hast undergone wearisome toil, but thou art not wearied out thereby."The state of mind, considered as the state of mind appropriate to a Christian, here represented, is, that we should not tolerate error and sin, but that we should bear up under the trials which they may incidentally occasion us; that we should have such a repugnance to evil that we cannot endure it, as evil, but that we should have such love to the Saviour and his cause as to be willing to bear anything, even in relation to that, or springing from that, that we may be called to suffer in that cause; that while we may be weary in his work, for our bodily strength may become exhausted (compare Mat 26:41), we should not be weary of it; and that though we may have many perplexities, and may meet with much opposition, yet we should not relax our zeal, but should persevere with an ardor that never faints, until our Saviour calls us to our reward.

Barnes: Rev 2:4

Nevertheless I have somewhat against thee - Notwithstanding this general commendation, there are things which I cannot approve.

Because thou hast left thy first love - Thou hast "remitted"( ἀφῆκας aphēkas ) or let down thy early love; that is, it is less glowing and ardent than it was at first. The love here referred to is evidently love to the Saviour; and the idea is, that, as a church, they had less of this than formerly characterized them. In this respect they were in a state of declension; and, though they still maintained the doctrines of his religion, and opposed the advocates of error, they showed less ardor of affection toward him directly than they had formerly done. In regard to this we may remark:

(1) That what is here stated of the church at Ephesus is not uncommon:

(a) Individual Christians often lose much of their first love. It is true, indeed, that there is often an appearance of this which does not exist in reality. Not a little of the ardor of young converts is often nothing more than the excitement of animal feeling, which will soon die away of course, though their real love may not be diminished, or may be constantly growing stronger. When a son returns home after a long absence, and meets his parents and brothers and sisters, there is a glow, a warmth of feeling, a joyousness of emotion, which cannot be expected to continue always, and which he may never be able to recall again, though he may be ever growing in real attachment to his friends and to his home.

(b) Churches remit the ardor of their first love. They are often formed under the reviving influences of the Holy Spirit when many are converted, and are warm-hearted and zealous young converts. Or they are formed from other churches that have become cold and dead, from which the new organization, embodying the life of the church, was constrained to separate. Or they are formed under the influence of some strong and mighty truth that has taken possession of the mind, and that gives a special character to the church at first. Or they are formed with a distinct reference to promoting some one great object in the cause of the Redeemer. So the early Christian churches were formed. So the church in Germany, France, Switzerland, and England came out from the Roman communion under the influence of the doctrine of justification by faith. So the Nestorians in former ages, and the Moravians in modern times, were characterized by warm zeal in the cause of missions.

So the Puritans came out from the established church of England at one time, and the Methodists at another, warmed with a holier love to the cause of evangelical religion than existed in the body from which they separated. So many a church is formed now amidst the exciting scenes of a revival of religion, and in the early days of its history puts to shame the older and the slumbering churches around them. But it need scarcely be said that this early zeal may die away, and that the church, once so full of life and love, may become as cold as those that went before it, or as those from which it separated, and that there may be a necessity for the formation of new organizations that shall be fired with ardor and zeal. One has only to look at Germany, at Switzerland, at various portions of the reformed churches elsewhere; at the Nestorians, whose zeal for missions long since departed; or even at the Moravians, among whom it has so much declined; at various portions of the Puritan churches, and at many an individual church formed under the warm and exciting feelings of a revival of religion, to see that what occurred at Ephesus may occur elsewhere.

\caps1 (2) t\caps0 he same thing that occurred there may be expected to follow in all similar cases. The Saviour governs the church always on essentially the same principles; and it is no uncommon thing that, when a church has lost the ardor of its first love, it is suffered more and more to decline, until "the candlestick is removed"- until either the church becomes wholly extinct, or until vital piety is wholly gone, and all that remains is the religion of forms.

Barnes: Rev 2:5

Remember therefore from whence thou art fallen - The eminence which you once occupied. Call to remembrance the state in which you once were. The duty here enjoined is, when religion has declined in our hearts, or in the church, to call to distinct recollection the former state - the ardor, the zeal, the warmth of love which once characterized us. The reason for this is, that such a recalling of the former state will be likely to produce a happy influence on the heart. Nothing is better adapted to affect a backsliding Christian, or a backsliding church, than to call to distinct recollection the former condition - the happier days of piety. The joy then experienced, the good done, the honor reflected on the cause of religion, the peace of mind of that period, will contrast strongly with the present, and nothing will be better suited to recall an erring church, or an erring individual, from their wanderings than such a reminiscence of the past. The advantages of thus "remembering"their former condition would be many; for some of the most valuable impressions which are made on the mind, and some of the most important lessons learned, are from the recollections of a former state. Among those advantages, in this case, would be such as the following:

(a)    It would show how much they might have enjoyed if they had continued as they began, how much more real happiness they would have had than they actually have enjoyed.

(b)    How much good they might have done, if they had only persevered in the zeal with which they commenced the Christian life. How much more good might most Christians do than they actually accomplish, if they would barely, even without increasing it, continue with the degree of zeal with which they begin their course.

©    How much greater attainments they might have made in the divine life, and in the knowledge of religion, than they have made; that is, how much more elevated and enlarged might have been their views of religion, and their knowledge of the Word of God. And,

(d)\caps1     s\caps0 uch a recollection of their past state as, contrasted with what they now are, would exert a powerful influence in producing true repentance; for there is nothing better adapted to do this than a just view of what we might have been, as compared with what we now are.

If a man has become cold toward his wife, nothing is better suited to reclaim him than to recall to his recollection the time when he led her to the altar, the solemn vow then made, and the rapture of his heart when he pressed her to his bosom and called her his own.

And repent - The word used here means "to change one’ s mind and purposes,"and, along with that, "to change one’ s conduct or demeanor."The duty of repentance here urged would extend to all the points in which they had erred.

And do the first works - The works which were done when the church was first established. That is, manifest the zeal and love which were formerly evinced in opposing error, and in doing good. This is the true counsel to be given to those who have backslidden, and have "left their first love,"now. Often such persons, sensible that they have erred, and that they have not the enjoyment in religion which they once had, profess to be willing and desirous to return, but they know not how to do it - how to revive their ardor, how to rekindle in their bosom the flame of extinguished love. They suppose it must be by silent meditation, or by some supernatural influence, and they wait for some visitation from above to call them back, and to restore to them their former joy. The counsel of the Saviour to all such, however, is to do their first works. It is to engage at once in doing what they did in the first and best days of their piety, the days of their "espousals"Jer 2:2 to God. Let them read the Bible as they did then; let them pray as they did then; let them go forth in the duties of active benevolence as they did then; let them engage in teaching a Sunday school as they did then; let them relieve the distressed, instruct the ignorant, raise up the fallen, as they did then; let them open their heart, their purse, and their hand, to bless a dying world. As it was in this way that they manifested their love then, so this would be better suited than all other things to rekindle the flame of love when it is almost extinguished. The weapon that is used keeps bright; that which has become rusty will become bright again if it is used.

Or else I will come unto thee quickly - On the word rendered "quickly"( τάχει tachei ), see the notes on Rev 1:1. The meaning is, that he would come as a Judge, at no distant period, to inflict punishment in the manner specified - by removing the candle-stick out of its place. He does not say in what way it would be done; whether by some sudden judgment, by a direct act of power, or by a gradual process that would certainly lead to that result.

And will remove thy candlestick out of his place, except thou repent - On the meaning of the word "candlestick"see the notes on Rev 1:12. The meaning is, that the church gave light in Ephesus; and that what he would do in regard to that place would be like removing a lamp, and leaving a place in darkness. The expression is equivalent to saying that the church there would cease to exist. The proper idea of the passage is, that the church would be wholly extinct; and it is observable that this is a judgment more distinctly disclosed in reference to this church than to any other of the seven churches. There is not the least evidence that the church at Ephesus did repent, and the threatening has been most signally fulfilled. Long since the church has become utterly extinct, and for ages there was not a single professing Christian there. Every memorial of there having been a church there has departed, and there are nowhere, not even in Nineveh, Babylon, or Tyre, more affecting demonstrations of the fulfillment of ancient prophecy than in the present state of the ruins of Ephesus. A remark of Mr. Gibbon (Decline and Fall, iv. 260) will show with what exactness the prediction in regard to this church has been accomplished.

He is speaking of the conquests of the Turks. "In the loss of Ephesus the Christians deplored the fall of the first angel, the extinction of the first candlestick of the Revelations; the desolation is complete; and the temple of Diana, or the Church of Mary will equally elude the search of the curious traveler."Thus, the city, with the splendid temple of Diana, and the church that existed there in the time of John, has disappeared, and nothing remains but unsightly ruins. These ruins lie about ten days’ journey from Smyrna, and consist of shattered walls, and remains of columns and temples. The soil on which a large part of the city is supposed to have stood, naturally rich, is covered with a rank, burnt-up vegetation, and is everywhere deserted and solitary, though bordered by picturesque mountains. A few grainfields are scattered along the site of the ancient city. Toward the sea extends the ancient port, a pestilential marsh.

Along the slope of the mountain, and over the plain, are scattered fragments of masonry and detached ruins, but no thing can now be fixed on as the great temple of Diana. There are ruins of a theater; there is a circus, or stadium, nearly entire; there are fragments of temples and palaces scattered around; but there is nothing that marks the site of a church in the time of John; there is nothing to indicate even that such a church then existed there. About a mile and a half from the principal ruins of Ephesus there is indeed now a small village called Asalook, a Turkish word, which is associated with the same idea as Ephesus, meaning, The City of the Moon. A church, dedicated to John, is supposed to have stood near, if not on the site of the present mosque. Dr. Chandler (p. 150, 4to) gives us a striking description of Ephesus as he found it in 1764: "Its population consisted of a few Greek peasants, living in extreme wretchedness, dependence, and insensibility, the representatives of an illustrious people, and inhabiting the wreck of their greatness. Some reside in the substructure of the glorious edifices which they raised; some beneath the vaults of the stadium, and the crowded scenes of these diversions; and some in the abrupt precipice, in the sepulchres which received their ashes. Its streets are obscured and overgrown. A herd of goats was driven to it for shelter from the sun at noon, and a noisy flight of crows from the quarries seemed to insult its silence. We heard the partridge call in the area of the theater and of the stadium ... Its fate is that of the entire country; a garden has become a desert. Busy centers of civilization, spots where the refinements and delights of the age were collected, are now a prey to silence, destruction, and death.

Consecrated first of all to the purposes of idolatry, Ephesus next had Christian temples almost rivaling the pagan in splendor, wherein the image of the great Diana lay prostrate before the cross; after the lapse of some centuries Jesus gives way to Muhammed, and the crescent glittered on the dome of the recently Christian church. A few more scores of years, and Ephesus has neither temple, cross, crescent, nor city, but is desolation, a dry land, and a wilderness."See the article"Ephesus"in Kitto’ s Cyclopedia, and the authorities there referred to. What is affirmed here of Ephesus has often been illustrated in the history of the world, that when a church has declined in piety and love, and has been called by faithful ministers to repent, and has not done it, it has been abandoned more and more, until the last appearance of truth and piety has departed, and it has been given up to error and to ruin.

And the same principle is as applicable to individuals, for they have as much reason to dread the frowns of the Saviour as churches have. If they who have "left their first love"will not repent at the call of the Saviour, they have every reason to apprehend some fearful judgment, some awful visitation of his Providence that shall overwhelm them in sorrow, as a proof of his displeasure. Even though they should finally be saved, their days may be without comfort, and perhaps their last moments without a ray of conscious hope. The accompanying engraving, representing the present situation of Ephesus, will bring before the eye a striking illustration of the fulfillment of this prophecy, that the candlestick of Ephesus would be removed from its place. See also the engravings prefixed to the notes on the Epistle to the Ephesians.

Barnes: Rev 2:6

But this thou hast - This thou hast that I approve of, or that I can commend.

That thou hatest the deeds of the Nicolaitans - Greek, "works"( τὰ ἔργα ta erga ). The word "Nicolaitanes"occurs only in this place, and in the Rev 2:15 verse of this chapter. From the reference in the latter place it is clear that the doctrines which they held prevailed at Pergamos as well as at Ephesus; but from neither place can anything now be inferred in regard to the nature of their doctrines or their practices, unless it be supposed that they held the same doctrine that was taught by Balaam. See the notes on Rev 2:15. From the two passages, compared with each other, it would seem that they were alike corrupt in doctrine and in practice, for in the passage before us their deeds are mentioned, and in Rev 2:15 their doctrine. Various conjectures, however, have been formed respecting this class of people, and the reasons why the name was given to them:

I. In regard to the origin of the name, there have been three opinions:

(1) That mentioned by Irenaeus, and by some of the other fathers, that the name was derived from Nicolas, one of the deacons ordained at Antioch, Act 6:5. Of those who have held this opinion, some have supposed that it was given to them because he became apostate and was the founder of the sect, and others because they assumed his name, in order to give the greater credit to their doctrine. But neither of these suppositions rests on any certain evidence, and beth are destitute of probability. There is no proof whatever that Nicolas the deacon ever apostatized from the faith, and became the founder of a sect; and if a name had been assumed, in order to give credit to a sect and extend its influence, it is much more probable that the name of an apostle would have been chosen, or of some other prominent man, than the name of an obscure deacon of Antioch.

(2) Vitringa, and most commentators since his time, have supposed that the name Nicolaitanes was intended to be symbolical, and was not designed to designate any sect of people, but to denote those who resembled Balaam, and that this word is used in the same manner as the word "Jezebel"in Rev 2:20, which is supposed to be symbolical there. Vitringa supposes that the word is derived from νίκος nikos , "victory,"and λαός laos , "people,"and that thus it corresponds with the name Balaam, as meaning either בּצל צם bàal ̀am , "lord of the people,"or בּלץ צם baalà ̀am , "he destroyed the people"; and that, as the same effect was produced by their doctrines as by those of Balaam, that the people were led to commit fornication and to join in idolatrous worship, they might be called "Balaamites"or "Nicolaitanes,"that is, corrupters of the people. But to this it may be replied:

(a)\caps1     t\caps0 hat it is far-fetched, and is adopted only to remove a difficulty;

(b)\caps1     t\caps0 hat there is every reason to suppose that the word used here refers to a class of people who bore that name, and who were well known in the two churches specified;

©\caps1     t\caps0 hat in Rev 2:15 they are expressly distinguished from those who held the doctrine of Balaam, Rev 2:14, "So hast thou also ( καὶ kai ) those that hold the doctrine of the Nicolaitanes."

\caps1 (3) i\caps0 t has been supposed that some person now unknown, probably of the name Nicolas, or Nicolaus, was their leader, and laid the foundation of the sect. This is by far the most probable opinion, and to this there can be no objection. It is in accordance with what usually occurs in regard to sects, orthodox or heretical, that they derive their origin from some person whose name they continue to bear; and as there is no evidence that this sect prevailed extensively, or was indeed known beyond the limits of these churches, and as it soon disappeared, it is easily accounted for that the character and history of the founder were so soon forgotten.

II. In regard to the opinions which they held, there is as little certainty. Irenaeus (Adv. Haeres. i., 26) says that their characteristic tenets were the lawfulness of promiscuous sexual intercourse with women, and of eating things offered to idols. Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. iii., 29) states substantially the same thing, and refers to a tradition respecting Nicolaus, that he had a beautiful wife, and was jealous of her, and being reproached with this, renounced all intercourse with her, and made use of an expression which was misunderstood, as implying that illicit pleasure was proper. Tertullian speaks of the Nicolaitanes as a branch of the Gnostic family, and as, in his time, extinct. Mosheim (De Rebus Christian Ante. Con. section 69) says that "the questions about the Nicolaitanes have difficulties which cannot be solved."Neander (History of the Christian Religion, as translated by Torrey, vol. i, pp. 452, 453) numbers them with Antinomians; though he expresses some doubt whether the actual existence of such a sect can be proved, and rather inclines to an opinion noticed above, that the name is symbolical, and that it is used in a mystical sense, according to the usual style of the Book of Revelation, to denote corrupters or seducers of the people, like Balaam. He supposes that the passage relates simply to a class of persons who were in the practice of seducing Christians to participate in the sacrificial feasts of the pagans, and in the excesses which attended them - just as the Jews were led astray of old by the Moabites, Num. 25.

What was the origin of the name, however, Neander does not profess to be able to determine, but suggests that it was the custom of such sects to attach themselves to some celebrated name of antiquity, in the choice of which they were often determined by circumstances quite accidental. He supposes also that the sect may have possessed a life of Nicolas of Antioch, drawn up by themselves or others from fabulous accounts and traditions, in which what had been imputed to Nicolas was embodied. Everything, however, in regard to the origin of this sect, and the reason of the name given to it, and the opinions which they held, is involved in great obscurity, and there is no hope of throwing light on the subject. It is generally agreed, among the writers of antiquity who have mentioned them, that they were distinguished for holding opinions which countenanced gross social indulgences. This is all that is really necessary to be known in regard to the passage before us, for this will explain the strong language of aversion and condemnation used by the Saviour respecting the sect in the epistles to the Churches of Ephesus and Pergamos.

Which I also hate - If the view above taken of the opinions and practices of this people is correct, the reasons why he hated them are obvious. Nothing can be more opposed to the personal character of the Saviour, or to his religion, than such doctrines and deeds.

Barnes: Rev 2:7

He that hath an ear, let him hear ... - This expression occurs at the close of each of the epistles addressed to the seven churches, and is substantially a mode of address often employed by the Saviour in his personal ministry, and quite characteristic of him. See Mat 11:15; Mar 4:23; Mar 7:16. It is a form of expression designed to arrest the attention, and to denote that what was said was of special importance.

What the Spirit saith unto the churches - Evidently what the Holy Spirit says - for he is regarded in the Scriptures as the Source of inspiration, and as appointed to disclose truth to man. The "Spirit"may be regarded either as speaking through the Saviour (compare Joh 3:34), or as imparted to John, through whom he addressed the churches. In either case it is the same Spirit of inspiration, and in either case there would be a claim that his voice should be heard. The language used here is of a general character - "He that hath an ear"; that is, what was spoken was worthy of the attention not only of the members of these churches, but of all others. The truths were of so general a character as to deserve the attention of mankind at large.

To him that overcometh - Greek, "To him that gains the victory, or is a conqueror"- τῷ νικῶντι tō nikōnti . This may refer to any victory of a moral character, and the expression used would be applicable to one who should triumph in any of these respects:

(a)\caps1     o\caps0 ver his own easily-besetting sins;

(b)\caps1     o\caps0 ver the world and its temptations;

©\caps1     o\caps0 ver prevalent error;

(d)\caps1     o\caps0 ver the ills and trials of life, so as, in all these respects, to show that his Christian principles are firm and unshaken.

Life, and the Christian life especially, may be regarded as a warfare. Thousands fall in the conflict with evil; but they who maintain a steady warfare, and who achieve a victory, shall be received as conquerors in the end.

Will I give to eat of the tree of life - As the reward of his victory. The meaning is, that he would admit him to heaven, represented as paradise, and permit him to enjoy its pleasures - represented by being permitted to partake of its fruits. The phrase "the tree of life"refers undoubtedly to the language used respecting the Garden of Eden, Gen 2:9; Gen 3:22 - where the "tree of life"is spoken of as what was adapted to make the life of man perpetual. Of the nature of that tree nothing is known, though it would seem probable that, like the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, it was a mere emblem of life - or a tree that was set before man in connection with the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, and that his destiny turned on the question whether he partook of the one or the other. That God should make the question of life or death depend on that, is no more absurd or improbable than that he should make it depend on what man does now - it being a matter of fact that life and death, happiness and misery, joy and sorrow, are often made to depend on things quite as arbitrary apparently, and quite as unimportant as an act of obedience or disobedience in partaking of the fruit of a designated tree.

Does it not appear probable that in Eden there were two trees designated to be of an emblematic character, of life and death, and that as man partook of the one or the other he would live or die? Of all the others he might freely partake without their affecting his condition; of one of these - the tree of life - he might have partaken before the fall, and lived forever. One was forbidden on pain of death. When the law forbidding that was violated, it was I still possible that he might partake of the other; but, since the sentence of death had been passed upon him, that would not now be proper, and he was driven from the garden, and the way was guarded by the flaming sword of the cherubim. The reference in the passage before us is to the celestial paradise - to heaven - spoken of under the beautiful image of a garden; meaning that the condition of man, in regard to life, will still be the same as if he had partaken of the tree of life in Eden. Compare the notes on Rev 22:2.

Which is in the midst of the paradise of God - Heaven, represented as paradise. To be permitted to eat of that tree, that is, of the fruit of that tree, is but another expression implying the promise of eternal life, and of being happy forever. The word "paradise"is of Oriental derivation, and is found in several of the Eastern languages. In the Sanskrit the word "paradesha"and "paradisha"is used to denote a land elevated and cultivated; in the Armenian the word "pardes"denotes a garden around the house planted with grass, herbs, trees for use and ornament; and in the Hebrew form פרדס pardēc , and Greek παράδεισος paradeisos , it is applied to the pleasure gardens and parks, with wild animals, around the country residences of the Persian monarchs and princes, Neh 2:8. Compare Ecc 2:5; Ca. Ecc 4:13; Xen. Cyro. i. 3, 14 (Robinson’ s Lexicon). Here it is used to denote heaven - a world compared in beauty with a richly cultivated park or garden. Compare 2Co 12:4. The meaning of the Saviour is, that he would receive him that overcame to a world of happiness; that he would permit him to taste of the fruit that grows there, imparting immortal life, and to rest in an abode suited up in a manner that would contribute in every way to enjoyment. Man, when he fell, was not permitted to reach forth his hand and pluck of the fruit of the tree of life in the first Eden, as he might have done if he had not fallen; but he is now permitted to reach forth his hand and partake of the tree of life in the paradise above. He is thus restored to what he might have been if he had not transgressed by eating of the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil; and in the Paradise Regained, the blessings of the Paradise Lost will be more than recovered - for man may now live forever in a far higher and more blessed state than his would have been in Eden.

The Epistle to the Church at Smyrna

The contents of the epistle to the church at Smyrna are these:

(1) A statement, as in the address to the church at Ephesus, of some of the attributes of the Saviour, Rev 2:8. The attributes here referred to are, that he was "the first and the last,"that "he had been dead, but was alive"- attributes suited to impress the mind deeply with reverence for him who addressed them, and to comfort them in the trials which they endured.

\caps1 (2) a\caps0 statement Rev 2:9, as in the former epistle, that he well knew their works and all that pertained to them - their tribulation, their poverty, and the opposition which they met with from wicked people.

\caps1 (3) a\caps0 n exhortation not to be afraid of any of those things that were to come upon them, for, although they were to be persecuted, and some of them were to be imprisoned, yet, if they were faithful, they should have a crown of life, Rev 2:10.

\caps1 (4) a\caps0 command to hear what the Spirit said to the churches, as containing matter of interest to all persons, with an assurance that any who would "overcome"in these trials would not be hurt by the second death, Rev 2:11. The language addressed to the church of Smyrna is throughout that of commiseration and comfort. There is no intimation that the Saviour disapproved of what they had done; there is no threat that he would remove the candle-stick out of its place. Smyrna was a celebrated commercial town of Ionia (Ptolem. v. 2), situated near the bottom of that gulf of the Aegean Sea which received its name from it (Mela, Rev 1:17, Rev 1:3), at the mouth of the small river Meles, 320 stadia, or about forty miles north of Ephesus (Strabo, 15, p. 632). It was a very ancient city; but having been destroyed by the Lydians, it lay waste four hundred years to the time of Alexander the Great, or, according to Strabo, to that of Antigonus. It was rebuilt at the distance of twenty stadia from the ancient city, and in the time of the first Roman emperor it was one of the most flourishing cities of Asia. It was destroyed by an earthquake, 177 a.d., but the emperor Marcus Aurelius caused it to be rebuilt with more than its former splendor.

It afterward, however, suffered greatly from earthquakes and conflagrations, and has declined from these causes, though, from its commercial advantages, it has always been a city of importance as the central emporium of the Levantine trade, and its relative rank among the cities of Asia Minor is probably greater than it formerly bore. The engraving in this vol. will give a representation of Smyrna. The Turks now call it Izmir. It is better built than Constantinople, and its population is computed at about 130,000, of which the Franks compose a greater proportion than in any other town in Turkey, and they are generally in good circumstances. Next to the Turks, the Greeks form the most numerous portion of the inhabitants, and they have a bishop and two churches. The unusually large portion of Christians in the city renders it especially unclean in the eyes of strict Moslems, and they call it Giaour Izmir, or the Infidel Smyrna. There are in it about 20,000 Greeks, 8,000 Armenians, 1,000 Europeans, and 9,000 Jews. It is now the seat of important missionary operations in the East, and much has been done there to spread the gospel in modern times.

Its history during the long tract of time since John wrote is not indeed minutely known, but there is no reason to suppose that the light of Christianity there has ever been wholly extinct. Polycarp suffered martyrdom there, and the place where he is supposed to have died is still shown. The Christians of Smyrna hold his memory in great veneration, and go annually on a visit to his supposed tomb, which is at a short distance from the place of his martyrdom. See the article "Smyrna"in Kitto’ s Cyclopedia, and the authorities referred to there.

Barnes: Rev 2:8

And unto the angel of the church in Smyrna write - On the meaning of the word "angel,"see the notes on Rev 1:20.

These things saith the first and the last - See the notes on Rev 1:8, Rev 1:17.

Which was dead, and is alive - See the notes on Rev 1:18. The idea is, that he is a Living Saviour; and there was a propriety in referring to that fact here from the nature of the promise which he was about to make to the church at Smyrna: "He that overcometh shall not be hurt of the second death,"Rev 2:11. As he had himself triumphed over death in all its forms, and was now alive forever, it was appropriate that he should promise to his true friends the same protection from the second death. He who was wholly beyond the reach of death could give the assurance that they who put their trust in him should come off victorious.

Barnes: Rev 2:9

I know thy works - The uniform method of introducing these epistles, implying a most intimate acquaintance with all that pertained to the church. See the notes on Rev 2:2.

And tribulation - This word is of a general signification, and probably includes all that they suffered in any form, whether from persecution, poverty, or the blasphemy of opposers.

And poverty - It would seem that this church, at that time, was eminently poor, for this is not specified in regard to any one of the others. No reason is suggested why they were particularly poor. It was not, indeed, an uncommon characteristic of early Christians (compare 1Co 1:26-28), but there might have Been some special reasons why that church was eminently so. It is, however, the only church of the seven which has survived, and perhaps in the end its poverty was no disadvantage.

But thou art rich - Not in this world’ s goods, but in a more important respect - in the grace and favor of God. These things are not infrequently united. Poverty is no hindrance to the favor of God, and there are some things in it which are favorable to the promotion of a right spirit toward God which are not found where there is abundant wealth. The Saviour was eminently poor, and not a few of his most devoted and useful followers have had as little of this world’ s goods as he had. The poor should always be cheerful and happy, if they can hear their Saviour saying unto them, "I know thy poverty - but thou art rich."However keen the feeling arising from the reflection "I am a poor man,"the edge of the sorrow is taken off if the mind can be turned to a brighter image - "but thou art rich."

And I know the blasphemy - The reproaches; the harsh and bitter revilings. On the word "blasphemy,"see the notes on Mat 9:3; Mat 26:65. The word here does not seem to refer to blasphemy against God, but to bitter reproaches against themselves. The reason of these reproaches is not stated, but it was doubtless on account of their religion.

Of them which say they are Jews - Who profess to be Jews. The idea seems to be that though they were of Jewish extraction, and professed to be Jews, they were not true Jews; they indulged in a bitterness of reproach, and a severity of language, which showed that they had not the spirit of the Jewish religion; they had nothing which became those who were under the guidance of the spirit of their own Scriptures. That would have inculcated and fostered a milder temper; and the meaning here is, that although they were of Jewish origin, they were not worthy of the name. That spirit of bitter opposition was indeed often manifested in their treatment of Christians, as it had been of the Saviour, but still it was foreign to the true nature of their religion. There were Jews in all parts of Asia Minor, and the apostles often encountered them in their journeyings, but it would seem that there was something which had particularly embittered those of Smyrna against Christianity. What this was is now unknown.

It may throw some light on the passage, however, to remark that at a somewhat later period - in the time of the martyrdom of Polycarp - the Jews of Smyrna were among the most bitter of the enemies of Christians, and among the most violent in demanding the death of Polycarp. Eusebius (Eccl. Hist. 4:15) says,. that when Polycarp was apprehended, and brought before the proconsul at Smyrna, the Jews were the most furious of all in demanding his condemnation. When the mob, after his condemnation to death, set about gathering fuel to burn him, "the Jews,"says he, "being especially zealous, as was their custom - μάλιστα προθύμως, ὡς ἔθος αὐτοῖς malista prothumōs , hōs ethos autois - ran to procure fuel."And when, as the burning failed, the martyr was transfixed with weapons, the Jews urged and besought the magistrate that his body might not be given up to Christians. Possibly at the time when this epistle was directed to be sent to Smyrna, there were Jews there who manifested the same spirit which those of their countrymen did afterward, who urged on the death of Polycarp.

But are the synagogue of Satan - Deserve rather to be called the synagogue of Satan. The synagogue was a Jewish place of worship (compare the notes on Mat 4:23), but the word originally denoted "the assembly"or "the congregation."The meaning here is plain, that though they worshipped in a synagogue, and professed to be the worshippers of God, yet they were not worthy of the name, and deserved rather to be regarded as in the service of Satan. "Satan"is the word that is properly applied to the great evil spirit, elsewhere called the devil. See the Luk 22:3 note, and Job 1:6 note.

Barnes: Rev 2:10

Fear none of those things which thou shalt suffer - He did not promise them exemption from suffering. He saw that they were about to suffer, and he specifies the manner in which their affliction would occur. But he entreats and commands them not to be afraid. They were to look to the "crown of life,"and to be comforted with the assurance that if they were faithful unto death, that would be, theirs. We need not dread suffering if we can hear the voice of the Redeemer encouraging us, and if he assures us that in a little while we shall have the crown of life.

Behold, the devil shall cast some of you into prison - Or, shall cause some of you to be cast into prison. He had just said that their persecutors were of the "synagogue of Satan."He here represents Satan, or the devil - another name of the same being - as about to throw them into prison. This would be done undoubtedly by the hands of men, but still Satan was the prime mover, or the instigator in doing it. It was common to cast those who were persecuted into prison. See Act 12:3-4; Act 16:23. It is not said on what pretence, or by what authority, this would be done; but, as John had been banished to Patmos from Ephesus, it is probable that this persecution was raging in the adjacent places, and there is no improbability in supposing that many might be thrown into prison.

That ye may be tried - That the reality of your faith may be subjected to a test to show whether it is genuine. The design in the case is that of the Saviour, though Satan is allowed to do it. It was common in the early periods of the church to suffer religion to be subjected to trial amidst persecutions, in order to show that it was of heavenly origin, and to demonstrate its value in view of the world. This is, indeed, one of the designs of trial at all times, but this seemed eminently desirable when a new system of religion was about to be given to mankind. Compare the notes on 1Pe 1:6-7.

And ye shall have tribulation ten days - A short time; a brief period; a few days. It is possible, indeed, that this might have been literally ten days, but it is much more in accordance with the general character of this book, in regard to numbers, to suppose that the word "ten"here is used to denote a few. Compare Gen 24:55; 1Sa 25:38; Dan 1:12, Dan 1:14. We are wholly ignorant how long the trial actually lasted; but the assurance was that it would not be long, and they were to allow this thought to cheer and sustain them in their sorrows. Why should not the same thought encourage us now? Affliction in this life, however severe, can be but brief; and in the hope that it will soon end, why should we not bear it without complaining or repining?

Be thou faithful unto death - Implying, perhaps, that though, in regard to the church, the affliction would be brief, yet that it might be fatal to some of them, and they who were thus about to die should remain faithful to their Saviour until the hour of death. In relation to all, whether they were to suffer a violent death or not, the same injunction and the same promise was applicable. It is true of everyone who is a Christian, in whatever manner he is to die, that if he is faithful unto death, a crown of life awaits him. Compare the notes on 2Ti 4:8.

And I will give thee a crown of life - See the notes on Jam 1:12. Compare 1Pe 5:4; 1Co 9:24-27. The promise here is somewhat different from what was made to the faithful in Ephesus Rev 2:7, but the same thing substantially is promised them - happiness hereafter, or an admission into heaven. In the former case it is the peaceful image of those admitted into the scenes of paradise; here it is the triumph of the crowned martyr.

Barnes: Rev 2:11

He that hath an ear ... - See the notes on Rev 2:7.

He that overcometh - See the notes on Rev 2:7. The particular promise here is made to him that should "overcome"; that is, that would gain the victory in the persecutions which were to come upon them. The reference is to him who would show the sustaining power of religion in times of persecution; who would not yield his principles when opposed and persecuted; who would be triumphant when so many efforts were made to induce him to apostatize and abandon the cause.

Shall not be hurt of the second death - By a second death. That is, he will have nothing to fear in the future world. The punishment of hell is often called death, not in the sense that the soul will cease to exist, but:

(a)\caps1     b\caps0 ecause death is the most fearful thing of which we have any knowledge, and

(b)\caps1     b\caps0 ecause there is a striking similarity, in many respects, between death and future punishment.

Death cuts off from life - and so the second death cuts off from eternal life; death puts an end to all our hopes here, and the second death to all our hopes forever; death is attended with terrors and alarms - the faint and feeble emblem of the terrors and alarms in the world of woe. The phrase, "the second death,"is three times used elsewhere by John in this book Rev 20:6, Rev 20:14; Rev 21:8, but does not occur elsewhere in the New Testament. The words "death"and "to die,"however, are not infrequently used to denote the future punishment of the wicked.

The promise here made would be all that was necessary to sustain them in their trials. Nothing more is requisite to make the burdens of life tolerable than an assurance that, when we reach the end of our earthly journey, we have arrived at the close of suffering, and that beyond the grave there is no power that can harm us. Religion, indeed, does not promise to its friends exemption from death in one form. To none of the race has such a promise ever been made, and to but two has the favor been granted to pass to heaven without tasting death. It could have been granted to all the redeemed, but there were good reasons why it should not be; that is, why it would be better that even they who are to dwell in heaven should return to the dust, and sleep in the tomb, than that they should be removed by perpetual miracle, translating them to heaven. Religion, therefore, does not come to us with any promise that we shall not die. But it comes with the assurance that we shall be sustained in the dying hour; that the Redeemer will accompany us through the dark valley; that death to us will be a calm and quiet slumber, in the hope of awakening in the morning of the resurrection; that we shall be raised up again with bodies incorruptible and undecaying; and that beyond the grave we shall never fear death in any form. What more is needful to enable us to bear with patience the trials of this life, and to look upon death when it does come, disarmed as it is of its sting 1Co 15:55-57, with calmness and peace?

The Epistle to the Church at Pergamos

The contents of the epistle Rev 2:12-17 are as follows:

(1)    A reference, as is usual in these epistles, to some attribute of Him who addressed them, suited to inspire respect, and adapted to a state of things existing in the church, Rev 2:12. That to which the Saviour here directs their attention is, that he has "the sharp sword with two edges"- implying Rev 2:16 that he had the power of punishing.

(2)\caps1     a\caps0 statement, in the usual form, that he was thoroughly acquainted with the state of the church; that he saw all their difficulties; all that there was to commend, and all that there was to reprove, Rev 2:13.

(3)\caps1     a\caps0 commendation to the church for its fidelity, especially in a time of severe persecution, when one of her faithful friends was slain, Rev 2:13.

(4)    A reproof of the church for tolerating some who held false and pernicious doctrines - doctrines such as were taught by Balaam, and the doctrines of the Nicolaitanes, Rev 2:14-15.

(5)\caps1     a\caps0 solemn threat that, unless they repented, he would come against them, and inflict summary punishment on them, Rev 2:16.

(6)\caps1     t\caps0 he usual call upon all to hear what the Spirit says to the churches, and a promise to those who should overcome, Rev 2:17.

Pergamos was a city in the southern part of Mysia, the capital of a kingdom of that name, and afterward of the Roman province of Asia Propria. It was on the bank of the river Caicus, which is formed by the union of two branches meeting thirty or forty miles above its mouth, and watering a valley not exceeded in beauty and fertility by any in the world. The city of Pergamos stood about twenty miles from the sea. It was on the northern bank of the river, at the base and on the declivity of two high and steep mountains. About two centuries before the Christian era, Pergamos became the residence of the celebrated kings of the family of Attals, and a seat of literature and the arts. King Eumenes, the second of the name, greatly beautified the town, and so increased the number of volumes in the library that they amounted to 200,000. This library remained at Pergamos after the kingdom of the Artali had lost its independence, until Antony removed it to Egypt, and presented it to Queen Cleopatra (Pliny, Hist. Nat. 3:2). It is an old tradition, that, as the papyrus plant had not begun to be exported from Egypt (Kitto), or as Ptolemy refused to sell it to Eumenes (Prof. Stuart), sheep and goat skins, prepared for the purpose, were used for manuscripts; and as the art of preparing them was brought to perfection at Pergamos, they, from that circumstance, obtained the name of "pergamena"( περγαμηνή pergamēnē ) or "parchment."

The last king of Pergamos bequeathed his treasures to the Romans, who took possession of the kingdom also, and created it into a province by the name of Asia Propria. Under the Romans, it retained that authority over the cities of Asia which it had acquired under the successors of Attalus. The present name of the place is Bergamos, and it is of considerable importance, containing a population of about 14,000, of whom about 3000 are Greeks, 300 Armenians, and the rest Turks. Macfarlane describes the approach to the town as very beautiful: "The approach to this ancient and decayed city was as impressive as well might be. After crossing the Caicus, I saw, looking over three vast tumuli, or sepulchral barrows, similar to those on the plains of Troy, the Turkish city of Pergamos, with its tall minarets, and its taller cypresses, situated on the lower declivities and at the foot of the Acropolis, whose bold gray brow was crowned by the rugged walls of a barbarous castle, the usurper of the site of a magnificent Greek temple. The town consists, for the most part, of small and mean wooden houses, among which appear the remains of early Christian churches. None of these churches have any scriptural or apocalyptic interest connected with them, having been erected several centuries after the ministry of the apostles, and when Christianity was not an humble and despised creed, but the adopted religion of a vast empire.

The pagan temples have fared worse than these Christian churches. The fanes of Jupiter and Diana, of Aesculapius and Venus, are prostrate in the dust; and where they have not been carried away by the Turks, to be cut up into tombstones or to pound into mortar, the Corinthian and Ionic columns, the splendid capitals, the cornices and the pediments, all in the highest ornament, are thrown into unsightly heaps"("Visit to the Seven Apocalyptic Churches,"1832. Compare "Missionary Herald"for 1839, pp. 228-230). The engraving represents the ruins of one of the ancient churches in Pergamos.

Barnes: Rev 2:12

And to the angel of the church in Pergamos - See the notes on Rev 1:20.

These things saith he which hath the sharp sword, ... - See the notes on Rev 1:16. Compare Heb 4:12; Ecc 12:11; Isa 49:2. Prof. Stuart suggests that when the Saviour, as represented in the vision, "uttered words, as they proceeded from his mouth, the halitus which accompanied them assumed, in the view of John, the form of an igneous two-edged sword."It is more probable, however, that the words which proceeded from his mouth did not assume anything like a form or substance, but John means to represent them as if they were a sharp sword. His words cut and penetrate deep, and it was easy to picture him as having a sword proceeding from his mouth; that is, his words were as piercing as a sharp sword. As he was about to reprove the church at Pergamos, there was a propriety in referring to this power of the Saviour. Reproof cuts deep; and this is the idea represented here.

Barnes: Rev 2:13

I know thy works - The uniform mode of addressing the seven churches in these epistles. See the notes on Rev 2:2.

And where thou dwellest - That is, I know all the temptations to which you are exposed; all the allurements to sin by which you are surrounded; all the apologies which might be made for what has occurred arising from those circumstances; and all that could be said in commendation of you for having been as faithful as you have been. The sense of the passage is, that it does much to enable us to judge of character to know where people live. It is much more easy to be virtuous and pious in some circumstances than in others; and in order to determine how much credit is due to a man for his virtues, it is necessary to understand how much he has been called to resist, how many temptations he has encountered, what easily-besetting sins he may have, or what allurements may have been presented to his mind to draw him from the path of virtue and religion. In like manner, in order to judge correctly of those who have embraced error, or have been led into sin, it is necessary to understand what there may have been in their circumstances that gave to error what was plausible, and to sin what was attractive; what there was in their situation in life that exposed them to these influences, and what arguments may have been employed by the learned, the talented, and the plausible advocates of error, to lead them astray. We often judge harshly where the Saviour would be far less severe in his judgments; we often commend much where in fact there has been little to commend. It is possible to conceive that in the strugglings against evil of those who have ultimately fallen, there may be more to commend than in cases where the path of virtue has been pursued as the mere result of circumstances, and where there never has been a conflict with temptation. The adjudications of the great day will do much to reverse the judgments of mankind.

Even where Satan’ s seat is - A place of special wickedness, as if Satan dwelt there. Satan is, as it were, enthroned there. The influence of Satan in producing persecution is what is particularly alluded to, as is apparent from the reference which is immediately made to the case of Antipas, the "faithful martyr."

And thou holdest fast my name - They had professed the name of Christ; that is, they had professed to be his followers, and they had steadfastly adhered to him and his cause in all the opposition made to him. The name Cristian, given in honor of Christ, and indicating that they were his disciples, they had not been ashamed of or denied. It was this name that subjected the early Christians to reproach. See 1Pe 4:14.

And hast not denied my faith - That is, hast not denied my religion. The great essential element in the Christian religion is faith, and this, since it is so important, is often put for the whole of religion.

Even in those days wherein Antipas was my faithful martyr - Of Antipas we know nothing more than is here stated. "In the Acta Sanctorum (2, pp. 3, 4) is a martyrology of Antipas from a Greek ms.; but it is full of fable and fiction, which a later age had added to the original story"(Prof. Stuart, in loco).

Who was slain among you - It would seem from this that, though the persecution had raged there, but one person had been put to death. It would appear also that the persecution was of a local character, since Pergamos is described as "Satan’ s seat"; and the death of Antipas is mentioned in immediate connection with that fact. All the circumstances referred to would lead us to suppose that this was a popular outbreak, and not a persecution carried on under the authority of government, and that Antipas was put to death in a popular excitement. So Stephen Acts 7 was put to death, and so Paul at Lystra was stoned until it was supposed he was dead, Act 14:19.

Where Satan dwelleth - The repetition of this idea - very much in the manner of John - showed how intensely the mind was fixed on the thought, and how much alive the feelings were to the malice of Satan as exhibited at Pergamos.

Barnes: Rev 2:14

But I have a few things against thee - As against the church at Ephesus, Rev 2:4. The charge against this church, however, is somewhat different from that against the church at Ephesus. The charge there was, that they had "left their first love"; but it is spoken in commendation of them that they "hated the deeds of the Nicolaitanes,"Rev 2:6. Here the charge is, that they tolerated that sect among them, and that they had among them also those who held the doctrine of Balaam. Their general course had been such that the Saviour could approve it; he did not approve, however, of their tolerating those who held to pernicious practical error - error that tended to sap the very foundation of morals.

Because thou hast there them that hold the doctrine of Balaam - It is not necessary to suppose that they professedly held to the same opinion as Balaam, or openly taught the same doctrines. The meaning is, that they taught substantially the same doctrine which Balaam did, and deserved to be classed with him. What that doctrine was is stated in the subsequent part of the verse.

Who taught Balac to cast a stumbling-block before the children of Israel - The word "stumbling-block"properly means anything over which one falls or stumbles, and then anything over which anyone may fall into sin, or which becomes the occasion of one’ s falling into sin. The meaning here is, that it was through the instructions of Balaam that Balak learned the way by which the Israelites might be led into sin, and might thus bring upon themselves the divine malediction. The main circumstances in the case were these:

(1) Balak, king of Moab, when the children of Israel approached his borders, felt that he could not contend successfully against so great a host, for his people were dispirited and disheartened at their numbers, Num 22:3-4.

\caps1 (2) i\caps0 n these circumstances he resolved to send for one who had a distinguished reputation as a prophet, that he might "curse"that people, or might utter a malediction over them, in order, at the same time, to ensure their destruction, and to inspirit his own people in making war on them: in accordance with a prevalent opinion of ancient times, that prophets had the power of blighting anything by their curse. Compare the notes on Job 3:8. For this purpose he sent messengers to Balaam to invite him to come and perform this service, Num 22:5-6.

(3) Balaam professed to be a prophet of the Lord, and it was obviously proper that he should inquire of the Lord whether he should comply with this request. He did so, and was positively forbidden to go, Num 22:12.

\caps1 (4) w\caps0 hen the answer of Balaam was reported to Balak, he supposed that he might be prevailed to come by the offer of rewards, and he sent more distinguished messengers with an offer of ample honor if he would come, Num 22:15-17.

(5) Balaam was evidently strongly inclined to go, but, in accordance with his character as a prophet, he said that if Balak would give him his house full of silver and gold he could do no more, and say no more, than the Lord permitted, and he proposed again to consult the Lord, to see if he could obtain permission to go with the messengers of Balak. He obtained permission, but with the express injunction that he was only to utter what God should say; and when he came to Balak, notwithstanding his own manifest desire to comply with the wish of Balak, and notwithstanding all the offers which Balak made to him to induce him to do the contrary, he only continued to bless the Hebrew people, until, in disgust and indignation, Balak sent him away again to his own land, Num. 22; Num. 23; Num 24:10 ff.

(6) Balaam returned to his own house, but evidently with a desire still to gratify Balak. Being forbidden to curse the people of Israel; having been overruled in all his purposes to do it; having been, contrary to his own desires, constrained to bless them when he was himself more than willing to curse them; and having still a desire to comply with the wishes of the King of Moab, he cast about for some way in which the object might yet he accomplished - that is, in which the curse of God might in fact rest upon the Hebrew people, and they might become exposed to the divine displeasure. To do this, no way occurred so plausible, and that had such probability of success, as to lead them into idolatry, and into the sinful and corrupt practices connected with idolatry. It was, therefore, resolved to make use of the charms of the females of Moab, that through their influence the Hebrews might be drawn into licentiousness. This was done. The abominations of idolatry spread through the camp of Israel; licentiousness everywhere prevailed, and God sent a plague upon them to punish them, Num 25:1 ff. That also this was planned and instigated by Balaam is apparent from Num 31:16; "Behold these (women) caused the children of Israel, through the counsel of Balaam, to commit trespass against the Lord, in the matter of Peor, and there was a plague among the congregation of the Lord."The attitude of Balaam’ s mind in the matter was this:

I. He had a strong desire to do what he knew was wrong, and which was forbidden expressly by God.

II. He was restrained by internal checks and remonstrances, and prevented from doing what he wished to do.

III. He cast about for some way in which he might do it, notwithstanding these internal checks and remonstrances, and finally accomplished the same thing in fact, though in form different from that which he had first prepared. This is not an unfair description of what often occurs in the plans and purposes of a wicked man. The meaning in the passage before us is, that in the church at Pergamos there were those who taught, substantially, the same thing that Balaam did; that is, the tendency of whose teaching was to lead people into idolatry, and the ordinary accompaniment of idolatry - licentiousness.

To eat things sacrificed unto idols - Balaam taught the Hebrews to do this - perhaps in some way securing their attendance on the riotous and gluttonous feasts of idolatry celebrated among the people among whom they sojourned. Such feasts were commonly held in idol temples, and they usually led to scenes of dissipation and corruption. By plausibly teaching that there could be no harm in eating what had been offered in sacrifice - since an idol was nothing, and the flesh of animals offered in sacrifice was the same as if slaughtered for some other purpose, it would seem that these teachers at Pergamos had induced professing Christians to attend on those feasts - thus lending their countenance to idolatry, and exposing themselves to all the corruption and licentiousness that commonly attended such celebrations. See the banefulness of thus eating the meat offered in sacrifice to idols considered in the notes on 1 Cor. 8.

And to commit fornication - Balaam taught this; and that was the tendency of the doctrines inculcated at Pergamos. On what pretence this was done is not said; but it is clear that the church had regarded this in a lenient manner. So accustomed had the pagan world been to this vice, that many who had been converted from idolatry might be disposed to look on it with less severity than we do now, and there was a necessity of incessant watchfulness lest the members of the church should fall into it. Compare the notes on Act 15:20.

Poole: Rev 2:1

Rev 2:1-7 What John was commanded to write in commendation or

reproof to the angels of the churches of Ephesus,

Rev 2:8-11 Smyrna,

Rev 2:12-17 Pergamos,

Rev 2:18-29 Thyatira.

Chapter Introduction

Some things are to be observed of all the epistles, before we come to the particular epistles.

1. God’ s writing in this form, (as a man to his friend), speaks Christ’ s love to the church, his spouse.

2. There were not seven books written, but one book in which these seven epistles were, out of which each church, or the church in its several periods, might learn what concerned it.

3. These epistles concerning matters of faith and manners, are written plainly, not in mysterious expressions.

4. The scope of them all is to instruct, reprove, commend, and comfort.

5. They are all directed to the ministers of the churches, as their heads, but the matter concerns the whole church.

6. It is also observed, that Christ, in the beginning of every epistle, notifieth himself by some one of those things mentioned in the vision in the former chapter.

Rev 2:1 ,

These things saith he that holdeth the seven stars Rev 1:16 Rev 2:8 , The first and the last, which was dead and is alive, Rev 1:17,18 Re 2:12 . These things saith he which hath the sharp sword with two edges, Rev 1:16 Rev 2:18 , The Son of God, who hath his eyes like unto a flame of fire, and his feet like fine brass, Rev 1:14,15 Re 3:1 . He that hath the seven Spirits of God, and the seven stars, Rev 1:4,16 Re 2:7 , He that hath the key of David, that is holy and true, that openeth, & c., Rev 1:5,18 Re 2:14 , The faithful and true witness, Rev 1:5 .

Ephesus was the principal city of Asia the Less, it lay in the western parts of it, upon the Ionian Sea; a city of great riches and trade, but much given to idolatry and superstition, famous for the temple of Diana. Paul was there twice; at his second coming he stayed thereabouts three years, Act 18:1-20:38 . He was by a tumult driven thence into Macedonia, and left Timothy there, 1Ti 1:3 . It appears from Act 20:17 , that there were more ministers there than one; but they were all angels, and from the oneness of their business are all called an angel.

These things saith he that holdeth the seven stars in his right hand that is, Christ, Rev 1:16,20 , who hath put an honour on his ministers, showeth special favour to them, and will protect them.

Who walketh in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks who hath a special eye to his church, being not an idle spectator, but present with his church, to observe how all in it walk and perform their several parts, and is at hand, either to reward or punish them.

Poole: Rev 2:2

I know thy works: these words being in the front of all the seven epistles, cannot be interpreted as signifying a knowledge of approbation, as Psa 1:6 , but of a comprehension in the understanding, and as signifying Christ’ s omnisciency; though it be true, that the Lord both understood and approved of some of the works of this church particularly.

And thy labour, and thy patience their labour in propagating the knowledge of Christ and doctrine of the gospel, and their patient taking up and bearing the cross.

And how thou canst not bear them which are evil and their zeal and warmth, that they would not endure either persons erroneous in judgment, or lewd in their lives, in their communion.

And thou hast tried them which say they are apostles, and are not: in the primitive church there were some that falsely pretended an immediate call or mission from Christ, to preach what they did, but this church would not endure them. It appears from Paul’ s Second Epistle to Timothy, that there were then false teachers very busy in that church; possibly Ebion and Cerinthus, (who both lived in this time, and Cerinthus preached in Asia), or their disciples, might be some of them. They tried them, possibly, by the word of God, according to the rules given in it to try the spirits.

And hast found them liars and found that they had no such immediate mission, no authority from Christ.

Poole: Rev 2:3

And hast borne the contradiction of false teachers, and the persecutions of Jews and pagans; for at this time the second persecution was began by Domitian.

And hast patience grace (with quietness and submission) to bear the will of God in any sort of evils.

And for my name’ s sake hast laboured and for me hast laboured actively in propagating the truths of my gospel, as well as passively in the furnace of trials and persecutions.

And hast not fainted and hast persevered so as thou hast neither been seduced to other doctrine by false teachers, nor lost thy integrity and holiness of conversation.

Poole: Rev 2:4

Nevertheless I have somewhat against thee something to accuse thee of, and blame thee for.

Because thou hast left thy first love of late thou hast not been so warm in the propagation of my gospel, and maintaining my truth. The love of many in this church, both toward God and their brethren, probably was cooled, though not wholly extinguished.

Poole: Rev 2:5

Remember therefore from whence thou art fallen that is, in what degree thy love was formerly, and compare it with what it is now.

And repent repentance in man, signifieth both the change of the heart and of the actions.

And do the first works recover thy former warmth of love, and zeal for good works.

Or else I will come unto thee quickly if thou do not, I that know thee, and walk in the midst of thee, will show myself an enemy to thee.

And will remove thy candlestick out of his place and unchurch thee, and say unto thee, Lo-ammi, You are not my people. Which threatening is long since made good; for where is now the famous church of Ephesus?

Poole: Rev 2:6

But this thou hast thou hast yet thus much to commend thee.

That thou hatest the deeds of the Nicolaitanes thou hatest the deeds of those who teach the lawfulness of a common use of wives, and eat things offered to idols; for these, they say, were the tenets of the Nicolaitanes, so called from one Nicholas; but whether he were one of the first deacons, named Act 6:5 , (who, they say, to avoid the imputation of jealousy, brought forth his wife, being a beautiful woman, and prostituted her), or from some other of that name, I cannot determine.

Which I also hate: God, as a lover of his own order, and of human society, hateth such doctrines and practices as are contrary to the rule of his word, and tend to the confusion of human societies.

Poole: Rev 2:7

He that hath an ear, let him hear to whom God hath given an ability and power to understand what I say. It is a form of speech which Christ often used, when he would quicken up people’ s attention, Mat 11:15 13:9,43 Mr 4:9,23 7:16 : we shall find it again in these two chapters six times; from which some would conclude, that in these epistles there is something mysterious, parabolical, and prophetical, it being a form of speech prefixed to many parables.

What the Spirit saith the Holy Spirit of God, from whose inspiration all Scripture is.

Unto the churches not only at Ephesus, but elsewhere in Asia, or any other part of the world.

To him that overcometh that is, a conqueror in fighting the good fight of faith, against the world, the flesh, and the devil.

Will I give to eat of the tree of life I will give him a share in my merits, and eternal life; which blessed enjoyments are set out unto us under the notion of eating, Luk 12:37 22:28 , &c.; Joh 10:28 .

This is the promise that he hath promised us 1Jo 2:25 . Heaven is expressed to us under this notion, with reference to the tree of life, mentioned Gen 2:9 , which was in the old Paradise; for it is added,

which is in the midst of the paradise of God or, which is the same, Christ himself is here intended, who is the free of life, mentioned Rev 22:2 ; and the happiness of heaven is thus expressed, 1Th 4:17 , We shall be ever with the Lord. This is the sum of the epistle to the first mentioned church, by which those that judge these epistles prophetical, understand all the primitive churches during the apostles’ age, or the most of their ages, for John himself lived under the second persecution.

Poole: Rev 2:8

Smyrna was a city in Ionia; we read not when, or by whom, the gospel was first planted and a church gathered there; nor can we tell who are meant by

the angel of this church: see Rev 1:20 . That it was no single person is probable, for he speaks plurally, Rev 2:10 , the devil shall cast some of you, ex umwn , into prison.

These things saith the first and the last, which was dead, and is alive: for the meaning of this phrase, see annotations on Rev 1:8,17,18 ; only it is observable how Christ, speaking to this church under great tribulation and persecution, fits a name proper to comfort them; for he himself was dead, and yet now alive, and he living, those that believe in him, because he lives, shall live also, Joh 14:19 ; and as he was the first, so he will be the last, surviving all his enemies, and be at last a conqueror over them.

Poole: Rev 2:9

I know thy works, and tribulation: though the term know doth not necessarily signify approbation, yet, both as to the church of Ephesus and Smyrna, the particular works mentioned assure us, that God approved their patient suffering affliction for his name.

And poverty and the poor condition (as to outward things) into which they had brought themselves, for their owning and profession of the gospel of Christ, having their estates rent from them, &c.

But thou art rich but yet they were rich, both really in the love and favour of God, and also in the esteem of God, who accounteth them rich who abound in spiritual habits, and good works, the exercise of those habits.

And I know the blasphemy of them which say they are Jews, and are not: God also knows the evil speeches of his church’ s enemies, whether native Jews, glorying in circumcision and the law, and that they were descended from Abraham; or false Christians, who may be here meant (called Jews by a figure; the Jews being once the only church of God).

But are the synagogue of Satan but are indeed a collection of devils, or the children of the devil, whose works they do, continually reviling true Christians, and murdering the saints, after the manner of their father, who was a murderer from the beginning.

Poole: Rev 2:10

Fear none of those things which thou shalt suffer thou art like to suffer yet sharper things than thou hast suffered, the persecutions are but begun; but pluck up a good courage, fear not your enemies, Mat 10:28 .

Behold, the devil shall cast some of you into prison you shall be cast into prison, by Jews and pagans, who are the devil’ s instruments, and execute his malice against you; which should both encourage you, that your fight is with the common enemy of mankind, and teach you to pity and pray for your persecutors, who are but the devil’ s instruments, whose hearts he hath filled with malice against you.

That ye may be tried that your faith, love, patience, obedience, may be tried.

And ye shall have tribulation ten days: interpreters are divided about these ten days, what space of time is meant by them; some think the whole time of the ten persecutions, but they lasted above two hundred years; others will have them the ten years of Trajan’ s persecution, from the year 99 to 109. Others observe, that in ten days are two hundred and forty hours, which make up the number of years from 85, when the second persecution began, (under which John at this time was), to 325, when all the persecutions ceased. But to let these fancies go: it is either a certain number put for an uncertain; or, it signifies many days; as in Gen 31:42 , Thou hast changed my wages ten times, that is, many times; so 2Sa 19:43 Job 19:3 . Or else it signifies a little time, as in Gen 24:55 Amo 5:3 6:9 . If we understand this epistle as only concerning the church of Smyrna at that time, it may signify a small time. If we understand it prophetically, describing the state of all churches, till the pagan persecution ceased, (which was more than two hundred and forty years), ten days signifies a long time.

Be thou faithful unto death hold fast to thy profession of faith and holiness to the end of thy life here,

and I will give thee a crown of life and I will give thee eternal life and salvation, which shall be a great reward. It is called a crown of righteousness, 2Ti 4:8 .

Poole: Rev 2:11

He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches He that overcometh: for the opening of these passages: See Poole on "Rev 2:7" .

Shall not be hurt of the second death we read of the second death, Rev 20:6,14 : the meaning is, that he shall escape the eternal damnation of soul and body in the day of judgment.

Those that make these epistles prophetical say, that the church of Smyrna was a type of all the churches of Christ to the year 325, (when Constantine overcame Lycinius, and gave rest and peace to the churches of Christ), which was all a time of severe persecution under the Roman emperors, who to that time were all heathens. It is very observable, that Christ blameth nothing in this church; the church of God keeps always its purity best in the fire; but doubtless there were in this time many apostacies, and other errors, but God allows much to his people’ s temptations; hence, though Job showed much impatience, yet we are called to behold him as a pattern of patience.

Poole: Rev 2:12

Pergamos was a famous city of Troas; we read of Pergamos no where else in Scripture, but of Troas we read of Paul’ s being there, Act 16:8,11 20:5,6 , and preaching Christ there, 2Co 2:12 .

These things saith he which hath the sharp sword with two edges: see the notes on Rev 1:16 .

Poole: Rev 2:13

I know thy works, and where thou dwellest God knows all his people’ s circumstances, where they dwell, as well as what they do, and how they behave themselves in their habitations.

Even where Satan’ s seat is where the devil rules by his pagan deputies and antichrist’ s officers.

And thou holdest fast my name the word of my truth, by which I am known, as a man by his name.

And hast not denied my faith neither by the words of thy mouth, nor by any apostacy from this profession, notwithstanding the temptations thou hast had from suducers and from persecutors, and the sight of those who have been put to death for their profession.

Even in those days wherein Antipas was my faithful martyr: it is much no ecclesiastical history makes mention of this martyr Antipas, which argueth him to have been a person but of an obscure note in the world; but Christ seeth and taketh notice of those little ones who belong to him, though the world overlooks them. Our being able from no history to give an account of this martyr, hath inclined some to think this epistle wholly prophetical, and that Antipas signifieth not any particular person, but all those that have opposed the pope, as if it were Antipapa. But certainly there was such a martyr as Antipas belonging to the church at Smyrna at that time, who suffered for the truth, though we do not allow this church to have been typical of all the gospel churches for many years.

Poole: Rev 2:14

But I have a few things against thee though I have much to commend thee for, yet I have some things to accuse thee of, and to complain of thee for.

Because thou hast there them that hold the doctrine of Balaam: by the doctrine of Balaam, he means the doctrine of the Nicolaitanes, (as he expounds himself, Rev 2:15 ), which was like the doctrine of Balaam.

Who taught Balac to cast a stumblingblock before the children of Israel that Balaam of whom we read, Num 24:1-25:18 , who being sent for by Balak the king of Moab to come and curse Israel, and finding that God restrained him, and turned his tongue from cursing them to pronounce blessings to them, instructed Balak at last how to lay a stumblingblock before them, to make them to fall, viz. to set the Moabitish women to tempt them to commit uncleanness with them, and so to feast with them in their idols’ temples, and eat of their meat first offered unto their idols.

PBC: Rev 2:1

Letters to the Seven Churches {Re 2:1-3:22}

Ephesus[1] was situated on the west coast of Asia Minor. It was the Capitol of the Roman province of Asia Minor. The famous temple of Artemis was located at Ephesus. This was one of the wonders of the ancient world. Paul stayed here for two years. {Ac 19:10} Paul was persecuted at Ephesus by the silversmith because of his stand against the goddess Diana. Ephesus was also one of the chief ports which served a vast network of trade routes. Also, please note that the Isle of Patmos to which John was exiled was only between 25-50 miles from Ephesus. The physical connection of the Aegean Sea with the Mediterranean Sea and indicates many different beliefs which plagued the early church at Ephesus. Certain Jews followed Paul at Ephesus teaching the doctrine of works mixed with grace. Circumcision was one of their chief arguments.

Ac 19:1-41 readily points to a condition which had pervaded the church at Ephesus. By John’s time, Ephesus was a dying city. In A.D. 65 an attempt was made to clear the silt and deepen her harbor. Ephesus’ decline was a mortal sickness, her lampstand (candle) had gone from its place. As we study this letter to the angel of the church at Ephesus, It is easy to find the pattern for moral decline and removal of the candlestick from churches.— Eld. Charles Taylor

[1] Information gathered from King James Version of The Bible, Zondervan’s Pictorial Bible Dictionary, Atlas of the Bible ( Reader’s Digest), The Ancient World by Curtis, Atlas of Bible Lands by C.S. Hammond and Company.

PBC: Rev 2:2

Our Lord remembers the works, labour, and patience of those who contend for the truth as it is in Christ Jesus our Lord and Redeemer. He is aware of those who toil in great pain to keep the paths of the righteous. He is aware of their patience (constant endurance) and their continuance in those things upon which they were founded. Our Lord is aware of how His people grievously hate the evil which drives their lives to the brink of despair. He is aware of the searching of doctrines by those who hate evil, and how they use the " Sword of the Spirit, which is the word[1] of God, " and the only Rod of judgment.— Eld. Charles Taylor

[1] Heb 4:12; " For the word of God is quick, and powerful, and sharper than any twoedged sword, piercing even to the dividing asunder of soul and spirit, and of the joints and marrow, and is a discerner of the thoughts and intents of the heart."

PBC: Rev 2:3

These brethren at Ephesus were not subdued without a long struggle. The power of Jesus, when properly understood, will keep us in the time of trouble. " God is our refuge and strength, a very present help in trouble."  {Ps 46:1} The knowledge of this refuge and strength is the salvation of God’s people in all ages. There is no fainting when we know we are in His everlasting arms.— Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 2:4

DEFINITION:

The first love[1] of the Church is that which is " foremost in time, place, order or importance." It is the beginning of her affection. The word which sets this love apart from any other specifies it in the Greek language as agape. We find this love couched in the letter from Paul to the Ephesian brethren, " According as he hath chosen us in him before the foundation of the world, that we should be holy and without blame before him in love." {Eph 1:4} This love (agape) expresses the deepest kind of love. It was the chief concern of God in electing His children in Christ Jesus before the foundation of the world. Through this deep love He drew us to Himself while we were afar off. He placed a new heart within us and gave us the capability of loving Him above all else. This was the first love of the Church at Ephesus.

Peter wrote of a secondary love and the result of that love; " Finally, be ye all of one mind, having compassion one of another, love as brethren, be pitiful, be courteous: Not rendering evil for evil, or railing for railing: but contrariwise blessing; knowing that ye are thereunto called, that ye should inherit a blessing." {1Pe 3:8-9} This expression of love (philadelphos)[2] is fraternal in nature. It is not of the same depth as agape which is expressed as being astonished, awestruck, dumbfounded, overwhelmed, gaping. While a fraternal (brotherly) love gives us affection, devotion, friendship, kindness toward our brothers and sisters; it can never cause us to be awestruck, dumbfounded, overwhelmed, as does the love of God toward Himself and His Son Jesus Christ.

There is another kind of love which in the Greek is termed eros and relates to things called erotic such as amorous, passionate, sexual, carnal, or concupiscent. Again this can never be used in connection with the church which God has purchased by His own blood. This kind of love (eros) always demands and never gives.

"thou has left thy first love"

The expression " thou hast left thy first love" relates to coldness which creeps into the lives of those composing the church and robs them of the joy of that first relationship which they enjoyed with God and with Christ. They still declare their hatred for all evil, and still judge all who " say they are apostles and are not." They cannot see their own condition of a fallen state. A friendly love for the brethren (philadelphos) may still exist. Yet that overwhelming love (agape) for God, His Son Jesus Christ, and the Church has escaped them. The reason for this is that worldly love (eros) has invaded their lives and taken them captive.— Eld. Charles Taylor

[1] agape, SGreek: 26. agape ag-ah’-pay; from SGreek: 25. agapao); love, i.e. affection or benevolence; spec. (plur.) a love-feast:—(feast of) charity ([- ably]), dear, love.

[2] filadelfov, SGreek: 5361. philadelphos fil-ad’-el-fos; fond of brethren, i.e. fraternal:—love as brethren. This fraternal love is expressed as affectionate, devoted, friendly, kind, etc.

PBC: Rev 2:5

The Prophet Jeremiah gave instruction to Israel of old concerning this condition. " Thus saith the LORD, Stand ye in the ways, and see, and ask for the old paths, where is the good way, and walk therein, and ye shall find rest for your souls. But they said, We will not walk therein." {Jer 6:16} He that walks among the candlesticks sees the condition of the Ephesian church and counsels them to remember just as God instructed Israel to " stand still, see, ask, and walk in the good way." Israel said " We will not walk therein" and were taken into captivity until they remembered. This same Sovereign Power was dealing with the church in John’s time. Repentance is given to the church for our forgiveness and growth. There is a very great mandate here: " I will remove thy candlestick out of his place, except thou repent." We may be aware of places of worship that have been misused by people who have left their first love and God has removed their candlestick. May God help us to use the grace of repentance when we find ourselves in a cold condition due to having left our first love.— Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 2:6

This sect of people is spoken of in Re 2:15, " So hast thou also them that hold the doctrine of the Nicolaitanes, which thing I hate." We will give more attention to this verse later. Zondervan’s Pictorial Bible Dictionary explains it thus: " A group of persons in the church at Ephesus held the same doctrine (Nicolatian) as the Pergamene church."{Re 2:15} Nothing else is known about them with any assurance, but some have guessed that they were the followers of Nicolas of Antioch, one of the first deacons. {Ac 6:5} However, there is no Biblical evidence for this assumption. The doctrine of the Nicolatains was similar to that of Balaam through whose influence the Israelites ate things sacrificed to idols and committed fornication. {Re 2:14-15} A sect of Nicolaitans existed among the Gnostics in the third century, as is known from church fathers of the time (Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian). It probably had its origin in the group condemned in Revelation.

The church at Ephesus retained enough godliness to reject this group of people who evidently taught others in the practice of the doctrine of Balaam, who taught Balak to cast a stumblingblock before the children of Israel, to eat things sacrificed unto idols, and to commit fornication. We can see a parallel in things practiced in groups of God’s people today who declare that fornication, sodomy, homosexuality, are simply a way of life which the church must condone. God hates this sin! The church of Jesus Christ ought also to hate this same lifestyle. It is the deepest kind of falling from our first love.— Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 2:7

Without an ear there is no organ with which to hear the words. God’s people have been endowed with ears with which to hear spiritual things. May God help us to use these ears! Let us not stop them as did Israel of old. Let us not choose to walk in our own lust of the flesh to the dishonor of God. The message being given is to the churches. We cannot explain it away by saying with some; " It is because of the sinning world." This is simply not so! God is interested in the welfare of His people for whom Christ paid the extreme penalty of death on the cross. The unregenerate will never heed these words simply because he has no organs for hearing.

"To him that overcometh will I give to eat of the tree of life" Who is it that overcometh? " For whatsoever is born of God overcometh the world: and this is the victory that overcometh the world, even our faith. Who is he that overcometh the world, but he that believeth that Jesus is the Son of God?."{ 1Jo 5:4-5} Scripture depicts Jesus as being the Tree of Life. None has a desire to partake of the Tree of Life without believing that He is, and is a rewarder of all that believe.— Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 2:8

Letter to the Church at Smyrna {Re 2:8-11}

Smyrna was located on the west coast of Asia Minor just north of Ephesus, facing on the Aegean Sea. The harbor of Smyrna was well protected, being a natural terminal of a great inland trade-route up the Hermus valley. The Lydians in 627 B.C. destroyed it, and for three centuries it was little more than a village. It was revived again in the middle of the fourth century before Christ, after Alexander’s capture of Sardis. It quickly became the chief city of Asia. Smyrna was shrewd enough to mark the rising star of Rome. In A.D. 26 Smyrna petitioned Tiberius to allow the community to build a temple to his deity.[1]  The petition was granted, and Smryna built the second Asian temple to the Emperor. Smyrna was famous for science, medicine, and the majesty of its buildings. Apolonius of Tyana refers to her " crown of porticoes, " a circle of beautiful public buildings which ringed the summit of Mount Pagos like a diadem, hence John’s reference. {Re 2:10}

Again {Re 2:8} we find the same identification given to the Revelator, Jesus Christ. There can be no mistake about the condition of the saints of God in Smyrna. In the midst of all the riches of those who are worshiping the Emperor of Rome, there is poverty and tribulation in the church. Their works must be manifest by the very fact they are being persecuted. This is always the case with the church in the world. Satan goes about seeking whom he may devour. History records that persecutors of Christians martyred Polycarp, a faithful bishop [preacher] of Smyrna, in AD 155. Because of their faithfulness, the message states, " but thou art rich." What a wonderful testimony for a church which is set in the midst of a prosperous city, for the most part, cares nothing for the Creator of all their wealth.— Eld. Charles Taylor

[1] Roman historian, Tacitus, 55 AD—117 AD

PBC: Rev 2:9

The persecution comes from " them which say they are Jews, and are not, but are the synagogue of Satan." We find this same language used in Re 3:9, " I will make them to come and worship before thy feet, and to know that I have loved thee." Paul refers to this in the Roman letter: " But he is a Jew, which is one inwardly; and circumcision is that of the heart, in the spirit, and not in the letter; whose praise is not of men, but of God." {Ro 2:29} Again we find the result of influence which comes from wanting to be pleasing to the world. Christian spirituality is apt to leave with the winds of worldly prosperity. The Psalmist states: " They only consult to cast him down from his excellency: they delight in lies: they bless with their mouth, but they curse inwardly. Selah." {Ps 62:4} Our Lord tells us to " Beware of false prophets, which come to you in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves." {Mt 7:15} As always, Satan uses the religious elements which are false worshipers to persecute the saints of God who are striving for the right way. The Lord calls them blasphemers, who are the synagogue of Satan.— Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 2:10

See WebbSr: FAITHFULNESS

They can take courage because of the help from the Lord. He is a very present help in time of trouble. The work of Satan can gain no ground because the Lord is our help. They can take courage because Jesus tells us " If ye were of the world, the world would love his own: but because ye are not of the world, but I have chosen you out of the world, therefore the world hateth you."{Joh 15:19} As we read throughout the book of Acts, we find this persecution taking place in the lives of Stephen, Peter, Paul, and numerous other named men. John is on the isle of Patmos because of persecution, " that ye may be true."

" And ye shall have tribulation ten days."

This seems to be figurative, although the term is used throughout Scripture as time periods in the events of God’s people. The number " ten" is used many, many times, and is a biblical number. As we observe its usage in the passage under consideration, it seems to comes as an encouragement to God’s people. There is a limit set by God as to the length of persecution before He intervenes for them in a positive way. Paul encourages the church through his own persecutions and suffering: " We are troubled on every side, yet not distressed; we are perplexed, but not in despair; Persecuted, but not forsaken; cast down, but not destroyed."{2Co 4:8-9} God has been specific in many things recorded in Scripture concerning the persecution of His people. Israel would be in captivity four hundred years. At the end of that time He would bring them out with a strong arm. They would be in Babylonish captivity for seventy years. Following that, Jerusalem and the temple would be rebuilt. God was faithful to honor his word and these things came to pass as it was spoken. Daniel spoke about the coming of the Messiah, " And in the days of these kings shall the God of heaven set up a kingdom, which shall never be destroyed: and the kingdom shall not be left to other people, but it shall break in pieces and consume all these kingdoms, and it shall stand for ever."{Da 2:44} Paul verifies this in the Galatian letter, " But when the fulness of the time was come, God sent forth his Son, made of a woman, made under the law, to redeem them that were under the law, that we might receive the adoption of sons."{Ga 4:4-5} God’s time schedule concerning His dealings with His people is always precise.

"Be thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life."

Though some of them would not survive this tribulation and persecution, there was a great consolation given them: " a crown of life" awaited them. They believed God, " and that He is a rewarder of them that diligently seek him."{Heb 11:6} Hear the words of James, " Blessed is the man that endureth temptation: for when he is tried, he shall receive the crown of life, which the Lord hath promised to them that love him."{Jas 1:12} There seems to be no rebuke to this church. We find mentioned at the ending of the Philadelphia letter; " hold that fast which thou hast, that no man take thy crown." This " crown of life" indicates that God does recognize and reward His people here in this life for faithfulness and patience.— Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 2:11

We are reminded that there must be a spiritual hearing of the things of God. In order to overcome, there must be a knowledge of what the Spirit is saying. It is needful to know the source of our overcoming. John gives this solution, " Who is he that overcometh the world, but he that believeth that Jesus is the Son of God?" { 1Jo 5:5} Paul discusses the question concerning believing, " How then shall they call on him in whom they have not believed? and how shall they believe [to entrust one’s spiritual well-being to Christ] in him of whom they have not heard? and how shall they hear without a preacher? And how shall they preach, except they be sent? as it is written, How beautiful are the feet of them that preach the gospel of peace, and bring glad tidings of good things! But they have not all obeyed the gospel. For Esaias saith, Lord, who hath believed our report? So then faith cometh by hearing, and hearing by the word of God. But I say, Have they not heard? Yes verily, their sound went into all the earth, and their words unto the ends of the world."{Ro 10:14-18} The relationship here hinges on two propositions: believing and gospel preaching. The proposition is " to him that heareth what the Spirit sayeth." Some take the stand that this passage pertains to obtaining eternal life (being saved). The word used for believed[1] is pisteuw, (SGreek: 4100. pisteuo) and refers to that one who has already put his or her trust in Christ. This perfectly fits that one to whom Christ is speaking: " to him that heareth what the Spirit sayeth."—Eld. Charles Taylor

" He that overcometh shall not be hurt of the second death."

We died in Adam (first death); we are made alive in Christ Jesus (first resurrection). " Blessed and holy is he that hath part in the first resurrection: on such the second death hath no power."{Re 20:6}   He now leaves the resurrection and proceeds to what is termed the second death. What is this second death? " And death and hell were cast into the lake of fire. This is the second death."{Re 20:14} —Eld Charles Taylor

More is said at other places in the book of Revelation about the second death, and we will try to deal more in detail with it later. From now until then, keep in mind that being hurt by the second death may be avoided by overcoming. Admonition is given to the church to do so.

471

There are some who deny the teaching of Hell as punishment in the " hereafter." However, to believe in everlasting joy is to become reconciled to the teaching of Christ concerning everlasting punishment." ... for the hour is coming, in the which all that are in the graves shall hear his voice, and shall come forth; they that have done good, unto the resurrection of life; and they that have done evil, unto the resurrection of damnation."{Joh 5:28-29} Some might argue this as meaning " works" which would be punished in this life. However, the nature of the unregenerate man is to do evil. " The wicked are estranged from the womb: they go astray as soon as they be born, speaking lies. Their poison is like the poison of a serpent: they are like the deaf adder that stoppeth her ear."{Ps 58:3-4} The unregenerated know nothing but to follow nature. " Some men’s sins are open beforehand, going before to judgment; and some men they follow after."{1Ti 5:24} The sins of God’s redeemed have gone before to judgment. They were nailed to His Cross. The unregenerate is not so.— Eld. Charles Taylor

[1] pisteuw, pist-yoo’-o; to have faith (in, upon, or with respect to, a person or thing), i.e. credit; by impl. to entrust ( espec. one’s spiritual well-being to Christ):—believe (- r), commit (to trust), put in trust with.

PBC: Rev 2:12

Letter to the Church at Pergamos {Re 2:12-17}

Zondervan[1] says in essence of Pergamum, Pergamos, a city of Mysia was located in the Caicus valley, 15 miles inland. Pergamos was royally situated in a commanding position. Pergamum was the capital until the last of the Pergmenian kings bequeathed his realm to Rome in 133 B.C. Pergamum became the chief town of the new province of Asia, and the site of the first temple of the Caesar-cult, erected to Rome and Augustus in 29 B.C. A second shrine was later dedicated to Trajan. The multiplication of such honor marks the prestige of Pergamum in pagan Asia. The worship of Askelepios and Zeus were also prevalent in the locality of Asia Minor. The symbol of the former was a serpent, and Pausanias describes his cult image with a staff in one hand and the other on the head of a serpent.

Pergamenian coins illustrate the importance which the community attached to this cult. Caracalla is shown on one coin, saluting a serpent twined round a bending sapling. On the crag above Pergamum was a throne-like altar to Zeus now in the Berlin Museum. It commemorated a defeat of a Gallic inroad, and was decorated with a representation of the conflict of the gods and the giants, the latter shown as monsters with snakelike tails. Zeus, to deepen Christian horror was called in this connection, " Zeus the Saviour." It is natural that " Nicolaitanism" should flourish in a place where politics and paganism were so closely allied, and where pressure on Christians to compromise must have been heavy. Pergamum was an ancient seat of culture and possessed a library which rivaled Alexanderia’s. Parchment (charta Pergamena) was invented at Pergamum to free the library from Egypt’s jealous ban on the export of papyrus."

" Zeus was the chief of the Olympian gods, corresponding to the Roman Jupiter. {see Ac 14:12-13; 19:35} His ancestry was as follows: Chaos, a heterogenous mass containing all the seeds of nature produced Gaea (Earth) who in turn produced Uranus ( Heaven) and married him. Among their numerous progeny were Cronos (Saturn) who married his sister Rhea and they became " Father and mother of the gods." Chief of their children was Zeus, head of the Olympian gods and by various marriages and illicit unions the father of most of the greater gods of the Greek pantheon. One of the crowning insults which Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria 176-164 B.C., offered to the Jews was his dedication of the temple at Jerusalem to Zeus. 2Ma 6

The above may not be relevant to the lesson. However, I think it is instructive for us to get a view of how the geographical and historical settings of these churches could have been a great influence on their deteriorating condition. Those who worshiped the Greek gods were in contrast to the Church of Jesus Christ which was planted in this place. So, there was persecution against those who walked after this man called Christ. The sect called " Nicolaitans" was active during this time of events. This culture was a breeding ground for all that would be a thorn in the flesh of the churches.

" And to the Angel of the Church in Pergamos."

The message is directed to the " angel of the church in Pergamos." Judgment can be inferred by the fact that the one who is speaking has the sharp sword with two edges. This corresponds to Heb 4:12; " For the word of God is quick, and powerful, and sharper than any twoedged sword, piercing even to the dividing asunder of soul and spirit, and of the joints and marrow, and is a discerner of the thoughts and intents of the heart." He who walks among the candlesticks is aware of the condition of this church at Pergamos just as He is aware of the condition of His people in all ages.— Eld. Charles Taylor

"sharp sword"

The sharp sword with two edges is the word of God; either preached or written.— Eld. J. L. Hopper

[1] Zondervan Pictorial Bible Dictionary

PBC: Rev 2:13

Again we are reminded that works are a necessary part of the life of the church and her members. " And it shall be our righteousness, if we observe to do all these commandments before the LORD our God, as he hath commanded us." {De 6:25} The passage not only says to observe, but also to do all these commandments. We may speak of faith, but faith without works is dead. {Jas 2:20} If you read the verses following verse 20 in the second chapter of his epistle, you will find that James speaks of Justification by Works. Abraham was not only justified by works when he offered Isaac his son upon the altar, but faith wrought with his works, and by works was faith made perfect. " And the scripture was fulfilled which saith, Abraham believed God, and it was imputed unto him for righteousness: and he was called the Friend of God." {Jas 2:23} Here we find the passage in De 6:25 verified by the New Testament: " And it shall be our righteousness." So Christ observed that the works of these saints at Pergamos were accounted as a seal of their faith.

The passage, " I know where Satan’s seat is." does not refer to these whom He commends for their good works. I wonder how many of God’s little children often dwell at Satan’s seat? As we examine ourselves in the light of this watchfulness of Jesus Christ our Lord, it may be that we will find ourselves in the shade of Satan’s dwelling place. In the face of many persecutions the One who walks among the Candlesticks could say, " thou holdest fast my name, and hast not denied my faith." Their good works had not diminished in the face of death. The faithful martyr, Antipas, lost his life in holding fast to the things of Christ. Satan dwelt in the worship of all the false gods which were worshiped here in Pergamos.— Eld. Charles Taylor

PBC: Rev 2:14

It is important that we again turn our attention to the way we are told of our sins which are ever among us. First: these people were told of all which was imputed to them because of their faithfulness in works. They were assured this was marked on the side of their righteousness. Then after this loving consolation reminding them of their relationship to their Father, we find the words, " But I have a few things against thee." The charge was causing others to stumble because of the actions of brothers and sisters who walked not uprightly. Jude has something to say about this very thing which leads some of the saints astray: " Beloved, when I gave all diligence to write unto you of the common salvation, it was needful for me to write unto you, and exhort you that ye should earnestly contend for the faith which was once delivered unto the saints. For there are certain men crept in unawares, who were before of old ordained to this condemnation, ungodly men, turning the grace of our God into lasciviousness, and denying the only Lord God, and our Lord Jesus Christ. I will therefore put you in remembrance, though ye once knew this, how that the Lord, having saved the people out of the land of Egypt, afterward destroyed them that believed not." {Jude 1:3-5}

Balak, king of Moab, called Baalam to prophesy against the children of Israel. Balaam wanted to go, but each time consulted the Lord and was forbidden. However, he desired the great things which Balak promised him. First, there were many rich gifts, or rewards of divination, in Balak’s hand. This was enticing to Balaam, but he consulted God and was forbidden to go with these men and curse Israel. Next, there was a promise saying, " I will promote thee unto very great honour, and I will do whatsoever thou sayest unto me: come therefore, I pray thee, curse me this people." Again Balaam consulted God {Nu 22:20} who admonished him to do whatsoever " I will tell you." Against all these commands of God, Balaam arose the next morning and saddled his ass and started to go with the men. " And God’s anger was kindled because he went: and the angel of the LORD stood in the way for an adversary against him." {Nu 22:22} The doctrine of Balaam was this: he followed his own desires against all that God had set in his way. This continued until God said, " It is enough." There seemed to be some in the church at Pergamos who followed the same way of Balaam for profit and caused others to fail because of their actions. This is what is meant by " eating things sacrificed to idols and committing fornication." The fleshly lusting of children of God is the same as the sin of Balaam, who was finally killed by the children of Israel. He received a just recompense of reward for his deeds.— Eld. Charles Taylor

Haydock: Rev 2:1-7

To the Angel of the church of Ephesus. The great St. Timothy, who was bishop of Ephesus, died a glorious martyr about this time. But as for the admonitions and reprehensions given in these letters, we must take notice, that they are given to the faithful of each church, and not only to the bishops, as it appears by the words so often repeated. (Witham) ---

Angel. This could have been no other than St. Timothy, who was then bishop of Ephesus. We must not suppose the faults, which are reproved by St. John, to belong individually to St. Timothy, but to some members of the Church. (Bossuet, and others) ---

These things, with he who holdeth, &c. That is, Christ, or the Angel, who represented Christ, as appeareth by his titles repeated out of the last chapter. ---

And hast not failed, or fainted, in opposing the teachers of false doctrine. ---

Thou has left thy first charity, or first fervour, a common, yet a very dangerous disposition, and especially in a bishop, charged with the care of those under him. ---

Do penance ....practise the first works, return to thy first fervour, or I will remove thy candlestick out of its place. The church of Ephesus is threatened, as in danger to lose its faith, which faith should be transplanted and received in other places. It is said what God has divers times permitted, that churches flourishing in the profession of the true Christian faith should be perverted by infidelity and heresy, while the faith hath been planted in other kingdoms of the world. I need not bring instances, where candlesticks have been removed out of their places. (Witham) ---

The Nicolaites were an infamous sect, who disturbed the rising Church by the superstitions and all the impurities of paganism. See St. Augustine, de hæresib. ---

To him, to every one that overcometh, I will give to eat of the tree of life, (that is, eternal happiness, differently expressed in these letters) which is in the paradise of my God. It is spoke in the person of Christ, as man. (Witham)

Haydock: Rev 2:8-11

To the Angel of the church of Smyrna. To St. Polycarp, or some bishop there before him. No reprehension is given to this bishop, or to his church, but a commendation for suffering in poverty and tribulation, when they were rich in grace. (Witham) ---

Poverty. He was poor in temporal things, but rich in grace and merits. ---

Thou art blasphemed by those false teachers, who call themselves Jews and Israelites, and the chosen people of God, waiting for the coming of the Messias, but are not to be looked upon as such; having refused to own their true Messias, Jesus Christ, they are the Synagogue of Satan, the greatest enemies of the true faith. ---

You shall have tribulation ten days, which several here understand for a long time, others for a short time, ten times being used in both senses. (Witham) ---

The first death is that of the body, the second of the soul. (Ven. Bede)

Haydock: Rev 2:12-17

To the Angel of the Church of Pergamus. -- This Church is exhorted to do penance, and reprehended, as the seat or throne of Satan. It is only said, that the bishop lives where this satanical seat is, that he had not denied the faith, even under the persecution, when St. Antipas suffered martyrdom, of whom see Tillemont in the persecution under Domitian, tom. ii, p. 119, and note 523; and Bollandus, April 11th; though the acts themselves be not of great authority. ---

Thou hast them that hold the doctrine of the Nicolaites, which is compared to that of Balaam who taught Balac to cast a scandal before the children of Israel, by which they were seduced by the women of the Moabites, and fell into the sin of fornication and idolatry. (Numbers xxiv. and xxxi. 16.) ---

To him that overcometh, I will give the hidden manna; a happiness in heaven, which the eye hath not seen, &c. ---

And a white [1] stone, with a new name written, as a mark of the happiness promised to all those who shall conquer. An allusion to the custom of giving a white stone to those that were tried and acquitted, and also to persons promoted to a dignity; and a black stone to such as were found guilty. See Acts xxvi. 10. (Witham) ---

This new name is the eternal recompense, unknown and despised by worldlings, but esteemed by the faithful, who know the excellence of the rewards promised by God. (Calmet)

Gill: Rev 2:1

Unto the angel of the church of Ephesus write,.... Of the city of Ephesus; see Gill on Rev 1:11 and see Gill on Act 18:19. The church here seems to have been founded by the Apostle Paul, who continued here two years, by which means all Asia heard the word of the Lord Jesus, Act 19:10; of this church; see Gill on Act 20:17; it is named first, because it was the largest, most populous, and famous, and was nearest to Patmos, where John now was, and most known to him, it being the place where he had resided; and it was the place from whence the Gospel came to others, and spread itself in lesser Asia; but especially it is first written to, because it represented the church in the apostolic age; so that this letter contains the things which are, Rev 1:19; and in its very name, to the state of this church in Ephesus, there may be an allusion; either to εφεσις, "ephesis", which signifies "desire", and may be expressive of the fervent love of that pure and apostolic church to Jesus Christ at the beginning of it; their eager desire after more knowledge of him, and communion with him; after his word and ordinances, and the maintaining of the purity of them; after the spread of his Gospel, and the enlargement of his kingdom in the world; as well as after fellowship with the saints, and the spiritual welfare of each other: the allusion may be also to αφεσις, "aphesis", which signifies "remission", or an abatement; and so may point out the remissness and decay of the first love of these primitive Christians, towards the close of this state; of the abatement of the fervency of it, of which complaint is made in this epistle, and not without cause. This epistle is inscribed to the angel of this church, or the pastor of it; why ministers are called angels; see Gill on Rev 1:20; some think this was Timothy, whom the Apostle Paul sent thither, and desired him to continue there, 1Ti 1:3, there was one Onesimus bishop of Ephesus, when Polycarp was bishop of Smyrna, of whom he makes mention in his epistle ^x to the Ephesians, and bids fair to be this angel; though if any credit could be given to the Apostolic Constitutions ^y the bishop of this place was one John, who is said to be ordained by the Apostle John, and is thought to be the same with John the elder ^z, the master of Papias; but though only one is mentioned, yet all the elders of this church, for there were more than one, see Act 20:17; are included; and not they only, but the whole church over whom they presided; for what was written was ordered to be sent to the church, and was sent by John, see Rev 1:4; the letter was sent to the pastor or pastors, to the whole body of ministers, by them to be communicated to the church; and not only to this particular church did this letter and the contents of it belong, but to all the churches of Christ within the period of the apostolic age, as may be concluded from Rev 2:7.

These things saith he that holdeth the seven stars in his right hand; the Syriac version reads, "that holds all things, and these seven stars in his right hand"; for the explanation of this character of Christ; see Gill on Rev 1:16; only let it be observed how suitably this is prefixed to the church at Ephesus, and which represents the state of the churches in the times of the apostles; in which place, and during which interval, our Lord remarkably held his ministering: servants as stars in his right hand; he held and protected the Apostle Paul for two years in this place, and preserved him and his companions safe amidst the uproar raised by Demetrius the silversmith about them; here also he protected Timothy at a time when there were many adversaries, and kept the elders of this church pure, notwithstanding the erroneous persons that rose up among them; and last of all the Apostle John, who here resided, and died in peace, notwithstanding the rage and fury of his persecutors: likewise Christ in a very visible manner held all his faithful ministers during this period in his right hand, safe and secure, until they had done the work they were sent about, and preserved them in purity of doctrine and conversation; so that their light in both respects shone brightly before men. Moreover, as this title of Christ is prefixed to the epistle to the first of the churches, and its pastor or pastors, it may be considered as relating to, and holding good of all the ministers of the Gospel and pastors of the other churches; and likewise of all the churches in successive ages to the end of the world, as the following one also refers to all the churches themselves:

who walketh in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks; see Gill on Rev 1:12; see Gill on Rev 1:13; Christ was not only present with, and took his walks in this church at Ephesus, but in all the churches of that period, comparable to candlesticks, which held forth the light of the Gospel, and that in order as the antitype of Aaron, to him these lamps, and likewise in all his churches to the end of the world; see Mat 28:20.

Gill: Rev 2:2

I know thy works,.... The good works, both of ministers and churches; no evil works are mentioned, nor anything complained of in this church but an abatement of the fervour of her first love. Christ, as the omniscient God, knows all the works of his people, and the springs, and principles, and ends, and views of them, whether they are done in obedience to him, and spring from love to him, and are performed in his strength, and by his grace, and are directed to his glory; and such he takes notice of, approves of, and is well pleased with, not as the ground of his delight in their persons, but as the fruits of his own grace; and during the apostolic age, churches and ministers were very diligent in working; yea, they were laborious, as follows:

and thy labour: particularly the labour of ministers of the Gospel, in these times, in the frequent preaching of it, in season and out of season; and in the constant administration of the ordinances; and in the diligent exercise of church discipline. The work of the ministry is a laborious work to the mind in studying, and to the body in the outward discharge of it; and it becomes more so, through the malice and opposition of enemies, and the weakness of friends; and such as are diligent and laborious deserve respect, even double honour; and though they may not have it from men, yet Christ takes notice of them and their labours, and commends them for them, and will reward them,

And thy patience; as this may refer to the ministers of the word, it may denote their patience in suffering reproaches and persecutions for the sake of the Gospel, which they bore patiently, cheerfully, and constantly; and in bearing the infirmities of weak saints, in their several communities; and in reclaiming and restoring persons out of the way; and in waiting for the success of their ministry, and their continuance and perseverance in it. And as this may respect members of churches, it may point at their patience under afflictions from the hand of God, and under reproach and persecution from men, for their embracing and professing the Gospel; and their patient waiting for the heavenly glory, and their firm expectation of it, and their perseverance unto it,

And how thou canst not bear them that are evil; that were so either in their principles or in their practices, or both; men that lived immoral lives, and held erroneous doctrines, these the primitive ministers and churches could not bear; they had an inward abhorrence and detestation of them in their minds; they could not bear them in communion with them; they admonished them according to the nature of their offence, and cast out such as were obstinate and incorrigible; they withdrew from such as were disorderly, and rejected heretics after the first and second admonition; their zeal for church discipline is here taken notice of to their commendation,

And thou hast tried them which say they are apostles, and are not,

and hast found them liars; this doubtless was done in the church at Ephesus, where, after the Apostle Paul's departure, grievous wolves, in sheep's clothing, entered, and men arose from among themselves, speaking perverse things, Act 20:29; yet it was not peculiar to that church, though it was to the apostolic age; for in no other could men with any face pretend to be the apostles of Christ; and such there were, who sprung up in the several churches at Jerusalem, Corinth, Galatia, and elsewhere, who called themselves the apostles of Christ, but were false apostles, deceitful workers; they pretended to have their doctrine, call, mission, and commission, immediately from Christ, as the true apostles had, and a power to work miracles, and talked of inspirations and revelations by the Spirit of God. Now the apostles, ministers, and churches of those times, tried their pretensions and doctrines by the word of God, and by the fruits which they produced in themselves and others; and through that discerning of spirits which they had, they found them to be liars; that they were not, nor had they what they pretended to be, and have, and exposed them as such.

Gill: Rev 2:3

And hast borne,.... Not evil men, nor false apostles, but "burdens", as the Ethiopic version reads, and as the word signifies; meaning afflictions, reproaches, and persecutions, which pressed sore, and lay heavy on these ministers and churches; and yet they bore them with constancy and cheerfulness, and were not moved by them. The Arabic version reads, "and thou hast borne me"; my name and Gospel, among the Gentiles, and carried it from place to place; see Act 9:15,

and hast patience; which they had from God, as his gift, and which they had in their hearts, and in exercise, and found it useful to them. It was in exercise in a suitable time, and it continued with them; it was not worn out through the length and greatness of their trials,

And for my name's sake hast laboured: which may refer either to enduring sufferings for Christ's name's sake, for his Gospel's sake, for righteousness sake, for the sake of the elect, and for the sake of the honour, glory, and interest of Christ; or to labouring in the ministry, not for filthy lucre sake, nor for party sake, but for the honour of Christ, and the good of souls; and there never was an interval in which this was more true:

and hast not fainted: so as to sink under the burden borne; to have patience quite tired out; to, be weary of labouring for Christ's name's sake; and so as to give out, and quit the service of Christ.

Gill: Rev 2:4

Nevertheless I have somewhat against thee,.... So the Jews represent God saying, concerning their fathers, "Abraham", &c. יש לי עליהם "I have something against them" ^a. Christ has nothing against his people, his faithful ministers, and true churches, in a judicial way, or to their condemnation, for there is none to them that are in him; but he has often many things to complain of in them, and to rebuke and chastise them for, in a way of providence: and what he had against the church at Ephesus, and against the churches in the period which that represents, follows,

because thou hast left thy first love: by which is meant, not hospitality to strangers, or an affectionate care of the poor of the church, or a zealous concern to feed the flock, and maintain church discipline; but the love of the saints to God, and Christ, and one another, which appeared at the beginning of this church state, when they were all of one heart and one soul, as generally at first conversion love is the warmest; and so it was at the first planting of Gospel churches, and therefore here called first love. Now this, though it was not lost, for the true grace of love can never be lost, yet it was left; it abated in its heat and fervour; there was a remissness in the exercise of it; what our Lord had foretold should be before the destruction of Jerusalem was fulfilled in this period of time, the love of many waxed cold, Mat 24:12; through the prevalence of corruption in some; and through an over love to the world, as in Demas, and others; and through a desire of ease and freedom from reproach and persecution; and through the introduction of errors, which damp the heat of love, and spirit of religion; and through the contentions and divisions among themselves, as at Corinth, Galatia, and elsewhere, which greatly weakened their love to one another, and to divine things; and which was very displeasing to Christ, who, for the restoring of them, gives the following advice. Compare with this 2Ti 1:15.

Gill: Rev 2:5

Remember therefore from whence thou art fallen,.... Believers cannot totally and finally fall away from the grace which they have received; but they may fall into sin, and from a degree of grace, and the exercise of it, as these first and pure churches did, from some degree of their love to God, and Christ, and one another; and therefore are called upon to remember, mind, and observe from what degree of it they were fallen; in order to bring them under a conviction and acknowledgment of their evil, and a sense of their present state, and to quicken their desires after a restoration to their former one:

and repent; of their coldness and lukewarmness, of the remissness of their love, and of those evils which brought it upon them:

and do the first works; of faith and love, with the like zeal and fervour, which will show the repentance to be sincere and genuine; so the Arabic version reads, "and exercise the former works, to wit, charity" or "love". The Jews have a saying ^b,

"if a man repents, do not say to him, "remember" מעשיך חראשונים, "thy first works";

which they seem to understand of evil works; but former good works are to be remembered and done, to show the truth of repentance for evil ones,

Or else I will come unto thee quickly; not in a spiritual way, to pay a love visit, nor in a judicial way, to take vengeance or inflict punishment, but in a providential way, to rebuke and chastise:

and will remove thy candlestick out of his place, except thou repent; or thee out of the candlestick, the pastor from the church, either by persecution or by death; or else the church, and church state itself, signified by a candlestick; See Gill on Rev 1:12; and may design a shaking and an unsettling of it, which is sometimes done by violent persecutions, and by false teachers and their doctrines, and by the divisions and contentions of saints among themselves; and by the former particularly was there a change made in the state of this apostolic church, when it passed into the Smyrnean one, which was a period of great persecution and distress; for this cannot be understood of the total removing of the church state itself quickly, no, not of Ephesus itself; for though there is not now indeed, nor has there been for many hundred years, a church of Christ in that place, yet there was one till the times of Constantine, when there was none in any of the other seven cities, and a long time after; See Gill on Act 20:17; which shows, that this was not a commination or threatening of divine vengence to that church literally, but to the state of the church, which that represented; nor does it intend the utter abolition of that church, for the apostolic church still continued, though it ceased to be in the circumstances it was before,

Gill: Rev 2:6

But this thou hast, that thou hatest the deeds of the Nicolaitans,.... Though these Christians had left their first love, yet they bore an hatred to the filthy and impure practices of some men, who were called "Nicolaitans"; who committed fornication, adultery, and all uncleanness, and had their wives in common, and also ate things offered to idols; who were so called, as some think ^c, from Nicolas of Antioch, one of the seven deacons in Act 6:5; though as to Nicolas himself, it is said ^d, that he lived with his own lawful married wife, and no other, and that his daughters continued virgins all their days, and his son incorrupt; and that these men, so called, only shrouded themselves under his name, and abused a saying or action of his, or both, to patronize their wicked deeds: he had used to advise παραχρησθαι τη σαρκι, by which he meant a restraining of all carnal and unlawful lusts; but these men interpreted it of an indulgence in them, and so gave themselves up to all uncleanness; and whereas, he having a beautiful wife, and being charged with jealousy, in order to clear himself of it, he brought her forth, and gave free liberty to any person to marry her as would; which indiscreet action of his these men chose to understand as allowing of community of wives. Dr. Lightfoot conjectures, that these Nicolaitans were not called so from any man, but from the word נכילה, "Nicolah", "let us eat", which they often used to encourage each other to eat things offered to idols. However this be, it is certain that there were such a set of men, whose deeds were hateful; but neither their principles nor their practices obtained much in this period of time, though they afterwards did; see Rev 2:15. Professors of the Christian religion in general abhorred such impure notions and deeds, as they were by Christ:

which also I hate; all sin is hateful to Christ, being contrary to his nature, to his will, and to his Gospel; and whatever is hateful to him should be to his people; and where grace is, sin will be hateful, both in themselves and others; and men's deeds may be hated when their persons are not; and hatred of sin is taken notice of by Christ, with a commendation,

Gill: Rev 2:7

He that hath an ear,.... Such who have new ears given them, as all have who are made new creatures; such who have their ears circumcised, and opened by the Spirit of God; who hear with understanding, affection, and faith; who try what they hear, and approve, embrace, and retain that which is good,

Let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches; let such hearken, and listen with attention to what is said by the Spirit, in what goes before, and follows after, in this epistle, designed for the use of all the churches; from whence it appears, that this epistle was endited by the Spirit of God, and is of divine inspiration; that it was not intended for the single use of the church at Ephesus, but of all the churches; and not of the seven churches only, though the Alexandrian copy reads, "to the seven churches": but of all the churches in that period of time, which the Ephesine church represents; and which may also be useful to the churches of Christ in all other ages and periods of time. And moreover, it may be concluded from hence, that there are in this epistle, and so in all the rest, for the same words are subjoined to them all, some things which are parabolical and prophetic, and not obvious to everyone's understanding and view; for a like expression is used by our Lord, when he had delivered anything in a parabolical way, or was obscure; see Mat 11:15.

To him that overcometh: the false apostles, false teachers, and their doctrines; coldness, lukewarmness, and remissness in love; the impure tenets and practices of the Nicolaitans:

will I give to eat of the tree of life; by which is meant Jesus Christ himself, in allusion to the tree of life in the garden of Eden; and is so called, because he is the author of life, natural, spiritual, and eternal; and because of his fruit, the blessings of life and grace, that are in him, of which believers may eat by faith, and which they find to be soul quickening, comforting, strengthening, and satisfying; and which are Christ's gift to them, even both the food they eat, and the faith by which they eat, are his gifts. So Christ, under the name of Wisdom, is called the Tree of life, in Pro 3:18; and this is a name which is sometimes given by the Jews to the Messiah ^e:

which is in the midst of the paradise of God; as the tree of life was in the garden of Eden, Gen 2:9. The Vulgate Latin, Syriac, and Ethiopic versions read, "the paradise of my God"; the God of Christ, as well as of his people; and by which may be meant, either the church on earth, which is as a paradise, Son 4:12; in the midst of which Christ is, affording his gracious presence, and reaching forth his grace, and the benefits of it, to his people; or heaven; see Gill on 2Co 12:4, said to be of God, because it is of his preparing, and where he dwells, and in the midst of which Christ, the Tree of life, is; and this shows, that he is to be come at by faith, and his fruit to be eaten, and lived upon; and he is to be beheld and enjoyed by all his saints, as he is now, and will be more perfectly hereafter,

Gill: Rev 2:8

And unto the angel of the church in Smyrna write,.... Of the city of Smyrna; see Gill on Rev 1:11. That there was a church of Christ here is not to be doubted, though by whom it was founded is not certain; very likely by the Apostle Paul, who was in those parts, and by whose means all Asia heard the Gospel of Christ, Act 19:10. Some think the present angel or pastor of this church, was Polycarp, the disciple of John. Irenaeus ^f, who knew him, says he was appointed bishop of Smyrna by the apostles. Here he suffered martyrdom, and was buried: the large amphitheatre, in which he was put to death, is still to be seen, and his sepulchre is yet preserved in this place ^g: a very famous epistle, sent by this church at Smyrna to the churches at Pontus, giving an account of the martyrdom of Polycarp, and others, is extant in Eusebius ^h. According to the Apostolical Constitutions ⁱ, the first bishops of Smyrna were Aristo Strataeas and Aristo the second, and Apelles, of whom mention is made in Rom 16:10; and who is reckoned among the seventy disciples; See Gill on Luk 10:1; and is said to be bishop of Smyrna before Polycarp; who succeeded Polycarp, I do not find; but it is said there was a church at Smyrna in the "third" century; and so there was in the beginning of the "fourth", since there was a bishop from hence in the council at Nice: and in the "fifth" century, mention is made of several bishops of this place; as of Cyrus, a native of Constantinople; and Protherius, who, it is thought, succeeded him, and was present in the synod at Chalcedon; and Aethericus, who assisted at three synods in this century, at Constantinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon: and in the "sixth" century, there was a bishop of Smyrna in the fifth synod held at Rome and Constantinople: and even in the "eighth" century, one Antony, a monk, supplied the place of the bishop of Smyrna in the Nicene synod ^k. The Turks have in this place now thirteen mosques, the Jews two synagogues, and of the Christians there are two churches belonging to the Greeks, and one to the Armenians ^l. This church, and its pastor, represent the state of the church under the persecutions of the Roman emperors. Smyrna signifies "myrrh", which being bitter of taste, is expressive of the bitter afflictions, and persecutions, and deaths, the people of God in this interval endured; and yet, as myrrh is of a sweet smell, so were those saints, in their sufferings for Christ, exceeding grateful and well pleasing to him; wherefore nothing is said by way of complaint to this church; not that she was without fault, but it was proper to use her tenderly in her afflicted state: and, as Dr. More observes, as myrrh was used in the embalming of dead bodies, it may point to the many deaths and martyrdoms of the saints in this period, whereby their names and memories are perpetuated and eternized,

These things saith the first and the last, which was dead, and is alive. Of these characters of Christ; see Gill on Rev 1:8, Rev 1:11, Rev 1:17, Rev 1:18; and they are very appropriately mentioned, to encourage the saints under their sufferings of death; since Christ, who is the eternal God, had in human nature tasted of the bitterness of death for them, and was risen again; suggesting, that though they were called to undergo the bitterest deaths for his sake, they should be raised again as he was, and live with him for ever. The Ethiopic version reads, "thus saith the holy Spirit"; but it cannot be said of him that "he was dead",

Gill: Rev 2:9

I know thy works,.... Good works, as before in Rev 2:2,

and tribulation; this is Christ's legacy to his people, and which lies in their way to heaven; and never was the way of any to heaven more strewed with it than was the way of the saints in this period. But Christ took notice of it, and of them in it; he knew their souls in adversity, and remarked their patience under it, and their constancy, and close adherence to him:

and poverty; which was true in a literal sense, through the spoiling of their goods, to which they were exposed for the profession of Christ: nothing is more contemptible among men than poverty, yet Christ takes notice of it, and owns his people in it; for this poverty came not by sin, but by sufferings for his sake:

but thou art rich; they were rich, in faith, and heirs of a kingdom, though poor in this world; they were rich with the riches of Christ, with the blessings of the covenant, with the graces of the Spirit, and in good works; they were kings and priests unto God, had a kingdom of grace here, and a right to the kingdom of glory hereafter; and were heirs of God, and joint heirs with Christ,

And I know the blasphemy of them which say they are Jews, and are not; who asserted themselves to be the true Israel of God, Jews that were so inwardly, regenerate persons, or truly Christians; for the Christians, baptized persons ^m, were by the Heathens called Jews; but these were not, they professed Christianity in words, but in works denied it; they were men of bad principles and practices, and both blasphemed the ways and doctrines of Christ themselves, and caused them to be blasphemed by others also; they were false Christians, nominal professors, and shunned persecution for the Gospel; who were not what they would be thought to be: these were the broachers of heresies in this period of time, in which there was a multitude of them, and which chiefly respected the doctrine of the Trinity, and the person of Christ; and they were introducers of Pagan and Jewish rites into the church, and were men of flagitious lives and conversations, and paved the way for the man of sin:

but are the synagogue of Satan: were the children of the devil, imitated him, and were influenced by him, and were the forerunners of antichrist, whose coming was after the working of Satan,

Gill: Rev 2:10

Fear none of those things which thou shalt suffer,.... God's people undergo sufferings of various sorts, as the Christians of those times did, scourgings, imprisonment, confiscation of goods, and death itself in various shapes; and these are certain, they shall suffer them; they are all known beforehand to Christ, and he sometimes gives his people previous notice of them, nor should they indulge a slavish fear about them. It is reported of Polycarp, bishop of this church at Smyrna, in a letter written by the church itself ⁿ that three days before he suffered, he dreamed his pillow, on which he laid his head, was on fire; upon which, awaking, he said to those that were by him, that he should be burnt for Christ; and when he came to suffer, as he was led along, a voice was heard by the bystanders, Polycarp, be strong, and play the man,

Behold, the devil shall cast some of you into prison; which has been the lot of many of the saints, and was of some, even of the faithful ministers of the word in this interval; in which Satan had an hand, instigating their enemies to prevent and stop the progress of the Gospel, and deter others both from preaching and professing it: the end was in the permission of it,

that ye may be tried; that their graces might be tried, their faith, love, zeal, courage, faithfulness, and constancy. Suffering times are trying times, whether men are real Christians or not; whether they have the true grace of God or not; and whether the principles they hold are right and true, and are worth, and will bear suffering for:

and ye shall have tribulation ten days: meaning it may be the ten persecutions under the Roman emperors; the "first" was under Nero, in the year 64 or 66; the "second" was under Domitian, about the year 93; the "third" was under Trojan, in the year 104; the "fourth" was under Hadrian, in the year 125; the "fifth" was under Marcus Antoninus, in the year 151; the "sixth" was under Septimius Severus, in the year 197; the "seventh" was under Maximinus, in the years 235, 236, 237; the "eighth" was under Decius, in the year 250; the "ninth" was under Valerianus, in the year 257; and the "tenth" was under Dioclesian, in the year 303. Austin ^o reckons the ten persecutions thus: the first by Nero, the second by Domitian, the third by Trojan, the fourth by Antoninus, the fifth by Severus, the sixth by Maximus, the seventh by Decius, the eighth by Valerianus, the ninth by Aurelianus, the tenth by Dioclesian and Maximianus. Others, inasmuch as Nero's persecution was before this vision, reckon the ten persecutions thus: Domitian, Trojan, M. Antoninus, Verus and Lucius, Severus, Maximinus, Decius, Valerianus, Aurelianus, Dioclesianus, Licinius: the Dioclesian persecution lasted ten years almost throughout: and some think that this last persecution, which held ten years, is here particularly meant, and not without some good reason; since it is usual in prophetic writings, and in this book of the Revelation, to put days for years; so that these ten days may be the ten years the last persecution held, and at which time the period of this church state ended, and that of Pergamos took place,

Be thou faithful unto death: which is an address to the ministers in this interval, to be faithful in preaching the pure and unmixed Gospel of Christ; in a constant administration of the ordinances, as they were delivered; in watching over the souls of men under their care, reproving, exhorting, &c. with all longsuffering; continuing in the discharge of duty, though in continual danger of death, and though it issued in it. And also to the churches and the members of them, to continue believing in Christ, professing his name, striving for his Gospel, attending on his ordinances, and following him whithersoever he went; though this should expose them to sufferings, even unto death, which it became them cheerfully to undergo: and to which they are encouraged by what follows,

and I will give thee a crown of life; which may refer not only to eternal life, which is so called, Jam 1:12; because of the glory of that state, and its everlasting continuance, and is in the possession and gift of Christ; but to the deliverance of the Christians from persecution, by Constantine; who coming to the imperial crown, that became not only a crown of glory to him, but of life to the church, and was as life from the dead unto the saints: to dead men is promised a crown of life, in allusion to the Gentiles, who crowned their dead ^p,

Gill: Rev 2:11

He that hath an ear, let him hear,.... See Gill on Rev 2:7,

he that overcometh; and is not intimidated by poverty, confiscation of goods, tribulation, persecution, and death itself, but through Christ is a conqueror, and more than a conqueror over all these things:

shall not be hurt of the second death; by which is meant eternal death, in distinction from a corporeal and temporal one; and lies in a destruction of both body and soul in hell, and in an everlasting separation from God, and a continual sense of divine wrath; but of this the saints shall never be hurt, they are ordained to eternal life; this is secured for them in Christ, and he has it in his hands for them, and will give it to them. The phrase is Jewish, and is opposed to the first death, or the death of the body; which is the effect of sin, and is appointed of God, and which the people of God die as well as others; but the second death is peculiar to wicked men. So the Jerusalem Targum on Deu 33:6; paraphrases those words, "let Reuben live, and not die", thus,

"let Reuben live in this world, and not die במותא תניינא, "by the second death", with which the wicked die in the world to come.

Of which sense of the text and phrase Epiphanius makes mention ^q. See the same phrase in the Targum of Jonathan ben Uzziel, in Isa 22:14; and in Jer 51:39; and in Philo the Jew ^r,

Gill: Rev 2:12

And to the angel of the church in Pergamos write,.... Of the city of Pergamos; see Gill on Rev 1:11. In it was a church of Christ, but when it begun, and how long it lasted, is not certain. Antipas, who is mentioned, Rev 2:13; is thought, by some, to have been the pastor of it. Though, according to the Apostolical Constitutions ^s, Caius was the first bishop of it; and it appears, that in the "second" century there were several in this place that suffered martyrdom for Christ, as Carpus, Papulus, and a woman whose name was Agathonice ^t. Attalus, the martyr, who suffered in the same century, was also a native of this place ^u. In the "fifth" century there was a bishop of Pergamos in the council at Ephesus; and in the "sixth" century, there was one in the "fifth" synod at Constantinople; and in the "seventh" century, Theodorus, bishop of the church here, was in the sixth synod held at the same place; and in the "eighth" century one Pastilas was bishop of Pergamos; and in the same age, Basil, bishop of this place, was in the Nicene synod ^w; and the Christian name now is not wholly, though almost extinct; for when our countryman, Dr. Smith ^x, was there, there was a little church called St. Theodore's, whither a priest was frequently sent from Smyrna, to perform divine service, there being but a very few Christian families in it. This church represents the church from the time of Constantine, and onward, rising up to, and enjoying great power, riches, and honour Pergamos signifies high and lofty; things that were sublime and lofty, were, by the Greeks, called τα περγαμα, and also all high and lofty towers ^y. It was built under a very high and steep mountain, upon the top of which a tower was erected, by the lords of the lesser Asia, which still continues ^z. The church it represents had its principal seat at Rome, where Satan dwelt, Rev 2:13; which signifies exalted likewise; and it introduces the man of sin, antichrist, the popes of Rome, who exalted themselves above all that is called God, princes, kings, and emperors; whom they excommunicated, dethroned, trod upon their necks, kicked off their crowns, and obliged them to hold their stirrups while they mounted their horses, with other haughty action, too many to name,

These things, saith he, which hath the sharp sword with two edges: of which See Gill on Rev 1:16; This title is used partly to show, that the only weapon this church, and the true ministers and members of it had, to defend themselves against the growing corruptions of antichrist, who in this interval rose up by degrees, and was revealed, and came to the height of his power, was the word of God, the Scriptures of truth; and partly to show, that in process of time, though not in this period, the man of sin should be destroyed, with the breath of Christ's mouth, and the brightness of his coming; of which his fighting against the Nicolaitans, with the sword of his mouth, Rev 2:16; is an emblem,

Gill: Rev 2:13

I know thy works,.... Both good and bad, and which in that pure part of this church, which opposed the growing corruptions of antichrist, were for the most part good,

And where thou dwellest, even where Satan's seat is. Pergamos was a city very much given to idolatry, here Satan reigned while it was Pagan, and so was a fit emblem of the idolatrous church of Rome. Pausanias says ^a, the country the Pergamenes inhabited was sacred to the Cabiri, the chief gods of the Heathens. And the same writer ^b observes, that Aesculapius particularly was worshipped at Pergamos; and hence he is called by Martial ^c the Pergamean god; to his temple here, men used to go from different parts of the world for cure of diseases; hither Antoninus the emperor went for such a purpose, as Herodian ^d relates; and this being a common thing, hence Lucian ^e scoffingly says, that Aesculapius had an apothecary's shop at Pergamos. As Rome, and its dominions, were the principal seat of the church in this period of time, it may well be called Satan's seat or throne; not only because it had been the seat of the Roman emperors, the ten horned and seven headed beast, Rev 13:2; but because it was the seat of antichrist, which the great dragon Satan gave him, whose coming was after the working of Satan, and he was influenced by him; and who, like Satan, exalted himself above all that is called God; yea, placed himself in the temple of God, the church, as God, showing himself to be God, assuming that power to himself which only belonged to God. Moreover, he may be called so for his enmity and malice against the saints, and for his art and subtlety, and insidious methods to ensnare and destroy them. Now to dwell where such an one has his seat, his throne, has a kingdom, power, and authority, must be very uncomfortable, as well as dangerous; and required great care, circumspection, and prudence how to behave: and yet to the commendation of this church it is said,

and thou holdest fast my name, and hast not denied my faith: the pure members of this church are the two witnesses, which rose up at the beginning of the apostasy of Rome, and bore their testimony against it, and for the truth; and continued to do so amidst all the corruptions and persecutions of that state: these are the two olive trees, that, through the golden pipes of the word and ordinances, emptied the golden oil of Gospel truths out, of themselves, pure and incorrupt, and the two candlesticks that held forth the light of the Gospel in the darkest times of Popery; these held fast the name of Christ, or the Gospel, and denied not, but confessed the doctrine of faith in the worst of times. They had the truths of the Gospel in their possession, which were dear and valuable to them; and whereas there was danger of losing them, they held them fast, with great courage, magnanimity, and strength, though the greater number was against them, and they were attended with reproach and persecution:

even in those days wherein Antipas was my faithful martyr, who was slain among you, where Satan dwelleth. Antipas is the proper name of a man; so a son of Herod was called ^f, even he that beheaded John, and mocked Christ: and there might be a man of this name at Pergamos, that might suffer martyrdom for the Gospel of Christ; and who was an emblem of the confessors, witnesses, and martyrs, that suffered for Christ, in this period of time, through their opposition to the popes of Rome; for Antipas is the contraction of Antipater, and is the same with Antipapas, or Antipappas, which signifies one that is against the pope, an opposer of that holy father; and so intends all those that made head against him, upon his rising and revelation, and when he assumed the power he did to himself; such as the Waldenses and Albigenses particularly, who set themselves against him, openly declared that the pope was antichrist, and that his government was tyrannical, and his doctrines the doctrines of devils, abominable and fabulous. They bore a faithful testimony against all his corruptions and innovations, and became martyrs in the cause of Christ, many thousands of them being slain for his sake within the dominions of this firstborn of Satan. The Alexandrian copy reads "Anteipas"; and his name is left out in the Syriac and Arabic versions,

Gill: Rev 2:14

But I have a few things against thee,.... The members of this church before their open separation from the apostasy; who still continued in the communion of the corrupt church of Rome, though they remonstrated against the errors and evil practices that crept in; and so were a stumbling block, and a snare to others to join in their idolatry and superstition:

because thou hast there them that hold the doctrine of Balaam, who taught Balak to cast a stumbling block before the children of Israel,

to eat things sacrificed unto idols, and to commit fornication: which latter was in order to the former: the instruction Balaam gave to Balak, which is here called his doctrine, was, that Balak should get some of the most beautiful women in his kingdom to ply the men of Israel, and draw them into uncleanness, and so to idolatry; by which means, God being angry with them, he might get an advantage over them: that the Israelites did commit whoredom with the daughters of Moab, and eat things sacrificed to idols, and bowed down to Baal Peor, is certain, Num 25:1; but that this was brought about through the counsel of Balaam is not so plainly expressed, though it is hinted at in Num 31:15; but the Jewish writers are very express about this matter. Jonathan ben Uzziel, one of their Targumists on Num 24:14, has these words of Balaam,

"Come, and I will counsel thee, (speaking to Balak,) go and set up inns, and place in them whorish women, to sell food and drink at a low price: and this people will come and eat and drink, and be drunken, and will lie with them, and deny their God; and they will be quickly delivered into thine hands, and many of them shall fall.

This now was the stumbling block he taught Balak to lay before them. And elsewhere ^g it is said,

"that Balaam, the wicked, gave counsel to Balak, the son of Zippor, to cause the Israelites to fall by the sword; he said to him, the God of this people hates whoredom, cause thy daughters to commit whoredom with them, and ye shall rule over them.

And then they go on to relate how they built shops, and placed an old woman without, and a young woman within; and when the Israelites came to buy, how well they used them, and what familiarity they admitted them to; how they made them drink of Ammonitish wine, which inclined to lust and when the signified their desire, oblige them to worship Baal Peor, and renounce the law of Moses. Both Philo ^h and Josephus ⁱ speak of this counsel of Balaam, much to the same purpose. The Samaritan Chronicle says ^k that this counsel pleased the king, and he sent into the camp of Israel, on a sabbath day, twenty four thousand young women, by whom the Israelites were so seduced, that they did everything they desired them, which was just the number of those that were slain, Num 25:9. By Balaam may be meant the pope of Rome, for that name signifies, "the lord of the people"; and is very appropriate to him, who in this interval took upon him to be universal bishop, and lorded it over both church and state, in a most haughty and tyrannical manner; and the Balaamites were those who submitted to his power and authority, and received his doctrines; and by Balak, king of Moab, may be intended the secular powers, the emperors, kings, and princes of the earth, who were instructed by the popes of Rome, to draw their subjects into idolatry, which is spiritual fornication, to eat the breaden God, to worship the host, images, and saints departed; and which proved a snare, and a stumbling to some of this church, as to the Israelites of old, to do the same things,

Commentary -- Verse Notes / Footnotes

NET Notes: Rev 2:1

¹ map For location see JP1 D2; JP2 D2; JP3 D2; JP4 D2.

² tn The phrase “the following” after “write” is supplied to clarify that what follows is the content of what is to be written.

³ tn Grk “These things says [the One]…” The expression τάδε λέγει (tade legei) occurs eight times in the NT, seven of which are in Rev 2-3. “The pronoun is used to add solemnity to the prophetic utterance that follows. …In classical drama, it was used to introduce a new actor to the scene (Smyth, Greek Grammar, 307 [§1241]). But the τάδε λέγει formula in the NT derives from the OT, where it was used to introduce a prophetic utterance (BAGD, s.v. ὅδε, 1)” (ExSyn 328). Thus, the translation “this is the solemn pronouncement of” for τάδε λέγει is very much in keeping with the OT connotations of this expression.

sn The expression This is the solemn pronouncement of reflects an OT idiom. The LXX has the same Greek phrase (τάδε λέγει, tade legei) about 350 times, with nearly 320 of them having “the Lord” (Heb יהוה, Yahweh) as subject. That the author of Revelation would use such an expression seven times with the risen Christ as the speaker may well imply something of Christ’s sovereignty and deity. Cf. also Acts 21:11 in which the Holy Spirit is the speaker of this expression.

⁴ tn Grk “holds,” but the term (i.e., κρατῶν, kratwn) with an accusative object, along with the context, argues for a sense of firmness. (Cf. ExSyn 132.)

⁵ sn On seven stars in his right hand see 1:16.

⁶ tn Grk “lampstands of gold” with the genitive τῶν χρυσῶν (twn cruswn) translated as an attributive genitive.

NET Notes: Rev 2:2

¹ tn Although the first possessive pronoun σου (sou) is connected to τὰ ἔργα (ta erga) and the second σου is connected to ὑπομονήν (Jupomonhn), semantically κόπον (kopon) is also to be understood as belonging to the Ephesian church. The translation reflects this.

² tn The translation “tolerate” seems to capture the sense of βαστάσαι (bastasai) here. BDAG 171 s.v. βαστάζω 2.b.β says, “bear, endure…κακούς Rv 2:2.…bear patiently, put up with: weaknesses of the weak Ro 15:1; cf. IPol 1:2; evil Rv 2:3.”

³ tn Because of the length and complexity of the Greek sentence, the participle was broken off from the previous sentence and translated as an indicative verb beginning a new sentence here in the translation.

NET Notes: Rev 2:3

¹ tn Because of the length and complexity of this Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation by supplying the phrase “I am also aware” to link this English sentence back to “I know” at the beginning of v. 2.

² tn The Greek word translated “persisted steadfastly” (ὑπομονή, Jupomonh) is the same one translated “steadfast endurance” in v. 2.

NET Notes: Rev 2:4

¹ tn The Greek word translated “departed from” (ἀφίημι, afihmi; L&N 15.48) can actually be used of divorce (L&N 34.78), so the imagery here is very strong.

NET Notes: Rev 2:5

¹ tn Grk “from where,” but status is in view rather than physical position. On this term BDAG 838 s.v. πόθεν 1 states, “from what place? from where?…In imagery μνημόνευε πόθεν πέπτωκες remember from what (state) you have fallen Rv 2:5.”

² tn Grk “and do” (a continuation of the previous sentence in the Greek text). For stylistic reasons in English a new sentence was started here in the translation. The repeated mention of repenting at the end of the verse suggests that the intervening material (“do the deeds you did at first”) specifies how the repentance is to be demonstrated.

³ tn Or “you did formerly.”

⁴ tn Although the final clause is somewhat awkward, it is typical of the style of Revelation.

NET Notes: Rev 2:6

¹ tn Grk “But you do have this.” The words “going for you” are supplied to complete the English idiom; other phrases like “in your favor” (NIV) or “to your credit” (NRSV) could also be supplied.

² sn The Nicolaitans were a sect (sometimes associated with Nicolaus, one of the seven original deacons in the church in Jerusalem according to Acts 6:5) that apparently taught that Christians could engage in immoral behavior with impunity.

³ tn The expression τὰ ἔργα τῶν Νικολαϊτῶν (ta erga twn Nikolaitwn) has been translated as a subjective genitive.

NET Notes: Rev 2:7

¹ tn Or “who is victorious”; traditionally, “who overcomes.” The pendent dative is allowed to stand in the English translation because it is characteristic of the author’s style in Revelation.

² tn Or “grant.”

³ tn Or “stands.”

⁴ tc The omission of “my” (μου, mou) after “God” (θεοῦ, qeou) is well attested, supported by א A C and the Andreas of Caesarea group of Byzantine mss (Ï^A). Its addition in 1611, the Ï^K group, latt, and others, seems to be evidence of a purposeful conforming of the text to 3:2 and the four occurrences of “my God” (θεοῦ μου) in 3:12.

NET Notes: Rev 2:8

¹ tn Here καί (kai) has not been translated due to differences between Greek and English style.

² tn The phrase “the following” after “write” is supplied to clarify that what follows is the content of what is to be written.

³ tn Grk “These things says [the One]…” See the note on the phrase “this is the solemn pronouncement of” in 2:1.

sn The expression This is the solemn pronouncement of reflects an OT idiom. See the note on this phrase in 2:1.

⁴ tn Here καί (kai) has been translated as “but” to indicate the contrast present between these two phrases.

NET Notes: Rev 2:9

¹ tn Or “know your suffering.” This could refer to suffering or distress caused by persecution (see L&N 22.2).

² tn Because of the length and complexity of this Greek sentence, a new sentence was started here in the translation by supplying the phrase “I also know” to link this English sentence back to “I know” at the beginning of the verse.

³ tn The words “against you” are not in the Greek text, but are implied.

⁴ sn A synagogue was a place for Jewish prayer and worship, with recognized leadership (e.g., Mt 4:23, Mk 1:21, Lk 4:15, Jn 6:59).

NET Notes: Rev 2:10

¹ tn Grk “is about to throw some of you,” but the force is causative in context.

² tn Or “tempted.”

³ tn Or “experience persecution,” “will be in distress” (see L&N 22.2).

⁴ tn Grk “crown of life,” with the genitive “of life” (τῆς ζωῆς, th" zwh") functioning in apposition to “crown” (στέφανον, stefanon): “the crown that consists of life.”

NET Notes: Rev 2:11

¹ tn Or “who is victorious”; traditionally, “who overcomes.”

NET Notes: Rev 2:12

¹ tn Here καί (kai) has not been translated due to differences between Greek and English style.

² tn The phrase “the following” after “write” is supplied to clarify that what follows is the content of what is to be written.

³ tn Grk “These things says [the One]…” See the note on the phrase “this is the solemn pronouncement of” in 2:1.

sn The expression This is the solemn pronouncement of reflects an OT idiom. See the note on this phrase in 2:1.

⁴ sn On the sharp double-edged sword see 1:16.

NET Notes: Rev 2:13

¹ tc The shorter reading adopted here has superior ms support (א A C P 2053 al latt co), while the inclusion of “your works and” (τὰ ἔργα σου καί, ta erga sou kai) before “where you reside” is supported by the Byzantine witnesses and is evidently a secondary attempt to harmonize the passage with 2:2, 19; 3:1, 8, 15.

² tn Here καί (kai) has been translated as “Yet” to indicate the contrast between their location and their faithful behavior.

³ tn The present indicative verb κρατεῖς (kratei") has been translated as a progressive present.

⁴ tn Grk “the faith”; here the Greek article is used as a possessive pronoun (ExSyn 215).

⁵ tn Grk “the faith of me” (τὴν πίστιν μου, thn pistin mou) with the genitive “of me” (μου) functioning objectively.

⁶ tn Or “martyr.” The Greek word μάρτυς can mean either “witness” or “martyr.”

⁷ tn Grk “killed among you.” The term “city” does not occur in the Greek text of course, but the expression παρ᾿ ὑμῖν, ὅπου ὁ σατανᾶς κατοικεῖ (par’ Jumin, {opou Jo satana" katoikei) seems to indicate that this is what is meant. See G. B. Caird, Revelation (HNTC), 36-38.

NET Notes: Rev 2:14

¹ sn See Num 22-24; 31:16.

² tn That is, a cause for sinning. An alternate translation is “who instructed Balak to cause the people of Israel to sin by eating food sacrificed to idols…”

³ tn Grk “sons,” but the expression υἱοὶ ᾿Ισραήλ (Juioi Israhl) is an idiom for the people of Israel as an ethnic entity (see L&N 11.58).

⁴ tn Due to the actual events in the OT (Num 22-24; 31:16), πορνεῦσαι (porneusai) is taken to mean “sexual immorality.” BDAG 854 s.v. πορνεύω 1 states, “engage in illicit sex, to fornicate, to whore…W. φαγεῖν εἰδωλόθυτα ‘eat meat offered to idols’ Rv 2:14, 20.”

Geneva Bible: Rev 2:1

Unto ^{( 1 )} the angel of the church of Ephesus write; ^{( 2 )} These things saith he that holdeth the seven stars in his right hand, who walketh in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks;

^{( 1 )} The former part of this book is comprised in a narration of those things which then were, as John taught us, in (Rev 1:19) it belongs wholly to instruction, and in these two next chapters, contains seven places, according to the number and condition of those churches which were named before in (Rev 1:11) shown in (Rev 1:12) and distributed most aptly into their pastors and flocks, (Rev 1:10) which verse of that chapter is a passage to the first part. Every one of these seven passages has three principal parts, an introduction taken from the person of the reprehension of that which is evil: an instruction, containing either an exhortation alone, or a dissuasion opposite to it, and a conclusion stirring to attention, by divine promises. This first passage is to the pastors of the church of Ephesus. ^{( 2 )} The introduction in which are contained the special prayers of Christ Jesus the author of this prophecy out of (Rev 1:6, Rev 1:13).

Geneva Bible: Rev 2:2

^{( 3 )} I know thy works, and thy labour, and thy patience, and how thou canst not bear them which are evil: and thou hast tried them which say they are apostles, and are not, and hast found them liars:

^{( 3 )} The proposition first condemning the pastor of this church ( Rev_2:2,3) then reproving him (Rev 2:4) after informing him, and threatening that he will move the church to another place (Rev 2:5). This threat of divine vengeance Christ mitigates by a type of correction, calling to mind the particular virtue and piety of the Church, which God never leaves without recompense (Rev 2:6). Concerning the Nicolaitans, see (Rev 2:15).

Geneva Bible: Rev 2:4

Nevertheless I have [somewhat] ^{( a )} against thee, because thou hast left thy first love.

^{( a )} To deal with you for.

Geneva Bible: Rev 2:7

^{( 4 )} He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches; To him that overcometh will I give to eat of the tree of life, which is in ^{( 5 )} the midst of the ^{( b )} paradise of God.

^{( 4 )} The conclusion containing a commandment of attention, and a promise of everlasting life, shown in a figure; (Gen 2:9). ^{( 5 )} That is, in paradise after the manner of the Hebrew phrase.

^{( b )} Thus Christ speaks as he is mediator.

Geneva Bible: Rev 2:8

^{( 6 )} And unto the angel of the church in ^{( c )} Smyrna write; These things saith the first and the last, which was dead, and is alive;

^{( 6 )} The second passage is to the pastors of the church of the Smyrnians. The introduction is taken out of (Rev 1:17-18).

^{( c )} Smyrna was one of the cities of Ionia in Asia.

Geneva Bible: Rev 2:9

^{( 7 )} I know thy works, and tribulation, and poverty, (but thou art rich) and [I know] the blasphemy of them which say they are Jews, and are not, but [are] the synagogue of Satan.

^{( 7 )} The proposition of praise is in this verse, and of exhortation joined with a promise, is in (Rev 2:10).

Geneva Bible: Rev 2:10

Fear none of those things which thou shalt suffer: behold, the devil shall cast [some] of you into prison, that ye may be tried; and ye shall have ^{( 8 )} tribulation ten days: be thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life.

^{( 8 )} That is, of ten years. For so commonly both in this book and in Daniel, years are signified by days: that God by this might declare, that the space of time is appointed by him and the same very short. Now because John wrote this book in the end of Domitian the Emperor's reign, as Justinus and Ireneus do witness, it is altogether necessary that this should be referred to that persecution which was done by the authority of the emperor Trajan: who began to make havock of the Christian church in the tenth year of his reign, as the historians do write: and his bloody persecution continued until Adrian the emperor had succeeded in his stead: The space of which time is precisely ten years, which are here mentioned.

Geneva Bible: Rev 2:11

^{( 9 )} He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches; He that overcometh shall not be hurt ^{( 10 )} of the second death.

^{( 9 )} The conclusion, as in (Rev 2:7).

^{( 10 )} See (Rev 10:6).

Geneva Bible: Rev 2:12

^{( 11 )} And to the angel of the church in ^{( d )} Pergamos write; These things saith he which hath the sharp sword with two edges;

^{( 11 )} The third passage is to the pastors of Pergamos. The introduction is taken from (Rev 1:16).

^{( d )} Pergamos was the name of a famous city of old in Asia, where the kings of the Attalians were always resident.

Geneva Bible: Rev 2:13

^{( 12 )} I know thy works, and where thou dwellest, [even] where Satan's seat [is]: and thou holdest fast my name, and hast not denied my faith, even in ^{( e )} those days wherein Antipas [was] my faithful martyr, who was slain among you, where Satan dwelleth.

^{( 12 )} The proposition of praise is in this verse, of reprehension in the two following, and of exhortation joined with a conditional threat (Rev 2:16). Now this Antipas was the angel or minister of the church of Pergamos, as Aretas writes.

^{( e )} The faith of those at Pergamos is so much the more highly commended, because they remained constant even in the very heat of persecution.

Geneva Bible: Rev 2:14

But I have a few things against thee, because thou hast there them that hold the doctrine of Balaam, who taught Balac to cast a stumblingblock before the children of Israel, to ^{( f )} eat things sacrificed unto idols, and to commit fornication.

^{( f )} That which is here spoken of things offered to idols, is meant of the same type which Paul speaks of in (1Co 10:14).

Commentary -- Verse Range Notes

TSK Synopsis: Rev 2:1-29

1 What is commanded to be written to the angels, that is, the ministers of the churches of Ephesus,

8 Smyrna,

12 Pergamos,

18 Thyatira, and what is commended or found wanting in them.

Maclaren: Rev 2:1

The Seven Stars And The Seven Candlesticks

"He that holdeth the seven stars in His right hand. who walketh in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks."--Rev. 2:1.

It is one of the obligations which we owe to hostile criticism that we have been forced to recognise with great clearness the wide difference between the representation of Christ in John's Gospel and that in the Apocalypse. That there is such a contrast is unquestionable. The Prince of all the kings of the earth, going forth conquering and to conquer, strikes one at once as being unlike the Christ whom the Evangelist painted weeping at the grave of Lazarus. We can afford to recognise the fact, though we demur to the inference that both representations cannot have proceeded from one pen. Surely that is not a necessary conclusion unless the two pictures are contradictory. Does the variety amount to discordance? Unless it do, the variety casts no shadow of suspicion on the common authorship. I, for my part, see no inconsistency in them, and thankfully accept both as completing each other.

This grand vision, which forms the introduction to the whole Book of the Apocalypse, gives us indeed the Lord Jesus clothed with majesty and wielding supreme power, but it also shows us the old love and tenderness. It was the old voice which fell on John's ear, in words heard from Him before, Fear not.' It was the same hand as he had often clasped that was lovingly laid upon him to strengthen him. The assurance which He gives His Apostle declares at once the change in the circumstances of His Being, and in the functions which He discharges, and the substantial identity of His Being through all the changes: I am the first, and the last … I am the Living One, who was dead, and behold I am alive for evermore.' This vision and the whole book calls to us, Behold the Lion of the Tribe of Judah'; and when we look, Lo, in the midst of the throne, stands a Lamb as it had been slain '--the well-known meek and patient Jesus, the suffering Redeemer--the Lamb of God which taketh away the sins of the world.'

Still further, this vision is the natural introduction to all that follows, and indeed defines the main purpose of the whole book, inasmuch as it shows us Christ sustaining, directing, dwelling, in His Churches. We are thus led to expect that the remainder of the prophecy shall have the Church of Christ for its chief subject, and that the politics of the world, and the mutations of nations, shall come into view mainly in their bearing upon that.

The words of our text, then, which resumes the principal emblem of the preceding vision, are meant to set forth permanent truths in regard to Christ's Churches, His relation to them, and theirs to the world, which I desire to bring to your thoughts now. They speak to us of the Churches and their servants, of the Churches and their work, of the Churches and their Lord.

I. We Have In The Symbol Important Truths Concerning The Churches And Their Servants.

The seven stars are the angels of the seven Churches. Now I need not spend time in enumerating all the strange and mystical interpretations which have been given to these angels of the Churches. I see no need for taking them to have been anything but men; the recognised heads and representatives of the respective communities. The word angel' means messenger. Those superhuman beings who are usually designated by it are so called, not to describe their nature, but their function. They are God's messengers,' and their name means only that. Then the word is certainly used, both in its Hebrew and Greek forms, in reference to men. It is applied to priests, and even in one passage, as it would appear, to an officer of the synagogue. If here we find that each Church had its angel, who had a letter addressed to him, who is spoken to in words of rebuke and exhortation, who could sin and repent, who could be persecuted and die, who could fall into heresies and be perfected by suffering, it seems to me a violent and unnecessary hypothesis that a superhuman being is in question. And the name by which he is called need not imply more than his function,--that of being the messenger and representative of the Church.

Believing this as the more probable meaning of the phrase, I see in the relations between these men and the little communities to which they belonged an example of what should be found existing between all congregations of faithful men and the officers whom they have chosen, be the form of their polity what it may. There are certain broad principles which must underlie all Christian organisations, and are incomparably more important than the details of Church government.

Note then, first, that the messengers are rulers. They are described in a double manner--by a name which expresses subordination, and by a figure which expresses authority. I need not do more than remind you that throughout Scripture, from the time when Balaam beheld from afar the star that should come out of Jacob and the sceptre that should rise out of Israel, that has been the symbol for rulers. It is so notably in this Book of Revelation. Whatever other ideas, then, are connected with its use here, this leading one of authority must not be lost sight of.

But this double representation of these persons as being in one aspect servants and in another rulers, perfectly embodies the very essential characteristic of all office and power in Christ's Church. It is a repetition in pictorial form of the great principle, so sadly forgotten, which He gave when He said, He that is greatest among you, let him be your servant.' The higher are exalted that they may serve the lower. Dignity and authority mean liberty for more and more self-forgetting work. Power binds its possessor to toil. Wisdom is stored in one, that from him it may flow to the foolish; strength is given that by its holder feeble hands may be stayed. Noblesse oblige. The King Himself has obeyed the law. Jesus, knowing the Father had given all things into His hands, took a towel, and girded Himself.' We are redeemed because He came to minister, and to give His life a ransom for many. He is among us as He that serveth.' God Himself has obeyed the law. He is above all that He may bless all. He, the highest, stoops the most deeply. His dominion is built on love, and stands in giving. And that law which makes the throne of God the refuge of all the weak, and the treasury of all the poor, is given for our guidance in our humble measure. Wheresoever Christian men think more of themselves and of their dignity than of their brethren and their work; wheresoever gifts are hoarded selfishly or selfishly squandered; wheresoever the accidents of authority, its baubles and signature, its worldly consequences, and its pride of place, bulk larger in its possessors' eyes than its solemn obligations;--there the law is broken, and the heathen devilish notion of rule lays waste the Church of God.

The true idea is not certain to be held, nor its tempting counterfeit to be avoided, by any specific form of organisation. Wherever there are offices, there will be danger of officialism. Where there are none, that will not drive out selfishness. Quakerism and Episcopacy, with every form of Church government that lies between, are in danger from the same source--our forgetfulness that in Christ's kingdom to rule is to serve. All Churches have shown that their messengers could become lords over God's heritage.' The true spirit of Christ's servants is not secured by any theory about the appointment or the duties of the servants, but only by fellowship and sympathy with the Master who helps us all, and cares nothing for any glory which He cannot share with His disciples.

But to be servant of all does not mean to do the bidding of all. The service which imitates Christ is helpfulness, not subjection. Neither the Church is to lord it over the messenger, nor the messenger over the Church. The true bond is broken by official claims of dominion; it is broken just as much by popular claims to control. All alike are to stand free from all men--in independence of will, thought, and action; shaping their lives and moulding their beliefs, according to Christ's will and Christ's word; and repelling all coercion, from whatsoever quarter it comes. All alike are by love to serve one another; counting every possession, material, intellectual, and spiritual, as given for the general good. The one guiding principle is, He that is chiefest among you, let him be your servant,' and the other, which guards this from misconstruction and abuse from either side,' One is your Master, even Christ, and all ye are brethren.'

Another point to be observed in this symbol is, that the messengers and the churches have at bottom the same work to do.

Stars shine, so do lamps. Light comes from both, in different fashion indeed, and of a different quality, but still both are lights. These are in the Saviour's hands, those are by His side; but each is meant to stream out rays of brightness over a dark night. So, essentially, all Christian men have the same work to do. The ways of doing it differ, but the thing done is one. Whatever be the difference between those who hold offices in God's Church and the bulk of their brethren, there is no difference here. The loftiest gifts, the most conspicuous position, the closest approach to the central sun, have no other purpose than that which the lowliest powers, in the obscurest corner, are meant to subserve. The one distributing Spirit divides to each man severally as He will; and whether He endows him with star like gifts, which soar above and blaze over half the world with lustre that lives through the centuries, or whether He sets him in some cottage window to send out a tiny cone of light, that pierces a little way into the night for an hour or two, and then is quenched--it is all one. The manifestation of the Spirit is given to every man for the same purpose--to do good with. And we have all one office and function to be discharged by each in his own fashion--namely, to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Christ Jesus.

Again, observe, the Churches and their messengers are alike in their religious condition and character. The successive letters treat his strength or weakness, his fervour or coldness, his sin or victory over evil, as being theirs. He represents them completely. And that representative character seems to me to be the only reason worth considering for supposing that these angels are superhuman beings, inasmuch as it seems that the identification is almost too entire to be applicable to the relation of any man to the community. But, perhaps, if we think of the facts which every day's experience shows us, we may see even in this solemn paralleling of the spiritual state of the Churches and of their servants, a strong reason for holding to our interpretation, as well as a very serious piece of warning and exhortation for us all.

For is it not true that the religious condition of a Church, and that of its leaders, teachers, pastors, ever tend to the same, as that of the level of water in two connected vessels? There is such a constant interaction and reciprocal influence that uniformity results. Either a living teacher will, by God's grace, quicken a languid Church, or a languid Church will, with the devil's help, stifle the life of the teacher. Take two balls of iron, one red hot, and one cold, and put them down beside each other. How many degrees of difference between them, after half an hour, will your thermometer show? Thank God for the many instances in which one glowing soul, all aflame with love of God, has sufficed to kindle a whole heap of dead matter, and send it leaping skyward in ruddy brightness! Alas! for the many instances in which the wet, green wood has been too strong for the little spark, and has not only obstinately resisted, but has ignominiously quenched its ineffectual fire! Thank God, that when His Church lives on a high level of devotion, it has never wanted for single souls who have towered even above that height, and have been elevated by it, as the snowy Alps spring not from the fiats of Holland, but from the high central plateau of Europe. Alas! for the leaders who have rayed out formalism, and have chilled down the Church to their own coldness, and stiffened to their own deadness!

Let us, then, not bandy reproaches from pulpit to pew, and from pew to pulpit; but remembering that the spiritual character of each helps to determine the condition of the whole, and the general condition of the body determines the vigour of each part, let us go together to God with acknowledgments of common faithlessness, and of our individual share in it, and let us ask Him to quicken His Church, that it may yield messengers who in their turn shall be the helpers of His people and the glory of God.

II. The Text Brings Before Us The Churches And Their Work.

Of course, you understand that what the Apostle saw was not seven candlesticks, which are a modern piece of furniture, but seven lamps. There is a distinct reference in this, as in all the symbols of the Apocalypse, to the Old Testament. We know that in the Jewish Temple there stood, as an emblem of Israel's work in the world, the great seven-branched candlestick, burning for ever before the veil and beyond the altar. The difference between the two symbols is as obvious as their resemblance. The ancient lamp had all the seven bowls springing from a single stem. It was a formal unity. The New Testament seer saw not one lamp with seven arms rising from one pillar, but seven distinct lamps--the emblems of a unity which was not formal, but real. They were one in their perfect manifoldness, because of Him who walked in the midst. In which difference lies a representation of one great element in the superiority of the Church over Israel, that for the hard material oneness of the separated nation there has come the true spiritual oneness of the Churches of the saints; one not because of any external connection, but by reason that Christ is in them. The seven-branched lamp lies at the bottom of the Tiber. There let it lie. We have a better thing, in these manifold lights, which stand before the Throne of the New Temple, and blend into one, because lighted from one Source, fed by one Spirit, tended and watched by one Lord.

But looking a little more closely at this symbol, it suggests to us some needful thoughts as to the position and work of the Church, which is set forth as being light, derived light, clustered light.

The Church is to be light. That familiar image, which applies, as we have seen, to stars and lamps alike, lends itself naturally to point many an important lesson as to what we have to do, and how we ought to do it. Think, for instance, how spontaneously light streams forth. Light is light, which circulates.' The substance which is lit cannot but shine; and if we have any real possession of the truth, we cannot but impart it; and if we have any real illumination from the Lord, who is the light, we cannot but give it forth. There is much good done in the world by direct, conscious effort. There is perhaps more done by spontaneous, unconscious shining, by the involuntary influence of character, than by the lip or the pen. We need not balance the one form of usefulness against the other. We need both. But, Christian men and women, do you remember that from you a holy impression revealing Jesus ought to flow as constantly, as spontaneously, as light from the sun! Our lives should be like the costly box of fragrant ointment which that penitent, loving woman lavished on her Lord, the sweet, penetrating, subtle odour of which stole through all the air till the house was filled. So His name, the revelation of His love, the resemblance to this character, should breathe forth from our whole being; and whether we think of it or no, we should be unto God a sweet savour of Christ.

Then think again how silent and gentle, though so mighty, is the action of the light. Morning by morning God's great mercy of sunrise steals upon a darkened world in still, slow, self-impartation; and the light which has a force that has carried it across gulfs of space that the imagination staggers in trying to conceive, yet falls so gently that it does not move the petals of the sleeping flowers, nor hurt the lids of an infant's eyes, nor displace a grain of dust. Its work is mighty, and done without speech or language.' Its force is gigantic, but, like its Author, its gentleness makes its dependents great. So should we live and work, clothing all our power in tenderness, doing our work in quietness, disturbing nothing but the dark. ness, and with silent increase of beneficent power filling and flooding the dark earth with healing beams.

Then think again that heaven's light is itself invisible, and, revealing all things, reveals not itself. The source you can see, but not the beams. So we are to shine, not showing ourselves but our Master--not coveting fame or conspicuousness--glad if, like one to whom He bore testimony that he was a light, it be said of us to all that ask who we are, He was not that Light, but was sent to bear witness of that Light,' and rejoicing without stint or reservation that for us, as for John the Baptist, the necessity is, that we must decrease and Christ must increase.

We may gather from this emblem in the text the further lesson that the Church's light is derived light. Two things are needed for the burning of a lamp: that it should be lit, and that it should be fed. In both respects the light with which we shine is derived. We are not suns, we are moons; reflected, not self-originated, is all our radiance. That is true in all senses of the figure: it is truest in the highest. It is true about all in every man which is of the nature of light. Christ is the true light which lighteth every man that cometh into the world. Whatsoever beam of wisdom, whatsoever ray of purity, whatsoever sunshine of gladness has ever been in any human spirit, from Him it came, who is the Light and Life of men: from Him it came, who brings to us in form fitted for our eyes, that otherwise inaccessible light of God in which alone we see light. And as for the more special work of the Church (which chiefly concerns us now), the testimony of Christ to John, which I have just quoted in another connection, gives us the principle which is true about all. He was not that light,' the Evangelist said of John, denying that in him was original and native radiance. He was a lamp burning'--where the idea is possibly rather lighted' or made to burn--and therefore shining, and in whose light men could rejoice for a little while. A derived and transient light is all that any man can be. In ourselves we are darkness, and only as we hold fellowship with Him do we become capable of giving forth any rays of light. The condition of all our brightness is that Christ shall give us light. He is the source, we are but reservoirs. He the fountain, we only cisterns. He must walk amidst the candlesticks, or they will never shine. He must hold the stars in His hand, or they will drop from their places and dwindle into darkness. Therefore our power for service lies in reception; and if we are to live for Christ, we must live in Christ.

But there is still another requisite for the shining of the light. The prophet Zechariah once saw in vision the great Temple lamp, and by its side two olive trees from which golden oil flowed through golden pipes to the central light. And when he expressed his ignorance of the meaning of the vision, this was the interpretation by the angel who talked with him: Not by might, nor by power, but by My Spirit, saith the Lord of Hosts.' The lamp that burns must be kept fed with oil. Throughout the Old Testament the soft, gracious influences of God's Spirit are symbolised by oil, with which therefore prophets, priests, and kings were designated to their office. Hence the Messiah in prophecy says,' The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because He hath anointed me.' Thus the lamp too must be fed, the soul which is to give forth the light of Christ must first of all have been kindled by Him, and then must constantly be supplied with the grace and gift of His Divine Spirit. Solemn lessons, my friends, gather round that thought. What became of those who had lamps without oil? Their lamps had gone out, and their end was darkness. Oh! let us beware lest by any sloth and sin we choke the golden pipes, through which there steals into our tiny lamps the soft flow of that Divine oil which alone can keep up the flame. The wick, untrimmed and unfed, may burn for a little while, but it soon chars, and smokes, and goes out at last in foul savour offensive to God and man. Take care lest you resist the Holy Spirit of God. Let your loins be girt and your lamps burning; and that they may be, give heed that the light caught from Jesus be fed by the pure oil which alone can save it from extinction.

Again, the text sets before us the Church's light as blended or clustered light.

Each of these little communities is represented by one lamp. And that one light is composed of the united brightness of all the individuals who constitute the community. They are to have a character, an influence, a work as a society, not merely as individuals. There is to be co-operation in service, there is to be mingling of powers, there is to be subordination of individuals to the whole, and each separate man and his work is to be gladly merged in the radiance that issues from the community. A Church is not to be merely a multitude of separate points of brilliancy, but the separate points are to coalesce into one great orbed brightness. You know these lights which we have seen hi public places, where you have a ring pierced with a hundred tiny holes, from each of which bursts a separate flame; but when all are lit, they run into one brilliant circle, and lose their separateness in the rounded completeness of the blended blaze. That is like what Christ's Church ought to be. We each by our own personal contact with Him, by our individual communion with our Saviour, become light in the Lord, and yet we joyfully blend with our brethren, and, fused into one, give forth our mingled light. We unite our voices to theirs, knowing that all are needed to send out the Church's choral witness and to hymn the Church's full-toned praise. The lips of the multitude thunder out harmony, before which the melody of the richest and sweetest single voice is thin and poor.

Union of heart, union of effort is commended to us by this symbol of our text. The great law is, work together if you would work with strength. To separate ourselves from our brethren is to lose power. Why, half-dead brands heaped close will kindle one another, and flame will sparkle beneath the film of white ashes on their edges. Fling them apart and they go out. Rake them together and they glow. Let us try not to be little feeble tapers, stuck in separate sockets, and each twinkling struggling rays over some inch or so of space; but draw near to our brethren, and be workers together with them, that there may rise a glorious flame from our summed and collective brightness which shall be a guide and hospitable call to many a wandering and weary spirit.

III. Finally, The Text Shows Us The Churches And Their Lord.

He it is who holds the stars in His right hand, and walks among the candlesticks. That strong grasp of that mighty hand--for the word in the original conveys more than holds,' it implies a tight and powerful grip --sustains and guards His servants, whose tasks need special grace, and whose position exposes them to special dangers. They may be of good cheer, for none shall pluck them out of His hand. That strengthening and watchful presence moves among His Churches, and is active on their behalf. The symbols are but the pictorial equivalent of His own parting promise, Lo, I am with you always!'

That presence is a plain literal fact, however feebly we lay hold of it. It is not to be watered down into a strong expression for the abiding influence of Christ's teaching or example, nor even to mean the constant benefits which flow to us from His work, nor the presence of His loving thoughts with us. All these things are true and blessed, but none of them, nor all of them taken together, reach to the height of this great promise. He is absent in body, He is present in person. Talk of a real presence'! This is the real presence: I will not leave you orphans, I will come unto you.' Through all the ages, in every land wheresoever two or three are gathered in His name, there is He in the midst of them. The presence of Christ with His Church is analogous to the Divine presence in the material universe. As in it, the presence of God is the condition of all life; and if He were not here, there were no beings and no here : so in the Church, Christ's presence constitutes and sustains it, and without Him it would cease. So St. Augustine says, Where Christ, there the Church.'

I know what wild absurdities these statements appear to many men who have no faith in the true Divinity of our Lord. Of course the belief of His perpetual presence with His people implies the belief that He possesses Divine attributes. This mysterious Person, who lived among men the exemplar of all humility, departing, leaves a promise which is either the very acme of insane arrogance, or comes from the consciousness of indwelling Divinity. He declares that, from generation to generation, He will in very deed be with all who in every place call upon His name. Who does He thereby claim to be?

For what purpose is He there with His Churches? The text assures us that it is to hold up and to bless. His unwearied hand sustains, His unceasing activity moves among them. But beyond these purposes, or rather included in them, the vision of which the text is the interpretation brings into great prominence the thought that He is with us to observe, to judge, and, if need be, to punish. Mark how almost all the attributes of that majestic figure suggest such thoughts. The eyes like a flame of fire, the feet glowing as if in a furnace, hot to burn, heavy to tread down all evil where He walks, from the lips a two-edged sword to smite, and, thank God, to heal, the countenance as the sun shineth in his strength--this is the Lord of the Churches. Yes, and this is the same loving and for-bearing Lord whom the Apostle had learned to trust on earth, and found again revealed from heaven.

Brethren! He dwells with us; He guards and protects His Churches to the end, else they perish. He rules all the commotions of earth, all the errors of His people, all the delusions of lies, and overrules them all for the strengthening and purifying of His Church. But He dwells with us likewise as the watchful observer, out of these eyes of flame, of all our faults; as the merci fill destroyer, with the sword of His mouth, of every error and every sin. Thank God for the chastising presence of Christ. He loves us too well not to smite us when we need it. He will not be so cruelly kind, so foolishly fond, as in anywise to suffer sin upon us. Better the eye of fire than the averted face. Better the sharp sword than His holding His peace as He did with Caiaphas and Herod. Better the Judge in our midst, though we should have to fall at His feet as dead, than that He should say, I will go and return to My place.' Pray Him not to depart, and submit to the merciful rebukes and effectual chastisement which prove that, for all our unworthiness, He loves us still, and has not cast us away from His presence.

Nor let us forget how much of hope and encouragement lies in the examples, which these seven Churches afford, of His long-suffering patience. That presence was granted to them all, the best and the worst--the decaying love of Ephesus, the licentious heresies of Pergamos and Thyatira, the all but total deadness of Sardis, and the self-satisfied indifference of Laodicea, concerning which even He could say nothing that was good. All had Him with them as really as the faithful Smyrna and the steadfast Philadelphia. We have no right to say with how much of theoretical error and practical sin the lingering presence of that patient pitying Lord may consist. For others our duty is the widest charity--for ourselves the most careful watchfulness.

For these seven Churches teach us another lesson--the possibility of quenched lamps and ruined shrines. Ephesus and her sister communities, planted by Paul, taught by John, loved and upheld by the Lord, warned and scourged by Him--where are they now? Broken columns and roofless walls remain; and where Christ's name was praised, now the minaret rises by the side of the mosque, and daily echoes the Christless proclamation, There is no God but God, and Mahomet is His prophet.' The grace of God,' says Luther somewhere, is like a flying summer shower.' It has fallen upon more than one land, and passed on. Judea had it, and lies barren and dry. These Asiatic coasts had it and flung it away. Let us receive it, and hold it fast, lest our greater light should bring greater condemnation, and here, too, the candlestick should be removed out of its place.

Remember that solemn, strange legend which tells us that, on the night before Jerusalem fell, the guard of the Temple heard through the darkness a voice mighty and sad, saying, Let us depart,' and were aware as of the sound of many wings passing from out of the Holy Place; and on the morrow the iron heels of the Roman legionaries trod the marble pavement of the innermost shrine, and heathen eyes gazed upon the empty place where the glory of the God of Israel should have dwelt, and a torch, flung by an unknown hand, burned with fire the holy and beautiful house where He had promised to put His name for ever. And let us learn the lesson, and hold fast by that Lord whose blood has purchased, and whose presence preserves through all the unworthiness and the lapses of men, that Church against which the gates of hell shall not prevail.

Maclaren: Rev 2:7

I. The Victor's Life-Food

"To him that overcometh will I give to eat of the tree of life, which is in the midst of the paradise of God."--Rev. 2:7.

The sevenfold promises which conclude the seven letters to the Asiatic Churches, of which this is the first, are in substance one. We may, indeed, say that the inmost meaning of them all is the gift of Christ Himself. But the diamond flashes variously coloured lights according to the angle at which it is held, and breaks into red and green and white. The one great thought may be looked at from different points of view, and sparkle into diversely splendid rays. The reality is single and simple, but so great that our best way of approximating to the apprehension of that which we shall never comprehend till we possess it is to blend various conceptions and metaphors drawn from different sources.

I have a strong conviction that the Christianity of this day suffers, intellectually and practically, from its comparative neglect of the teaching of the New Testament as to the future life. We hear and think a great deal less about it than was once the ease, and we are thereby deprived of a strong motive for action, and a sure comfort in sorrow. Some of us may, perhaps, be disposed to look with a little sense of lofty pity at the simple people who let the hope of heaven spur, or restrain, or console. But if there is a future life at all, and if the characteristic of it which most concerns us is that it is the reaping, in consequences, of the acts of the present, surely it cannot be such superior wisdom, as it sometimes pretends to be, to ignore it altogether; and perhaps the simplicity of the said people is more in accordance with the highest reason than is our attitude.

Be that as it may, believing, as I do, that the hope of immortality is meant to fill a very large place in the Christian life, and fearing, as I do, that it actually does fill but a very small one with many of us, I have thought that it might do us all good to turn to this wealth of linked promises and to consider them in succession, so as to bring our hearts for a little while into contact with the motive for brave fighting which does occupy so large a space in the New Testament, however it may fail to do so in our lives.

I. I Ask You To Look First At The Gift.

Now, of course, I need scarcely remind you that this first promise, in the last book of Scripture, goes back to the beginning, to the old story in Genesis about Paradise and the Tree of Life. We may distinguish between the substance of the promise and the highly metaphorical form into which it is here cast. The substance of the promise is the communication of life; the form is a poetic and imaginative and pregnant allusion to the story on the earliest pages of Revelation.

Let me deal first with the substance. Now it seems to me that if we are to pare down this word life' to its merely physical sense of continuous existence, this is not a promise that a man's heart leaps up at the hearing of. To anybody that will honestly think, and try to realise, in the imperfect fashion in which alone it is possible for us to realise it, that notion of an absolutely interminable continuance of being, its awfulness is far more than its blessedness, and it overwhelms a man. It seems to me that the crown of life,' if life only means conscious existence, would be a crown of thorns indeed.

No, brethren, what our hearts crave, and what Christ's heart gives, is not the mere bare, bald, continuance of conscious being. It is something far deeper than that. That is the substratum, of course; but it is only the substratum, and not until we let in upon this word, which is one of the key-words of Scripture, the full flood of light that comes to it from John's Gospel, and its use on the Master's lips there, do we begin to understand the meaning of this great promise. Just as we say of men who are sunk in gross animalism, or whose lives are devoted to trivial and transient aims, that theirs is not worth calling life, so we say that the only thing that deserves, and that in Scripture gets, the august name of life,' is a condition of existence in conscious union with, and possession of, God, who is manifested and communicated to mortals through Jesus Christ His Son. In Him was life, and the life was manifested.' Was that bare existence? And the life was not only manifested but communicated, and the essence of it is fellowship with God through Jesus Christ. The possession of the Spirit of life which was in Christ,' and which in heaven will be perfectly communicated, will make men free,' as they never can be upon earth whilst implicated in the bodily life of this material world, from the law of sin and death.' The gift that Christ bestows on him that overcometh' is not only conscious existence, but existence derived from, and, so to speak, embraided with the life of God Himself, and therefore blessed.

For such a life, in union with God in Christ, is the only condition in which all a man's capacities find their fitting objects, and all his activity finds its appropriate sphere, and in which, therefore, to live is to be blessed, because the heart is united with the source and fountain of all blessedness. Here is the deepest depth of that promise of future blessedness. It is not mainly because of any changes, glorious as these must necessarily be, which follow upon the dropping away of flesh, and the transportation into the light that is above, that heaven is a place of blessedness, but it is because the saints that are there are joined to God, and into their recipient hearts there pours for ever the fulness of the Divine life. That makes the glory and the blessedness.

But let us remember that all which can come hereafter of that full and perfect life is but the continuance, the development, the increase, of that which already is possessed. Here it fails in drops; there in floods. Here it is filtered; there poured. Here, the plant, taken from its native climate and soil, puts forth some pale blossoms, and grows but to a stunted height; there, set in their deep native soil, and shone upon by a more fervent sun, and watered by more abundant warm rains and dews, they that' on earth were planted in the house of the Lord shall,' transplanted,' flourish in the courts of our God.' The life of the Christian soul on earth and of the Christian soul in heaven is continuous, and though there is a break to our consciousness looking from this side--the break of death--the reality is that without interruption, and without a turn, the road runs on in the same direction. We begin to live the life of heaven here, and they who can say, I was dead in trespasses and sins, but the life which I live in the flesh I live by the faith of the Son of God,' have already the germs of the furthest development in the heavens in their hearts.

Notice, for a moment, the form that this great promise assumes here. That is a very pregnant and significant reference to the Tree of Life in the paradise of God. The old story tells how the cherub with the flaming sword was set to guard the way to it. And that paradise upon earth faded and disappeared. But it reappears. Then comes a statelier Eden back to man,' for Jesus Christ is the restorer of all lost blessings; and the Divine purpose and ideal has not faded away amidst the clouds of the stormy day of earth's history, like the flush of morning from off the plains. Christ brings back the Eden, and quenches the flame of the fiery sword; and instead of the repellent cherub, there stands Himself with the merciful invitation upon His lips: Come! Eat; and live for ever.'

"There never was one lost good; what was shall live as before.On the earth the broken arcs; in heaven the perfect round."

Eden shall come back; and the paradise into which the victors go is richer and fuller, by all their conflict and their wounds, than ever could have been the simpler paradise of which souls innocent, because untried, could have been capable. So much for the gift of life.

II. Notice, Secondly, The Giver.

This is a majestic utterance; worthy of coming from the majestic Figure portrayed in the first chapter of this book. In it Jesus Christ claims to be the Arbiter of men's deserts and Giver of their rewards. That involves His judicial function, and therefore His Divine as well as human nature. I accept these words as truly His words. Of course, if you do not, my present remarks have no force for you; but if you do not, you ought to be very sure of your reasons for not doing so; and if you do, then I see not how any man who believes that Jesus Christ has said that He will give to all the multitude of faithful fighters, who have brought their shields out of the battle, and their swords undinted, the gift of life eternal, can be vindicated from the charge of taking too much upon him, except on the belief of His Divine nature.

But I observe, still further, that this great utterance of the Lord's, paralleled in all the other six promises, in all of which He is represented as the bestower of the reward, whatever it may be, involves another thing, viz., the eternal continuance of Christ's relation to men as the Revealer and Mediator of God. I will give'--and that not only when the victor crosses the threshold and enters the Capitol of the heavens, but all through its ceaseless ages Christ is the Medium by which the Divine life passes into men. True, there is a sense in which He shall deliver up the kingdom to His Father, when the partial end of the present dispensation has come. But He is the Priest of mankind for ever; and for ever is His kingdom enduring. And through all the endless ages, which we have a right to hope we shall see, there will never come a point in which it will not remain as true as it is at this moment: No man hath seen God at any time, nor can see Him; the only begotten Son, which is in the bosom of the Father, He hath declared Him.' Christ is for ever the Giver of life in the heavens as on earth.

Another thing is involved which I think also is often lost sight of. The Bible does not know anything about what people call natural immortality.' Life here is not given to the infant once for all, and then expended through the years, but it is continually being bestowed. My belief is that no worm that creeps, nor angel that soars, nor any of the beings between, is alive for one instant except for the continual communication from the fountain of life, of the life that they live. And still more certainly is it true about the future, that there all the blessedness and the existence, which is the substratum and condition of the blessedness, are only ours because, wavelet by wavelet, throbbing out as from a central fountain, there flows into the Redeemed a life communicated by Christ Himself. If I might so say--were that continual bestowment to cease, then heaven, like the vision of a fairy tale, would fade away; and there would be nothing left where the glory had shone. I will give' through eternity.

III. Lastly, Note The Recipients.

To him that overcometh.' Now I need not say, in more than a sentence, that it seems to me that the fair interpretation of this promise, as of all the other references in Scripture to the future life, is that the reward is immediately consequent upon the cessation of the struggle. To depart' is to be with Christ,' and to be with Christ, in regard of a spirit which has passed from the bodily environment, is to be conscious of His presence, and lapt in His robe, feeling the warmth and the pressure of His heart. So I believe that Scripture teaches us that at one moment there may be the clash of battle, and the whiz of the arrows round one's head, and next moment there may be the laurel-crowned quiet of the victor.

But that does not enter so much into our consideration now. We have, rather, here to think of just this one thing, that the gift is given to the victor because only the victor is capable of receiving it; that future life, interpreted as I have ventured to interpret it in this sermon, is no arbitrary bestowment that could be dealt all round miscellaneously to everybody, if the Giver chose so to give. Here on earth many gifts are bestowed upon men, and are neglected by them, and wasted like water spilled upon the ground; but this elixir of life is not poured out so. It is only poured into vessels that can take it in and hold it.

Our present struggle is meant to make us capable of the heavenly life. And that is--I was going to say the only, but at all events--incomparably the chiefest, of the thoughts which make life not only worth living, but great and solemn. Go into a mill, and in a quiet room, often detached from the main building, you will find the engine working, and seeming to do nothing but go up and down. But there is a shaft which goes through the wall and takes the power to the looms. We are working here, and we are making the cloth that we shall have to own and say,' Yes, it is my manufacture!' when we get yonder. According to our life to-day will be our destiny in the great tomorrow. Life is given to the victor, because the victor only is capable of possessing it.

But the victor can only conquer in one way. This,' said John, when he was not an apocalyptic seer, but a Christian teacher to the Churches of Asia, this is the victory that overcometh the world, even our faith.' If we trust in Christ we shall get His power into our hearts, and if we get His power into our hearts, then we shall be more than conquerors through Him that loved us.' Christ gives life eternal, gives it here in germ and yonder in fulness. In its fulness only those who overcome are capable of receiving it. Those only who fight the good fight by His help overcome. Those only who trust in Him fight the good fight by His help. He gives to eat of the Tree of Life; He gives it to faith, but faith must be militant. He gives it to the conqueror, but the conqueror must win by faith in Him who overcame the world for us, who will help us to overcome the world by Him.

Help us, O our God, we beseech Thee; teach our hands to war, and our fingers to fight.' Give us grace to hold fast by the life which is in Jesus Christ; and living by Him the lives which we live in the flesh, may we be capable, by the discipline of earth's sorrows, of that rest and fuller life which remaineth for the people of God.'

Maclaren: Rev 2:11

II. The Victor's Life-Crown

"He that overcometh shall not be hurt of the second death."--Rev. 2:11.

Two of the seven Churches, viz., Smyrna, to which our text is addressed, and Philadelphia--offered nothing, to the pure eyes of Christ, that needed rebuke. The same two, and these only, were warned to expect persecution. The higher the tone of Christian life in the Church, the more likely it is to attract dislike and, if circumstances permit, hostility. Hence the whole gist of this letter is to encourage to steadfastness, even if the penalty is death.

That purpose determined at once the aspect of Christ which is presented in the beginning, and the aspect of future blessedness which is held forth at the close. The aspect of Christ is--these things saith the First and the Last, which was dead and is alive'; a fitting thought to encourage the men who were to be called upon to die for Him. And, in like manner, the words of our text naturally knit themselves with the previous mention of death as the penalty of the Smyrneans' faithfulness.

Now this promise is sharply distinguished from those to the other Churches by two peculiarities: one, that it is merely negative, whilst all the rest are radiantly positive; the other, that there is no mention of our Lord in it, whilst in all the others He stands forth with His emphatic and majestic I will give'; I will write upon him My new Name'; I will make him a pillar in the temple of My God.' The first peculiarity may partially account for the second, because the Giver is naturally more prominent in a promise of positive gifts, than in one of a merely negative exemption. But another reason is to be found for the omission of the mention of our Lord in this promise. If you will refer to the verse immediately preceding my text, you will find the missing positive promise with the missing reference to Jesus Christ: I will give thee a crown of life.' So that we are naturally led to link together both these statements when taking account of the hopes that were held forth to animate the Christians of Smyrna in the prospect of persecution even to the death; and we have to consider them both in conjunction now. I think I shall best do so by simply asking you to look at these two things: the Christian motive contained in the victor's immunity from a great evil, and the Christian motive contained in the victor's possession of a great good. He shall not be hurt of the second death.' I will give thee a crown of life.'

I. The Christian Motive Contained In The Victor's Immunity From A Great Evil.

Now that solemn and thrilling expression the second death' is peculiar to this book of the Apocalypse. The name is peculiar; the thing is common to all the New Testament writers. Here it comes with especial appropriateness, in contrast with the physical death which was about to be inflicted upon some members of the Smyrnean Church. But beyond that there lies in the phrase a very solemn and universally applicable meaning. I do not feel, dear brethren, that such a thing ought to be made matter of pulpit rhetoric. The bare vagueness of it seems to me to shake the heart a great deal more than any weakening expansion of it that we can give.

But yet, let me say one word. Then, behind that grim figure, the shadow feared of man that waits for all at some turn of their road, cloaked and shrouded, there rises a still grimmer and more awful form,' if form it can be called which form hath none.' There is something, at the back of physical death, which can lay its grip upon the soul that is already separated from the body; something running on the same lines somehow, and worthy to bear that name of terror and disintegration--the second death.' What can it be? Not the cessation of conscious existence; that is never the meaning of death. But let us apply the key which opens so many of the locks of the New Testament sayings about the future that the true and deepest meaning of death is separation from Him who is the fountain of life, and in a very deep sense is the only life of the universe. Separation from God; that is death. What touches the surface of mere bodily life is but a faint shadow and parable, and the second death, like a second tier of mountains, rises behind and above it, sterner and colder than the lower hills of the foreground. What desolation, what unrest, what blank misgivings, what pealing off of capacities, faculties, opportunities, delights, may be involved in that solemn conception, we never can tell here--God grant that we may never know! Like some sea-creature, cast high and dry on the beach, and gasping out its pained being, the men that are separated from God die whilst they live, and live a living death. The second is the comparative degree, of which the first is the positive.

Now note again that immunity from this solemn fate is no small part of the victor's blessedness. At first sight we feel as if the mere negative promise of my text stands on a lower level than what I have called the radiantly positive ones in the other letters; but it is worthy to stand beside these. Gather them together, and think of how manifold and glorious the dim suggestions which they make of felicity and progress are, and then set by the side of them this one of our text as worthy to stand there. To eat of the Tree of Life; to have power over the nations; to rule them with a rod of iron; to blaze with the brightness of the morning star; to eat of the hidden manna; to bear the new name known only to those who receive it; to have that name confessed before the Father and His angels; to be a pillar in the Temple of the Lord; to go no more out; and to sit with Christ on His throne:--these are the positive promises, along with which this barely negative one is linked, and is worthy to be linked: He shall not be hurt of the second death.'

If this immunity from that fate is fit to stand in line with these glimpses of an inconceivable glory, how solemn must be the fate, and how real the danger of our falling into it! Brethren, in this day it has become unfashionable to speak of that future, especially of its sterner aspects. The dimness of the brightest revelations in the New Testament, the unwillingness to accept it as the source of certitude with regard to the future, the recoil from the stern severity of Divine retribution, the exaggerated and hideous guise in which that great truth was often presented in the past, the abounding worldliness of this day, many of its best tendencies and many of its worst ones concur in making some of us look with very little interest, and scarcely credence, at the solemn words of which the New Testament is full. But I, for my part, accept them; and I dare not but, in such proportion to the rest of revelation as seems to me to be right, bring them before you. I beseech you, recognise the solemn teaching that lies in this thought, that this negative promise of immunity from the second death stands parallel with all these promises of felicity and blessedness.

Further, note that such immunity is regarded here as the direct outcome of the victor's conduct and character. I have already pointed out the peculiarities marking our text. The omission of any reference to our Lord in it is accounted for, as suggested, by that reference occurring in the immediately preceding context, but it may also be regarded as suggesting--when considered in contrast with the other promises, where He stands forward as the giver of heavenly blessedness--that that future condition is to be regarded not only as retribution, which implies the notion of a judge, and a punitive or rewarding energy on his part, but also as being the necessary result of the earthly life that is lived; a harvest of which we sow the seeds here.

Transient deeds consolidate into permanent character. Beds of sandstone rock, thousands of feet thick, are the sediment dropped from vanished seas, or borne down by long dried-up rivers. The actions which we often so unthinkingly perform, whatever may be the width and the permanency of their effects external to us, react upon ourselves, and tend to make our permanent bent or twist or character. The chalk cliffs at Dover are the skeletons of millions upon millions of tiny organisms, and our little lives are built up by the recurrence of transient deeds, which leave their permanent marks upon us. They make character, and character determines position yonder. As said the Apostle, with tender sparingness, and yet with profound truth, he went to his own place,' wherever that was. The surroundings that he was fitted for came about him, and the company that he was fit for associated themselves with him. So in another part of this book where the same solemn expression, the second death,' is employed, we read, These shall have their part in … the second death': the lot that belongs to them. Character and conduct determine position. However small the lives here, they settle the far greater ones hereafter, just as a tiny wheel in a machine may, by cogs and other mechanical devices, transmit its motion to another wheel at a distance, many times its diameter. You move this end of a lever through an are of an inch, and the other end will move through an arc of yards. The little life here determines the sweep of the great one that is lived yonder. The victor wears his past conduct and character, if I may so say, as a fireproof garment, and if he entered the very furnace, heated seven times hotter than before, there would be no smell of fire upon him. He that overcometh shall not be hurt of the second death.'

II. Now Note, Secondly, The Christian Motive Contained In The Victor's Reception Of A Great Good.

I will give him a crown of life.' I need not remind you, I suppose, that this metaphor of the crown' is found in other instructively various places in the New Testament Paul, for instance, speaks of his own personal hope of the crown of righteousness.' James speaks, as does the letter to the Smyrnean Church, of the crown of life.' Peter speaks of the crown of glory.' Paul, in another place, speaks of the crown incorruptible.' And all these express substantially the one idea. There may be a question as to whether the word employed here for the crown is to be taken in its strictly literal acceptation as meaning, not a kingly coronal, but a garland. But seeing that, although that is the strict meaning of the word, it is employed in a subsequent part of the letter to designate what must evidently be kingly crowns--viz., in the fourth chapter --there seems to be greater probability in the supposition that we are warranted in including under the symbolism here both the aspects of the crown as royal, and also as laid upon the brows of the victors in the games or the conflict. I venture to take it in that meaning. Substantially the promise is the same as that which we were considering in the previous letter, I will give him to eat of the Tree of Life'; the promise of life in all the depth and fulness and sweep of that great encyclopaedical word. But it is life considered from a special point of view that is set forth here.

It is a kingly life. Of course that notion of regality and dominion, as the prerogative of the redeemed and glorified servants of Jesus Christ, is for ever cropping up in this book of the Revelation. And you remember how our Lord has set the example of its use when He said, Have thou authority over ten cities.' What may lie in that great symbol it is not for us to say. The rule over ourselves, over circumstances, the deliverance from the tyranny of the external, the deliverance from the slavery of the body and its lusts and passions, these are all included. The man that can will rightly, and can do completely as he rightly wills, that man is a king. But there is more than that. There is the participation in wondrous, and for us inconceivable, ways, in the majesty and regality of the King of kings and Lord of lords. Therefore did the crowned elders Before the throne sing a new song to the Lamb, who made redeemed men out of every tribe and tongue, to be to God a kingdom, and priests who should reign upon the earth.

But, brethren, remember that this conception of a kingly life is to be interpreted according to Christ's own teaching of that wherein royalty in His kingdom consists. For heaven, as for earth, the purpose of dominion is service, and the use of power is beneficence. He that is chiefest of all, let him be servant of all,' is the law for the regalities of heaven as well as for the lowliness of earth.

That life is a triumphant life. The crown was laid on the head of the victor in the games. Think of the victor as he went back, flushed and modest, to his village away up on the slopes of some of the mountain-chains of Greece. With what a tumult of acclaim he would be hailed! If we do our work and fight our fight down here as we ought, we shall enter into the great city not unnoticed, not unwelcomed, but with the praise of the King and the paeans of His attendants. I will confess his name before My Father and the holy angels.'

That life is a festal life. The garlands are twined on the heated brows of revellers, and the fumes of the wine and the closeness of the chamber soon make them wilt and droop. This amaranthine crown fadeth never. And the feast expresses for us the felicities, the abiding satisfactions without satiety, the blessed companionship, the repose which belong to the crowned. Royalty, triumph, festal goodness, all fused together, are incomplete, but they are not useless symbols. May we experience their fulfilment!

Brethren, the crown is promised not merely to the man that says, I have faith in Jesus Christ,' but to him who has worked out his faith into faithfulness, and by conduct and character has made himself capable of the felicities of the heavens. If that immortal crown were laid upon the head of another, it would be a crown of thorns; for the joys of that future require the fitness which comes from the apprenticeship to faith and faithfulness here on earth. We evangelical preachers are often taunted with preaching that future blessedness comes as the result of the simple act of belief. Yes; but only if, and when, the simple act of faith, which is more than belief, is wrought out in the loveliness of faithfulness. We are made partakers of Christ, if we hold fast the beginning of our confidence firm unto the end.'

Now, dear friends, I dare say that some of you may be disposed to brush aside these fears and hopes as very low motives, unworthy to be appealed to; bat I cannot so regard them. I know that the appeal to fear is directed to the lower order of sentiments, but it is a legitimate motive. It is meant to stir us up to gird ourselves against the dangers which we wisely dread. And I, for my part, believe that we preachers are going aside from our Pattern, and are flinging away a very powerful weapon, in the initial stages of religious experience, if we are afraid to bring before men's hearts and answering consciences the solemn facts of the future which Jesus Christ Himself has revealed to us. We are no more to be blamed for it than the signal-man for waving his red flag. And I fancy that there are some of my present hearers who would be nearer the love of God if they took more to heart the fear of the Lord and of His judgment.

Hope is surely a perfectly legitimate motive to appeal to. We are not to be good because we thereby escape hell and secure heaven. We are to be good, because Jesus Christ wills us to be, and has won us to love Him, or has sought to win us to love Him, by His great sacrifice for us. But that being the basis, men can be brought to build upon it by the compulsion of fear and by the attraction of hope. And that being the deepest motive, there is a perfectly legitimate and noble sphere for the operation of these two other lower motives, the consideration of the personal evils that attend the opposite course, and of the personal good that follows from cleaving to Him. Am I to be told that Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, who went to his martyrdom, and was' faithful unto death,' with the words on his lips: Eighty-and-six years have I served Him, and He has done me nothing but good; how shall I deny my King and my Saviour!' was yielding to a low motive when to him the crown that the Master promised to the Church of which he was afterwards bishop floated above the head that was soon to be shorn off, and on whose blood-stained brows it was then to fall? Would that we had more of such low motives! Would that we had more of such high lives as fear nothing because they' have respect to the recompense of the reward,' and are ready for service or martyrdom, because they hear and believe the crowned Christ saying to them: Be thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life.'

MHCC: Rev 2:1-7

These churches were in such different states as to purity of doctrine and the power of godliness, that the words of Christ to them will always suit the cases of other churches, and professors. Christ knows and observes their state; though in heaven, yet he walks in the midst of his churches on earth, observing what is wrong in them, and what they want. The church of Ephesus is commended for diligence in duty. Christ keeps an account of every hour's work his servants do for him, and their labour shall not be in vain in the Lord. But it is not enough that we are diligent; there must be bearing patience, and there must be waiting patience. And though we must show all meekness to all men, yet we must show just zeal against their sins. The sin Christ charged this church with, is, not the having left and forsaken the object of love, but having lost the fervent degree of it that at first appeared. Christ is displeased with his people, when he sees them grow remiss and cold toward him. Surely this mention in Scripture, of Christians forsaking their first love, reproves those who speak of it with carelessness, and thus try to excuse indifference and sloth in themselves and others; our Saviour considers this indifference as sinful. They must repent: they must be grieved and ashamed for their sinful declining, and humbly confess it in the sight of God. They must endeavour to recover their first zeal, tenderness, and seriousness, and must pray as earnestly, and watch as diligently, as when they first set out in the ways of God. If the presence of Christ's grace and Spirit is slighted, we may expect the presence of his displeasure. Encouraging mention is made of what was good among them. Indifference as to truth and error, good and evil, may be called charity and meekness, but it is not so; and it is displeasing to Christ. The Christian life is a warfare against sin, Satan, the world, and the flesh. We must never yield to our spiritual enemies, and then we shall have a glorious triumph and reward. All who persevere, shall derive from Christ, as the Tree of life, perfection and confirmation in holiness and happiness, not in the earthly paradise, but in the heavenly. This is a figurative expression, taken from the account of the garden of Eden, denoting the pure, satisfactory, and eternal joys of heaven; and the looking forward to them in this world, by faith, communion with Christ, and the consolations of the Holy Spirit. Believers, take your wrestling life here, and expect and look for a quiet life hereafter; but not till then: the word of God never promises quietness and complete freedom from conflict here.

MHCC: Rev 2:8-11

Our Lord Jesus is the First, for by him were all things made; he was before all things, with God, and is God himself. He is the Last, for he will be the Judge of all. As this First and Last, who was dead and is alive, is the believer's Brother and Friend, he must be rich in the deepest poverty, honourable amidst the lowest abasement, and happy under the heaviest tribulation, like the church of Smyrna. Many who are rich as to this world, are poor as to the next; and some who are poor outwardly, are inwardly rich; rich in faith, in good works, rich in privileges, rich in gifts, rich in hope. Where there is spiritual plenty, outward poverty may be well borne; and when God's people are made poor as to this life, for the sake of Christ and a good conscience, he makes all up to them in spiritual riches. Christ arms against coming troubles. Fear none of these things; not only forbid slavish fear, but subdue it, furnishing the soul with strength and courage. It should be to try them, not to destroy them. Observe, the sureness of the reward; " I will give thee:" they shall have the reward from Christ's own hand. Also, how suitable it is; " a crown of life:" the life worn out in his service, or laid down in his cause, shall be rewarded with a much better life, which shall be eternal. The second death is unspeakably worse than the first death, both in the agonies of it, and as it is eternal death: it is indeed awful to die, and to be always dying. If a man is kept from the second death and wrath to come, he may patiently endure whatever he meets with in this world.

MHCC: Rev 2:12-17

The word of God is a sword, able to slay both sin and sinners. It turns and cuts every way; but the believer need not fear this sword; yet this confidence cannot be supported without steady obedience. As our Lord notices all the advantages and opportunities we have for duty in the places where we dwell, so he notices our temptations and discouragements from the same causes. In a situation of trials, the church of Pergamos had not denied the faith, either by open apostacy, or by giving way so as to avoid the cross. Christ commends their stedfastness, but reproves their sinful failures. A wrong view of gospel doctrine and Christian liberty, was a root of bitterness from which evil practices grew. Repentance is the duty of churches and bodies of men, as well as of particular persons; those who sin together, should repent together. Here is the promise of favour to those that overcome. The influences and comforts of the Spirit of Christ, come down from heaven into the soul, for its support. This is hidden from the rest of the world. The new name is the name of adoption; when the Holy Spirit shows his own work in the believer's soul, this new name and its real import are understood by him.

Matthew Henry: Rev 2:1-7

We have here,

I. The inscription, where observe, 1. To whom the first of these epistles is directed: To the church of Ephesus, a famous church planted by the apostle Paul (Acts 19), and afterwards watered and governed by John, who had his residence very much there. We can hardly think that Timothy was the angel, or sole pastor and bishop, of this church at this time, - that he who was of a very excellent spirit, and naturally cared for the good state of the souls of the people, should become so remiss as to deserve the rebukes given to the ministry of this church. Observe, 2. From whom this epistle to Ephesus was sent; and here we have one of those titles that were given to Christ in his appearance to John in the chapter foregoing: He that holds the seven stars in his right hand, and walks in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks, Rev 1:13, Rev 1:16. This title consists of two parts: - (1.) He that holds the stars in his right hand. The ministers of Christ are under his special care and protection. It is the honour of God that he knows the number of the stars, calls them by their names, binds the sweet influences of Pleiades and looses the bands of Orion; and it is the honour of the Lord Jesus Christ that the ministers of the gospel, who are greater blessings to the church than the stars are to the world, are in his hand. He directs all their motions; he disposes of them into their several orbs; he fills them with light and influence; he supports them, or else they would soon be falling stars; they are instruments in his hand, and all the good they do is done by his hand with them. (2.) He walks in the midst of the golden candlesticks. This intimates his relation to his churches, as the other his relation to his ministers. Christ is in an intimate manner present and conversant with his churches; he knows and observes their state; he takes pleasure in them, as a man does to walk in his garden. Though Christ is in heaven, he walks in the midst of his churches on earth, observing what is amiss in them and what it is that they want. This is a great encouragement to those who have the care of the churches, that the Lord Jesus has graven them upon the palms of his hands.

II. The contents of the epistle, in which, as in most of those that follow, we have,

1. The commendation Christ gave this church, ministers and members, which he always brings in by declaring that he knows their works, and therefore both his commendation and reprehension are to be strictly regarded; for he does not in either speak at a venture: he knows what he says. Now the church of Ephesus is commended, (1.) For their diligence in duty: I know thy works, and thy labour, Rev 2:2. This may more immediately relate to the ministry of this church, which had been laborious and diligent. Dignity calls for duty. Those that are stars in Christ's hand had need to be always in motion, dispensing light to all about them. For my name's sake thou hast laboured, and hast not fainted, Rev 2:3. Christ keeps an account of every day's work, and every hour's work, his servants do for him, and their labour shall not be in vain in the Lord. (2.) For their patience in suffering: Thy labour and thy patience, Rev 2:2. It is not enough that we be diligent, but we must be patient, and endure hardness as good soldiers of Christ. Ministers must have and exercise great patience, and no Christian can be without it. There must be bearing patience, to endure the injuries of men and the rebukes of Providence; and there must be waiting patience, that, when they have done the will of God, they may receive the promise: Thou hast borne, and hast patience, Rev 2:3. We shall meet with such difficulties in our way and work as require patience to go on and finish well. (3.) For their zeal against what was evil: Thou canst not bear those that are evil, Rev 2:2. It consists very well with Christian patience not to dispense with sin, much less allow it; though we must show all meekness to men, yet we must show a just zeal against their sins. This their zeal was the more to be commended because it was according to knowledge, a discreet zeal upon a previous trial made of the pretences, practices, and tenets of evil men: Thou hast tried those that say they are apostles and are not, and hast found them liars. True zeal proceeds with discretion; none should be cast off till they be tried. Some had risen up in this church that pretended to be not ordinary ministers, but apostles; and their pretensions had been examined but found to be vain and false. Those that impartially search after truth may come to the knowledge of it.

2. The rebuke given to this church: Nevertheless, I have somewhat against thee, Rev 2:4. Those that have much good in them may have something much amiss in them, and our Lord Jesus, as an impartial Master and Judge, takes notice of both; though he first observes what is good, and is most ready to mention this, yet he also observes what is amiss, and will faithfully reprove them for it. The sin that Christ charged this church with was their decay and declension in holy love and zeal: Thou hast left thy first love; not left and forsaken the object of it, but lost the fervent degree of it that at first appeared. Observe, (1.) The first affections of men towards Christ, and holiness, and heaven, are usually lively and warm. God remembered the love of Israel's espousals, when she would follow him withersoever he went. (2.) These lively affections will abate and cool if great care be not taken, and diligence used, to preserve them in constant exercise. (3.) Christ is grieved and displeased with his people when he sees them grow remiss and cold towards him, and he will one way or other make them sensible that he does not take it well from them.

3. The advice and counsel given them from Christ: Remember therefore whence thou hast fallen, and repent, etc. (1.) Those that have lost their first love must remember whence they have fallen; they must compare their present with their former state, and consider how much better it was with them then than now, how much peace, strength, purity, and pleasure they have lost, by leaving their first love, - how much more comfortably they could lie down and sleep at night, - how much more cheerfully they could awake in the morning, - how much better they could bear afflictions, and how much more becomingly they could enjoy the favours of Providence, - how much easier the thoughts of death were to them, and how much stronger their desires and hopes of heaven. (2.) They must repent. They must be inwardly grieved and ashamed for their sinful declension; they must blame themselves, and shame themselves, for it, and humbly confess it in the sight of God, and judge and condemn themselves for it. (3.) They must return and do their first works. They must as it were begin again, go back step by step, till they come to the place where they took the first false step; they must endeavour to revive and recover their first zeal, tenderness, and seriousness, and must pray as earnestly, and watch as diligently, as they did when they first set out in the ways of God.

4. This good advice is enforced and urged, (1.) By a severe threatening, if it should be neglected: I will come unto thee quickly, and remove thy candlestick out of its place. If the presence of Christ's grace and Spirit be slighted, we may expect the presence of his displeasure. He will come in a way of judgment, and that suddenly and surprisingly, upon impenitent churches and sinners; he will unchurch them, take away his gospel, his ministers, and his ordinances from them, and what will the churches or the angels of the churches do when the gospel is removed? (2.) By an encouraging mention that is made of what was yet good among them: This thou hast, that thou hatest the deeds of the Nicolaitans, which I also hate, Rev 2:6. "Though thou hast declined in thy love to what is good, yet thou retainest thy hatred to what is evil, especially to what is grossly so."The Nicolaitans were a loose sect who sheltered themselves under the name of Christianity. They held hateful doctrines, and they were guilty of hateful deeds, hateful to Christ and to all true Christians; and it is mentioned to the praise of the church of Ephesus that they had a just zeal and abhorrence of those wicked doctrines and practices. An indifference of spirit between truth and error, good and evil, may be called charity and meekness, but it is not pleasing to Christ. Our Saviour subjoins this kind commendation to his severe threatening, to make the advice more effectual.

III. We have the conclusion of this epistle, in which, as in those that follow, we have,

1. A call to attention: He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches. Observe, (1.) What is written in the scriptures is spoken by the Spirit of God. (2.) What is said to one church concerns all the churches, in every place and age. (3.) We can never employ our faculty of hearing better than in hearkening to the word of God: and we deserve to lose it if we do not employ it to this purpose. Those who will not hear the call of God now will wish at length they had never had a capacity of hearing any thing at all.

2. A promise of great mercy to those who overcome. The Christian life is a warfare against sin, Satan, the world, and the flesh. It is not enough that we engage in this warfare, but we must pursue it to the end, we must never yield to our spiritual enemies, but fight the good fight, till we gain the victory, as all persevering Christians shall do; and the warfare and victory shall have a glorious triumph and reward. That which is here promised to the victors is that they shall eat of the tree of life which is in the midst of the paradise of God. They shall have that perfection of holiness, and that confirmation therein, which Adam would have had if he had gone well through the course of his trial: he would then have eaten of the tree of life which was in the midst of paradise, and this would have been the sacrament of confirmation to him in his holy and happy state; so all who persevere in their Christian trial and warfare shall derive from Christ, as the tree of life, perfection and confirmation in holiness and happiness in the paradise of God; not in the earthly paradise, but the heavenly, Rev 22:1, Rev 22:2.

Matthew Henry: Rev 2:8-11

We now proceed to the second epistle sent to another of the Asian churches, where, as before, observe,

I. The preface or inscription in both parts. 1. The superscription, telling us to whom it was more expressly and immediately directed: To the angel of the church in Smyrna, a place well known at this day by our merchants, a city of great trade and wealth, perhaps the only city of all the seven that is still known by the same name, now however no longer distinguished for its Christian church being overrun by Mahomedism. 2. The subscription, containing another of the glorious titles of our Lord Jesus, the first and the last, he that was dead and is alive, taken out of Rev 1:17, Rev 1:18. (1.) Jesus Christ is the first and the last. It is but a little scantling of time that is allowed to us in this world, but our Redeemer is the first and the last. He is the first, for by him all things were made, and he was before all things with God and was God himself. he is the last, for all things are made for him, and he will be the Judge of all. This surely is the title of God, from everlasting and to everlasting, and it is the title of one that is an unchangeable Mediator between God and man, Jesus, the same yesterday, today, and for ever. He was the first, for by him the foundation of the church was laid in the patriarchal state; and he is the last, for by him the top-stone will be brought forth and laid in the end of time. (2.) He was dead and is alive. He was dead, and died for our sins; he is alive, for he rose again for our justification, and he ever lives to make intercession for us. He was dead, and by dying purchased salvation for us; he is alive, and by his life applies this salvation to us. And if, when we were enemies, we were reconciled by his death, much more, being reconciled, we shall be saved by his life. His death we commemorate every sacrament day; his resurrection and life every sabbath day.

II. The subject-matter of this epistle to Smyrna, where, after the common declaration of Christ's omniscience, and the perfect cognizance he has of all the works of men and especially of his churches, he takes notice,

1. Of the improvement they had made in their spiritual state. This comes in in a short parentheses; yet it is very emphatic: But thou art rich (Rev 2:10), poor in temporals, but rich in spirituals - poor in spirit, and yet rich in grace. Their spiritual riches are set off by their outward poverty. Many who are rich in temporals are poor in spirituals. Thus it was with the church of Laodicea. Some who are poor outwardly are inwardly rich, rich in faith and in good works, rich in privileges, rich in bonds and deeds of gift, rich in hope, rich in reversion. Spiritual riches are usually the reward of great diligence; the diligent hand makes rich. Where there is spiritual plenty, outward poverty may be better borne; and when God's people are impoverished in temporals, for the sake of Christ and a good conscience, he makes all up to them in spiritual riches, which are much more satisfying and enduring.

2. Of their sufferings: I know thy tribulation and thy poverty - the persecution they underwent, even to the spoiling of their goods. Those who will be faithful to Christ must expect to go through many tribulations; but Jesus Christ takes particular notice of all their troubles. In all their afflictions, he is afflicted, and he will recompense tribulation to those who trouble them, but to those that are troubled rest with himself.

3. He knows the wickedness and the falsehood of their enemies: I know the blasphemy of those that say they are Jews, but are not; that is, of those who pretend to be the only peculiar covenant-people of God, as the Jews boasted themselves to be, even after God had rejected them; or of those who would be setting up the Jewish rites and ceremonies, which were now not only antiquated, but abrogated; these may say that they only are the church of God in the world, when indeed they are the synagogue of Satan. Observe, (1.) As Christ has a church in the world, the spiritual Israel of God, so the devil has his synagogue. Those assemblies which are set up in opposition to the truths of the gospel, and which promote and propagate damnable errors, - those which are set up in opposition to the purity and spirituality of gospel worship, and which promote and propagate the vain inventions of men and rites and ceremonies which never entered into the thoughts of God, - these are all synagogues of Satan: he presides over them, he works in them, his interests are served by them, and he receives a horrid homage and honour from them. (2.) For the synagogues of Satan to give themselves out to be the church or Israel of God is no less than blasphemy. God is greatly dishonoured when his name is made use of to promote and patronize the interests of Satan; and he has a high resentment of this blasphemy, and will take a just revenge on those who persist in it.

4. He foreknows the future trials of his people, and forewarns them of them, and fore-arms them against them. (1.) He forewarns them of future trials: The devil shall cast some of you into prison, and you shall have tribulation, Rev 2:10. The people of God must look for a series and succession of troubles in this world, and their troubles usually rise higher. They had been impoverished by their tribulations before; now they must be imprisoned. Observe, It is the devil that stirs up his instruments, wicked men, to persecute the people of God; tyrants and persecutors are the devil's tools, though they gratify their own sinful malignity, and know not that they are actuated by a diabolical malice. (2.) Christ fore-arms them against these approaching troubles, [1.] By his counsel: Fear none of these things. This is not only a word of command, but of efficacy, no, only forbidding slavish fear, but subduing it and furnishing the soul with strength and courage. [2.] By showing them how their sufferings would be alleviated and limited. First, They should not be universal. It would be some of them, not all, who should be cast into prison, those who were best able to bear it and might expect to be visited and comforted by the rest. Secondly, They were not to be perpetual, but for a set time, and a short time: Ten days. It should not be everlasting tribulation, the time should be shortened for the elect's sake. Thirdly, It should be to try them, not to destroy them, that their faith, and patience, and courage, might be proved and improved, and be found to honour and glory. [3.] By proposing and promising a glorious reward to their fidelity: Be thou faithful to death, and I will give thee a crown of life. Observe, First, The sureness of the reward: I will give thee. He has said it that is able to do it; and he has undertaken that he will do it. They shall have the reward from his own hand, and none of their enemies shall be able to wrest it out of his hand, or to pull it from their heads. Secondly, The suitableness of it. 1. A crown, to reward their poverty, their fidelity, and their conflict. 2. A crown of life, to reward those who are faithful even unto death, who are faithful till they die, and who part with life itself in fidelity to Christ. The life so worn out in his service, or laid down in his cause, shall be rewarded with another and a much better life that shall be eternal.

III. The conclusion of this message, and that, as before, 1. With a call to universal attention, that all men, all the world, should hear what passes between Christ and his churches - how he commends them, how he comforts them, how he reproves their failures, how he rewards their fidelity. It concerns all the inhabitants of the world to observe God's dealings with his own people; all the world may learn instruction and wisdom thereby. 2. With a gracious promise to the conquering Christian: He that overcometh shall not be hurt of the second death, Rev 2:11. Observe, (1.) There is not only a first, but a second death, a death after the body is dead. (2.) This second death is unspeakably worse than the first death, both in the dying pangs and agonies of it (which are the agonies of the soul, without any mixture of support) and in the duration; it is eternal death, dying the death, to die and to be always dying. This is hurtful indeed, fatally hurtful, to all who fall under it. (3.) From this hurtful, this destructive death, Christ will save all his faithful servants; the second death shall have no power over those who are partakers of the first resurrection: the first death shall not hurt them, and the second death shall have no power over them.

Matthew Henry: Rev 2:12-17

Here also we are to consider,

I. The inscription of this message. 1. To whom it was sent: To the angel of the church of Pergamos. Whether this was a city raised up out of the ruins of old Troy, a Troy nouveau (as our London was once called), or some other city of the same name, is neither certain nor material; it was a place where Christ had called and constituted a gospel church, by the preaching of the gospel and the grace of his Spirit making the word effectual. 2. Who it was that sent this message to Pergamos: the same Jesus who here describes himself as one that hath the sharp sword with two edges (Rev 1:16), out of whose mouth went a sharp two-edged sword. Some have observed that, in the several titles of Christ which are prefixed to the several epistles, there is something suited to the state of those churches; as in that to Ephesus, what could be more proper to awaken and recover a drowsy and declining church than to hear Christ speaking as one that held the stars in his hand, and walked in the midst of the golden candlesticks? etc. The church of Pergamos was infested with men of corrupt minds, who did what they could to corrupt both the faith and manners of the church; and Christ, being resolved to fight against them by the sword of his word, takes the title of him that hath the sharp sword with two edges. (1.) The word of God is a sword; it is a weapon both offensive and defensive, it is, in the hand of God, able to slay both sin and sinners. (2.) It is a sharp sword. No heart is so hard but it is able to cut it; it can divide asunder between the soul and the spirit, that is, between the soul and those sinful habits that by custom have become another soul, or seem to be essential to it. (3.) It is a sword with two edges; it turns and cuts every way. There is the edge of the law against the transgressors of that dispensation, and the edge of the gospel against the despisers of that dispensation; there is an edge to make a wound, and an edge to open a festered wound in order to its healing. There is no escaping the edge of this sword: if you turn aside to the right hand, it has an edge on that side; if on the left hand, you fall upon the edge of the sword on that side; it turns every way.

II. From the inscription we proceed to the contents of the epistle, in which the method is much the same as is observed in the rest. Here,

1. Christ takes notice of the trials and difficulties this church encountered with: I know thy works, and where thou dwellest, etc., Rev 2:13. The works of God's servants are best known when the circumstances under which they did those works are duly considered. Now that which added very much lustre to the good works of this church was the circumstance of the place where this church was planted, a place where Satan's seat was. As our great Lord takes notice of all the advantages and opportunities we have for duty in the places where we dwell, so he takes notice of all the temptations and discouragements we meet with from the places where we dwell, and makes gracious allowances for them. This people dwelt where Satan's seat was, where he kept his court. His circuit is throughout the world, his seat is in some places that are infamous for wickedness, error, and cruelty. Some think that the Roman governor in this city was a most violent enemy to the Christians; and the seat of persecution is Satan's seat.

2. He commends their stedfastness: Thou holdest fast my name, and hast not denied my faith. These two expressions are much the same in sense; the former may, however, signify the effect and the latter the cause or means. (1.) " Thou holdest fast my name; thou art not ashamed of thy relation to me, but accountest it thine honour that my name is named on thee, that, as the wife bears the name of the husband, so thou art called by my name; this thou holdest fast, as thine honour and privilege."(2.) "That which has made thee thus faithful is the grace of faith: thou hast not denied the great doctrines of the gospel, nor departed from the Christian faith, and by that means thou hast been kept faithful."Our faith will have a great influence upon our faithfulness. Men who deny the faith of Christ may boast very much of their sincerity, and faithfulness to God and conscience; but it has been seldom known that those who let go the true faith retained their fidelity; usually on that rock on which men make shipwreck of their faith they make shipwreck of a good conscience too. And here our blessed Lord aggrandizes the fidelity of this church from the circumstance of the times, as well as of the place where they lived: they had been stedfast even in those days wherein Antipas his faithful martyr was slain among them. Who this person was, and whether there be anything mysterious in his name, we have no certain account. He was a faithful disciple of Christ, he suffered martyrdom for it, and sealed his faith and fidelity with his blood in the place where Satan dwelt; and though the rest of the believers there knew this, and saw it, yet they were not discouraged nor drawn away from their stedfastness: this is mentioned as an addition to their honour.

3. He reproves them for their sinful failures (Rev 2:14): But I have a few things against thee, because thou hast there those that hold the doctrine of Balaam, etc., and those that hold the doctrine of the Nicolaitans, which thing I hate. There were some who taught that it was lawful to eat things sacrificed to idols, and that simple fornication was no sin; they, by an impure worship, drew men into impure practices, as Balaam did the Israelites. Observe, (1.) The filthiness of the spirit and the filthiness of the flesh often go together. Corrupt doctrines and a corrupt worship often lead to a corrupt conversation. (2.) It is very lawful to fix the name of the leaders of any heresy upon those who follow them. It is the shortest way of telling whom we mean. (3.) To continue in communion with persons of corrupt principles and practices is displeasing to God, draws a guilt and blemish upon the whole society: they become partakers of other men's sins. Though the church, as such, has no power to punish the persons of men, either for heresy or immorality, with corporal penalties, yet it has power to exclude them from its communion; and, if it do not so, Christ, the head and lawgiver of the church, will be displeased with it.

4. He calls them to repentance: Repent, or else I will come unto thee quickly, etc., Rev 2:16. Observe here, (1.) Repentance is the duty of saints as well as sinners; it is a gospel duty. (2.) It is the duty of churches and communities as well as particular persons; those who sin together should repent together. (3.) It is the duty of Christian societies to repent of other men's sins, as far as they have been accessory to them, though but so much as by connivance. (4.) When God comes to punish the corrupt members of a church, he rebukes that church itself for allowing such to continue in its communion, and some drops of the storm fall upon the whole society. (5.) No sword cuts so deep, nor inflicts so mortal a wound, as the sword of Christ's mouth. Let but the threatenings of the word be set home upon the conscience of a sinner, and he will soon be a terror to himself; let these threatenings be executed, and the sinner is utterly cut off. The word of God will take hold of sinners, sooner or later, either for their conviction or their confusion.

III. We have the conclusion of this epistle, where, after the usual demand of universal attention, there is the promise of great favour to those that overcome. They shall eat of the hidden manna, and have the new name, and the white stone, which no man knoweth, saving he that receiveth it, Rev 2:17. 1. The hidden manna, the influences and comforts of the Spirit of Christ in communion with him, coming down from heaven into the soul, from time to time, for its support, to let it taste something how saints and angels live in heaven. This is hidden from the rest of the world - a stranger intermeddles not with this joy; and it is laid up in Christ, the ark of the covenant, in the holy of holies. 2. The white stone, with a new name engraven upon it. This white stone is absolution from the guilt of sin, alluding to the ancient custom of giving a white stone to those acquitted on trial and a black stone to those condemned. The new name is the name of adoption: adopted persons took the name of the family into which they were adopted. None can read the evidence of a man's adoption but himself; he cannot always read it, but if he persevere he shall have both the evidence of sonship and the inheritance.

Barclay: Rev 2:1-7

When we know something of the history of Ephesus and learn something of its conditions at this time, it is easy to see why it comes first in the list of the seven Churches.

Pergamum was the official capital of the province of Asia but Ephesus was by far its greatest city. It claimed as its proud title "The first and the greatest metropolis of Asia." A Roman writer called it Lumen Asiae, The Light of Asia. Let us see, then, the factors which gave it its preeminent greatness.

(i) In the time of John, Ephesus was the greatest harbour in Asia. All the roads of the Cayster Valley--the Cayster was the river on which it stood--converged upon it. But the roads came from further afield than that. It was at Ephesus that the road from the far-off Euphrates and Mesopotamia reached the Mediterranean, having come by way of Colossae and Laodicea. It was at Ephesus that the road from Galatia reached the sea, having come by way of Sardis. And from the south came up the road from the rich Maeander Valley. Strabo, the ancient geographer, called Ephesus "The Market of Asia," and it may well be that in Rev 18:12-13John was setting down a description of the varied riches of the marketplace at Ephesus.

Ephesus was the Gateway of Asia. One of its distinctions, laid down by statute, was that when the Roman proconsul came to take up office as governor of Asia, he must disembark at Ephesus and enter his province there. For all the travellers and the trade, from the Cayster and the Maeander Valleys, from Galatia, from the Euphrates and from Mesopotamia, Ephesus was the highway to Rome. In later times, when the Christians were brought from Asia to be flung to the lions in the arena in Rome, Ignatius called Ephesus the Highway of the Martyrs.

Its position made Ephesus the wealthiest and the greatest city in all Asia and it has been aptly called the Vanity Fair of the ancient world.

(ii) Ephesus had certain important political distinctions. It was a free city. In the Roman Empire certain cities were free cities; they had had that honour conferred upon them because of their services to the Empire. A free city was within its own limits self-governing; and it was exempted from ever having Roman troops garrisoned there. It was an assize town. The Roman governors made periodical tours of their provinces; and at certain specially chosen cities and towns courts were held where the governor tried the most important cases. Further, Ephesus held yearly the most famous games in Asia which attracted people from all over the province.

(iii) Ephesus was the centre of the worship of Artemis or, as the King James Version calls her, Diana of the Ephesians. The Temple of Artemis was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. It was four hundred and twenty-five feet long by two hundred and twenty feet wide; it had one hundred and twenty columns, each sixty feet high and the gift of a king, and thirty-six of them were richly gilded and inlaid. Ancient temples consisted mostly of colonnades with only the centre portion roofed over. The centre portion of the Temple of Artemis was roofed over with cypress wood. The image of Artemis was one of the most sacred images in the ancient world. It was by no means beautiful but a squat, black, many-breasted figure; so ancient that none knew its origin. We have only to read Ac 19 to see how precious Artemis and her temple were to Ephesus. Ephesus had also famous temples to the godhead of the Roman Emperors, Claudius and Nero, and in after days was to add temples to Hadrian and Severus. In Ephesus pagan religion was at its strongest.

(iv) Ephesus was a notorious centre of pagan superstition. It was famous for the Ephesian Letters, amulets and charms which were supposed to be infallible remedies for sickness, to bring children to those who were childless and to ensure success in any undertaking; and people came from all over the world to buy them.

(v) The population of Ephesus was very mixed. Its citizens were divided into six tribes. One consisted of those who were descendants of the original natives of the country; one consisted of those who were direct descendants of the original colonists from Athens; three consisted of other Greeks; and one, it is probable, consisted of Jews. Besides being a centre of religion the Temple of Artemis was also a centre of crime and immorality. The Temple area possessed the right of asylum; any criminal was safe if he could reach it. The temple possessed hundreds of priestesses who were sacred prostitutes. All this combined to make Ephesus a notoriously evil place. Heraclitus, one of the most famous of ancient philosophers, was known as "the weeping philosopher." His explanation of his tears was that no one could live in Ephesus without weeping at its immorality.

Such was Ephesus; a more unpromising soil for the sowing of the seed of Christianity can scarcely be imagined; and yet it was there that Christianity had some of its greatest triumphs. R. C. Trench writes: "Nowhere did the word of God find a kindlier soil, strike root more deeply or bear fairer fruits of faith and love."

Paul stayed longer in Ephesus than in any other city (Act 20:31). It was with Ephesus that Timothy was connected so that he is called its first bishop (1Ti 1:3). It is in Ephesus that we find Aquila, Priscilla and Apollos (Act 18:19, Act 18:24, Act 18:26). Surely to no one was Paul ever more close than to the Ephesian elders, as his farewell address so beautifully shows (Act 20:17-38). In later days John was the leading figure of Ephesus. Legend has it that he brought Mary the mother of Jesus to Ephesus and that she was buried there. When Ignatius of Antioch wrote to Ephesus, on his way to being martyred in Rome, he could write: "You were ever of one mind with the apostles in the power of Jesus Christ."

There can be few places which better prove the conquering power of the Christian faith.

We may note one more thing. We have spoken of Ephesus as the greatest harbour of Asia. Today there is little left of Ephesus but ruins and it is no less than six miles from the sea. The coast is now "a harbourless line of sandy beach, unapproachable by a ship." What was once the Gulf of Ephesus and the harbour is "a marsh dense with reeds." It was ever a fight to keep the harbour of Ephesus open because of the silt which the Cayster brings down. The fight was lost and Ephesus vanished from the scene.

Barclay: Rev 2:1-7

John begins the letter to Ephesus with two descriptions of the Risen Christ.

(i) He holds the seven stars in his right hand. That is to say, Christ holds the Churches in his hand. The word for to hold is kratein (2902), and it is a strong word. It means that Christ has complete control over the Church. If the Church submits to that control, it will never go wrong; and more than that--our security lies in the fact that we are in the hand of Christ. "They shall never perish, and no one shall snatch them out of my hand" (Joh 10:28).

There is another point here which emerges only in the Greek. Kratein (2902) normally takes a genitive case after it (the case which in English we express by the word of). Because, when we take hold of a thing, we seldom take hold of the whole of it but of part of it. When kratein (2902) takes an accusative after it, it means that the whole object is gripped within the hand. Here, kratein (2902) takes the accusative and that means that Christ clasps the whole of the seven stars in his hand. That means he holds the whole Church in his hand.

We do well to remember that. It is not only our Church which is in the hand of Christ; the whole Church is in his hand. When men put up barriers between Church and Church, they do what Christ never does.

(ii) He walks in the midst of the seven golden lampstands. The lampstands are the Churches. This expression tells us of Christ's unwearied activity in the midst of his Churches. He is not confined to any one of them; wherever men are met to worship in his name, Christ is there.

John goes on to say certain things about the people of the Church of Ephesus.

(i) The Risen Christ praises their toil. The word is kopos (2884) and it is a favourite New Testament word. Tryphena, Tryphosa and Persis all work hard int he Lord (Rom 16:12). The one thing that Paul claims is that he has worked harder than all (1Co 15:10). He fears lest the Galatians slip back, and his labour is in vain (Gal 4:11). In each case--and there are many others--the word is either kopos (2884) or the verb kopian (2872). The special characteristic of these words is that they describe the kind of toil which takes everything of mind and sinew that a man can put into it. The Christian way is not for the man who fears to break sweat. The Christian is to be a toiler for Christ, and, even if physical toil is impossible, he can still toil in prayer.

(ii) The Risen Christ praises their steadfast endurance. Here is the word hupomone (5281) which we have come upon again and again. It is not the grim patience which resignedly accepts things. It is the courageous gallantry which accepts suffering and hardship and turns them into grace and glory. It is often said that suffering colours life; but when we meet life with the hupomone (5281) which Christ can give, the colour of life is never grey or black; it is always tinged with glory.

Barclay: Rev 2:1-7

The Risen Christ goes on to praise the Christians of Ephesus because they have tested evil men and proved them liars.

Many an evil man came into the little congregations of the early church. Jesus had warned of the false prophets who are wolves in sheep's clothing (Mat 7:15). In his farewell speech to the elders of this very Church at Ephesus, Paul had warned them that grievous wolves would invade the flock (Act 20:29). These evil men were of many kinds. There were emissaries of the Jews who sought to entangle Christians again in the Law and followed Paul everywhere, trying to undo his work. There were those who tried to turn liberty into licence. There were professional beggars who preyed on the charity of the Christian congregations. The Church at Ephesus us was even more open to these itinerant menaces than any other Church. It was on the highway to Rome and to the east, and what R. C. Trench called "the whole rabble of evil-doers" was liable to descend upon it.

More than once the New Testament insists on the necessity of testing. John in his First Letter insists that the spirits who claim to come from God should be tested by their willingness to accept the Incarnation in all its fullness (1Jo 4:1-3). Paul insists that the Thessalonians should test all things and then hold on to that which is good (1Th 5:21). He insists that, when the prophets preach, they are subject to the testing of the other prophets (1Co 14:29). A man cannot proclaim his private views in the assembly of God's people; he must abide in the tradition of the Church. Jesus demanded the hardest test of all: "By their fruits you will know them" (Mat 7:15-20).

The Church at Ephesus had faithfully applied its tests and had weeded out all evil and misguided men; but the trouble was that something had got lost in the process. "I have this against you," says the Risen Christ, "that you have lost your first love." That phrase may have two meanings.

(a) It can mean that the first enthusiasm is gone. Jeremiah speaks of the devotion of Israel to God in the early days. God says to the nation that he remembers, "the devotion of your youth, your love as a bride" (Jer 2:2). There had been a honeymoon period, but the first flush of enthusiasm is past. It may be that the Risen Christ is saying that all the enthusiasm has gone out of the religion of the Church of Ephesus.

(b) Much more likely this means that the first fine rapture of love for the brotherhood is gone. In the first days the members of the Church at Ephesus had really loved each other; dissension had never reared its head; the heart was ready to kindle and the hand was ready to help. But something had gone wrong. It may well be that heresy-hunting had killed love, and orthodoxy had been achieved at the price of fellowship. When that happens, orthodoxy has cost too much. All the orthodoxy in the world will never take the place of love.

Barclay: Rev 2:1-7

In Ephesus something had gone wrong. The earnest toil was there; the gallant endurance was there; the unimpeachable orthodoxy was there; but the love was gone. So the Risen Christ makes his appeal and it is for the three steps of the return journey.

(i) First, he says "Remember". He is not here speaking to someone who has never been inside the Church; he is speaking to those who are inside but have somehow lost the way. Memory can often be the first step on the way back. In the far country the prodigal son suddenly remembered his home (Luk 15:17).

O. Henry has a short story. There was a lad who had been brought up in a village; and in the village school he had sat beside a village girl, innocent and sweet. The lad found his way to the city; fell into bad company; became an expert pickpocket. He was on the street one day; he had just picked a pocket--a neat job, well done--and he was pleased with himself. Suddenly he saw the girl he used to sit beside at school. She was still the same--innocent and sweet. She did not see him; he took care of that. But suddenly he remembered what he had been, and realized what he was. He leaned his burning head against the cool iron of a lamp post. "God," he said, "how I hate myself." Memory was offering him the way back.

William Cowper wrote:

Where is the blessedness I knew

When first I saw the Lord?

Where is the soul-refreshing view

Of Jesus and his word?

A verse like that may sound like nothing but tragedy and sorrow, but in fact it can be the first step of the way back; for the first step to amendment is to realize that something has gone wrong.

(ii) Second, he says "Repent". When we discover that something has gone wrong, there is more than one possible reaction. We may feel that nothing can sustain its first lustre, and so accept what we consider inevitable. We may be filled with a feeling of resentment and blame life instead of facing ourselves. We may decide that the old thrill is to be found along forbidden pathways and try to find spice for life in sin. But the Risen Christ says, "Repent!" Repentance is the admission that the fault is ours and the feeling of sorrow for it. The prodigal's reaction is: "I will arise and go to my father and say I have sinned." (Luk 15:18). It is Saul's cry of the heart when he realizes his folly: "I have played the fool and I have erred exceedingly" (1Sa 26:21). The hardest thing about repentance is the acceptance of personal responsibility for our failure, for once the responsibility is accepted the godly sorrow will surely follow.

(iii) Third, he says "Do". The sorrow of repentance is meant to drive a man to two things. First, it is meant to drive him to fling himself on the grace of God, saying only: "God, be merciful to me a sinner." Second, it is meant to drive him to action in order to bring forth fruits meet for repentance. No man has truly repented when he does the same things again. Fosdick said that the great truth of Christianity is that "no man need stay the way he is." The proof of repentance is a changed life, a life changed by our effort in co-operation with the grace of God.

Barclay: Rev 2:1-7

We meet here a heresy which the Risen Christ says that he hates and which he praises Ephesus for also hating. It may seem strange to attribute hatred to the Risen Christ; but two things are to be remembered. First, if we love anyone with passionate intensity, we will necessarily hate anything which threatens to ruin that person. Second, it is necessary to hate the sin but love the sinner.

The heretics we meet here are the Nicolaitans. They are only named, not defined. But we meet them again in Pergamum (Rev 2:15). There they are very closely connected with those "who hold the teaching of Balaam," and that in turn is connected with eating things offered to idols and with immorality (Rev 2:14). We meet precisely the same problem at Thyatira where the wicked Jezebel is said to cause Christians to practise immorality and to eat things offered to idols.

We may first note that this danger is coming not from outside the Church but from inside. The claim of these heretics was that they were not destroying Christianity but presenting an improved version.

We may, second, note that the Nicolaitans and those who hold the teaching of Balaam were, in fact, one and the same. There is a play on words here. The name Nicolaos (3532), the founder of the Nicolaitans, could be derived from two Greek words, nikan (3528), to conquer, and laos (2992), the people. Balaam (01109) can be derived from two Hebrew words, bela, to conquer, and ha'am (05971), the people. The two names, then, are the same and both can describe an evil teacher, who has won victory over the people and subjugated them to poisonous heresy.

In Num 25:1-5we find a strange story in which the Israelites were seduced into illegal and sacrilegious unions with Moabite women and into the worship of Baal-peor, a seduction which, if it had not been sternly checked, might have ruined the religion of Israel and destroyed her as a nation. When we go on to Num 31:16we find that seduction definitely attributed to the evil influence of Balaam. Balaam, then, in Hebrew history stood for an evil man who seduced the people into sin.

Let us now see what the early church historians have to tell us about these Nicolaitans. The majority identify them with the followers of Nicolaus, the proselyte of Antioch, who was one of the seven commonly called deacons (Act 6:5). The idea is that Nicolaus went wrong and became a heretic. Irenaeus says of the Nicolaitans that "they lived lives of unrestrained indulgence" (Against Heresies, 1.26.3). Hippolytus says that he was one of the seven and that "he departed from correct doctrine, and was in the habit of inculcating indifference of food and life" (Refutation of Heresies, 7: 24). The Apostolic Constitutions (6: 8) describe the Nicolaitans as "shameless in uncleanness." Clement of Alexandria says they "abandon themselves to pleasure like goats...leading a life of self-indulgence." But he acquits Nicolaus of all blame and says that they perverted his saying "that the flesh must be abused." Nicolaus meant that the body must be kept under; the heretics perverted it into meaning that the flesh can be used as shamelessly as a man wishes (The Miscellanies 2: 20). The Nicolaitans obviously taught loose living.

Let us see if we can identify their point of view and their teaching a little more definitely. The letter to Pergamum tells us that they seduced people into eating meat offered to idols and into immorality. When we turn to the decree of the Council of Jerusalem, we find that two of the conditions on which the Gentiles were to be admitted to the Church were that they were to abstain from things offered to idols and from immorality (Act 15:28-29). These are the very conditions that the Nicolaitans broke.

They were almost certainly people who argued on these lines. (a) The Law is ended; therefore, there are no laws and we are entitled to do what we like. They confused Christian liberty with unchristian licence. They were the very kind of people whom Paul urged not to use their liberty as an opportunity for the flesh (Gal 5:13). (b) They probably argued that the body is evil anyway and that a man could do what he liked with it because it did not matter. © They probably argued that the Christian was so defended by grace that he could do anything and take no harm.

What lay behind this Nicolaitan perversion of the truth? The trouble was the necessary difference between the Christian and the pagan society in which he moved. The heathen had no hesitation in eating meat offered to idols and it was set before him at every social occasion. Could a Christian attend such a feast? The heathen had no idea of chastity and sexual relations outside marriage were accepted as completely normal and brought no shame. Must a Christian be so very different? The Nicolaitans were suggesting that there was no reason why a Christian should not come to terms with the world. Sir William Ramsay describes their teaching thus: "It was an attempt to effect a reasonable compromise with the established usages of the Graeco-Roman society and to retain as many as possible of those usages in the Christian system of life." This teaching naturally affected most the upper classes because they had most to lose if they went all the way with the Christian demand. To John the Nicolaitans were worse than pagans, for they were the enemy within the gates.

The Nicolaitans were not prepared to be different; they were the most dangerous of all heretics from a practical point of view, for, if their teaching had been successful, the world would have changed Christianity and not Christianity the world.

Barclay: Rev 2:1-7

Finally, the Risen Christ makes his great promise to those who overcome. In this picture there are two very beautiful conceptions.

(i) There is the conception of the tree of life. This is part of the story of the Garden of Eden; in the midst of the garden there was the tree of life (Gen 2:9); it was the tree of which Adam was forbidden to eat (Gen 2:16-17); the tree whose fruit would make a man like God, and for eating which Adam and Eve were driven from Eden (Gen 3:22-24).

In later Jewish thought the tree came to stand for that which gave man life indeed. Wisdom is a tree of life to them that lay hold of her (Pro 3:18); the fruit of the righteous is a tree of life (Pro 11:30); hope fulfilled is a tree of life (Pro 13:12); a tongue is a tree of life (Pro 15:4).

To this is to be added another picture. Adam was first forbidden to eat of the tree of life and then he was barred from the garden so that the tree of life was lost for ever. But it was a regular Jewish conception that, when the Messiah came and the new age dawned, the tree of life would be in the midst of men and those who had been faithful would eat of it. The wise man said: "They that do the things that please thee shall receive the fruit of the tree of immortality" (Ecc 19:19). The rabbis had a picture of the tree of life in paradise. Its boughs overshadowed the whole of paradise; it had five hundred thousand fragrant perfumes and its fruit as many pleasant tastes, every one of them different. The idea was that what Adam had lost the Messiah would restore. To eat of the tree of life means to have all the joys that the faithful conquerors will have when Christ reigns supreme.

(ii) There is the conception of paradise, and the very sound of the word is lovely. It may be that we do not attach any very definite meaning to it but when we study history, we come upon some of the most adventurous thinking the world has ever known.

(a) Originally paradise was a Persian word. Xenophon wrote much about the Persians, and it was he who introduced the word into the Greek language. Originally it meant a pleasure garden. When Xenophon is describing the state in which the Persian king lived, he says that he takes care that, wherever he resides, there are paradises, full of all the good and beautiful things the soil can produce (Xenophon: Oeconomicus, 4: 13). Paradise is a lovely word to describe a thing of serene beauty.

(b) In the Septuagint paradise has two uses. First, it is regularly used for the Garden of Eden (Gen 2:8; Gen 3:1). Second, it is regularly used of any stately garden. When Isaiah speaks of a garden that has no water, it is the word paradise that is used (Isa 1:30). It is the word used when Jeremiah says: "Plant gardens and eat their produce" (Jer 29:5). It is the word used when the preacher says: "I made myself gardens and parks, and planted in them all kinds of fruit trees" (Ecc 2:5).

(iii) In early Christian thought the word has a special meaning. In Jewish thought after death the souls of all alike went to Hades, a grey and shadowy place. Early Christian thought conceived of an intermediate state between earth and heaven to which all men went and in which they remained until the final judgment. This place was conceived of by Tertullian as a vast cavern beneath the earth. But there was a special part in which the patriarchs and the prophets lived, and that was paradise. Philo describes it as a place "vexed by neither rain, nor snow, nor waves, but which the gentle Zephyr refreshes, breathing ever on it from the ocean." As Tertullian saw it, only one kind of person went straight to this paradise, and that was the martyr. "The sole key," he said, "to unlock paradise is your own life's blood" (Tertullian: Concerning the Soul, 55).

Origen was one of the most adventurous thinkers the Church ever produced. He writes like this: "I think that all the saints (saints means Christians) who depart from this life will remain in some place situated on the earth, which holy Scripture calls paradise, as in some place of instruction and, so to speak, class-room or school of souls.... If anyone indeed be pure in heart and holy in mind, and more practised in perception, he will by making more rapid progress, quickly ascend to a place in the air, and reach the kingdom of heaven, through these mansions (stages) which the Greeks called spheres and which holy Scripture calls heavens.... He will in the end follow him who has passed into the heavens, Jesus the Son of God, who said: 'I will that where I am, these may be also.' It is of this diversity of places he speaks, when he said: 'In my Father's house are many mansions' " (Origen: De Principilis, 2: 6).

The great early thinkers did not identify paradise and heaven; paradise was the intermediate stage, where the souls of the righteous were fitted to enter the presence of God. There is something very lovely here. Who has not felt that the leap from earth to heaven is too great for one step and that there is need of a gradual entering into the presence of God? May it have been of this that Charles Wesley was thinking when he sang:

Changed from glory into glory,

Till in heaven we take our place,

Till we cast our crowns before thee,

Lost in wonder, love, and praise.

(iv) In the end in Christian thought paradise did not retain this idea of an intermediate state. It came to be equivalent to heaven. Our minds must turn to the words of Jesus to the dying and penitent thief: "Today you will be with me in paradise" (Luk 23:43). We are in the presence of mysteries about which it would be irreverent to dogmatize; but is there any better definition of paradise than to say that it is life for ever in the presence of our Lord?

When death these mortal eyes shall seal,

And still this throbbing heart,

The rending veil shall thee reveal

All glorious as thou art--

and that is paradise.

Barclay: Rev 2:8-11

If it was inevitable that Ephesus should come first in the list of the seven Churches, it was but natural that Smyrna its great rival should come second. Of all the cities of Asia, Smyrna was the loveliest. Men called it the ornament of Asia, the crown of Asia and the flower of Asia. Lucian said that it was "the fairest of the cities of Ionia." Aristides, who sang the praise of Smyrna with such splendour, spoke of "the grace which extends over every part like a rainbow...the brightness which pervades every part, and reaches up to the heavens, like the glitter of the bronze of armour in Homer." It added to the charm of Smyrna that the west wind, the gentle zephyr ever blew through its streets. "The wind," said Aristides, "blows through every part of the city, and makes it as fresh as a grove of trees." The constant west wind had only one disadvantage. The sewage of the city drained into the gulf on which the city stood, and the west wind tended to blow it back upon the city rather than out to sea.

Smyrna was magnificently situated. It stood at the end of the road which crossed Lydia and Phrygia and travelled out to the far east, and it commanded the trade of the rich Hermus valley. Inevitably it was a great trading city. The city itself stood at the end of a long arm of the sea, which ended in a small land-locked harbour in the city's heart. It was the safest of all harbours and the most convenient; and it had the added advantage that in time of war it could be easily closed by a chain across its mouth. It was fitting that on the coins of Smyrna there should be an inscription of a merchant ship ready for sea.

The setting of the city was equally beautiful. It began at the harbour; it traversed the narrow foothills; and then behind the city there rose the Pagos, a hill covered with temples and noble buildings which were spoken of as "The Crown of Smyrna." A modern traveller describes it as "a queenly city crowned with towers." Aristides likened Smyrna to a great statue with the feet in the sea; the middle parts in the plain and the foothills; and the head, crowned with great buildings, on the Pagos behind. He called it "a flower of beauty such as earth and sun had never showed to mankind."

Its history had not a little to do with the beauty of Smyrna, for it was one of the very few planned cities in the world. It had been founded as a Greek colony as far back as 1000 B.C. Round about 600 B.C. disaster had befallen it, for then the Lydians had broken in from the east and destroyed it. For four hundred years Smyrna had been no city, but a collection of little villages; then Lysimachus had rebuilt it as a planned whole. It was built with great, straight, broad streets. Strabo speaks of the handsomeness of the streets, the excellence of the paving and the great rectangular blocks in which it was built. Most famous of all the streets was the Street of Gold, which began with the Temple of Zeus and ended with the Temple of Cybele. It ran cross-wise across the foothills of the Pagos; and, if the buildings which encircled the Pagos were the crown of Smyrna, the Street of Gold was the necklace round the hill.

Here we have an interesting and a significant thing which shows the care and knowledge with which John set down his letters from the Risen Christ. The Risen Christ is called, "He who died and came to life." That was an echo of the experience of Smyrna itself.

Smyrna had other claims to greatness besides its city. It was a free city and it knew what loyalty was. Long before Rome was undisputed mistress of the world, Smyrna had cast in its lot with her, never to waver in its fidelity. Cicero called Smyrna "one of our most faithful and our most ancient allies." In the campaign against Mithradates in the far east things had gone badly with Rome. And when the soldiers of Rome were suffering from hunger and cold, the people of Smyrna stripped off their own clothes to send to them.

Such was the reverence of Smyrna for Rome that as far back as 195 B.C. it was the first city in the world to erect a temple to the goddess Roma. And in A.D. 26, when the cities of Asia Minor were competing for the privilege of erecting a temple to the godhead of Tiberius, Smyrna was picked out for that honour, overcoming even Ephesus.

Not only was Smyrna great in trade, in beauty, in political and in religious eminence; it was also a city where culture flourished. Apollonius of Tyana had urged upon Smyrna the truth that only men can make a city great. He said: "Though Smyrna is the most beautiful of all cities under the sun, and makes the sea its own, and holds the fountains of the zephyr, yet it is a greater charm to wear a crown of men than a crown of porticoes and pictures and gold beyond the standard of mankind: for buildings are seen only in their own place, but men are seen everywhere and spoken about everywhere and make their city as vast as the range of countries which they can visit." So Smyrna had a stadium in which famous games were yearly held; a magnificent public library; an Odeion which was the home of music; a theatre which was one of the largest in Asia Minor. In particular, Smyrna was one of the cities which laid claim to being the birthplace of Homer; it had a memorial building called the Homereion and put Homer's head on its coinage. This was a disputed claim. Thomas Heywood, the seventeenth century poet, wrote the famous epigram:

Seven cities warr'd for Homer, being dead,

Who, living, had no roof to shroud his head.

In such a city we would expect magnificent architecture, and in Smyrna there was a host of temples, to Cybele, to Zeus, to Apollo, to the Nemeseis, to Aphrodite, and to Asclepios.

Smyrna had rather more than its share of a characteristic which was common to all Greek cities. Mommsen said that Asia Minor was "a paradise of municipal vanity", and Smyrna of all cities was noted for "its municipal rivalry and its local pride." Everyone in it wished to exalt Smyrna and wished himself to climb to the top of the municipal tree. It is not without point that in the address of the letter the Risen Christ is called "the first and the last." In comparison with his glory all earthly distinctions are worthless.

There remains one feature of Smyrna which stands out in the letter and which had serious consequences for the Christians there. The Jews were specially numerous and influential (Rev 2:9). We find them, for instance, contributing 10,000 denarii for the beautification of the city. It is clear that in Smyrna they were specially hostile to the Christian Church, no doubt because it was from them and from those interested in Judaism that Christianity drew many of its converts. So, then, we may well end this study of Smyrna with the story of the most famous Christian martyrdom which happened there.

Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, was martyred on Saturday, 23rd February, A.D. 155. It was the time of the public-games; the city was crowded; and the crowds were excited. Suddenly the shout went up: "Away with the atheists; let Polycarp be searched for." No doubt Polycarp could have escaped; but already he had had a dream vision in which he saw the pillow under his head burning with fire and he had awakened to tell his disciples: "I must be burnt alive."

His whereabouts was betrayed by a slave who collapsed under torture. They came to arrest him. He ordered that they should be given a meal and provided with all they wished, while he asked for himself the privilege of one last hour in prayer. Not even the police captain wished to see Polycarp die. On the brief journey to the city, he pled with the old man: "What harm is it to say, 'Caesar is Lord' and to offer sacrifice and be saved?" But Polycarp was adamant that for him only Jesus Christ was Lord.

When he entered the arena there came a voice from heaven saying: "Be strong, Polycarp, and play the man." The proconsul gave him the choice of cursing the name of Christ and making sacrifice to Caesar or death. "Eighty and six years have I served him," said Polycarp, "and he has done me no wrong. How can I blaspheme my King who saved me?" The proconsul threatened him with burning, and Polycarp replied: "You threaten me with the fire that burns for a time, and is quickly quenched, for you do not know the fire which awaits the wicked in the judgment to come and in everlasting punishment. Why are you waiting? Come, do what you will."

So the crowds came flocking with faggots from the workshops and from the baths, and the Jews, even although they were breaking the Sabbath law by carrying such burdens, were foremost in bringing wood for the fire. They were going to bind him to the stake. "Leave me as I am," he said, "for he who gives me power to endure the fire, will grant me to remain in the flames unmoved even without the security you will give by the nails." So they left him loosely bound in the flames, and Polycarp prayed his great prayer:

O Lord God Almighty, Father of thy beloved and blessed Child,

Jesus Christ, through whom we have received full knowledge of thee,

God of angels and powers, and of all creation, and of the whole

family of the righteous, who live before thee, I bless thee that

thou hast granted unto me this day and hour, that I may share,

among the number of the martyrs, in the cup of thy Christ, for the

resurrection to eternal life, both of soul and body in the

immortality of the Holy Spirit. And may I today be received among

them before thee, as a rich and acceptable sacrifice, as thou, the

God without falsehood and of truth, hast prepared beforehand and

shown forth and fulfilled. For this reason I also praise thee for

all things. I bless thee, I glorify thee through the eternal and

heavenly High Priest, Jesus Christ, thy beloved Child, through

whom be glory to thee with him and the Holy Spirit, both now and

for the ages that are to come. Amen.

So much is plain fact, but then the story drifts into legend, for it goes on to tell that the flames made a kind of tent around Polycarp and left him untouched. At length the executioner stabbed him to death to achieve what the flames could not do. "And when he did this there came out a dove, and much blood, so that the fire was quenched, and all the crowd marvelled that there was such a difference between the unbelievers and the elect."

What is sure is that Polycarp died, a martyr for the faith.

It can have been no easy engagement to be a Christian at Smyrna, and yet the letter to Smyrna is one of the two in which there is undiluted praise.

Barclay: Rev 2:8-11

The Church of Smyrna was in trouble and further trial was imminent.

There are three things that the letter says about this trial.

(i) It is thlipsis (2347), affliction. Thlipsis originally meant crushing beneath a weight. The pressure of events is on the Church at Smyrna.

(ii) It is ptocheia (4432), poverty. In the New Testament poverty and Christianity are closely connected. "Blessed are you poor," said Jesus (Luk 6:20). Paul described the Christians at Corinth as being poor yet making many rich (2Co 6:10). James speaks of God choosing the poor in this world to be rich in faith (Jam 2:5).

In Greek there are two words for poverty. Penia (compare 3993) describes the state of the man who is not wealthy and who, as the Greeks defined it, must satisfy his needs with his own hands. Ptocheia (4432) describes complete destitution. It has been put this way--penia describes the state of the man who has nothing superfluous; ptocheia (4432) describes the state of the man who has nothing at all.

The poverty of the Christians was due to two things. It was due to the fact that most of them belonged to the lower classes of society. The gulf between the top and the bottom of the social scale was very wide. We know, for instance, that in Rome the poorer classes literally starved because contrary winds delayed the corn ships from Alexandria and the corn dole could not be distributed.

There was another reason for the poverty of the Christians. Sometimes they suffered from the spoiling of their goods (Heb 10:4). There were times when the heathen mob would suddenly attack the Christians and wreck their homes Life was not easy for a Christian in Smyrna or anywhere else in the ancient world.

(iii) There is imprisonment. John forecasts an imprisonment of ten days. That is not to be taken literally. Ten days was an expression for a short time which was soon to come to an end. So this prophecy is at once a warning and a promise. Imprisonment is coming, but the time of trouble, although sharp, will be short. Two things are to be noted.

First, this is exactly the way in which persecution came. To be a Christian was against the law, but persecution was not continuous. The Christians might be left in peace for a long time, but at any moment a governor might acquire a fit of administrative energy or the mob might set up a shout to find the Christians--and then the storm burst. The terror of being a Christian was the uncertainty.

Second, imprisonment does not sound so bad to us. We might say: "Imprisonment? Well, that is not so bad as death anyway." But in the ancient world imprisonment was merely the prelude to death. A man was only a prisoner until he was led out to die.

Barclay: Rev 2:8-11

The instigators of persecution were the Jews. Again and again in Acts we see how the Jews stirred up the authorities against the Christian preachers. It happened at Antioch (Act 13:50); at Iconium (Act 14:2, Act 14:5); at Lystra (Act 14:19); at Thessalonica (Act 17:5).

The story of what happened at Antioch shows us how the Jews often succeeded in moving the authorities to take action against the Christians (Act 13:50). Round the Jewish synagogues gathered many "god-fearers." These were Gentiles who were not prepared to go the whole way and to become proselytes but they were attracted by the preaching of one God instead of many gods, and were attracted specially by the purity of the Jewish ethic as compared with the heathen life. In particular women were attracted to Judaism for these reasons. Often these women were of high station, the wives of magistrates and governors, and it was through them that the Jews got at the authorities and moved them to persecute.

John calls the Jews the synagogue of Satan. He is taking a favourite expression of the Jews and reversing it. When the people of Israel met together they loved to call themselves "the assembly of the Lord" (Num 16:3; Num 20:4; Num 31:16). Synagogue is in Greek sunagoge (4864), which literally means a coming together, an assembly, a congregation. It is as if John said: "You call yourselves the assembly of God when, in fact, you are the assembly of the devil." Once John Wesley said of certain men who were presenting a crude Picture of God: "Your God is my devil." It is a terrible thing when religion becomes the means of evil things. It has happened. In the days of the French Revolution, Madame Roland uttered her famous cry: "Liberty, what crimes are committed in your name!" There have been tragic times when the same could be said about religion.

Six slanders were regularly levelled against the Christians.

(i) On the basis of the words of the Sacrament--this is my body, and this is my blood--the story went about that the Christians were cannibals.

(ii) Because the Christians called their common meal the Agape (26), the Love Feast, it was said that their gatherings were orgies of lust.

(iii) Because Christianity did, in fact, often split families, when some members became Christians and some did not, the Christians were accused of "tampering with family relationships."

(iv) The heathen accused the Christians of atheism because they could not understand a worship which had no images of the gods such as they themselves had.

(v) The Christians were accused of being politically disloyal because they would not say: "Caesar is Lord."

(vi) The Christians were accused of being incendiaries because they foretold the end of the world in flames.

It was not difficult for maliciously-minded people to disseminate dangerous slanders about the Christian Church.

Barclay: Rev 2:8-11

We have seen that the Church at Smyrna was battling with difficulties and threatened with worse to come. In view of that the letter to Smyrna opens with two resounding titles of Christ which tell what he can offer to a man confronted with such a situation as faced the Christians at Smyrna.

(i) Christ is the first and the last. In the old Testament that is a title belonging to God. "I am the first," Isaiah heard God say, "and I am the last" (Isa 44:6; Isa 48:12). This title has two aspects. To the Christian it is a tremendous promise. Come what will, from the first day of life to the last the Risen Christ is with us. Of whom then shall we be afraid?

But to the pagans of Smyrna it was a warning. They loved their city calling it the first in Asia, and they themselves were all striving every man to be one better than his neighbours. The Risen Christ said: "I am the first and the last." Here is the death of human pride. Beside the glory of Christ all human titles are of no importance and all human claims become ridiculous. When Julian, the Roman Emperor, had failed in his attempt to banish Christianity and bring back the old gods, and when he had come to death in the attempt, he said: "To shoulder Christ from out the topmost niche was not for me."

(ii) Christ is he who was dead and is alive again. The tenses of the verb are of the first importance. The Greek for "was" is genomenos (compare 1510), which means became. It describes what we might call a passing phase. Christ became dead; it was episode through which he passed. In the Greek the verb which the King James Version translates "is alive" is not a present tense but an aorist, which describes one action completed in the past. The right translation is "came to life again" (as in the Revised Standard Version), and the reference is to the event of the Resurrection. The Risen Christ is he who experienced death came to life again in the triumphant event of the Resurrection, and is alive for evermore. Here again there are two aspects.

(a) The Risen Christ is one who has experienced the worst that life could do to him. He had died in the agony of the Cross. No matter what happened to the Christians of Smyrna, Jesus Christ had been through it. Jesus Christ can help because he knows what life is like at its worst and has experienced even the bitterness of death.

(b) The Risen Christ has conquered the worst that life can do. He triumphed over pain and over death; and he offers us through himself the way to victorious living.

In this passage there is also a demand, and the demand is for loyalty, loyal even when death is the price to be paid. Loyalty was a quality of which the people of Smyrna knew something, for their city had flung in its lot with Rome, when Rome's greatness was only a far off possibility, and had never wavered from in its allegiance, in fair weather and in foul. If all the other noble qualities of life were placed in the balance against it, loyalty would outweigh them all. It was R. L. Stevenson's prayer that "in all the chances of fortune, and down to the gates of death" we should be "loyal and loving to one another."

Barclay: Rev 2:8-11

Jesus Christ will be in no man's debt and loyalty to him brings its own reward. In this passage two rewards are mentioned.

(i) There is the crown of life. Again and again the crown of the Christian is mentioned in the New Testament. Here and in, Jam 1:12it is the crown of life. Paul speaks of the crown of righteousness (2Ti 4:8), and of the crown of boasting (1Th 2:19). Peter speaks of the crown of glory (1Pe 5:4). Paul contrasts the immortal crown of the Christian with the fading crown of laurel which was the prize of the victor in the games (1Co 9:25), and Peter speaks of the unfading crown of glory (1Pe 5:4).

Of in each of these phrases means "which consists of". To win the crown of righteousness or glory or life is to be crowned with righteousness or glory or with life. But we must understand the idea behind this word crown (stephanos, 4735). In Greek there are two words for crown, diadema (0), which means the royal crown, and stephanos (4735), which has usually something to do with joy and victory. It is not the royal crown which is being offered to the Christian; it is the crown of joy and victory. Stephanos (4735) has many associations, and all of them contribute something to the riches of thought behind it.

(a) First to the mind comes the victor's crown in the games. Smyrna had games which were famous all over Asia. As in the Olympic Games, the reward of the victorious athlete was the laurel crown. The Christian can win the crown of victory in the contest of life.

(b) When a man had faithfully performed the work of a magistrate, at the end of his term of office he was granted a crown. He who throughout life faithfully serves Christ and his fellow-men will receive his crown.

© The heathen world was in the habit of wearing crowns, chaplets of flowers, at banquets. At the end of the day, if the Christian is loyal, he will have the joy of sitting as a guest at the banquet of God.

(d) The heathen worshippers were in the habit of wearing crowns when they approached the temples of their gods. At the end of the day, if he has been faithful, the Christian will have the joy of entering into the nearer presence of God.

(e) Some scholars have seen in this crown a reference to the halo or the nimbus which is round the head of divine beings in pictures. If that is so, it means that the Christian, if he is faithful, will be crowned with the life which belongs to God himself. As John said: "We shall be like him, for we shall see him as he is" (1Jo 3:2).

In this life it may be that the Christian's loyalty will bring him a crown of thorns, but in the life to come it will surely bring him the crown of glory.

(ii) Cyprian uses two great phrases to describe those who are faithful unto death. He describes them as "illustrious with the heraldry of a good name," and he calls them "the white-robed cohort of the soldiers of Christ." To the faithful another promise is made: they will not be hurt by the second death. The second death is a mysterious phrase which occurs nowhere in the New Testament outside the Revelation (Rev 20:6, Rev 20:14; Rev 21:8). The Rabbis talked of "the second death whereof the wicked die in the next world." The phrase may have two origins.

(a) The Sadducees believed that after death there was absolutely nothing; the Epicureans held the same doctrine. This belief finds its place even in the Old Testament for that pessimistic book Ecclesiastes is the work of a Sadducee. "A living dog is better than a dead lion; for the living know that they will die, but the dead know nothing" (Ecc 9:4-5). For the Sadducees and the Epicureans death was extinction. To the orthodox Jew this was too easy, for it meant that for the wise and for the fool the end was the same (Ecc 2:15, Ecc 16 ; Ecc 19:2). They, therefore, came to believe that there were, so to speak, two deaths--physical death which every man must undergo and after that a death which was the judgment of God.

(b) This is very closely connected with the ideas which we touched on when studying the word paradise (Rev 2:7). We saw that many of the Jews and the early Christian thinkers believed that there was an intermediate state into which all men passed until the time of judgment. If that were so, then indeed there would be two deaths, the physical death which no man can escape and the spiritual death into which the wicked would enter after the final judgment.

Of such things it is not given to any man to speak with confidence but, when John spoke of the faithful being unharmed by the second death, he meant precisely the same as Paul when he said that nothing in life or in death, in time or in eternity can separate those who love him from Jesus Christ. Such a man is safe from all that life or death can do to him (Rom 8:38-39).

Barclay: Rev 2:12-17

There is a difference in the name of this city in the different translations of the New Testament. The King James Version calls it Pergamos, while the English Revised Version, the Revised Standard Version and Moffatt call it Pergamum. Pergamos (4010) is the feminine form of the name and Pergamum the neuter. In the ancient world it was known by both forms but Pergamum was much the commoner and the newer translations are right to prefer it.

Pergamum had a place all its own in Asia. It was not on any of the great roads, as Ephesus and Smyrna were, but historically it was the greatest city in Asia. Strabo called it an illustrious (epiphanes, 2016) city and Pliny called it "by far the most famous city in Asia" (longe clarissimum Asiae). The reason was that, by the time John was writing, Pergamum had been a capital city for almost four hundred years. Back in 282 B.C. it was made the capital of the Seleucid kingdom, one of the sections into which the empire of Alexander the Great was broken up. It remained the capital until 133 B.C. In that year Attalus the Third died and before he died he willed his dominions into the possession of Rome. Out of the dominions of Attalus, Rome formed the province of Asia and Pergamum still remained its capital.

Its geographical position made Pergamum even more impressive. It was built on a tall conical hill, which dominated the valley of the River Caicus, from the top of which the Mediterranean could be seen, fifteen miles away. Sir William Ramsay describes it: "Beyond all other cities in Asia Minor, it gives the traveller the impression of a royal city, the home of authority; the rocky hill on which it stands is so huge, and dominates the broad plain of the Caicus so proudly and so boldly." History and honour gathered around Pergamum. Let us then set down its outstanding characteristics.

(i) Pergamum could never achieve the commercial greatness of Ephesus or of Smyrna but it was a centre of culture which surpassed both. It was famous for its library, which contained no fewer than 200,000 parchment rolls. It was second only to the unique library of Alexandria.

It is interesting to note that the word parchment is derived from Pergamum (4010). In the ancient world parchment was he pergamene charta, the Pergamene sheet; and to this name attaches a story. For many centuries ancient rolls were written on papyrus, a substance made of the pith of a very large bulrush which grows beside the Nile. The pith was extracted, cut into strips, pressed into sheets and smoothed. There emerged a substance not unlike brown paper, and this was universally used for writing. In the third century B.C. a Pergamene king called Eumenes was very anxious to make the library of the city supreme. In order to do so he persuaded Aristophanes of Byzantium, the librarian at Alexandria, to agree to leave Alexandria and come to Pergamum. Ptolemy of Egypt, enraged at this seduction of his outstanding scholar, promptly imprisoned Aristophanes and by way of retaliation put an embargo on the export of papyrus to Pergamum. Faced with this situation, the scholars of Pergamum invented parchment or vellum, which is made of the skins of beasts, smoothed and polished. In fact parchment is a much superior vehicle for writing and, although it did not do so for many centuries, it in the end ousted papyrus altogether as writing material.

(ii) Pergamum was one of the great religious centres. In particular it had two famous shrines. In the letter of the Risen Christ Pergamum is said to be the place where "Satan's seat" is. Obviously this must refer to something which the Christian Church regarded as particularly evil. Some have found the reference explained in Pergamum's religious splendour.

(a) Pergamum regarded itself as the custodian of the Greek way of life and of the Greek worship. About 240 B.C. it had won a great victory against the savage invading Galatae or Gauls. In memory of that victory a great altar to Zeus was built in front of the Temple of Athene which stood eight hundred feet up on Pergamum's conical hill. Forty feet high, it stood on a projecting ledge of rock and looked exactly like a great throne on the hillside. All day it smoked with the smoke of sacrifices offered to Zeus. Around its base was carved one of the greatest achievements in the world of sculpture, the frieze which showed the Battle of the Giants, in which the gods of Greece were victorious over the giants of the barbarians. It has been suggested that this great altar was Satan's seat. But it is unlikely that a Christian writer would call that altar Satan's seat, for even by this time the old Greek gods were anachronisms and it would have been a waste of the powder and shot of Christian invective to attack them.

(b) Pergamum was particularly connected with the worship of Asclepios, so much so that Asclepios was known as "the Pergamene god." When Galen was mentioning favourite oaths, he said that people commonly swore by Artemis of Ephesus, or Apollo of Delphi, or Asclepios of Pergamum. Asclepios was the god of healing and his temples were the nearest approach to hospitals in the ancient world. From all over the world people flocked to Pergamum for relief for their sicknesses. R. H. Charles has called Pergamum "the Lourdes of the ancient world." The task of healing was partly the work of the priests; partly the work of doctors--Galen, second only to Hippocrates in the medical history of the ancient world, was born in Pergamum; and partly the work of Asclepios himself. Was there anything in that worship to move the Christians to call the Temple of Asclepios Satan's seat? There may have been two things.

First, the commonest and most famous title for Asclepios was Asclepios Soter (4990), Asclepios the Saviour. It might well be that the Christians felt a shudder of horror that the name Saviour should be given to anyone other than Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world.

Second, the emblem of Asclepios was the serpent, which still appears on the cap badge of the Royal Army Medical Corps. Many of the coins of Pergamum have Asclepios' serpent as part of their design. It might well be that Jew or Christian might regard a religion which took the serpent as its emblem as a Satanic cult. Again this explanation seems unlikely. As has been pointed out, the Christians would regard the place where men went to be healed--and often were--with pity rather than with indignation. The worship of Asclepios surely would not give adequate ground for calling Pergamum Satan's seat.

It seems then that we must look elsewhere for the explanation of this phrase.

(iii) Pergamum was the administrative centre of Asia. That meant that it was the centre of Caesar worship for the province. We have already described Caesar worship and the dire dilemma in which it placed the Christian.

It was organized with a provincial centre and an administration like that of a presbytery or diocese. The point here is that Pergamum was the centre of that worship for the province of Asia. Undoubtedly that is why Pergamum was Satan's seat; it was the place where men were required on pain of death to take the name of Lord and give it to Caesar instead of to Christ; and to a Christian there could be nothing more Satanic than that.

And here is the explanation of the beginning of the letter to Pergamum. The Risen Christ is called he who has the sharp two-edged sword. Roman governors were divided into two classes--those who had the ius gladii, the right of the sword, and those who had not. Those who had the right of the sword had the power of life and death; on their word a man could be executed on the spot. Humanly speaking the proconsul, who had his headquarters at Pergamum, had the ius gladii, the right of the sword, and at any moment he might use it against any Christian; but the letter bids the Christian not to forget that the last word is still with the Risen Christ, who has the sharp two-edged sword. The power of Rome might be satanically powerful; the power of the Risen Lord is greater yet.

Barclay: Rev 2:12-17

To be a Christian in Pergamum was to face what Cromwell would have called "an engagement very difficult."

We have already seen what a concentration of pagan religion had its centre in Pergamum. There was the worship of Athene and Zeus, with its magnificent altar dominating the city; there was the worship of Asclepios, bringing sick people from far and near; and above all there were the demands of Caesar worship, hanging for ever like a poised sword above the heads of the Christians.

So the Risen Christ says to the Christians of Pergamum: "I know where you stay." The word for to stay is here katoikein (2730); and it means to have one's permanent residence in a place. It is a very unusual word to use of Christians in the world. Usually the word used of them is paroikein (3939), which means to be a sojourner. Peter writes his letter to the sojourners throughout the provinces of Asia Minor. But here the matter is being regarded from another point of view. The Christians of Pergamum have their permanent residence, so far as this world is concerned, in Pergamum; and Pergamum is the place where Satan's rule is strongest.

Here is something very important. The principle of the Christian life is not escape, but conquest. We may feel it would be very much easier to be a Christian in some other place and in some other circumstances but the duty of the Christian is to witness for Christ where life has set him. We once heard of a girl who was converted in an evangelistic campaign. A reporter on a secular newspaper, her first step after her conversion was to get a new job on a small Christian newspaper where she was constantly in the society of professing Christians. It was strange that the first thing that her conversion did was to make her run away. The more difficult it is to be a Christian in any set of circumstances. the greater the obligation to remain within these circumstances. If in the early days Christians had run away every time they were confronted with a difficult engagement, there would have been no chance of a world for Christ.

The Christians at Pergamum proved that it was perfectly possible to be a Christian under such circumstances. Even when martyrdom was in the air they did not flinch. Of Antipas we know nothing; there is a late legend in Tertullian that he met his death by being slowly roasted to death within a brazen bull. But there is a point in the Greek impossible to reproduce in English which is intensely suggestive. The Risen Christ calls Antipas my faithful martus (3144). We have translated that "martyr"; but martus (3144) is the normal Greek word for witness. In the early church to be a martyr and to be a witness were one and the same thing. Witness meant so often martyrdom. Here is a rebuke to us. So many are prepared to demonstrate their Christianity in Christian circles but are equally prepared to play it down in circles where Christianity is met with opposition.

We must note another thing. The Risen Christ calls Antipas my faithful martus (3144) and so gives him nothing less than his own title. In Rev 1:5and Rev 3:14Christ himself is called the faithful martus (3144); to those who are true to him he gives nothing less than his own name.

Barclay: Rev 2:12-17

In spite of the fidelity of the Church at Pergamum there is error. There are those who hold the teaching of Balaam and the doctrine of the Nicolaitans. We have already discussed these people in connection with Ephesus and we meet them again when we come to study the letter of Thyatira. They sought to persuade Christians that there was nothing wrong with a prudent conformity to the world's standards.

The man who is not prepared to be different need not start on the Christian way at all. The commonest word for the Christian in the New Testament is hagios (40) whose basic meaning is different or separate. The Temple is hagios (39) because it is different from other buildings; the Sabbath day is hagios (40) because it is different from other days; God is supremely hagios (40) because he is totally different from men; and the Christian is hagios (40) because he is different from other men.

We must be clear what this difference means, for there is a paradox in it. It is Paul's summons to the Corinthians that they should be different from the world. "Come out from among them" (2Co 6:17). This difference from the world does not involve separation from it nor hatred for it. Paul says in writing to the very same Church: "I have become all things to all men, that I might by all means save some" (1Co 9:22). It was Paul's claim that he could get alongside all men; but--and here is the point--his getting alongside them was that he might save some. It was not a question of bringing Christianity down to their level; it was a question of bringing them up. The fault of the Nicolaitans was that they were following a policy of compromise solely to save themselves from trouble.

It is the word of the Risen Christ that he will make war with them. We must note that he did not say: "I will go to war with you"; he said: "I will go to war with them." His wrath was not directed against the whole Church but against those who were seducing her; for those who were led astray, he had nothing but pity.

It is the threat of the Risen Christ that he will make war against them with the sword of his mouth. The Christ of the sword is a startling idea. Thinking of past conquerors and comparing them with Jesus Christ, the poet wrote:

Then all these vanished from the scene,

Like flickering shadows on a glass;

And conquering down the centuries came

The swordless Christ upon an ass.

What then is the sword of Christ? The writer to the Hebrews speaks of the word of God which is sharper than any two-edged sword (Heb 4:12). Paul speaks of "the sword of the Spirit which is the word of God" (Eph 6:17). The sword of Christ is the word of Christ.

In the word of Christ there is conviction of sin; in it a man is confronted with the truth and thereby with his own failure to obey it. In the word of Christ there is invitation to God; it convicts a man of sin and then invites him back to the love of God. In the word of Christ there is assurance of salvation; it convicts a man of sin, it leads him to the Cross, and it assures him that there is no other name under heaven given among men by which we must be saved (Act 4:12). The conquest of Christ is his power to win men to the love of God.

Barclay: Rev 2:12-17

In this letter the Risen Christ promises two things to the man who overcomes; the first is a share of the hidden manna to eat. Here is a Jewish conception which has two aspects.

(i) When the children of Israel had no food in the desert God gave them manna to eat (Exo 16:11-15). When the need of the manna passed, the memory did not A pot of the manna was put into the ark and laid up before God in the Holy of Holies in the tabernacle and in the Temple (Exo 16:33-34; Heb 9:4). Early in the sixth century B.C. the Temple which Solomon had built was destroyed; and the rabbis had a legend that, when that happened, Jeremiah hid away the pot of manna in a cleft in Mount Sinai and that, when the Messiah came, he would return and the pot of manna would be discovered again. To a Jew "to eat of the hidden manna" meant to enjoy the blessings of the Messianic age. TO a Christian it meant to enter into the blessedness of the new world which would emerge when the Kingdom came.

(ii) There may be a wider and more general meaning. Of the manna it is said: "This is the bread which the Lord has given you to eat" (Exo 16:15). The manna is called "grain of heaven" (Psa 78:24); and it is said to be the "bread of the angels," (Psa 78:25). Here the manna may mean heavenly food. In that case John would be saying: "In this world you cannot share with the heathen in their feasts because you cannot sit down to meat which is part of a sacrifice that has been offered to an idol. You may think that you are being called upon to give up much but the day will come when you will feast in heaven upon heavenly food." If that is so, the Risen Christ is saying that a man must abstain from the seductions of earth if he wishes to enjoy the blessings of heaven.

(iii) There is one possible further interpretation of this. Some have suggested that the hidden manna is the bread of God given to the Christian at the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. John tells us that when the Jews said to him that their fathers had eaten manna in the wilderness, so receiving bread, and Jesus said "I am the bread of life" (Joh 6:31-35). If the hidden manna and the bread of life are the same, the hidden manna is not only the bread of the sacrament but stands for nothing less than Christ, the bread of life; and this is a promise that to him who is faithful he will give himself.

Barclay: Rev 2:12-17

The final promise of Christ to the faithful in Pergamum is that he will give them the white stone with the new name on it. This is a passage of which there are almost endless interpretations. In the ancient world a white stone might stand for many things.

(i) There was a Rabbinic legend that precious stones fell from heaven along with the manna. The white stone would then simply stand for the precious gifts of God to his people.

(ii) In the ancient world coloured stones were used as counters for working out calculations. This would mean that the Christian is counted among the number of the faithful.

(iii) In the ancient law courts white and black stones were used for registering the verdict of juries, black for condemnation, white for acquittal. This would mean that the Christian is acquitted in the sight of God because of the work of Jesus Christ.

(iv) In the ancient world objects called tesserae were much used. A tessera was a little tablet made of wood or metal or stone; it had writing on it; and, generally speaking, the possession of a tessera conferred some kind of privilege upon a man. Three of these tesserae add something to the picture.

(a) In Rome the great houses had their clients, dependents who every morning received from their patron food and money for the day. They were often given a tessera by which they identified themselves as having the right to the free gifts. This would mean that the Christian has the right to the free gifts for life which Christ can give.

(b) To win a victory at the games was one of the greatest honours the ancient world could give. Outstanding victors were given, by the master of the games, a tessera which in the days to come conferred upon them the right of free entry to all public spectacles. This would mean that the Christian is the victorious athlete of Christ who is a sharer in the glory of his Lord.

© In Rome a great gladiator was the admired hero of all. Often a gladiator had to fight on until he was killed in combat. But if he had had a specially illustrious career, when he grew old, he was allowed to retire in honour. Such men were given a tessera with the letters "SP" on it. "SP" stands for the Latin word spectatus, which means a man whose valour has been proved beyond a doubt. This would mean that the Christian is the gladiator of Christ and that, when he has proved his valour in the battle of life, he is allowed to enter into the rest which Christ gives with honour.

(v) In the ancient world a specially happy day was called a white day. Plutarch tells that when Pericles was besieging Samos he knew that the siege would be long; he did not wish his army to grow weary; so he divided it into eight parts; every day the eight companies drew lots; one was a white bean; and the company which drew the white bean was exempt from duty for the day and could enjoy itself as it wished. So it was that a happy day came to be called a white day (Plutarch: Life of Pericles 64). Pliny in one of his letters tells a friend that that day he had had the joy of hearing in the law courts two magnificent young pleaders in whose hands the future of Roman oratory was safe; and, he says, that experience made that day one marked candidissimo calculo, with the whitest of stones (Pliny: Letters 6: 11). It was said that the Thracians and the Scythians kept in their homes an urn into which for every happy day they threw a white stone and for every unhappy day a black stone; at the end of their lives the stones were counted, and as the white or the black preponderated, a man was said to have had a wretched or a happy life. This would mean that through Jesus Christ the Christian can have the joy that no man takes from him (Joh 16:22).

(vi) Along this line there is another and most likely interpretation. One of the commonest of all customs in the ancient world was to carry an amulet or charm. It might be made of a precious metal or a precious stone but often it was nothing more than a pebble. On the pebble there was a sacred name; to know a god's name was to have a certain power over him, to be able to summon him to one's aid in time of difficulty and to have mastery over the demons. Such an amulet was thought to be doubly effective, if no one other than the owner knew the name that was inscribed upon it. Most likely what John is saying is: "Your heathen friends--and you did the same in your heathen days--carry amulets with superstitious inscriptions on them and they think they will keep them safe. You need nothing like that; you are safe in life and in death because you know the name of the only true God."

Barclay: Rev 2:12-17

It is just possible that we ought to look for the meaning of the new name and the white stone in another direction altogether.

The words white and new are characteristic of the Revelation. R. H. Charles has said that in the Revelation "white is the colour and livery of heaven." The word used does not describe a dull, flat whiteness but one which glistens like snow in the winter sun. So in the Revelation we find white garments (Rev 3:5); white robes (Rev 7:9); white linen (Rev 19:8, Rev 19:14); and the great white throne of God himself (Rev 20:11). White, then, is heaven's colour.

In Greek there are two words for "new." There is neos (3501), which means new in point of time. A thing can be neos (3501), and yet exactly like any number of things. On the other hand there is kainos (2537), which is new not only in point of time but also in point of quality; nothing like it has ever been made before. So in the Revelation there is the new Jerusalem (Rev 3:12); the new song (Rev 5:9); the new heavens and the new earth (Rev 21:1); and God makes all things new (Rev 21:5). With this in mind two lines of thought have been suggested.

It has been suggested that the white stone is the man himself; that the Risen Christ is promising his faithful ones a new self, cleansed of all earthly stains and glistening with the purity of heaven.

As to the new name, one of the features of the Old Testament is the giving to a man of a new name to mark a new status. So Abram becomes Abraham when the great promise is made that he will be the father of many nations and when he, as it were, acquires a new status in the plan of God for men (Gen 17:5). So after the wrestling at Peniel, Jacob becomes Israel, which means the prince of God, because he had prevailed with God (Gen 32:28). Isaiah hears the promise of God to the nation of Israel: "The nations shall see your vindication, and all the kings your glory; and you shall be called by a new name which the mouth of the Lord will give" (Isa 62:2).

This custom of giving a new name to mark a new status was known in the heathen world as well. The name of the first of the Roman Emperors was Octavius; but when he became Emperor he was given the name Augustus to mark his new status.

A curious superstitious parallel to this comes from peasant life in Palestine. When a person was very ill and in danger of death, he was often given the name of someone who had lived a long and saintly life, as if this turned him into a new person over whom the illness might lose its power.

On this basis of interpretation, Christ promises a new status to those who are faithful to him.

This is attractive. It suggests that the white stone means that Jesus Christ gives to the man who is true to him a new self and that the new name means the new status of glory into which the man who has been true to Christ will enter when this life ends and when the next begins. It remains to say that, attractive as that interpretation is, the view which traces back the white stone and the new name to the use of amulets is more likely to be correct.

Constable: Rev 2:1--3:22

II THE LETTERS TO THE SEVEN CHURCHES chs. 2--3

Before analyzing each of the seven letters that follows we should note some of their features as a group. They are similar in that they are all brief, and each contains a unique description of the Lord Jesus drawn from 1:12-20 that is appropriate to that church. Moreover each contains a word of commendation (except the letter to Laodicea) and each carries some rebuke for the congregation (except those to Smyrna and Philadelphia). Furthermore each exhorts its readers to specific action, and each holds out a promise as an incentive for faithful obedience.

"These promises are often the most metaphorical and symbolic portions of the letters and thus in some cases present interpretative difficulties. Each is eschatological and is correlated with the last two chapters of the book (21-22). . . . Furthermore, the promises are echoes of Genesis 2-3: what was lost originally by Adam in Eden is more than regained in Christ."⁶⁷

"Churches 1 and 7 are in grave danger; churches 2 and 6 are in excellent shape, churches 3, 4, and 5 are middling, neither very good nor very bad."⁶⁸

These were letters to historical churches in the first century similar to so many of Paul's epistles, for example. A notable difference between Paul's letters and these, however, is that in his epistles normally doctrine precedes practical exhortation, but in Revelation practical exhortation precedes teaching about future events.

"The letters are not structured in strict epistolary form; they are special messages addressed to the seven churches. The book as a whole is in the form of a letter."⁶⁹

The messages of these seven letters are applicable to individual local churches and to the Christians in them today. Furthermore there is a remarkable parallel between conditions in these seven local churches and conditions in the universal church as history has unfolded from the first century to the twentieth. Their order has proven prophetic though there is no statement in the text that God intended them to be prophetic.⁷⁰ Nevertheless the situations these churches faced represent characteristic situations the church has faced at any given time in various geographical locations. Each letter is applicable to the church today to the extent that local churches find themselves in similar circumstances.

"The pointed message of Christ to each of these churches is the capstone to New Testament Epistles dealing with the practical life of those committed to the Christian faith."⁷¹

". . . they are more like prophetic oracles than formal epistles. The likeness extends to form and content {cf. Amos 1-2]."⁷²

Constable: Rev 2:1-7

A. The letter to the church in Ephesus 2:1-7

Jesus Christ told John to write the letter to the church in Ephesus to commend the Ephesian Christians for their labors and perseverance in God's truth. He also wanted to exhort them to rekindle their former love for the Savior.

Constable: Rev 2:1

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:1

Ephesus was a leading seaport and the capital of the Roman province of Asia Minor. Paul had evangelized it and used it as a base of operations for at least three years (Acts 18:19-21; 19; 1 Cor. 16:8). Timothy had labored there (1 Tim. 1:3) as had the Apostle John.⁷³ It was the largest city in Asia Minor and was "the Vanity Fair of the Ancient World."⁷⁴ Ephesus was definitely the first recipient of four New Testament books (Ephesians, 1 and 2 Timothy, and Revelation) and possibly four more (John's Gospel and his three epistles). Paul also wrote 1 Corinthians from Ephesus. It was a very important city in the early history of the church.

The "angel" who was the primary recipient of this letter was probably the representative of the Ephesian church who carried this letter, along with the rest of Revelation, to the church at Ephesus.⁷⁵ He would have made the letter known to the congregation when he read it publicly. It seems unlikely that God would have sent the letter to a spirit being. The word translated "angel" usually refers to a heavenly being in the New Testament, but it describes human messengers as well (cf. Matt. 11:10; Mark 1:2; Luke 7:24, 27; 9:52). Another view is that the reference is to the prevailing spirit of the church personified.⁷⁶ However, "angel" is a very unusual term to describe such a spirit.

John described Jesus Christ figuratively as the One in authority over the churches' leaders and One who knew their situations. He was watching over them (cf. 1:13, 16).

Constable: Rev 2:2-3

2. Commendation 2:2-3 (cf. v. 6)

This church had remained faithful to Jesus Christ for over 40 years. He approved of the good works of these believers--their toil in His service, patient endurance of circumstances (Gr. hypomone) under affliction, and discipline of evil men and false teachers. The false teachers undoubtedly claimed to be functional apostles (cf. 2 Cor. 11:13) rather than official apostles (Acts 1:15-26). Particularly commendable was the perseverance of this church (v. 3).⁷⁷

"As to whether the authoritative function of apostles continued after the first century, the apostolic fathers are instructive. In no case do the many references to apostles in the writings of Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Barnabas, and the Shepherd of Hermas relate to any recognized apostles other than those associated with the NT. The Fathers apparently understood the special apostolic function to have ceased with the end of the apostolic era."⁷⁸

Constable: Rev 2:4

3. Rebuke 2:4

The Ephesians, however, were serving Jesus Christ and maintaining orthodoxy as a tradition rather than out of fervent love for their Savior (cf. Eph. 1:15-16).⁷⁹ Obviously genuine believers are in view.⁸⁰ They did what was correct but for the wrong reason. Service and orthodoxy are important, but Jesus Christ wants our love too.

"It is only as we love Christ fervently that we can serve Him faithfully."⁸¹

Constable: Rev 2:5-6

4. Exhortation 2:5-6

The corrective for a cold heart that the Lord prescribed was a three-step process. They needed to remember how they used to feel about Him, to repent (change their attitude), and return to the love that formerly motivated them. The "deeds" they used to do probably refer to the activities that fanned the flame of their love (e.g., the Lord's Supper perhaps) as well as their service for Him (v. 2). To rekindle first love there needs to be a return to first works because there is an intimate relationship between love and good works (1 John 5:2).

"Memory can be a powerful force in effecting a return to a more satisfying relationship (cf. the prodigal son in Lk 15:17-18)."⁸²

Eventually the Ephesian church passed out of existence, but that did not occur until the fifth century. The recipients of this letter seem to have responded positively to this exhortation. The site of the city has been virtually without inhabitants since the fourteenth century.

"Though they had left their first love, they had not left their former hatred for evil."⁸³

"The church that loses its love will soon lose its light, no matter how doctrinally sound it may be."⁸⁴

We know little of the Nicolaitans who were evidently followers of someone named Nicolas (cf. Acts 6:5). Irenaeus, who lived in the late second century, wrote that they were without restraint in their indulgence of the flesh and practiced fornication and the eating of foods sacrificed to idols.⁸⁵ The word "Nicolaitans" is a transliteration of two Greek words that mean "to conqueror" and "people." Consequently Nicolaitanism has come down through history as typifying any system that seeks to dominate rather than serve people.

"The teaching of the Nicolaitans was an exaggeration of the doctrine of Christian liberty which attempted an ethical compromise with heathenism."⁸⁶

Constable: Rev 2:7

5. Promise 2:7

An invitation preceded the promise, as in all the letters to follow (cf. 1:3). Jesus was the only person to issue this invitation in Scripture. The Gospels also record Him doing so seven times (Matt. 11:15; 13:9, 43; Mark 4:9, 23; Luke 8:8; 14:35). This invitation always occurs where Jesus appealed to His hearers to make a significant change.

In addition to the implied promise of the whole church's continuance if obedient (v. 5), Jesus Christ gave a promise to the individuals in the church. "Him who overcomes" probably refers to all Christians (cf. vv. 2-3, 10c, 13, 19, 25; 3:3, 8, 10; 1 John 5:4-5).⁸⁷ The promises given to overcomers in all seven letters and in 21:7 bear this interpretation out.⁸⁸ The Lord held out a reminder of what would inevitably be theirs in the future to motivate the readers to follow Him faithfully in the present. Similarly other New Testament writers wrote of our blessings in Christ to motivate us to live in harmony with our calling.

". . . the promises to the conquerors are fundamentally assurances to the faithful of the benefits of Christ's redemption, expressed in the language of apocalyptic. In the nature of the case the promises afford inspiration for faith and fortitude in all who may be called to lay down their lives for Christ, and they are intended to do so."⁸⁹

John prefaced the promise with a special exhortation to give attention.

"These promises pertain to Christians alone, and their realization awaits the future Messianic Era. The time when Christians will enter into these promises must follow the time set forth in chapter one--Christ appearing as Judge in the midst of the seven Churches. The Church must first be brought into judgment, and then overcoming Christians will realize that which has been promised."⁹⁰

The promise itself seems to be that those who remember, repent, and repeat the first works (v. 5) will partake of the tree of life.

There is a connection between the tree of life and man's rule over the earth. Adam in his unfallen state had access to this tree, but when he fell God kept him from it (Gen. 1:26-28; 3:22). In the future believers will have access to it again (cf. 22:14).

"A number of other Jewish texts use the eating of the fruit of the tree of life as a metaphor for salvation (1 Enoch 25:5; 3 Enoch 23:18; T. Levi 18:11; Apoc. Mos. 28:4; Apoc. Elijah 5:6), and this metaphor continues to be used by Christian authors (T. Jacob 7:24). . . The tree of life is not simply a symbol for eternal life alone but also represents the cosmic center of reality where eternal life is present and available, and where God dwells. . .

"One tradition often used in apocalyptic literature originated in Gen 2:9; 3:23-24 and involved eschatological access to the tree of life in the heavenly paradise, clearly a metaphor for the enjoyment of eternal life."⁹¹

"The tree of life reserved for Christians is associated peculiarly with a provision for those who will rule and reign as co-heirs with Christ; and viewing Adam's position in the Genesis account--created to rule and reign, in possession of life, with the fruit of the tree at his disposal--the same would hold true. The fruit of this tree was in Genesis and will be in Revelation a provision for the rulers in the kingdom."⁹²

The tree of life appears four times in the Book of Proverbs and its use there helps us understand its presence in Genesis and Revelation. Solomon referred to wisdom (Prov. 3:18), righteousness (Prov. 11:30), satisfied hope (Prov. 13:12), and controlled speech (Prov. 15:4) as a tree of life. These are all the fruits that would have provided Adam and will provide the overcomers with what they will need to rule effectively in the millennial kingdom and beyond.

The tree of life in Eden and the tree of life in the New Jerusalem (Rev. 22:2, 14, 19) appear to be literal trees.⁹³

In church history, conditions described in this letter characterized the apostolic age especially.

Constable: Rev 2:8-11

B. The letter to the church in Smyrna 2:8-11

John penned this letter to commend its recipients for their endurance of persecution and poverty for the sake of Jesus Christ. He also did so to exhort them to be fearless and faithful even to death. Whereas the Ephesian church needed to return to past conditions, this one needed to persevere in what was characteristic of it in the present.

Constable: Rev 2:8

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:8

Smyrna was also a seaport on the Aegean Sea. It stood about 40 miles north of Ephesus. Late in the first century it was a large wealthy city with a population of about 100,000. It still thrives today as Izmir with a population of about 200,000.

Jesus Christ described Himself here as the eternal One who died and experienced resurrection. "Smyrna" means "bitter." The Greek word translates the Hebrew mor, myrrh, a fragrant perfume used in embalming dead bodies (cf. Matt. 2:11; John 19:39). It becomes very fragrant when someone crushes it. These believers would have found encouragement that even though the prospect of death threatened them resurrection and eternal life with Christ were certain. Smyrna had died as a city on several occasions because of invasions and earthquakes, but it had risen again to new life because the residents had rebuilt it. In Smyrna many residents worshipped a goddess named Cybele whom they regarded as the personification of the yearly rejuvenation of nature. Her devotees claimed that she arose from the dead every spring.

Constable: Rev 2:9

2. Commendation 2:9

Jesus Christ knew the afflictions (lit. pressures) these Christians were experiencing as a result of their testimony for Him including abject poverty. Evidently their persecutors were cutting off some of their incomes. Notwithstanding their physical poverty the Christians in Smyrna were rich spiritually. Evidently some of the persecutors were Jews who slandered the Christians (cf. Acts 18:12-17) and cursed Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 26:11). They apparently claimed to be committed to God but were not. They came out of Satan's camp (cf. Acts 14:19; 17:5-8, 13).

"At the martyrdom of Polycarp at Smyrna in 168, these Jews eagerly assisted by gathering on the Sabbath wood and fagots for the fire in which he was burned."⁹⁴

Jesus Christ had no rebuke for these saints. Evidently in their trials they had remained pure in belief and behavior. In the first century the enemies of Christians leveled six slanderous accusations against them: cannibalism, lust and immorality, breaking up homes, atheism, political disloyalty, and incendiarism.⁹⁵

Constable: Rev 2:10

3. Exhortation 2:10a

These persecuted Christians did not need to fear their adversaries or death since they would live forever with Jesus Christ. "Behold" signals an oracular declaration (cf. 2:22; 3:8, 9, 20).⁹⁶ The devil would incite their foes to imprison some of them shortly having received permission from God to do so (cf. Job 1). This would be a trial (Gr. peirasthete) that Satan would use to try to entice them to depart from the Lord.

"Under the Roman legal system imprisonment was usually not a punishment in itself; rather it was used either as a means of coercion to compel obedience to an order issued by a magistrate or else as a place to temporarily restrain the prisoner before execution . . . . Here it appears that imprisonment, viewed as a period of testing, is primarily for the purpose of coercion."⁹⁷

The "ten days" of trouble may refer to a period of relatively brief duration, specifically the "days" of persecution under 10 Roman emperors (cf. Gen. 24:55; Num. 11:19, 14:22; 1 Sam. 1:8; Neh. 5:18; Job 19:3; Jer. 42:7; Dan. 1:12; Acts 25:6).⁹⁸ Other interpreters view the days as symbolic of years,⁹⁹ or a longer period of time (e.g., complete tribulation),¹⁰⁰ or a short, limited time.¹⁰¹ However, John probably intended us to interpret this period as 10 literal 24-hour days that lay in the near future of the original recipients of this letter.¹⁰² There is nothing in the text that provides a clue that we should take this number in a figurative sense.

Constable: Rev 2:10-11

4. Promise 2:10b-11

The citizens of Smyrna had a reputation for being faithful to the emperor because of their previous acts of fidelity to him. The crown of life is probably the fullness of eternal life as a reward (cf. 1 Cor. 9:25; 1 Thess. 2:19; 2 Tim. 4:6-8; Heb. 2:9; James 1:12; 1 Pet. 5:4; Rev. 4:4). This appears to be a victor's crown (Gr. stephanos) given for enduring the trials and tests of life even to the point of death without denying Christ. It is not the gift of eternal life but the fullness of that life (cf. John 10:10, et al.). The person who endures these trials will receive the crown of life after Jesus Christ has approved him or her. This approval will take place when the Lord evaluates that believer's works at the judgment seat of Christ (1 Cor. 3:13). He will award the crown at this judgment (1 Cor. 3:14).¹⁰³

The Greeks called Smyrna "the crown of Asia Minor" because of its beauty as a city. Moreover every year a few city administrators, rulers, and priests received a crown of leaves for their faithfulness to their duties.

Christians will not (a double negative in Greek: "not in any way") suffer injury or harm (Gr. adikethe) by the "second death." The second death is eternal separation from God. It follows the first death, which is separation of the soul from the body.

"It is not annihilation, but conscious unending punishment."¹⁰⁴

"By litotes this [promise] intimates a superlative triumph over the second death. But since the second death is actual banishment from the presence and life of God (Rev. 20:14-15), the litotes also intimates a splendid experience of the divine life and presence."¹⁰⁵

The point of the Lord's promise is that those who remain faithful will experience eternal life to the utmost in the life to come. The first death might hurt them briefly, but the second death would not hurt them at all.¹⁰⁶

Historically the church experienced intense persecution during the postapostolic era until Constantine elevated Christianity to the official religion of the Roman Empire. As mentioned before, some interpreters have correlated the 10 days of persecution (v. 10) with 10 periods of persecution instigated by 10 Roman emperors between A.D. 54 (Nero) and A.D. 284 (Diocletian).¹⁰⁷

Constable: Rev 2:12-17

C. The letter to the church in Pergamum 2:12-17

The purpose of this letter was to encourage the Christians in Pergamum for their faithfulness to Christ and to urge them to reject the false teaching in their midst.

Constable: Rev 2:12

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:12

Pergamum (modern Bergama) lay about 55 miles north of Smyrna inland a few miles from the Aegean coast. The meaning of the name "Pergamum" is "citadel." The town was noteworthy for three reasons. It was a center for many pagan religious cults, and emperor worship was more intense there than in any other surrounding city.¹⁰⁸ Second, it boasted a university with a large library. Third, it was the leader and center of the production of parchment.

Jesus Christ described Himself as the One who judges with His Word (cf. 1:16; 19:15, 21). God's Word separates believers from the world and sinners from God. This is perhaps its double-edged quality. Roman officials who had the right to carry this sword (Gr. hromphaia, cf. 1:16; 2:16) had the power of life and death in cases of capital offenses.

"It is interesting that Pergamum was a city to which Rome had given the rare power of capital punishment (ius gladii), which was symbolized by the sword. The Christians in Pergamum were thus reminded that though they lived under the rule of an almost unlimited imperium, they were citizens of another kingdom--that of him who needs no other sword than that of his mouth . . ."¹⁰⁹

Constable: Rev 2:13

2. Commendation 2:13

The Pergamum Christians had held firmly to their commitment to Jesus Christ and their witness for Him even though they lived in one of Satan's strongholds.

"Antipas is said to have been a dentist and a physician, but the Aesculapiades suspected that he was propagating Christianity secretly and they accused him of disloyalty to Caesar. He was condemned to death and was shut up in a brazen (or copper) bull, which was then heated until it was red-hot."¹¹⁰

Satan's throne may be an allusion to one or more of the pagan temples in the city, most likely the aesculapium. The aesculapium was a complex of buildings devoted to the god of healing. This made Pergamum "the Lourdes of the Province of Asia."¹¹¹ Some have thought that this throne was the altar of Zeus, which was very prominent in the town.¹¹² Another possibility is that Satan's throne refers to emperor worship that was stronger in Pergamum than elsewhere.

"The city was a leader in this form of worship, which was relatively new to the province of Asia . . ."¹¹³

". . . it appears that the throne of Satan' should be identified not with a specific architectural feature of Roman Pergamon (in part because so little is actually known about first-century Pergamon) but rather with the Roman opposition to early Christianity, which the author of Rev 2-3 perceived as particularly malevolent in that city."¹¹⁴

Constable: Rev 2:14-15

3. Rebuke 2:14-15

Balaam told Balak that he could overcome the Israelites if he would involve them in Moabite religious feasts that included sacred prostitution (Num. 25). This would render them unfaithful to God and consequently subject to His discipline. The pagans in Pergamum were evidently encouraging the Christians to join in their pagan feasts and the sexual immorality that accompanied them too. By participating some in the church had given tacit approval to Balaam's teaching. The Nicolaitans evidently regarded these sins as acceptable under the pretense of Christian liberty (cf. v. 6).¹¹⁵

"The best conclusion is that there were two different but similar groups in this church, both of which had disobeyed the decision of the Jerusalem council in regard to idolatrous practices and fornication (cf. Acts 15:20, 29)."¹¹⁶

"The main facet of the doctrine of Balaam which is being promulgated in Churches today is the teaching that [equal] future blessings and rewards have been set aside for every Christian solely on the basis of Christ's finished work on Calvary and the Christian's positional standing in Christ.' Thus, all Christians--regardless of their conduct during the present time--will receive crowns and positions of power and authority with Christ in the [millennial] kingdom. However, the teaching throughout the Word of God is to the contrary. The Israelites did not sin with immunity, and neither can Christians. Sin in the camp of Israel resulted in the Israelites being overthrown in the wilderness, short of the goal of their calling. And it will be no different for Christians."¹¹⁷

College: Rev 2:1-29

REVELATION 2-3

II. THE REVELATION OF "WHAT IS NOW" (2:1-3:22)

In Revelation 1:19 Christ offers John a vision of both the present ("what is now") and the future ("what will take place later"). The vision of the future appears in 4:1-22:6, where John watches history unfold from God's vantage point in heaven. The vision of the present appears in 2:1-3:22 and takes the form of seven letters to churches in Asia. The phrase "what is now" refers not to what is "present" from our point of view, but to what was "present" for John at the time he received the Revelation. In the letters, the Lord offers his assessment of the situation faced by Christians in the Roman province of Asia during A.D. 95-96. For a more detailed discussion of the Structure of Revelation, see Part V of the Introduction.

Christ's letters to the churches display several recurring themes. For example, the Lord highlights the kinds of pressures and opposition faced by his Asian disciples. He also promises rewards for those who meet and "overcome" those challenges. Studying the letters individually is certainly a worthwhile exercise. However, studying them as a group yields a clearer, more comprehensive understanding of both the situation in Asia and Christ's response to it. For this reason, we have adopted a topical approach - rather than a verse-by-verse approach - to Revelation 2 and 3.

A. THE SEVEN CHURCHES

Christ addresses his letters to the Christian congregations in Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. Some believe that the Lord is speaking to these seven churches alone because each letter seems tailor-made for its specific destination. To illustrate, after years of decline, Smyrna had revived to enjoy a "second life." Christ compares himself to the city as one "who died and came to life again" (2:8). Pergamum was the center of the emperor cult in Asia, and so Christ identifies it as the place "where Satan has his throne" (2:13). In contrast with the medicinal hot springs of nearby Hierapolis and the clear, cold streams of nearby Colossae, Laodicea's water supply was tepid, impure, and barely drinkable. Accordingly, the Lord rebukes the Laodicean church for its inadequacies by calling it "lukewarm." Several excellent books are available, which discuss these historical, geographical, and religious details at great length.

While acknowledging the local connections, others point out that "seven" is the apocalyptic number for "completeness." The seven congregations probably symbolize all the churches in the Roman province of Asia. This theory seems to be supported by the substance of the letters, which reflect the kinds of challenges faced by Christians throughout Asia late in the first century. If this is the case, then why does Christ choose these particular cities to represent the whole of the Asian Church? First, all were communities of some prominence, located along the main Roman road system. Second, at least three of these cities (Ephesus, Smyrna, and Pergamum) contained temples dedicated to emperor worship. Third, all seven cities held a Roman law court, where believers could be put on trial for the capital crime of being a Christian. Perhaps the Lord singles out these particular churches because they are at the center of the crisis facing Christians late in the reign of Domitian.

B. THE STRUCTURE OF THE LETTERS

TO THE SEVEN CHURCHES

1. Addressed to the Angels of the Seven Churches

The Lord addresses each letter to the angel of the corresponding church (see 2:1a,8a,12a,18a; 3:1a,7a,14a). Through the commendations and rebukes of the letters, Christ exercises his sovereignty over the angels. Through the angels, he exercises lordship over the churches. For a further explanation of this apocalyptic idea, see the comment on Revelation 1:12-13,16,20 concerning the "seven stars."

2. A Renewal of the New Covenant

a. Typical Elements of Covenants

A "covenant" is a formal relationship between two persons or groups. The Mosaic Covenant between God and Israel includes five main elements - namely, a preamble, historical prologue, stipulations, witnesses, and blessings and/or curses. As such, it closely resembles Hittite suzerainty treaties - that is, treaties between a superior and inferior, between a king and his subjects. The renewal of the Mosaic Covenant in Joshua 24:1-27 serves to illustrate:

First, there is a preamble in which the king is identified. In verse 2a Joshua declares: "This is what the LORD, the God of Israel, says."

The second element is an historical prologue, which reviews the past relationship between God the king and his people Israel ( vv. 2b-13). Joshua describes what the Lord has done for Israel, beginning with his promises to Abraham and ending with the Exodus and conquest of Canaan in fulfillment of those promises.

Third, Joshua names the terms or stipulations for a continued relationship with God ( v. 14). The Israelites must rid themselves of idols and serve the LORD alone.

Fourth, Joshua warns the people of the curse that will fall on them if they break the covenant. He declares, "If you forsake the LORD and serve foreign gods, he will turn and bring disaster on you and make an end of you, after he has been good to you" ( v. 20). This particular passage names no blessings that will come from upholding the covenant. However, the blessings and curses of Deuteronomy 27-28 are fine examples of these typical elements of ancient covenant agreements.

Fifth, Joshua names the people themselves as witnesses of the covenant, and he also sets up a large stone to serve as a witness ( vv. 22-27).

b. Covenantal Elements in the Letters to the Seven Churches

William H. Shea shows that the letters to the churches in Revelation 2 and 3 include all five elements of ancient covenants. This suggests that, in the letters, the risen Christ is offering to renew his new covenant relationship with the suffering Christians of Asia.

First, each letter begins with a preamble in which Christ appears in the role of king. Many of the titles used to identify the Lord repeat symbols that appear in Revelation 1. So the apocalyptic description of Christ in that chapter sets the tone for the seven letters that follow.

Second, the letters feature historical prologues beginning with "I know your deeds" (or "I know your afflictions" in the case of Smyrna, or "I know where you live" in the case of Pergamum). After describing the kinds of pressures and opposition faced by Christians in Asia (discussed below), the king reviews the churches' performance.

Third, Christ issues a series of commands ("Remember! Repent! Be faithful! Wake up! Hold on!"), which should be understood as stipulations for remaining in a right covenant relationship with the Lord.

Fourth, most of the letters include a warning - a curse for those who refuse to meet the stipulations. However, all of the letters place much more emphasis on the blessings that come through covenantal faithfulness. In each letter, the Lord offers a promise "to him who overcomes" (discussed below).

Fifth, each letter includes a type of appeal that Jesus was fond of using during his earthly ministry: "He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches." In a covenantal context, it should be understood as a call for everyone to act as witnesses to the renewal of the covenant between Christ and the churches of Asia.

The NIV translations of the seven letters are printed below, along with a few comments. The contents of the letters are arranged in a way that highlights their covenantal elements.

c. The Letter to Ephesus (2:1-7)

"To the angel ^a of the church in Ephesus write:

Preamble (2:1b): These are the words of him who holds the seven stars in his right hand and walks among the seven golden lampstands:

Historical Prologue (2:2-4,6): I know your deeds, your hard work and your perseverance. I know that you cannot tolerate wicked men, that you have tested those who claim to be apostles but are not, and have found them false. You have persevered and have endured hardships for my name, and have not grown weary.

Yet I hold this against you: You have forsaken your first love. . . . But you have this in your favor: You hate the practices of the Nicolaitans, which I also hate.

Stipulations (2:5a): Remember the height from which you have fallen! Repent and do the things you did at first.

Curse (2:5b): If you do not repent, I will come to you and remove your lampstand from its place.

Witnesses (2:7a): He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches.

Blessing (2:7b): To him who overcomes, I will give the right to eat from the tree of life, which is in the paradise of God.

^a 1 Or messenger , also in verses 8, 12 and 18

d. The Letter to Smyrna (2:8-11)

"To the angel of the church in Smyrna write:

Preamble (2:8b): These are the words of him who is the First and the Last, who died and came to life again.

Historical Prologue (2:9): I know your afflictions and your poverty-yet you are rich! I know the slander of those who say they are Jews and are not, but are a synagogue of Satan.

Stipulations (2:10a): Do not be afraid of what you are about to suffer. I tell you, the devil will put some of you in prison to test you, and you will suffer persecution for ten days. Be faithful, even to the point of death,

Witnesses (2:11a): He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches.

Blessing (2:10b, 11b): and I will give you the crown of life. . . . He who overcomes will not be hurt at all by the second death.

The "crown" (stevfano" , stephanos) is the "wreath" of the victor in athletic games. It here symbolizes eternal life.

e. The Letter to Pergamum (2:12-17)

"To the angel of the church in Pergamum write:

Preamble (2:12b): These are the words of him who has the sharp, double-edged sword.

Historical Prologue (2:13-15): I know where you live-where Satan has his throne. Yet you remain true to my name. You did not renounce your faith in me, even in the days of Antipas, my faithful witness, who was put to death in your city-where Satan lives. Nevertheless, I have a few things against you: You have people there who hold to the teaching of Balaam, who taught Balak to entice the Israelites to sin by eating food sacrificed to idols and by committing sexual immorality. Likewise you also have those who hold to the teaching of the Nicolaitans.

Stipulation (2:16a) : Repent therefore!

Curse (2:16b) : Otherwise, I will soon come to you and will fight against them with the sword of my mouth.

Witnesses (2:17a): He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches.

Blessings (2:17b): To him who overcomes, I will give some of the hidden manna. I will also give him a white stone with a new name written on it, known only to him who receives it.

f. The Letter to Thyatira (2:18-29)

"To the angel of the church in Thyatira write:

Preamble (2:18b): These are the words of the Son of God, whose eyes are like blazing fire and whose feet are like burnished bronze.

Historical Prologue (2:19-21): I know your deeds, your love and faith, your service and perseverance, and that you are now doing more than you did at first. Nevertheless, I have this against you: You tolerate that woman Jezebel, who calls herself a prophetess. By her teaching she misleads my servants into sexual immorality and the eating of food sacrificed to idols. I have given her time to repent of her immorality, but she is unwilling.

Curse (2:22-23): So I will cast her on a bed of suffering, and I will make those who commit adultery with her suffer intensely, unless they repent of her ways. I will strike her children dead. Then all the churches will know that I am he who searches hearts and minds, and I will repay each of you according to your deeds.

Stipulation (2:24-25): Now I say to the rest of you in Thyatira, to you who do not hold to her teaching and have not learned Satan's so-called deep secrets (I will not impose any other burden on you): Only hold on to what you have until I come.

Blessings (2:26-28): To him who overcomes and does my will to the end, I will give authority over the nations-

'He will rule them with an iron scepter;

he will dash them to pieces like pottery' ^a -

just as I have received authority from my Father. I will also give him the morning star.

Witnesses (2:29): He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches.

^a 27 Psalm 2:9

g. The Letter to Sardis (3:1-6)

"To the angel of the church in Sardis write:

Preamble (3:1b): These are the words of him who holds the seven spirits ^a of God and the seven stars.

Historical Prologue (3:1c,2b,4a): I know your deeds; you have a reputation of being alive, but you are dead. . . . for I have not found your deeds complete in the sight of my God. . . . Yet you have a few people in Sardis who have not soiled their clothes.

Stipulations (3:2a,3a): Wake up! Strengthen what remains and is about to die . . . . Remember, therefore, what you have received and heard; obey it, and repent.

Curse (3:3b): But if you do not wake up, I will come like a thief, and you will not know at what time I will come to you.

Compare Matthew 24:43//Luke 12:39; 1 Thessalonians 5:2,4; 2 Peter 3:10; and Revelation 16:15, which also liken Christ's Second Coming to the surprise appearance of a thief.

Blessings (3:4b-5): [Yet you have a few people in Sardis who have not soiled their clothes.] They will walk with me, dressed in white, for they are worthy. He who overcomes will, like them, be dressed in white. I will never blot out his name from the book of life, but will acknowledge his name before my Father and his angels.

Witnesses (3:6): He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches.

^a 1 Or the sevenfold Spirit

h. The Letter to Philadelphia (3:7-13)

"To the angel of the church in Philadelphia write:

Preamble (3:7b): These are the words of him who is holy and true, who holds the key of David. What he opens no one can shut, and what he shuts no one can open.

The "key" is a symbol of authority and power - the ability to "open" and "shut," the ability to do what others cannot do. In Revelation 1:18 (discussed above); Christ "holds the keys of death and Hades" - the ability to "open the door" of the grave and release people from death. John calls this "key" the "key of David" (a phrase borrowed from Isaiah 22:22) because it is held and used by the Messiah, the Son of David. On Jesus as the ultimate Davidic King, see the comments on "Christ," "the faithful witness," and "the ruler of the kings of the earth" in Revelation 1:5.

Historical Prologue (3:8,10a): I know your deeds. See, I have placed before you an open door that no one can shut. I know that you have little strength, yet you have kept my word and have not denied my name. . . . Since you have kept my command to endure patiently,

Blessings (3:9,10b): I will make those who are of the synagogue of Satan, who claim to be Jews though they are not, but are liars-I will make them come and fall down at your feet and acknowledge that I have loved you. . . . I will also keep you from the hour of trial that is going to come upon the whole world to test those who live on the earth.

Stipulation (3:11a): I am coming soon. Hold on to what you have,

Curse (3:11b): so that no one will take your crown.

Blessings (3:12): Him who overcomes I will make a pillar in the temple of my God. Never again will he leave it. I will write on him the name of my God and the name of the city of my God, the new Jerusalem, which is coming down out of heaven from my God; and I will also write on him my new name.

Witnesses (3:13): He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches.

i. The Letter to Laodicea (3:14-22)

"To the angel of the church in Laodicea write:

Preamble (3:14b): These are the words of the Amen, the faithful and true witness, the ruler of God's creation.

The word "Amen" means "truly" or "so be it." Compare 2 Corinthians 1:20, where Paul says that Jesus adds the "Yes" or the "Amen" to the promises of God - that is, he makes those promises come true.

The Greek term translated "ruler" is ajrchv (archç ), which means "first" or "primary." If the writer is speaking of someone who is "primary" in authority, then the term may be translated "ruler" (as in the NIV). If the writer is speaking of someone or something that is "first" in time, then the term may be translated "beginning." In Revelation 21:6 and 22:13, this title is applied to Christ as "the Beginning and the End." (For an explanation, see the comment on "him who is, and who was, and who is to come" in Rev 1:4.) Here in 3:14, the basic truth contained in the title "ruler of God's creation" is that Christ holds preeminence over all.

Historical Prologue (3:15,17): I know your deeds, that you are neither cold nor hot. I wish you were either one or the other! . . . . You say, 'I am rich; I have acquired wealth and do not need a thing.' But you do not realize that you are wretched, pitiful, poor, blind and naked.

Curse (3:16): So, because you are lukewarm-neither hot nor cold-I am about to spit you out of my mouth.

Stipulations (3:18-20a): I counsel you to buy from me gold refined in the fire, so you can become rich; and white clothes to wear, so you can cover your shameful nakedness; and salve to put on your eyes, so you can see. Those whom I love I rebuke and discipline. So be earnest, and repent. Here I am! I stand at the door and knock. If anyone hears my voice and opens the door,

Laodicea was famous for the black wool garments produced by its clothing industry and for the Phyrgian eye salve distributed by its medical school. Christ reminds the Laodicean church that he is the true giver of sight and the "clothier" who can truly remove their shame.

Blessings (3:20b-21): I will come in and eat with him, and he with me. To him who overcomes, I will give the right to sit with me on my throne, just as I overcame and sat down with my Father on his throne.

To eat with someone expresses a willingness and desire to enter into a close relationship with that person. (This is why Jewish leaders were scandalized when Jesus ate with prostitutes, tax collectors, and other sinners - see, e.g., Matthew 9:11 and 11:19.) Here Christ offers a covenant relationship to anyone who will "open the door." Compare Luke 22:14-30, where Jesus explains that he is about to establish the new covenant, and then says to his disciples: "I confer on you a kingdom, just as my Father conferred one on me, so that you may eat and drink at my table in my kingdom . . . ."

Witnesses (3:22): He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches."

C. PRESSURES AND OPPOSITION IN ASIA

Throughout the letters to the seven churches, John mentions certain persons whom he considers to be enemies of Christ and enemies of the churches. The author does not provide a detailed description of the situation because the readers know full well what they are facing. Nevertheless, we will survey the contents of the letters and try to reconstruct the circumstances in which Asian Christians found themselves in A.D. 95-96. It appears that they were enduring pressures and opposition both from within the Christian community and from outside the community of faith.

1. Pressures and Opposition from

Within the Christian Community

a. False Apostles and the Nicolaitans (2:2,6)

In his letter to the Christians in Ephesus, the Lord says:

I know your deeds, your hard work and your perseverance. I know that you cannot tolerate wicked men, that you have tested those who claim to be apostles but are not, and have found them false. . . . But you have this in your favor: You hate the practices of the Nicolaitans, which I also hate (Rev 2:2,6).

Note that Christ commends the church for testing and detecting false apostles. The Greek term ajpovstolo" ( apostolos , "apostle") literally means "sent one." It refers to a person sent out with a commission as the authoritative representative of the sender. The term could be translated into English as "ambassador" or "missionary." In the New Testament we read of two types of "apostles": First, "Apostles of Christ" are chosen and commissioned by Jesus himself to be authoritative eyewitnesses of his resurrection, to preach the gospel, and to establish churches in his name. Peter, John, the rest of the Twelve, and later Paul are examples of this kind of "Apostle" (see, e.g., Mark 3:14-19; Acts 1:21-26; 1 Cor 9:1; Gal 2:8). Second, "apostles of the churches" are chosen and commissioned by churches to serve as authorized missionaries, evangelists, and teachers. Barnabas (Acts 14:14), Andronicus and Junias (Rom 16:7), and Epaphroditus (Phil 2:25) belong to this group of "apostles."

The "false apostles" John mentions in Revelation 2 are probably not claiming to be "Apostles of Christ." They are most likely roving "missionaries" who enjoy the backing of one or more Christian congregations. We know nothing about these apostles other than the fact that John calls them "false" (i.e., untruthful) and "wicked men." The teaching of these apostles apparently conflicts with John's, and he commends the Ephesian church for rejecting them. They are people whom John considers enemies, and they are operating from within the Christian community.

Through John, Christ also commends the Ephesians for hating "the practices of the Nicolaitans." This group is mentioned here in Revelation 2:6 and again in 2:15. John says nothing about them except that they were spreading some sort of false teaching. We will return to the question of their identity below.

b. The Teaching of Balaam (2:14)

In the letter to Pergamum, Christ says:

Nevertheless, I have a few things against you: You have people there who hold to the teaching of Balaam, who taught Balak to entice the Israelites to sin by eating food sacrificed to idols and by committing sexual immorality (Rev 2:14).

John mentions people "who hold to the teaching of Balaam." Balaam was the prophet from the region of the Euphrates River described in Numbers 22-25. When Israel was preparing to come out of the wilderness and invade the land of Canaan, Balak, king of Moab, grew afraid. So he summoned Balaam to come and call down a curse on Israel. Balaam came, but instead of cursing Israel the Lord caused him to bless Israel. His plans thwarted, Balaam later tried to defeat God's people through a different tactic: He encouraged the Moabite women to seduce the men of Israel, to get them involved in sexual immorality and the worship of Moabite idols (see Num 25:1-3; 31:16).

John indicates that there are Christians in the church at Pergamum repeating the sins of Balaam: First, they are participating in the worship of false gods "by eating food sacrificed to idols." Second, they are practicing "sexual immorality." The latter sin may refer to literal fornication or adultery in the believers' personal lives. It may refer to literal sexual sins with temple prostitutes, who played a role in many pagan religions. However, "sexual immorality" was also a common Old Testament figure of speech for unfaithfulness to God. As husbands or wives break the marriage covenant with their spouses by having "affairs" with other lovers, so do the people of God break their covenant relationship with the Lord by having "adulterous affairs" with other gods. In other words, the biblical writers often use "sexual immorality" or "adultery" or "fornication" or "prostitution" as synonyms for idolatry. An example may be found in Hosea 4:12, where the Lord complains: "[My people] consult a wooden idol and are answered by a stick of wood. A spirit of prostitution leads them astray; they are unfaithful to their God." John seems to use sexual sins as symbols for idolatry quite often in the Book of Revelation.

c. The Sins of Jezebel (2:20-25)

In Revelation 2:20-25 the Lord rebukes the church at Thyatira:

Nevertheless, I have this against you: You tolerate that woman Jezebel, who calls herself a prophetess. By her teaching she misleads my servants into sexual immorality and the eating of food sacrificed to idols. I have given her time to repent of her immorality, but she is unwilling. So I will cast her on a bed of suffering, and I will make those who commit adultery with her suffer intensely, unless they repent of her ways. I will strike her children dead. Then all the churches will know that I am he who searches hearts and minds, and I will repay each of you according to your deeds. Now I say to the rest of you in Thyatira, to you who do not hold to her teaching and have not learned Satan's so-called deep secrets (I will not impose any other burden on you): Only hold on to what you have until I come.

Jezebel was the wife of King Ahab and queen over Israel in the time of Elijah the prophet. 1 Kings 16:29-33 records that

In the thirty-eighth year of Asa king of Judah, Ahab son of Omri became king of Israel, and he reigned in Samaria over Israel twenty-two years. Ahab son of Omri did more evil in the eyes of the Lord than any of those before him. He not only considered it trivial to commit the sins of Jeroboam son of Nebat [who set up golden calf idols in Bethel and Dan - see 1 Kings 12:26-33], but he also married Jezebel daughter of Ethbaal king of the Sidonians, and began to serve Baal and worship him. He set up an altar for Baal in the temple of Baal that he built in Samaria. Ahab also made an Asherah pole and did more to provoke the Lord, the God of Israel, to anger than did all the kings of Israel before him.

As the text suggests, the Phoenician princess Jezebel became a great promoter of idol worship in Israel. Later, after Elijah defeated the prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel, Jezebel tried to have Elijah killed (see 1 Kings 18-19). She was a corrupter and persecutor of the people of God.

According to Revelation 2, there is a prophetess in the church at Thyatira whom John considers to be promoting idolatry. As in the case of "Balaam" (see above), he picks the name of a villain from the Jewish past, who committed similar sins, and calls the prophetess by that name - "Jezebel." (John employs a similar literary device later in Revelation when he speaks of "Babylon" and alludes to Pharaoh.) Specifically, this "Jezebel" woman is encouraging Christians to eat food sacrificed to idols and participate in "adultery" or sexual "immorality" - which, again, probably refers to a lack of covenant faithfulness to God (see above). This prophetess is also teaching what John calls "Satan's deep secrets." Of course, Jezebel herself was probably claiming to be revealing the mysteries of God, but John identifies her teaching as the work of Satan.

d. Assessment

Based on the preceding evidence, what conclusions should we draw concerning the situation in Asia at the time Revelation was written? All the opponents John has mentioned so far seem to be people within the churches, people who call themselves "Christians," people who think they are serving God. These believers are probably encouraging other Christians to go ahead and eat meat offered to idols, or say "Caesar is Lord," or offer incense to Caesar at the public festivals and trade guild banquets and other social events. In support of this position, they could appeal to Jesus himself, who commands his followers to "Give to Caesar what is Caesar's" (Matt 22:21). They could also appeal to the Apostle Paul's admonition to "submit to the governing authorities" as ministers of God (Rom 13:1). (For further discussion of Emperor Worship in Daily Life, Christian Responses to the Emperor Cult, and the Christian's Choice, see Part IV.B.3 of the Introduction.)

In the letters to the seven churches, John attacks this point of view. He offers the churches a revelation of the present in which he helps believers to see their behavior as Christ sees it. What his readers may be brushing off as harmless accommodation to Greco-Roman culture, Christ identifies as the work of Satan, the idolatry of Balaam and Jezebel, adultery committed against God.

We know nothing about the "Nicolaitans," but they were probably promoting a similar accommodation. The Greek term "Nicolaitans" literally means "conquerors of the people" or "ones who overcome the people." ("Overcoming" is a major theme in Revelation, as discussed below.) It is roughly equivalent to the Hebrew name "Balaam" ( Baal-am ), which means "lord over the people." Like "Balaam" and "Jezebel," the "Nicolaitans" may be John's symbolic name for his opponents.

2. Pressures and Opposition from

Outside the Christian Community

The letters to Ephesus, Pergamum, and Thyatira describe opposition to Christ from within the churches. The letters to Smyrna and Philadelphia describe opposition from outside the Christian community. In Revelation 3:9 the Lord solemnly declares:

I will make those who are of the synagogue of Satan, who claim to be Jews though they are not, but are liars-I will make them come and fall down at your feet and acknowledge that I have loved you.

The Lord refers to opposition from Jews, who claim to belong to God and to be the people of God, but who are actually serving Satan by opposing Christ's church. We discussed the reasons for Jewish opposition to the church in the Introduction. As the pressure on believers increases, Jews in Asia are probably beginning to deny that Christians are part of the Jewish community. This strips the churches of special protections under Roman law, making them vulnerable to persecution for refusing to worship Caesar.

Christ has more to say about Jewish opposition to the church in the letter to Smyrna:

These are the words of him who is the First and the Last, who died and came to life again. I know your afflictions and your poverty-yet you are rich! I know the slander of those who say they are Jews and are not, but are a synagogue of Satan. Do not be afraid of what you are about to suffer. I tell you, the devil will put some of you in prison to test you, and you will suffer persecution for ten days [a round number in apocalyptic literature that is not to be taken literally]. Be faithful, even to the point of death, and I will give you the crown of life (Rev 2:8-10).

The Lord expects the opposition in Smyrna to grow worse. Christians there will face persecution, imprisonment, and even death - as did Christ before them. Jews will be involved. It is their slander that will cause many Christians to be dragged before the Roman authorities on charges of subversion.

Everything that Christ foresaw did actually occur within the next few years. In his History of the Church , Eusebius describes the murder of many Christians in Smyrna - the very city addressed here - in about A.D. 156. He focuses especially on the martyrdom of Polycarp, who at that time was bishop over the church at Smyrna. Quoting from a letter prepared by Christians from that city, he writes:

After this, before giving an account of Polycarp's death, they relate what happened to the other martyrs, vividly describing the heroism with which they faced their torments, to the amazement of the spectators on every side. Sometimes they were torn with scourges to the innermost veins and arteries, so that even the secret hidden parts of the body, the entrails and internal organs, were laid bare; sometimes they were forced to lie on pointed seashells and sharp spikes. After going through every kind of punishment and torture, they were finally flung to the beasts as food.

Special mention is made of the noble Germanicus, who by divine grace overcame his natural physical fear of death. The proconsul tried to dissuade him, stressing his youth and begging him as one still in the very prime of life to spare himself; but without a moment's hesitation he drew the savage beast towards him, well nigh forcing and goading it on, the more quickly to escape from their wicked, lawless life. After this glorious death the whole crowd were so astounded by the heroism of God's beloved martyr, and the courage of Christian people everywhere, that a shout went up from all sides: "Away with the godless! [Note that Christians were considered to be 'godless' or 'atheists' because they refused to worship the Roman gods.] Fetch Polycarp!". . .

From that point the letter tells us the rest of the story as follows:

[Polycarp] was met by Herod the chief of police and his father Nicetes, who after transferring him to their carriage sat beside him and tried persuasion. "What harm is there in saying 'Lord Caesar' and sacrificing? You will be safe then." At first he made no answer, but when they persisted he replied: "I have no intention of taking your advice." Persuasion having failed they turned to threats, and put him down so hurriedly that in leaving the carriage he scraped his shin. But without even looking round, as if nothing had happened, he set off happily and at a swinging pace for the stadium. There the noise was so deafening that many could not hear at all, but as Polycarp came into the arena a voice from heaven came to him: "Be strong, Polycarp, and play the man." No one saw the speaker, but many of our people heard the voice.

His introduction was followed by a tremendous roar as the news went round: "Polycarp has been arrested!" At length, when he stepped forward, he was asked by the proconsul if he really was Polycarp. When he said yes, the proconsul urged him to deny the charge [of being a Christian]. "Respect your years!" he exclaimed, adding similar appeals regularly made on such occasions: "Swear by Caesar's fortune; change your attitude; say: 'Away with the godless!'" But Polycarp, with his face set, looked at the crowd in the stadium and waved his hand towards them , sighed, looked up to heaven, and cried: "Away with the godless!" The governor pressed him further: "Swear, and I will set you free: execrate Christ." "For eighty-six years," replied Polycarp, "I have been His servant, and He has never done me wrong: how can I blaspheme my King who saved me?". . .

As he said this and much besides, he was filled with courage and joy, and his features were full of grace, so that not only did he not wilt in alarm at the things said to him, but on the contrary the proconsul was amazed, and sent the crier to stand in the middle of the arena and announce three times: "Polycarp has confessed that he is a Christian." At this announcement the whole mass of Smyrnaeans, Gentiles and Jews alike, boiled with anger and shouted at the tops of their voices: "This fellow is the teacher of Asia, the father of the Christians, the destroyer of our gods, who teaches numbers of people not to sacrifice or even worship". . . . Then a shout went up from every throat that Polycarp must be burnt alive. . . .

The rest followed in less time than it takes to describe: the crowds rushed to collect logs and faggots from workshop and public baths, the Jews as usual joining in with more enthusiasm than anyone . . . .

When [Polycarp] had offered up the Amen and completed his prayer the men in charge lit the fire and a great flame shot up . . . .

D. "OVERCOMERS" IN REVELATION

Throughout Revelation, John speaks of those who "triumph" or "conquer" or "overcome." The Greek verb translated "overcome" is nikavw (nikaô ). Three persons or groups of persons are identified as "overcomers" - namely, Satan and the forces of evil, Jesus Christ, and Christians. In tracing the contours of this important theme, we will focus on three questions: First, who or what do they "overcome"? Second, how do they "overcome"? Third, what is the result of their "overcoming"? For further discussion of the texts involved, see the appropriate portions of the Commentary.

1. Satan as "Overcomer"

Two sections of Revelation describe Satan as an "overcomer." First, Revelation 13:1-10 describes "a beast coming out of the sea," which symbolizes one of the agents of the "red dragon" Satan. According to verse 7, "He was given power to make war against the saints and to conquer (nikaô ) them."

This theme appears again in chapter 11, which describes "two witnesses" who represent the church and who testify concerning Christ. Verses 7 and 11 read:

Now when they have finished their testimony, the beast that comes up from the Abyss will attack them, and overpower [nikaô ] and kill them. . . . But after three and a half days a breath of life from God entered them, and they stood on their feet, and terror struck those who saw them.

In light of these two texts, we may draw some conclusions about Satan as an "overcomer." Whom does he "overcome"? The answer is Christians, the saints of God. How does Satan "overcome" the saints? He does so by killing them. What is the result of his "overcoming" Christians? Ultimately, Satan accomplishes nothing because God raises his servants from the dead.

Below, we will see that Christ and Christians "overcome" in quite different ways with quite different results.

2. Christ as "Overcomer"

a. Whom Jesus "Overcomes"

According to the Book of Revelation, whom does Jesus "overcome"? First, he "overcomes" Satan and his angels, the spiritual forces of darkness that pervert and destroy God's good creation. John communicates this truth in the vision of the woman and the dragon found in Revelation 12:

The great dragon was hurled down-that ancient serpent called the devil, or Satan, who leads the whole world astray. He was hurled to the earth, and his angels with him.

Then I heard a loud voice in heaven say:

"Now have come the salvation and the power and the kingdom of our God,

and the authority of his Christ.

For the accuser of our brothers,

who accuses them before our God day and night,

has been hurled down.

They overcame [nikaô ] him

by the blood of the Lamb

and by the word of their testimony;

they did not love their lives so much

as to shrink from death.

Therefore rejoice, you heavens

and you who dwell in them!

But woe to the earth and the sea,

because the devil has gone down to you!

He is filled with fury,

because he knows that his time is short"

(Rev 12:9-12).

We will discuss this vision in much more detail later in the commentary. For now, let the reader note that Satan and his angels are the ones who are "overcome" (v. 9). Furthermore, Christ is the one who ultimately "overcomes" them - an act he accomplishes by his bloody sacrificial death (v. 11).

In addition to "overcoming" Satan himself, Jesus also "overcomes" human beings who ally themselves with Satan against God. This is seen in the vision of the woman on the beast with seven heads and ten horns found in Revelation 17. Verses 12-14 read as follows:

The ten horns you saw are ten kings who have not yet received a kingdom, but who for one hour will receive authority as kings along with the beast. They have one purpose and will give their power and authority to the beast. They will make war against the Lamb, but the Lamb will overcome them because he is Lord of lords and King of kings-and with him will be his called, chosen and faithful followers.

Note that the ten horns represent ten humans - ten kings who ally themselves with the "beastly" forces of evil and "make war against the Lamb." However, Christ the Lamb "overcomes" them.

To summarize, then, Christ, in the Book of Revelation, "overcomes" Satan and all who join him in his rebellion against God, the true Creator and Lord of all. In other words, he "overcomes" all those powers that stand behind the "present evil age," seeking to prevent the coming of God's universal kingdom rule.

b. How Jesus "Overcomes"

How does Jesus "overcome" Satan and his allies? He does so by shedding his blood in his sacrificial death on the cross. We see this idea in Revelation 12:11 (quoted above), where Satan is beaten "by the blood of the Lamb." This truth also appears in Revelation 5:5-6:

Then one of the elders said to me, "Do not weep! See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has triumphed [or "overcome," nikaô ]. He is able to open the scroll and its seven seals."

Then I saw a Lamb, looking as if it had been slain , standing in the center of the throne, encircled by the four living creatures and the elders.

It is the Christ who has been slain who is able to "overcome." Once again, John links Christ's victory to his death.

c. The Results of Jesus' "Overcoming"

What is the outcome or result of Christ's "overcoming" Satan and the forces of evil on the cross? First, God has responded to Christ's sacrificial death by raising him up to eschatological life and exalting him to the position of King of kings and Lord of lords. We see this, for example, in Revelation 3:21:

To him who overcomes, I will give the right to sit with me on my throne, just as I overcame and [after being raised from the dead] sat down with my Father on his throne .

A second result of Christ's death is that he is able to open the scroll with seven seals, which symbolizes God's redemptive plan for creation (see the Commentary on Revelation 5). In other words, he is able to destroy the kingdom of Satan and establish the kingdom of God. This seems to be the force of Revelation 5:9-10:

"You are worthy to take the scroll

and to open its seals,

because you were slain,

and with your blood you purchased men for God

from every tribe and language and people and nation.

You have made them to be a kingdom and priests to serve our God,

and they will reign on the earth."

How exactly does Christ's death on the cross "overcome" Satan and his allies, bring the "present evil age" to an end, inaugurate the kingdom of God, and give believers a place in that kingdom? John, in Revelation, never gives a clear answer to that question. He does not offer a detailed explanation of precisely how the Cross "works." Drawing on other parts of the New Testament, we have explained the relationship between the kingdom of God and the death of Jesus in Part III.B.2.c.(4) of the Introduction. Our explanation goes beyond what John says in Revelation, but it does not contradict the message of Revelation.

3. Christians as "Overcomers"

a. Whom Christians "Overcome"

Like Christ himself, Christians "overcome" Satan and his angels. As John says in Revelation 12:10-11 (quoted above),

. . . the accuser of our brothers [i.e., Satan], who accuses them before our God day and night, has been hurled down. They [i.e., Christians] overcame him by the blood of the Lamb.

Moreover, Christians "overcome" human beings who ally themselves with Satan against God and his people. Revelation 17:14 (also quoted above) highlights this truth:

[The ten human kings who serve the beast] will make war against the Lamb, but the Lamb will overcome them because he is Lord of lords and King of kings- and with him will be his called, chosen and faithful followers .

With Christ, believers will "overcome," will conquer, will gain the victory over all the powers responsible for the "present evil age."

b. How Christians "Overcome"

How do Christians gain the victory over their enemies, both natural and supernatural? Revelation 12:11 answers this question very nicely:

They overcame him by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony; they did not love their lives so much as to shrink from death.

First, Christians "overcome" Satan and his allies "by the blood of the Lamb." We do not - and, in fact, cannot - end the kingdom of Satan and establish the kingdom of God by our own power. Christ conquers Satan by his blood. Christians, by his grace, simply share in the Lord's victory.

Second, Christians "overcome" Satan and his allies "by the word of their testimony" - that is, by their marturiva ( martyria ), their "witness" to Christ. By proclaiming the "good news" of what God has accomplished in Christ, we enable others to embrace God's emerging rule, and thus share in Christ's victory and kingdom with us. We participate in Christ's work of "overcoming" Satan by helping to free people from the devil's power.

Third, Christians "overcome" Satan and his allies by remaining faithful to Christ until death, and by remaining faithful to Christ even if it brings death. In other words, we "overcome" by not allowing Satan to reestablish his hold on us even through threats of persecution and martyrdom. As verse 11 states it, the "overcomers" "did not love their lives so much as to shrink from death." Revelation 2:26 expresses the same idea when it speaks of "him who overcomes and does my will to the end ."

c. The Result of Christians' "Overcoming"

What is the outcome when Christians embrace Christ's sacrifice and thereby "overcome" the forces of evil? The Lord gives his people the right to sit down with him on his throne, to share in his beneficent rule over the universe, to experience the fullness of the kingdom of God:

To him who overcomes, I will give the right to sit with me on my throne, just as I overcame and sat down with my Father on his throne (Rev 3:21).

He who overcomes will inherit all this [i.e., the "new heaven and new earth"], and I will be his God and he will be my son (Rev 21:7).

These are amazing promises! Our God is a God who does not keep the blessings and joys of lordship to himself, but who freely shares them with us, his creatures! Jesus lets us reign as kings with him, giving us dominion over all creation. The whole universe - with all its joys and limitless possibilities - will be ours to relish! (For further discussion of Christ's promises to "him who overcomes," see Part E.)

E. CHRIST'S PROMISES TO "HIM WHO OVERCOMES"

We have seen that, in the Book of Revelation, Christians "overcome" the forces of evil through the death of Christ and through remaining faithful to him. Each of the letters to the seven churches contains a promise to "him who overcomes" in this way. We will examine each promise below.

1. The Tree of Life (2:7)

2:7 To him who overcomes, I will give the right to eat from the tree of life, which is in the paradise of God.

"Paradise" is the Greek word for "garden." (The term literally means "a walled enclosure.") The "Paradise" or "Garden of God" Christ refers to in Revelation 2:7 is the Garden of Eden. Genesis 2:8-9 explains that the "tree of life" was one of the trees found in this Garden:

Now the LORD God had planted a garden in the east, in Eden; and there he put the man he had formed. And the LORD God made all kinds of trees grow out of the ground-trees that were pleasing to the eye and good for food. In the middle of the garden were the tree of life and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil.

As we saw in the Introduction, the first humans were not created immortal. Instead, they were created mortal, or subject to death. God sustained Adam and Eve through his gift of the "tree of life," and he presumably would have sustained them forever.

However, after Adam and Eve sinned, God decided that he would not continue their lives indefinitely while they were in that evil state.

The LORD God said, "The man has now become like one of us, knowing good and evil. He must not be allowed to reach out his hand and take also from the tree of life and eat, and live forever." So the LORD God banished him from the Garden of Eden to work the ground from which he had been taken. After he drove the man out, he placed on the east side of the Garden of Eden cherubim and a flaming sword flashing back and forth to guard the way to the tree of life (Gen 3:22-24).

One of the characteristics of the "present evil age" is that human beings have been cut off from the "tree of life" because of their own sin and the sin of Adam and Eve.

Jewish apocalyptic writers predict that one of the blessings of the kingdom of God will be that the righteous are given access to the tree of life, so that they may live forever. This idea appears, for example, in 1 Enoch 25:4-7. Here the prophet is shown a vision of seven mountains made of precious stones and surrounded by fragrant trees. Among them is the tree of life. The angel Michael tells Enoch:

"And as for this fragrant tree, not a single human being has the authority to touch it until the great judgment, when [God] shall take vengeance on all and conclude [everything] forever. This is for the righteous and the pious. And the elect will be presented with its fruit for life. He will plant it in the direction of the northeast, upon the holy place - in the direction of the house of the Lord, the Eternal King.

Then they shall be glad and rejoice in gladness, and they shall enter into the holy [place]; its fragrance shall [penetrate] their bones, long life will they live on earth, such as your fathers lived in their days."

At that moment, I [Enoch] blessed the God of Glory, the Eternal King, for he has prepared such things for the righteous people, as he had created [them] and given it to them.

We find a similar prediction in the Testament of Levi, a Jewish apocalyptic work dating to the second century B.C. The author of this book believes that God will send two Messiahs to Israel - namely, a kingly Messiah from the tribe of Judah (David's tribe) and a priestly Messiah from the tribe of Levi. In Testament of Levi 18:10-11, the writer anticipates that the priestly Messiah "shall open the gates of paradise; he shall remove the sword that has threatened since Adam, and he will grant to the saints to eat of the tree of life."

Christ makes a similar prediction in Revelation 2:7: "To him who overcomes, I will give the right to eat from the tree of life, which is in the paradise of God."

2. Escape from the Second Death (2:11)

He who overcomes will not be hurt at all by the second death.

John tells what "the second death" is in Revelation 20:11-15:

Then I saw a great white throne and him who was seated on it. Earth and sky fled from his presence, and there was no place for them. And I saw the dead, great and small, standing before the throne, and books were opened. Another book was opened, which is the book of life. The dead were judged according to what they had done as recorded in the books. The sea gave up the dead that were in it, and death and Hades gave up the dead that were in them, and each person was judged according to what he had done. Then death and Hades were thrown into the lake of fire. The lake of fire is the second death. If anyone's name was not found written in the book of life, he was thrown into the lake of fire.

The "second death" refers to "the lake of fire" - to not having one's name written in the "book of life." The "fire" is a symbol for eschatological condemnation at the final judgment - the punishment God will carry out against those who oppose his kingdom when Christ returns. In his letter to the church at Smyrna, the Lord makes a promise to Christians who "overcome," who forsake the kingdom of Satan and embrace the emerging rule of God. These persons "will not be hurt at all by the second death."

3. The Hidden Manna, White Stone, and Secret Name (2:17)

To him who overcomes, I will give some of the hidden manna. I will also give him a white stone with a new name written on it, known only to him who receives it.

a.The Hidden Manna, the Messianic Banquet, Behemoth and Leviathan

The symbol of the "hidden manna" has deep roots in Jewish history and legend. Manna first appears in the Bible in Exodus 16, where the Israelites cry out for food during their wilderness wanderings. The Lord responds by sending them "bread from heaven" that falls like dew, looks like frost, and tastes like wafers made with honey. When the people find it on the ground, they ask, " Manna ?" (Hebrew for "What is it?") and so the miraculous food takes on that name. In Exodus 16:32-35, the Israelites store some of the manna in a jar as a reminder of God's provision:

Moses said, "This is what the LORD has commanded: 'Take an omer of manna and keep it for the generations to come, so they can see the bread I gave you to eat in the desert when I brought you out of Egypt.'"

So Moses said to Aaron, "Take a jar, and put an omer of manna in it. Then place it before the LORD to be kept for the generations to come."

As the LORD commanded Moses, Aaron put the manna in front of the Testimony [that is, within the Ark of the Covenant, which also contained the stone tablets bearing the Ten Commandments - the so-called "tablets of the Testimony"; cf. Heb 9:3-5], that it might be kept. The Israelites ate manna forty years, until they came to a land that was settled; they ate manna until they reached the border of Canaan.

What happened to the Ark and its jar of manna? According to Jewish legend, the prophet Jeremiah later took them to Mount Nebo and hid them in a cave to prevent them from falling into the hands of the invading Babylonians. The story appears in 2 Maccabees 2:4-8:

It was also in the writing that the prophet [Jeremiah], having received an oracle, ordered that the tent [i.e., the Tabernacle] and the ark should follow with him, and that he went out to the mountain where Moses had gone up and had seen the inheritance of God. And Jeremiah came and found a cave, and he brought there the tent and the ark and the altar of incense, and he sealed up the entrance.

Some of those who followed him came up to mark the way, but could not find it. When Jeremiah learned of it, he rebuked them and declared: "The place shall be unknown until God gathers His people together again and shows His mercy. And then the Lord will disclose these things, and the glory of the Lord and the cloud will appear, as they were shown in the case of Moses, and as Solomon asked that the place should be specially consecrated" (RSV).

This is how the jar of manna became the "hidden manna." Note that, in this text, the prophet predicts that the manna will be found again "when God gathers His people together" at some future time.

The manna likewise appears in texts that describe the Messianic Banquet. In Jewish apocalyptic literature, the Messianic Banquet is a symbol for the consummated kingdom of God. The symbol communicates the joy and fellowship and abundance of the kingdom by picturing it as a great feast presided over by the Messiah. The basic Old Testament text that inspires the apocalyptic writers' descriptions of the Messianic Banquet is Isaiah 25:6-8:

On this mountain the LORD Almighty will prepare

a feast of rich food for all peoples,

a banquet of aged wine-

the best of meats and the finest of wines.

On this mountain he will destroy

the [burial] shroud that enfolds all peoples,

the sheet that covers all nations;

he will swallow up death forever.

The Sovereign LORD will wipe away the tears

from all faces;

he will remove the disgrace of his people

from all the earth.

The LORD has spoken.

Notice that, when this "Banquet" is served - when the kingdom of God comes in its fullness - it will mark the end of death and sadness and disgrace.

Building on Isaiah's vision, the author of 2 Baruch (a Jewish apocalypse dating to about A.D. 100, which is very close to the writing of Revelation] offers his vision of the great Feast:

And it will happen that when all that which should come to pass in these parts has been accomplished, the Anointed One [i.e., the Messiah] will begin to be revealed. And Behemoth will reveal itself from its place, and Leviathan will come from the sea, the two great monsters which I created on the fifth day of creation and which I shall have kept until that time. And they will be nourishment for all who are left. The earth will also yield fruits ten thousandfold. And on one vine will be a thousand branches, and one branch will produce a thousand clusters, and one cluster will produce a thousand grapes, and one grape will produce a cor [i.e., about 6 bushels] of wine. And those who are hungry will enjoy themselves and they will, moreover, see marvels every day. For winds will go out in front of me every morning to bring the fragrance of aromatic fruits and clouds at the end of the day to distill the dew of health. And it will happen at that time that the treasury of manna will come down again from on high, and they will eat of it in those years because these are they who will have arrived at the consummation of time (2 Bar 29:3-8).

According to this vision, the menu at the Messianic Banquet will include some unusual items: First, there will be wine in extraordinary abundance. Second, the meat dishes served will be the sea serpent Leviathan and the land monster Behemoth. Apocalyptic writers (including John) often use these mythical beasts to represent the forces of evil and chaos - the enemies of God. The meaning of the symbolism here in 2 Baruch is that, when the kingdom comes in its fullness, God and his people are going to "have their enemies for lunch." Finally, the Messianic Banquet will feature manna, which the Messiah provides for those who "have arrived at the consummation of time."

Against this background, we may now interpret the promise of Revelation 2:17. Christ says, "To him who overcomes, I will give some of the hidden manna." In literature of the time, the persons who receive the "hidden manna" are servants of the Lord who inherit the kingdom of God. Christ is promising "overcomers" a seat at the Messianic Banquet, new life in the eschatological age.

b. The White Stone

What would the symbol of the "white stone" have communicated to the first readers of Revelation? Some suggest that a "white stone" with a "name written on it" refers to a magical amulet. Greeks engraved the names of deities on such amulets and wore them as sources of divine power and protection. However, if John is thinking of the name of the Deity, then would he describe it as a name "known only to him who receives it"? Perhaps so, if his idea is that only Christians truly "know" God and truly have a relationship with him.

To this author, a different meaning seems more likely: In the Greco-Roman world, white and black stones were used in courtrooms for rendering verdicts. To acquit the defendant, jurors tossed a white stone into a basket. To condemn the accused, they used a black stone. Luke mentions this practice in Acts 26:9-10, where the Apostle Paul describes his earlier life as a persecutor of the church:

I too was convinced that I ought to do all that was possible to oppose the name of Jesus of Nazareth. And that is just what I did in Jerusalem. On the authority of the chief priests I put many of the saints in prison, and when they were put to death, I cast my vote against them [lit., "I cast the stone against them"].

In his Sayings of Kings and Commanders , Plutarch refers to the same practice in an amusing quote from Alcibiades:

Summoned from Sicily by the Athenians to be tried for his life, [Alcibiades] went into hiding, saying that it is silly for a man under indictment to seek a way to get off when he can get away.

When somebody said, "Don't you trust your fatherland to decide about you?" he replied, "Not I; nor would I trust even my mother, lest in a moment of thoughtlessness she unwittingly cast a black ballot [lit., 'black stone'] instead of a white one [lit., 'white stone']."

John and his fellow Christians in Asia are being hauled into the Roman courts and having the black stone cast against them. Jesus promises that, if they "overcome" by remaining faithful even to death, then he will cast the white stone in their favor. Having once received imprisonment, death, and condemnation from the Roman king, they will one day receive acquittal, release, and vindication from the King of kings.

c. The Secret Name

The "white stone" has "a new name written on it." The Greek term translated "new" is kainov" ( kainos ), which John uses throughout Revelation to describe realities of the eschatological age. He speaks of a "new song" (5:9; 14:3), "new names" (2:17; 3:12), the "new Jerusalem" (3:12; 21:2), "a new heaven and a new earth" (21:1), and the consummation of the kingdom of God in which the Lord makes "everything new" (21:5). When Christ promises "overcomers" a "new name," he is offering them a share in the coming redemption and transformation of all creation.

And yet there is more, for the "new name" is "known only to him who receives it." In the ancient world, the ability to name some person or some thing was associated with power. To illustrate, the Greek magical papyri include lists of the names of various deities so that the sorcerer may invoke their names in casting spells. They also contain the secret "true names" of various creatures, which were thought to give the magician power over those creatures.

We find hints of this idea in the Bible. For example, in Genesis 2:19-20 God grants Adam the right to name the animals, which is a sign of his "dominion" over them (see Gen 1:26). In Luke 8:26-39 a man possessed by a "Legion" of demons cries out to Jesus, "What do you want with me, Jesus, Son of the Most High God?" Since the demons know Jesus' true name ("Son of God"), the ancient reader would expect them to have power over Jesus - and yet they do not! Instead, Christ asks, "What is your name?" When they give it, the Lord expels them from the region.

In A.D. 95-96, the Christians in Asia are suffering under the power of their enemies, but Jesus promises to give them a new name "known only to him who receives it." In other words, the Lord promises them freedom, self-determination, deliverance from those who would oppress them.

4. Authority over the Nations and the Morning Star (2:26-28)

2:26-28 To him who overcomes and does my will to the end, I will give authority over the nations-"He will rule them with an iron scepter; he will dash them to pieces like pottery"-just as I have received authority from my Father. I will also give him the morning star.

In verse 27 Christ quotes from Psalm 2:9, a "Royal Psalm" describing the God-given authority of the Davidic King or Messiah. Here the Lord promises to share that authority with his people - to give them dominance over their enemies and a share in his kingdom rule. Compare the similar promise found in Revelation 3:21 (discussed below).

"The morning star" refers to the planet Venus, a symbol of victory and domination in the ancient world. So in verse 28 the Lord promises his people that they will triumph over their enemies, the human and angelic forces of darkness. In Revelation 22:16 Christ himself is called the Victor, "the bright, morning star."

Introduction / Outline

Robertson: Revelation (Book Introduction)

THE REVELATION OF JOHN

ABOUT a.d. 95

By Way of Introduction

Difficulty in the Problem

Perhaps no single book in the New Testament presents so many and so formidable problems as the Apocalypse of John. These difficulties concern the authorship, the date, the apocalyptic method, the relation to the other Johannine books, the purpose, the historical environment, the reception of the book in the New Testament canon, the use and misuse of the book through the ages, etc. In the eastern churches the recognition of the Apocalypse of John was slower than in the west, since it was not in the Peshitta Syriac Version. Caius of Rome attributed the book to Cerinthus the Gnostic, but he was ably answered by Hippolytus, who attributed it to the Apostle John. The Council of Laodicea (about a.d. 360) omitted it, but the third Council of Carthage (a.d. 397) accepted it. The dispute about millenarianism led Dionysius of Alexandria (middle of the third century, a.d.) to deny the authorship to the Apostle John, though he accepted it as canonical. Eusebius suggested a second John as the author. But finally the book was accepted in the east as Hebrews was in the west after a period of doubt.

Poor State of the Text

There are only five uncials that give the text of John’s Apocalypse (Aleph A C P Q). Of these Aleph belongs to the fourth century, A and C to the fifth, Q (really B2 , B ending with Heb_9:13, both in the Vatican Library) to the eighth, P to the ninth. Only Aleph A Q (= B2 ) are complete, C lacking Rev_1:1, 3:19-5:14, Rev_7:14-17, 8:5-9:16, 10:10-11:3, 14:13-18:2, 19:5-21, P lacking Rev 16:12 - 17:1, 19:21-20:9, 22:6-21. Both C and P are palimpsests. In the 400 verses of the book " over 1,600 variants have been counted" (Moffatt). Erasmus had only one cursive (of the twelfth century numbered Ir) for his first edition, and the last six verses of the Apocalypse, save Rev_22:20, were a translation from the Vulgate. The result is that the versions are of special importance for the text of the book, since in no single MS. or group of MSS. do we have a fairly accurate text, though Aleph A C and A C Vulgate are the best two groups.

The Apocalyptic Style

The book claims to be an apocalypse (Rev_1:1) and has to be treated as such. It is an unveiling ( apokalupsis , from apokaluptō ) or revelation of Jesus Christ, a prophecy, in other words, of a special type, like Ezekiel, Zechariah, and Daniel in the Old Testament. There was a considerable Jewish apocalyptic literature by this time when John wrote, much of it b.c., some of it a.d., like the Book of Enoch, the Apocalypse of Baruch, the Book of Jubilees, the Assumption of Moses, the Psalms of Solomon, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Sibylline Oracles, some of them evidently " worked over by Christian hands" (Swete). Jesus himself used the apocalyptic style at times (Mark 13; Matt 24, 25; Luke 21). Paul in 1 Cor 14 spoke of the unpremeditated apocalyptic utterances in the Christian meetings and suggested restraints concerning them. " The Revelation of John is the only written apocalypse, as it is the only written prophecy of the Apostolic age.... The first Christian apocalypse came on the crest of this long wave of apocalyptic effort" (Swete). The reason for this style of writing is usually severe persecution and the desire to deliver a message in symbolic form. The effort of Antiochus Epiphanes, who claimed to be " a god manifest," to hellenize the Jews aroused violent opposition and occasioned many apocalypses to cheer the persecuted Jews.

Emperor Worship as the Occasion for John’s Apocalypse

There is no doubt at all that the emperor cult (emperor worship) played a main part in the persecution of the Christians that was the occasion for this great Christian apocalypse. The book itself bears ample witness to this fact, if the two beasts refer to the Roman power as the agent of Satan. It is not possible to single out each individual emperor in the graphic picture. Most would take the dragon to be Satan and the first and the second beasts to be the imperial and provincial Roman power. The Roman emperors posed as gods and did the work of Satan. In particular there were two persecuting emperors (Nero and Domitian) who were responsible for many martyrs for Christ. But emperor worship began before Nero. Julius Caesar was worshipped in the provinces. Octavius was called Augustus ( Sebastos , Reverend). The crazy Emperor Caius Caligula not simply claimed to be divine, but actually demanded that his statue be set up for worship in the Holy of Holies in the Temple in Jerusalem. He was killed in January a.d. 41 before he could execute his dire purpose. But the madcap Nero likewise demanded worship and blamed in a.d. 64 the burning of Rome on the Christians, though guilty of it himself. He set the style for persecuting Christians, which slumbered on and burst into flames again under Domitian, who had himself commonly termed Dominus ac Deus noster (Our Lord and God). The worship of the emperor did not disturb the worshippers of other gods save the Jews and the Christians, and in particular the Christians were persecuted after the burning of Rome when they were distinguished from the Jews. Up till then Christians were regarded (as by Gallio in Corinth) as a variety of Jews and so entitled to tolerance as a religio licita , but they had no standing in law by themselves and their refusal to worship the emperor early gave offence, as Paul indicates in 1Co_12:3. It was Kurios Iēsous or Kurios Kaisar . On this very issue Polycarp lost his life. The emperors as a rule were tolerant about it, save Nero and Domitian, who was called Nero redivivus , or Nero back again. Trajan in his famous letter to Pliny advised tolerance except in stubborn cases, when the Christians had to be put to death. After Nero it was a crime to be a Christian and all sorts of slanders about them were circulated. We have seen already in 2Th_2:3., the man of sin who sets himself above God as the object of worship. We have seen also in 1Jo_2:18, 1Jo_2:22; 1Jo_4:3; 2Jo_1:7 the term antichrist applied apparently to Gnostic heretics. One may wonder if, as Beckwith argues, in the Apocalypse the man of sin and the antichrist are united in the beast.

The Author

The writer calls himself John (Rev_1:1, Rev_1:4, Rev_1:9; Rev_22:8). But what John? The book can hardly be pseudonymous, though, with the exception of the Shepherd of Hermas, that is the rule with apocalypses. There would have been a clearer claim than just the name. The traditional and obvious way to understand the name is the Apostle John, though Dionysius of Alexandria mentions John Mark as held by some and he himself suggests another John, like the so-called Presbyter John of Papias as quoted by Eusebius. The uncertain language of Papias has raised a deal of questioning. Swete thinks that the majority of modern critics ascribe the Apocalypse to this Presbyter John, to whom Moffatt assigns probably 2 John and 3 John. Irenaeus represents the Apostle John as having lived to the time of Trajan, at least to a.d. 98. Most ancient writers agree with this extreme old age of John. Justin Martyr states expressly that the Apostle John wrote the Apocalypse. Irenaeus called it the work of a disciple of Jesus. In the ninth century lived Georgius Hamartolus, and a MS. of his alleges that Papias says that John the son of Zebedee was beheaded by the Jews and there is an extract in an Oxford MS. of the seventh century which alleges that Papias says John and James were put to death by the Jews. On the basis of this slim evidence some today argue that John did not live to the end of the century and so did not write any of the Johannine books. But a respectable number of modern scholars still hold to the ancient view that the Apocalypse of John is the work of the Apostle and Beloved Disciple, the son of Zebedee.

Relation to the Fourth Gospel

Here scholars divide again. Many who deny the Johannine authorship of the Fourth Gospel and the Epistles accept the apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse, Baur, for instance. Hort, Lightfoot, and Westcott argued for the Johannine authorship on the ground that the Apocalypse was written early (time of Nero or Vespasian) when John did not know Greek so well as when the Epistles and the Gospel were written. There are numerous grammatical laxities in the Apocalypse, termed by Charles a veritable grammar of its own. They are chiefly retention of the nominative case in appositional words or phrases, particularly participles, many of them sheer Hebraisms, many of them clearly intentional (as in Rev_1:4), all of them on purpose according to Milligan ( Revelation in Schaff’s Pop. Comm.) and Heinrici ( Der Litterarische Charakter der neutest. Schriften , p. 85). Radermacher ( Neutestamentliche Grammatik , p. 3) calls it " the most uncultured literary production that has come down to us from antiquity," and one finds frequent parallels to the linguistic peculiarities in later illiterate papyri. J. H. Moulton ( Grammar , Vol. II, Part I, p. 3) says: " Its grammar is perpetually stumbling, its idiom is that of a foreign language, its whole style that of a writer who neither knows nor cares for literary form." But we shall see that the best evidence is for a date in Domitian’s reign and not much later than the Fourth Gospel. It is worth noting that in Act_4:13 Peter and John are both termed by the Sanhedrin agrammatoi kai idiōtai (unlettered and unofficial men). We have seen the possibility that 2 Peter represents Peter’s real style or at least that of a different amanuensis from Silvanus in 1Pe_5:12. It seems clear that the Fourth Gospel underwent careful scrutiny and possibly by the elders in Ephesus (Joh_21:24). If John wrote the Apocalypse while in Patmos and so away from Ephesus, it seems quite possible that here we have John’s own uncorrected style more than in the Gospel and Epistles. There is also the added consideration that the excitement of the visions played a part along with a certain element of intentional variations from normal grammatical sequence. An old man’s excitement would bring back his early style. There are numerous coincidences in vocabulary and style between the Fourth Gospel and the Apocalypse.

The Unity of the Apocalypse

Repeated efforts have been made to show that the Apocalypse of John is not the work of one man, but a series of Jewish and Christian apocalypses pieced together in a more or less bungling fashion. Spitta argued for this in 1889. Vischer was followed by Harnack in the view there was a Jewish apocalypse worked over by a Christian. Gunkel ( Creation and Chaos , 1895) argued for a secret apocalyptic tradition of Babylonian origin. In 1904 J. Weiss carried on the argument for sources behind the Apocalypse. Many of the Jewish apocalypses do show composite authorship. There was a current eschatology which may have been drawn on without its being a written source. It is in chapter Rev 12 where the supposed Jewish source is urged more vigorously about the woman, the dragon, and the man child. There are no differences in language (vocabulary or grammar) that argue for varied sources. The author may indeed make use of events in the reign of Nero as well as in the reign of Domitian, but the essential unity of the book has stood the test of the keenest criticism.

The Date

There are two chief theories, the Neronic, soon after Nero’s death, the other in the reign of Domitian. Irenaeus is quoted by Eusebius as saying expressly that the Apocalypse of John was written at the close of the reign of Domitian. This testimony is concurred in by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, by Eusebius, by Jerome. In harmony with this clear testimony the severity of the persecutions suit the later date better than the earlier one. There is, besides, in Rev_17:11. an apparent reference to the story that Nero would return again. The fifth king who is one of the seven is an eighth. There was a Nero legend, to be sure, that Nero either was not dead but was in Parthia, or would be redivivus after death. Juvenal termed Domitian " a bald Nero" and others called Domitian " a second Nero." But in spite of all this Hort, Lightfoot, Sanday, Westcott have argued strongly for the Neronic era. Peake is willing to admit allusions to the Neronic period as Swete is also, but both consider the Domitianic date the best supported. Moffatt considers any earlier date than Domitian " almost impossible."

The Visions

No theory of authorship, sources, or date should ignore the fact that the author claims to have had a series of visions in Patmos. It does not follow that he wrote them down at once and without reflection, but it seems hardly congruous to think that he waited till he had returned from exile in Patmos to Ephesus before writing them out. In fact, there is a note of sustained excitement all through the book, combined with high literary skill in the structure of the book in spite of the numerous grammatical lapses. The series of sevens bear a relation to one another, but more in the fashion of a kaleidoscope than of a chronological panorama. And yet there is progress and power in the arrangement and the total effect. There is constant use of Old Testament language and imagery, almost a mosaic, but without a single formal quotation. There is constant repetition of words and phrases in true Johannine style. Each of the messages to the seven churches picks out a metaphor in the first picture of Christ in chapter 1 and there are frequent other allusions to the language in this picture. In fact there is genuine artistic skill in the structure of the book, in spite of the deflections from ordinary linguistic standards. In the visions and all through the book there is constant use of symbols, as is the fashion in apocalypses like the beasts, the scorpions, the horses, etc. These symbols probably were understood by the first readers of the book, though the key to them is lost to us. Even the numbers in the book (3 ½, 7, 3, 4, 12, 24, 1000) cannot be pressed, though some do so. Even Harnack called the Apocalypse the plainest book in the New Testament, by using Harnack’s key for the symbols.

Theories of Interpretation

They are literally many. There are those who make the book a chart of Christian and even of human history even to the end. These divide into two groups, the continuous and the synchronous. The continuous historical theory takes each vision and symbol in succession as an unfolding panorama. Under the influence of this theory there have been all sorts of fantastic identifications of men and events. The synchronous theory takes the series of sevens (seals, trumpets, bowls) as parallel with each other, each time going up to the end. But in neither case can any satisfactory program be arranged. Another historical interpretation takes it all as over and done, the preterist theory. This theory again breaks into two, one finding the fulfilment all in the Neronic period, the other in the Domitianic era. Something can be said for each view, but neither satisfies the whole picture by any means. Roman Catholic scholars have been fond of the preterist view to escape the Protestant interpretation of the second beast in chapter Rev 13 as papal Rome. There is still another interpretation, the futurist, which keeps the fulfilment all in the future and which can be neither proved nor disproved. There is also the purely spiritual theory which finds no historical allusion anywhere. This again can be neither proved nor disproved. One of the lines of cleavage is the millennium in chapter Rev_20:1-15. Those who take the thousand years literally are either pre-millennialists who look for the second coming of Christ to be followed by a thousand years of personal reign here on earth or the postmillennialists who place the thousand years before the second coming. There are others who turn to 2Pe_3:8 and wonder if, after all, in a book of symbols this thousand years has any numerical value at all. There seems abundant evidence to believe that this apocalypse, written during the stress and storm of Domitian’s persecution, was intended to cheer the persecuted Christians with a view of certain victory at last, but with no scheme of history in view.

A Practical Purpose

So considered, this vision of the Reigning Christ in heaven with a constant eye on the suffering saints and martyrs is a guarantee of certain triumph in heaven and ultimate triumph on earth. The picture of Christ in heaven is a glorious one. He is the Lamb that was slain, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Word of God, the Victor over his enemies, worshipped in heaven like the Father, the Light and Life of men. Instead of trying to fit the various symbols on particular individuals one will do better to see the same application to times of persecution from time to time through the ages. The same Christ who was the Captain of salvation in the time of Domitian is the Pioneer and Perfecter of our faith today. The Apocalypse of John gives glimpses of heaven as well as of hell. Hope is the word that it brings to God’s people at all times.

The Readers of the Book

The whole book is sent to the seven churches in Asia (Rev_1:4). There is a special message to each of the seven (chapters Rev 2; 3), suited to the peculiar needs of each church and with a direct reference to the geography and history of each church and city, so Ramsay holds ( The Letters to the Seven Churches ). The book is to be read aloud in each church (Rev_1:3). One can imagine the intense interest that the book would arouse in each church. Children are charmed to hear the Apocalypse read. They do not understand the symbols, but they see the pictures in the unfolding panorama. There were other churches in the Province of Asia besides these seven, but these form a circle from Ephesus where John had lived and wrought. They do present a variety of churches, not necessarily all types, and by no means a chart of seven dispensations of Christian history.

JFB: Revelation (Book Introduction)

AUTHENTICITY.--The author calls himself John (Rev 1:1, Rev 1:4, Rev 1:9; Rev 2:8). JUSTIN MARTYR [Dialogue with Trypho, p. 308] (A.D. 139-161) quotes from the Apocalypse, as John the apostle's work, the prophecy of the millennium of the saints, to be followed by the general resurrection and judgment. This testimony of JUSTIN is referred to also by EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 4.18]. JUSTIN MARTYR, in the early part of the second century, held his controversy with TRYPHO, a learned Jew, at Ephesus, where John had been living thirty or thirty-five years before: he says that "the Revelation had been given to John, one of the twelve apostles of Christ." MELITO, bishop of Sardis (about A.D. 171), one of the seven churches addressed, a successor, therefore, of one of the seven angels, is said by EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 4.26] to have written treatises on the Apocalypse of John. The testimony of the bishop of Sardis is the more impartial, as Sardis is one of the churches severely reproved (Rev 3:1). So also THEOPHILUS OF ANTIOCH (about A.D. 180), according to EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 4.26], quoted testimonies from the Apocalypse of John. EUSEBIUS says the same of Apollonius, who lived in Asia Minor in the end of the second century. IRENÆUS (about A.D. 180), a hearer of POLYCARP, the disciple of John, and supposed by ARCHBISHOP USHER to be the angel of the Church of Smyrna, is most decided again and again in quoting the Apocalypse as the work of the apostle John [Against Heresies, 4.20.11; 4.21.3; 4.30.4; 5.36.1; 5.30.3; 5.35.2]. In [5.30.1], alluding to the mystical number of the beast, six hundred sixty-six (Rev 13:18), found in all old copies, he says, "We do not hazard a confident theory as to the name of Antichrist; for if it had been necessary that his name should be proclaimed openly at the present time, it would have been declared by him who saw the apocalyptic vision; for it was seen at no long time back, but almost in our generation, towards the end of Domitian's reign." In his work Against Heresies, published ten years after Polycarp's martyrdom, he quotes the Apocalypse twenty times, and makes long extracts from it, as inspired Scripture. These testimonies of persons contemporary with John's immediate successors, and more or less connected with the region of the seven churches to which Revelation is addressed, are most convincing. TERTULLIAN, of North Africa (about A.D. 220), [Against Marcion, 3.14], quotes the apostle John's descriptions in the Apocalypse of the sword proceeding out of the Lord's mouth (Rev 19:15), and of the heavenly city (Rev. 21:1-27). Compare On the Resurrection of the Flesh [27]; A Treatise on the Soul, [8, 9, &c.]; The Prescription Against Heretics, [33]. The MURATORI fragment of the canon (about A.D. 200) refers to John the apostle writing to the seven churches. HIPPOLYTUS, bishop of Ostia, near Rome (about A.D. 240) [On Antichrist, p. 67], quotes Rev. 17:1-18, as the writing of John the apostle. Among HIPPOLYTUS' works, there is specified in the catalogue on his statue, a treatise "on the Apocalypse and Gospel according to John." CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA (about A.D. 200) [Miscellanies, 6.13], alludes to the twenty-four seats on which the elders sit as mentioned by John in the Apocalypse (Rev 4:5); also, [Who Is the Rich Man Who Shall Be Saved? 42], he mentions John's return from Patmos to Ephesus on the death of the Roman tyrant. ORIGEN (about A.D. 233), [Commentary on Matthew, in EUSEBIUS Ecclesiastical History, 6.25], mentions John as the author of the Apocalypse, without expressing any doubts as to its authenticity; also, in Commentary on Matthew, [16.6], he quotes Rev 1:9, and says, "John seems to have beheld the Apocalypse in the island of Patmos." VICTORINUS, bishop of Pettau in Pannonia, who suffered martyrdom under Diocletian in A.D. 303, wrote the earliest extant commentary on the Apocalypse. Though the Old Syriac Peschito version does not contain the Apocalypse, yet EPHREM THE SYRIAN (about A.D. 378) frequently quotes the Apocalypse as canonical, and ascribes it to John.

Its canonicity and inspiration (according to a scholium of ANDREAS OF CAPPADOCIA) are attested by PAPIAS, a hearer of John, and associate of POLYCARP. PAPIAS was bishop of Hierapolis, near Laodicea, one of the seven churches. WORDSWORTH conjectures that a feeling of shame, on account of the rebukes of Laodicea in Revelation, may have operated on the Council of Laodicea, so as to omit Revelation from its list of books to be read publicly (?). The Epistle of the churches of Lyons and Vienne to the churches of Asia and Phrygia (in EUSEBIUS, [Ecclesiastical History, 5.1-3]), in the persecution under Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 77) quotes Rev 1:5; Rev 3:14; Rev 14:4; Rev 22:11, as Scripture. CYPRIAN (about A.D. 250) also, in Epistle 13, quotes Rev 2:5 as Scripture; and in Epistle 25 he quotes Rev 3:21, as of the same authority as the Gospel. (For other instances, see ALFORD'S Prolegomena, from whom mainly this summary of evidence has been derived). ATHANASIUS, in his Festival Epistle, enumerates the Apocalypse among the canonical Scriptures, to which none must add, and from which none must take away. JEROME [Epistle to Paulinus] includes in the canon the Apocalypse, adding, "It has as many mysteries as words. All praise falls short of its merits. In each of its words lie hid manifold senses." Thus an unbroken chain of testimony down from the apostolic period confirms its canonicity and authenticity.

The ALOGI [EPIPHANIUS, Heresies, 51] and CAIUS the Roman presbyter [EUSEBIUS, Ecclesiastical History, 3.28], towards the end of the second and beginning of the third century, rejected John's Apocalypse on mere captious grounds. CAIUS, according to JEROME [On Illustrious Men], about A.D. 210, attributed it to Cerinthus, on the ground of its supporting the millennial reign on earth. DIONYSIUS OF ALEXANDRIA mentions many before his time who rejected it because of its obscurity and because it seemed to support Cerinthus' dogma of an earthly and carnal kingdom; whence they attributed it to Cerinthus. This DIONYSIUS, scholar of ORIGEN, and bishop of Alexandria (A.D. 247), admits its inspiration (in EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 7.10]), but attributes it to some John distinct from John the apostle, on the ground of its difference of style and character, as compared with John's Gospel and Epistle, as also because the name John is several times mentioned in the Apocalypse, which is always kept back in both the Gospel and Epistle; moreover, neither does the Epistle make any allusion to the Apocalypse, nor the Apocalypse to the Epistle; and the style is not pure Greek, but abounds in barbarisms and solecisms. EUSEBIUS wavers in opinion [Ecclesiastical History, 24.39] as to whether it is, or is not, to be ranked among the undoubtedly canonical Scriptures. His antipathy to the millennial doctrine would give an unconscious bias to his judgment on the Apocalypse. CYRIL OF JERUSALEM (A.D. 386), [Catechetical Lectures, 4.35,36], omits the Apocalypse in enumerating the New Testament Scriptures to be read privately as well as publicly. "Whatever is not read in the churches, that do not even read by thyself; the apostles and ancient bishops of the Church who transmitted them to us were far wiser than thou art." Hence, we see that, in his day, the Apocalypse was not read in the churches. Yet in Catechetical Lectures, 1.4 he quotes Rev 2:7, Rev 2:17; and in Catechetical Lectures, 1; 15.13 he draws the prophetical statement from Rev 17:11, that the king who is to humble the three kings (Dan 7:8, Dan 7:20) is the eighth king. In Catechetical Lectures, 15 and 27, he similarly quotes from Rev 12:3-4. ALFORD conjectures that CYRIL had at some time changed his opinion, and that these references to the Apocalypse were slips of memory whereby he retained phraseology which belonged to his former, not his subsequent views. The sixtieth canon (if genuine) of the Laodicean Council in the middle of the fourth century omits the Apocalypse from the canonical books. The Eastern Church in part doubted, the Western Church, after the fifth century, universally recognized, the Apocalypse. CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA [On Worship, 146], though implying the fact of some doubting its genuineness, himself undoubtedly accepts it as the work of St. John. ANDREAS OF CÆSAREA, in Cappadocia, recognized as genuine and canonical, and wrote the first entire and connected commentary on, the Apocalypse. The sources of doubt seem to have been, (1) the antagonism of many to the millennium, which is set forth in it; (2) its obscurity and symbolism having caused it not to be read in the churches, or to be taught to the young. But the most primitive tradition is unequivocal in its favor. In a word, the objective evidence is decidedly for it; the only arguments against it seem to have been subjective.

The personal notices of John in the Apocalypse occur Rev 1:1, Rev 1:4, Rev 1:9; Rev 22:8. Moreover, the writer's addresses to the churches of Proconsular Asia (Rev 2:1) accord with the concurrent tradition, that after John's return from his exile in Patmos, at the death of Domitian, under Nerva, he resided for long, and died at last in Ephesus, in the time of Trajan [EUSEBIUS, Ecclesiastical History, 3.20,23]. If the Apocalypse were not the inspired work of John, purporting as it does to be an address from their superior to the seven churches of Proconsular Asia, it would have assuredly been rejected in that region; whereas the earliest testimonies in those churches are all in its favor. One person alone was entitled to use language of authority such as is addressed to the seven angels of the churches--namely, John, as the last surviving apostle and superintendent of all the churches. Also, it accords with John's manner to assert the accuracy of his testimony both at the beginning and end of his book (compare Rev 1:2-3, and Rev 22:8, with Joh 1:14; Joh 21:24; 1Jo 1:1-2). Again, it accords with the view of the writer being an inspired apostle that he addresses the angels or presidents of the several churches in the tone of a superior addressing inferiors. Also, he commends the Church of Ephesus for trying and convicting "them which say they are apostles, and are not," by which he implies his own undoubted claim to apostolic inspiration (Rev 2:2), as declaring in the seven epistles Christ's will revealed through him.

As to the difference of style, as compared with the Gospel and Epistle, the difference of subject in part accounts for it, the visions of the seer, transported as he was above the region of sense, appropriately taking a form of expression abrupt, and unbound by the grammatical laws which governed his writings of a calmer and more deliberate character. Moreover, as being a Galilean Hebrew, John, in writing a Revelation akin to the Old Testament prophecies, naturally reverted to their Hebraistic style. ALFORD notices, among the features of resemblance between the styles of the Apocalypse and John's Gospel and Epistle: (1) the characteristic appellation of our Lord, peculiar to John exclusively, "the Word of God" (Rev 19:13; compare Joh 1:1; 1Jo 1:1). (2) the phrase, "he that overcometh" (Rev 2:7, Rev 2:11, Rev 2:17; Rev 3:5, Rev 3:12, Rev 3:21; Rev 12:11; Rev 15:2; Rev 17:14; Rev 21:7; compare Joh 16:33 1Jo 2:13-14; 1Jo 4:4; 1Jo 5:4-5). (3) The Greek term (alethinos) for "true," as opposed to that which is shadowy and unreal (Rev 3:7, Rev 3:14; Rev 6:10; Rev 15:3; Rev 16:7; Rev 19:2, Rev 19:9, Rev 19:11; Rev 21:5; Rev 22:6). This term, found only once in Luke (Luk 16:11), four times in Paul (1Th 1:9; Heb 8:2; Heb 9:24; Heb 10:22), is found nine times in John's Gospel (Joh 1:9; Joh 4:23, Joh 4:37; Joh 6:32; Joh 7:28; Joh 8:16; Joh 15:1 Joh 17:3; Joh 19:3, Joh 19:5), twice in John's First Epistle (1Jo 2:8; 1Jo 5:20), and ten times in Revelation (Rev 3:7, Rev 3:14; Rev 6:10; Rev 15:3; Rev 16:7; Rev 19:2, Rev 19:9, Rev 19:11; Rev 21:5 Rev 22:6). (4) The Greek diminutive for "Lamb" (arnion, literally, "lambkin") occurs twenty-nine times in the Apocalypse, and the only other place where it occurs is Joh 21:15. In John's writings alone is Christ called directly "the Lamb" (Joh 1:29, Joh 1:36). In 1Pe 1:19, He is called "as a lamb without blemish," in allusion to Isa 53:7. So the use of "witness," or "testimony" (Rev 1:2, Rev 1:9; Rev 6:9; Rev 11:7, &c.; compare Joh 1:7-8, Joh 1:15, Joh 1:19, Joh 1:32; 1Jo 1:2; 1Jo 4:14; 1Jo 5:6-11). "Keep the word," or "commandments" (Rev 3:8, Rev 3:10; Rev 12:17; compare Joh 8:51, Joh 8:55; Joh 14:15). The assertion of the same thing positively and negatively (Rev 2:2, Rev 2:6, Rev 2:8, Rev 2:13; Rev 3:8, Rev 3:17-18; compare Joh 1:3, Joh 1:6-7, Joh 1:20; 1Jo 2:27-28). Compare also 1Jo 2:20, 1Jo 2:27 with Rev 3:18, as to the spiritual anointing. The seeming solecisms of style are attributable to that,inspired elevation which is above mere grammatical rules, and are designed to arrest the reader's attention by the peculiarity of the phrase, so as to pause and search into some deep truth lying beneath. The vivid earnestness of the inspired writer, handling a subject so transcending all others, raises him above all servile adherence to ordinary rules, so that at times he abruptly passes from one grammatical construction to another, as he graphically sets the thing described before the eye of the reader. This is not due to ignorance of grammar, for he "has displayed a knowledge of grammatical rules in other much more difficult constructions" [WINER]. The connection of thought is more attended to than mere grammatical connection. Another consideration to be taken into account is that two-fifths of the whole being the recorded language of others, he moulds his style accordingly. Compare TREGELLES' Introduction to Revelation from Heathen Authorities.

TREGELLES well says [New Testament Historic Evidence], "There is no book of the New Testament for which we have such clear, ample, and numerous testimonies in the second century as we have in favor of the Apocalypse. The more closely the witnesses were connected with the apostle John (as was the case with IRENÆUS), the more explicit is their testimony. That doubts should prevail in after ages must have originated either in ignorance of the earlier testimony, or else from some supposed intuition of what an apostle ought to have written. The objections on the ground of internal style can weigh nothing against the actual evidence. It is in vain to argue, a priori, that John could not have written this book when we have the evidence of several competent witnesses that he did write it."

RELATION OF THE APOCALYPSE TO THE REST OF THE CANON.--GREGORY OF NYSSA [tom. 3, p. 601], calls Revelation "the last book of grace." It completes the volume of inspiration, so that we are to look for no further revelation till Christ Himself shall come. Appropriately the last book completing the canon was written by John, the last survivor of the apostles. The New Testament is composed of the historical books, the Gospels and Acts, the doctrinal Epistles, and the one prophetical book, Revelation. The same apostle wrote the last of the Gospels, and probably the last of the Epistles, and the only prophetical book of the New Testament. All the books of the New Testament had been written, and were read in the Church assemblies, some years before John's death. His life was providentially prolonged that he might give the final attestation to Scripture. About the year A.D. 100, the bishops of Asia (the angels of the seven churches) came to John at EPHESUS, bringing him copies of the three Gospels, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, and desired of him a statement of his apostolical judgment concerning them; whereupon he pronounced them authentic, genuine, and inspired, and at their request added his own Gospel to complete the fourfold aspect of the Gospel of Christ (compare MURATORI [Fragment on the Canon of Scripture]; EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 3.24]; JEROME [Commentary on Matthew]; VICTORINUS on the Apocalypse; THEODORET [Ecclesiastical History, 39]). A Greek divine, quoted in ALLATIUS, calls Revelation "the seal of the whole Bible." The canon would be incomplete without Revelation. Scripture is a complete whole, its component books, written in a period ranging over one thousand five hundred years, being mutually connected. Unity of aim and spirit pervades the entire, so that the end is the necessary sequence of the middle, and the middle of the beginning. Genesis presents before us man and his bride in innocence and blessedness, followed by man's fall through Satan's subtlety, and man's consequent misery, his exclusion from Paradise and its tree of life and delightful rivers. Revelation presents, in reverse order, man first liable to sin and death, but afterwards made conqueror through the blood of the Lamb; the first Adam and Eve, represented by the second Adam, Christ, and the Church. His spotless bride, in Paradise, with free access to the tree of life and the crystal water of life that flows from the throne of God. As Genesis foretold the bruising of the serpent's head by the woman's seed (Gen 3:15), so Revelation declares the final accomplishment of that prediction (Rev. 19:1-20:15).

PLACE AND TIME OF WRITING.--The best authorities among the Fathers state that John was exiled under Domitian (IRENÆUS [Against Heresies, 5; 30]; CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA; EUSEBIUS [Ecclesiastical History, 3.20]). VICTORINUS says that he had to labor in the mines of Patmos. At Domitian's death, A.D. 95, he returned to Ephesus under the Emperor Nerva. Probably it was immediately after his return that he wrote, under divine inspiration, the account of the visions vouchsafed to him in Patmos (Rev 1:2, Rev 1:9). However, Rev 10:4 seems to imply that he wrote the visions immediately after seeing them. Patmos is one of the Sporades. Its circumference is about thirty miles. "It was fitting that when forbidden to go beyond certain bounds of the earth's lands, he was permitted to penetrate the secrets of heaven" [BEDE, Explanation of the Apocalypse on chap. 1]. The following arguments favor an earlier date, namely, under Nero: (1) EUSEBIUS [Demonstration of the Gospel] unites in the same sentence John's banishment with the stoning of James and the beheading of Paul, which were under Nero. (2) CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA'S'S story of the robber reclaimed by John, after he had pursued, and with difficulty overtaken him, accords better with John then being a younger man than under Domitian, when he was one hundred years old. Arethas, in the sixth century, applies the sixth seal to the destruction of Jerusalem (A.D. 70), adding that the Apocalypse was written before that event. So the Syriac version states he was banished by Nero the Cæsar. Laodicea was overthrown by an earthquake (A.D. 60) but was immediately rebuilt, so that its being called "rich and increased with goods" is not incompatible with this book having been written under the Neronian persecution (A.D. 64). But the possible allusions to it in Heb 10:37; compare Rev 1:4, Rev 1:8; Rev 4:8; Rev 22:12; Heb 11:10; compare Rev 21:14; Heb 12:22-23; compare Rev 14:1; Heb 8:1-2; compare Rev 11:19; Rev 15:5; Rev 21:3; Heb 4:12; compare Rev 1:16; Rev 2:12, Rev 2:16; Rev 19:13, Rev 19:15; Heb 4:9; compare Rev 20:1-15; also 1Pe 1:7, 1Pe 1:13; 1Pe 4:13, with Rev 1:1; 1Pe 2:9 with Rev 5:10; 2Ti 4:8, with Rev 2:26-27; Rev 3:21; Rev 11:18; Eph 6:12, with Rev 12:7-12; Phi 4:3, with Rev 3:5; Rev 13:8; Rev 17:8; Rev 20:12, Rev 20:15; Col 1:18, with Rev 1:5; 1Co 15:52, with Rev 10:7; Rev 11:15-18, make a date before the destruction of Laodicea possible. Cerinthus is stated to have died before John; as then he borrowed much in his Pseudo-Apocalypse from John's, it is likely the latter was at an earlier date than Domitian's reign. See TILLOCH'S Introduction to Apocalypse. But the Pauline benediction (Rev 1:4) implies it was written after Paul's death under Nero.

TO WHAT READERS ADDRESSED.--The inscription states that it is addressed to the seven churches of Asia, that is, Proconsular Asia. John's reason for fixing on the number seven (for there were more than seven churches in the region meant by "Asia," for instance, Magnesia and Tralles) was doubtless because seven is the sacred number implying totality and universality: so it is implied that John, through the medium of the seven churches, addresses in the Spirit the Church of all places and ages. The Church in its various states of spiritual life or deadness, in all ages and places, is represented by the seven churches, and is addressed with words of consolation or warning accordingly. Smyrna and Philadelphia alone of the seven are honored with unmixed praise, as faithful in tribulation and rich in good works. Heresies of a decided kind had by this time arisen in the churches of Asia, and the love of many had waxed cold, while others had advanced to greater zeal, and one had sealed his testimony with his blood.

OBJECT.--It begins with admonitory addresses to the seven churches from the divine Son of man, whom John saw in vision, after a brief introduction which sets forth the main subject of the book, namely, to "show unto His servants things which must shortly come to pass" (the first through third chapters). From the fourth chapter to the end is mainly prophecy, with practical exhortations and consolations, however, interspersed, similar to those addressed to the seven churches (the representatives of the universal Church of every age), and so connecting the body of the book with its beginning, which therefore forms its appropriate introduction. Three schools of interpreters exist: (1) The Preterists, who hold that almost the whole has been fulfilled. (2) The Historical Interpreters, who hold that it comprises the history of the Church from John's time to the end of the world, the seals being chronologically succeeded, by the trumpets and the trumpets by the vials. (3) The Futurists, who consider almost the whole as yet future, and to be fulfilled immediately before Christ's second coming. The first theory was not held by any of the earliest Fathers, and is only held now by Rationalists, who limit John's vision to things within his own horizon, pagan Rome's persecutions of Christians, and its consequently anticipated destruction. The Futurist school is open to this great objection: it would leave the Church of Christ unprovided with prophetical guidance or support under her fiery trials for 1700 or 1800 years. Now God has said, "Surely He will do nothing, but He revealeth His secrets unto His servants the prophets" (Amo 3:7). The Jews had a succession of prophets who guided them with the light of prophecy: what their prophets were to them, that the apocalyptic Scriptures have been, and are, to us.

ALFORD, following ISAAC WILLIAMS, draws attention to the parallel connection between the Apocalypse and Christ's discourse on the Mount of Olives, recorded in Mat. 24:4-28. The seals plainly bring us down to the second coming of Christ, just as the trumpets also do (compare Rev 6:12-17; Rev 8:1, &c.; Rev 11:15), and as the vials also do (Rev 16:17): all three run parallel, and end in the same point. Certain "catchwords" (as WORDSWORTH calls them) connect the three series of symbols together. They do not succeed one to the other in historical and chronological sequence, but move side by side, the subsequent series filling up in detail the same picture which the preceding series had drawn in outline. So VICTORINUS (on Rev 7:2), the earliest commentator on the Apocalypse, says, "The order of the things said is not to be regarded, since often the Holy Spirit, when He has run to the end of the last time, again returns to the same times, and supplies what He has less fully expressed." And PRIMASIUS [Commentary on the Apocalypse], "In the trumpets he gives a description by a pleasing repetition, as is his custom."

At the very beginning, John hastens, by anticipation (as was the tendency of all the prophets), to the grand consummation. Rev 1:7, "Behold, He cometh with clouds," &c. Rev 1:8, Rev 1:17, "I am the beginning and the ending . . . the first and the last." So the seven epistles exhibit the same anticipation of the end. Rev 3:12, "Him that overcometh, I will write upon Him the name of my God, and the name of the city of my God, which is new Jerusalem, which cometh down out of heaven"; compare at the close, Rev 21:2. So also Rev 2:28, "I will give him the morning star"; compare at the close, Rev 22:16, "I am the bright and morning star."

Again, the earthquake that ensues on the opening of the sixth seal is one of the catchwords, that is, a link connecting chronologically this sixth seal with the sixth trumpet (Rev 9:13; Rev 11:13): compare also the seventh vial, Rev 16:17-18. The concomitants of the opening of the sixth seal, it is plain, in no full and exhaustive sense apply to any event, save the terrors which shall overwhelm the ungodly just before the coming of the Judge.

Again, the beast out of the bottomless pit (Rev 11:7), between the sixth and seventh trumpets, connects this series with the section, twelfth through fourteenth chapters, concerning the Church and her adversaries.

Again, the sealing of the 144,000 under the sixth seal connects this seal with the section, the twelfth through fourteenth chapters.

Again, the loosing of the four winds by the four angels standing on the four corners of the earth, under the sixth seal, answers to the loosing of the four angels at the Euphrates, under the sixth trumpet.

Moreover, links occur in the Apocalypse connecting it with the Old Testament. For instance, the "mouth speaking great things" (Dan 7:8 Rev 13:5), connects the beast that blasphemes against God, and makes war against the saints, with the little horn (Dan 7:21; Rev 13:6-7), or at last king, who, arising after the ten kings, shall speak against the Most High, and wear out the saints (Dan 7:25); also, compare the "forty-two months" (Rev 13:5), or "a thousand two hundred and threescore days" (Rev 12:6), with the "time, times, and the dividing of time," of Dan 7:25. Moreover, the "forty-two months," Rev 11:2, answering to Rev 12:6; Rev 13:5, link together the period under the sixth trumpet to the section, Rev. 12:1-14:20.

AUBERLEN observes, "The history of salvation is mysteriously governed by holy numbers. They are the scaffolding of the organic edifice. They are not merely outward indications of time, but indications of nature and essence. Not only nature, but history, is based in numbers. Scripture and antiquity put numbers as the fundamental forms of things, where we put ideas." As number is the regulator of the relations and proportions of the natural world, so does it enter most frequently into the revelations of the Apocalypse, which sets forth the harmonies of the supernatural, the immediately Divine. Thus the most supernatural revelation leads us the farthest into the natural, as was to be expected, seeing the God of nature and of revelation is one. Seven is the number for perfection (compare Rev 1:4; Rev 4:5, the seven Spirits before the throne; also, Rev 5:6, the Lamb's seven horns and seven eyes). Thus the seven churches represent the Church catholic in its totality. The seven seals (Rev 5:1), the seven trumpets (Rev 8:2), and the seven vials (Rev 17:1), are severally a complete series each in itself, fulfilling perfectly the divine course of judgments. Three and a half implies a number opposed to the divine (seven), but broken in itself, and which, in the moment of its highest triumph, is overwhelmed by judgment and utter ruin. Four is the number of the world's extension; seven is the number of God's revelation in the world. In the four beasts of Daniel (Dan 7:3) there is a recognition of some power above them, at the same time that there is a mimicry of the four cherubs of Ezekiel (Eze 10:9), the heavenly symbols of all creation in its due subjection to God (Rev 4:6-8). So the four corners of the earth, the four winds, the four angels loosed from the Euphrates, and Jerusalem lying "foursquare" (Rev 21:16), represent world-wide extension. The sevenfoldness of the Spirits on the part of God corresponds with the fourfold cherubim on the part of the created. John, seeing more deeply into the essentially God-opposed character of the world, presents to us, not the four beasts of Daniel, but the seven heads of the beast, whereby it arrogates to itself the sevenfold perfection of the Spirits of God; at the same time that, with characteristic self-contradiction, it has ten horns, the number peculiar to the world power. Its unjust usurpation of the sacred number seven is marked by the addition of an eighth to the seven heads, and also by the beast's own number, six hundred sixty-six, which in units, tens, and hundreds, verges upon, but falls short of, seven. The judgments on the world are complete in six: after the sixth seal and the sixth trumpet, there is a pause. When seven comes, there comes "the kingdom of our Lord and His Christ." Six is the number of the world given to judgment. Moreover, six is half of twelve, as three and a half is the half of seven. Twelve is the number of the Church: compare the twelve tribes of Israel, the twelve stars on the woman's head (Rev 12:1), the twelve gates of new Jerusalem (Rev 21:12, Rev 21:21). Six thus symbolizes the world broken, and without solid foundation. Twice twelve is the number of the heavenly elders; twelve times twelve thousand the number of the sealed elect (Rev 7:4): the tree of life yields twelve manner of fruits. Doubtless, besides this symbolic force, there is a special chronological meaning in the numbers; but as yet, though a commanded subject of investigation, they have received no solution which we can be sure is the true one. They are intended to stimulate reverent inquiry, not to gratify idle speculative curiosity; and when the event shall have been fulfilled, they will show the divine wisdom of God, who ordered all things in minutely harmonious relations, and left neither the times nor the ways haphazard.

The arguments for the year-day theory are as follows: Dan 9:24, "Seventy weeks are determined upon," where the Hebrew may be seventy sevens; but MEDE observes, the Hebrew word means always seven of days, and never seven of years (Lev 12:5; Deu 16:9-10, Deu 16:16). Again, the number of years' wandering of the Israelites was made to correspond to the number of days in which the spies searched the land, namely, forty: compare "each day for a year," Num 14:33-34. So in Eze 4:5-6, "I have laid up on thee the years of their iniquity, according to the number of the days, three hundred and ninety days . . . forty days: I have appointed thee each day for a year." John, in Revelation itself, uses days in a sense which can hardly be literal. Rev 2:10, "Ye shall have tribulation ten days": the persecution of ten years recorded by EUSEBIUS seems to correspond to it. In the year-day theory there is still quite enough of obscurity to exercise the patience and probation of faith, for we cannot say precisely when the 1260 years begin: so that this theory is quite compatible with Christ's words, "Of that day and hour knoweth no man" [Mat 24:36; Mar 13:32]. However, it is a difficulty in this theory that "a thousand years," in Rev 20:6-7, can hardly mean one thousand by three hundred sixty days, that is, three hundred sixty thousand years. The first resurrection there must be literal, even as Rev 20:5 must be taken literally, "the rest of the dead lived not again until the thousand years were finished" (Rev 20:5). To interpret the former spiritually would entail the need of interpreting the latter so, which would be most improbable; for it would imply that "the rest of the (spiritually) dead lived not (spiritually)" until the end of the thousand years, and then that they did come spiritually to life. 1Co 15:23, "they that are Christ's at His coming," confirms the literal view.

JFB: Revelation (Outline)

• TITLE: SOURCE AND OBJECT OF THIS REVELATION: BLESSING ON THE READER AND KEEPER OF IT, AS THE TIME IS NEAR: INSCRIPTION TO THE SEVEN CHURCHES: APOSTOLIC GREETING: KEYNOTE, "BEHOLD HE COMETH" (Compare at the close, Rev 22:20, "Surely I come quickly"): INTRODUCTORY VISION OF THE SON OF MAN IN GLORY, AMIDST THE SEVEN CANDLESTICKS, WITH SEVEN STARS IN HIS RIGHT HAND. (Rev. 1:1-20)
• EPISTLES TO EPHESUS, SMYRNA, PERGAMOS, THYATIRA. (Rev. 2:1-29)
• THE EPISTLES TO SARDIS, PHILADELPHIA, AND LAODICEA. (Rev. 3:1-22)
• VISION OF GOD'S THRONE IN HEAVEN; THE FOUR AND TWENTY ELDERS; THE FOUR LIVING CREATURES. (Rev 4:1-11)
• THE BOOK WITH SEVEN SEALS: NONE WORTHY TO OPEN IT BUT THE LAMB: HE TAKES IT AMIDST THE PRAISES OF THE REDEEMED, AND OF THE WHOLE HEAVENLY HOST. (Rev 5:1-14)
• THE OPENING OF THE FIRST SIX OF THE SEVEN SEALS. (Rev. 6:1-17)
• SEALING OF THE ELECT OF ISRAEL. THE COUNTLESS MULTITUDE OF THE GENTILE ELECT. (Rev. 7:1-17)
• SEVENTH SEAL. PREPARATION FOR THE SEVEN TRUMPETS. THE FIRST FOUR AND THE CONSEQUENT PLAGUES. (Rev 8:1-13)
• THE FIFTH TRUMPET: THE FALLEN STAR OPENS THE ABYSS WHENCE ISSUE LOCUSTS. THE SIXTH TRUMPET. FOUR ANGELS AT THE EUPHRATES LOOSED. (Rev. 9:1-21) The last three trumpets of the seven are called, from Rev 8:13, the woe-trumpets.
• VISION OF THE LITTLE BOOK. (Rev 10:1-11)
• MEASUREMENT OF THE TEMPLE. THE TWO WITNESSES' TESTIMONY: THEIR DEATH, RESURRECTION, AND ASCENSION: THE EARTHQUAKE: THE THIRD WOE: THE SEVENTH TRUMPET USHERS IN CHRIST'S KINGDOM. THANKSGIVING OF THE TWENTY-FOUR ELDERS. (Rev. 11:1-19)
• VISION OF THE WOMAN, HER CHILD, AND THE PERSECUTING DRAGON. (Rev. 12:1-17) This episode (Rev. 12:1-15:8) describes in detail the persecution of Israel and the elect Church by the beast, which had been summarily noticed, Rev 11:7-10, and the triumph of the faithful, and torment of the unfaithful. So also the sixteenth through twentieth chapters are the description in detail of the judgment on the beast, &c., summarily noticed in Rev 11:13, Rev 11:18. The beast in Rev 12:3, &c., is shown not to be alone, but to be the instrument in the hand of a greater power of darkness, Satan. That this is so, appears from the time of the eleventh chapter being the period also in which the events of the twelfth and thirteenth chapters take place, namely, 1260 days (Rev 12:6, Rev 12:14; Rev 13:5; compare Rev 11:2-3).
• VISION OF THE BEAST THAT CAME OUT OF THE SEA: THE SECOND BEAST, OUT OF THE EARTH, EXERCISING THE POWER OF THE FIRST BEAST, AND CAUSING THE EARTH TO WORSHIP HIM. (Rev. 13:1-18)
• THE LAMB SEEN ON ZION WITH THE 144,000. THEIR SONG. THE GOSPEL PROCLAIMED BEFORE THE END BY ONE ANGEL: THE FALL OF BABYLON, BY ANOTHER: THE DOOM OF THE BEAST WORSHIPPERS, BY A THIRD. THE BLESSEDNESS OF THE DEAD IN THE LORD. THE HARVEST. THE VINTAGE. (Rev. 14:1-20)
• THE LAST SEVEN VIALS OF PLAGUES: SONG OF THE VICTORS OVER THE BEAST. (Rev 15:1-8)
• THE SEVEN VIALS AND THE CONSEQUENT PLAGUES. (Rev. 16:1-21)
• THE HARLOT BABYLON'S GAUD: THE BEAST ON WHICH SHE RIDES, HAVING SEVEN HEADS AND TEN HORNS, SHALL BE THE INSTRUMENT OF JUDGMENT ON HER. (Rev. 17:1-18)
• BABYLON'S FALL: GOD'S PEOPLE CALLED OUT OF HER: THE KINGS AND MERCHANTS OF THE EARTH MOURN, WHILE THE SAINTS REJOICE AT HER FALL. (Rev. 18:1-24)
• THE CHURCH'S THANKSGIVING IN HEAVEN FOR THE JUDGMENT ON THE HARLOT. THE MARRIAGE OF THE LAMB: THE SUPPER: THE BRIDE'S PREPARATION: JOHN IS FORBIDDEN TO WORSHIP THE ANGEL: THE LORD AND HIS HOSTS COME FORTH FOR WAR: THE BEAST AND THE FALSE PROPHET CAST INTO THE LAKE OF FIRE: THE KINGS AND THEIR FOLLOWERS SLAIN BY THE SWORD OUT OF CHRIST'S MOUTH. (Rev. 19:1-21) As in the case of the opening of the prophecy, Rev 4:8; Rev 5:9, &c.; so now, at one of the great closing events seen in vision, the judgment on the harlot (described in Rev. 18:1-24), there is a song of praise in heaven to God: compare Rev 7:10, &c., toward the close of the seals, and Rev 11:15-18, at the close of the trumpets: Rev 15:3, at the saints' victory over the beast.
• SATAN BOUND, AND THE FIRST-RISEN SAINTS REIGN WITH CHRIST, A THOUSAND YEARS; SATAN LOOSED, GATHERS THE NATIONS, GOG AND MAGOG, ROUND THE CAMP OF THE SAINTS, AND IS FINALLY CONSIGNED TO THE LAKE OF FIRE; THE GENERAL RESURRECTION AND LAST JUDGMENT. (Rev 20:1-15) The destruction of his representatives, the beast and the false prophet, to whom he had given his power, throne, and authority, is followed by the binding of Satan himself for a thousand years.
• THE NEW HEAVEN AND EARTH: NEW JERUSALEM OUT OF HEAVEN. (Rev. 21:1-27)
• THE RIVER OF LIFE: THE TREE OF LIFE: THE OTHER BLESSEDNESSES OF THE REDEEMED. JOHN FORBIDDEN TO WORSHIP THE ANGEL. NEARNESS OF CHRIST'S COMING TO FIX MAN'S ETERNAL STATE. TESTIMONY OF JESUS, HIS SPIRIT, AND THE BRIDE, ANY ADDITION TO WHICH, OR SUBTRACTION FROM WHICH, SHALL BE ETERNALLY PUNISHED. CLOSING BENEDICTION. (Rev. 22:1-21)

TSK: Revelation (Book Introduction)

The obscurity of this prophecy, which has been urged against its genuineness, necessarily results from the highly figurative and symbolical language in which it is delivered, and is, in fact, a strong internal proof of its authenticity and divine original. " For it is a part of this prophecy," as Sir Isaac Newton justly remarks, " that it should not be understood before the last age of the world; and therefore it makes for the credit of the prophecy that it is not yet understood. The folly of interpreters has been to foretell times and things by this prophecy, as if God designed to make them prophets. By this rashness they have not only exposed themselves, but brought the prophecy also into contempt. The design of God was much otherwise. He gave this, and the prophecies of the Old Testament, not to gratify men’s curiosities by enabling them to foreknow things, but that, after that they were fulfilled, they might be interpreted by the event; and his own providence, not the interpreter’s, be then manifested thereby to the world. For the event of things, predicted many ages before, will then be a convincing argument that the world is governed by Providence. For, as the few and obscure prophecies concerning Christ’s first coming were for setting up the Christian religion, which all nations have since corrupted, so the many and clear prophecies concerning the things to be done at Christ’s second coming, are not only for predicting, but also for effecting a recovery and re-establishment of the long-lost truth, and setting up a kingdom wherein dwells righteousness. The event will prove the Apocalypse; and this prophecy, thus proved and understood, will open the old prophets; and all together will make known the true religion, and establish it. There is already so much of the prophecy fulfilled, that as many as will take pains in this study may see sufficient instances of God’s promise; but then, the signal revolutions predicted by all the holy prophets, will at once both turn men’s eyes upon considering the predictions, and plainly interpret them. Till then we must content ourselves with interpreting what hath already been fulfilled." And, as Mr. Weston observes, " if we were in possession of a complete and particular history of Asia, not only of great events, without person or place, names or dates, but of the exactest biography, geography, topography, and chronology, we might, perhaps, still be able to explain and appropriate more circumstances recorded in the Revelation, under the emperors of the East and the West, and in Arabia, Persia, Tartary, and Asia, the seat of the most important revolutions with which the history of Christianity has ever been interwoven and closely connected." History is the great interpreter of prophecy. " Prophecy is, as I may say," observes Bp. Newton, " history anticipated and contracted; history is prophecy accomplished and dilated; and the prophecies of Scripture contain the fate of the most considerable nations, and the substance of the most memorable transactions in the world, from the earliest to the latest times. Daniel and St. John, with regard to those latter times, are more copious and particular than the other prophets. They exhibit a series and succession of the most important events from the first of the four great empires to the consummation of all things. Their prophecies may really be said to be a summary of the history of the world; and the history of the world is the best comment upon their prophecies....and the more you know of ancient and modern times, and the farther you search into the truth of history, the more you will be satisfied of the truth of prophecy." The Revelation was designed to supply the place of that continued succession of prophets, which demonstrated the continued providence of God to the patriarchal and Jewish churches. " The majority of commentators on the Apocalypse," says Mr. Townsend, " generally acted on these principles of interpretation. They discover in this Book certain predictions of events which were fulfilled soon after they were announced; they trace in the history of later years various coincidences, which so fully agree with the various parts of the Apocalypse, that they are justly entitled to consider them as the fulfilment of its prophecies; and, by thus tracing the one God of revelation through the clouds of the dark ages, through the storms of revolutions and wars, through the mighty convulsions which at various periods have agitated the world, their interpretations, even when they are most contradictory, when they venture to speculate concerning the future, are founded on so much undoubted truth that they have materially confirmed the wavering faith of thousands. Clouds and darkness must cover the brightness of the throne of God, till it shall please him to enable us to bear the brighter beams of his glory. In the mean time, we trace his footsteps in the sea of the Gentile world, his path in the mighty waters of the ambitions and clashing passions of man. We rejoice to anticipate the day when the bondage of Rome, which would perpetuate the intellectual and spiritual slavery of man, shall be overthrown, and day-spring of united knowledge and holiness bless the world."

TSK: Revelation 2 (Chapter Introduction)

Overview

Rev 2:1, What is commanded to be written to the angels, that is, the ministers of the churches of Ephesus, Rev 2:8, Smyrna, Rev 2:12. Pergamos, Rev 2:18. Thyatira, and what is commended or found wanting in them.

Poole: Revelation 2 (Chapter Introduction)

CHAPTER 2

MHCC: Revelation (Book Introduction)

The Book of the Revelation of St. John consists of two principal divisions. 1. Relates to " the things which are," that is, the then present state of the church, and contains the epistle of John to the seven churches, and his account of the appearance of the Lord Jesus, and his direction to the apostle to write what he beheld, Rev 1:9-20. Also the addresses or epistles to seven churches of Asia. These, doubtless, had reference to the state of the respective churches, as they then existed, but contain excellent precepts and exhortations, commendations and reproofs, promises and threatenings, suitable to instruct the Christian church at all times. 2. Contains a prophecy of " the things which shall be hereafter," and describes the future state of the church, from the time when the apostle beheld the visions here recorded. It is intended for our spiritual improvement; to warn the careless sinner, point out the way of salvation to the awakened inquirer, build up the weak believer, comfort the afflicted and tempted Christian, and, we may especially add, to strengthen the martyr of Christ, under the cruel persecutions and sufferings inflicted by Satan and his followers.

MHCC: Revelation 2 (Chapter Introduction)

(Rev 2:1-7) Epistles to the churches in Asia, with warnings and encouragements, To the church at Ephesus.

(Rev 2:8-11) At Smyrna.

(Rev 2:12-17) At Pergamos.

(Rev 2:18-29) And at Thyatira.

Matthew Henry: Revelation (Book Introduction)

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The Revelation of St. John the Divine

It ought to be no prejudice to the credit and authority of this book that it has been rejected by men of corrupt minds, such as Cerdon and Marcion, and doubted of by men of a better character; for this has been the lot of other parts of holy writ, and of the divine Author of the scripture himself. The image and superscription of this book are truly sacred and divine, and the matter of it agreeable with other prophetical books, particularly Ezekiel and Daniel; the church of God has generally received it, and found good counsel and great comfort in it. From the beginning, the church of God has been blessed with prophecy. That glorious prediction of breaking the serpent's head was the stay and support of the patriarchal age; and the many prophecies there were concerning the Messiah to come were the gospel of the Old Testament. Christ himself prophesied of the destruction of Jerusalem; and, about the time in which that was accomplished, he entrusted the apostle John with this book of revelation, to deliver it to the church as a prediction of the most important events that should happen to it to the end of time, for the support of the faith of his people and the direction of their hope. It is called the Revelation, because God therein discovers those things which could never have been sifted out by the reasonings of human understanding, those deep things of God which no man knows, but the Spirit of God, and those to whom he reveals them.

Matthew Henry: Revelation 2 (Chapter Introduction)

The apostle John, having in the foregoing chapter written the things which he had seen, now proceeds to write the things that are, according to the command of God (Rev 1:19), that is, the present state of the seven churches of Asia, with which he had a particular acquaintance, and for which he had a tender concern. He was directed to write to every one of them according to their present state and circumstances, and to inscribe every letter to the angel of that church, to the minister or rather ministry of that church, called angels because they are the messengers of God to mankind. In this chapter we have, I. The message sent to Ephesus (Rev 2:1-7). II. To Smyrna (Rev 2:8-11). III. To Pergamos (Rev 2:12-17). IV. To Thyatira (Rev 2:18, etc.).

Barclay: Revelation (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO THE REVELATION OF JOHN

The Strange Book

When a student of the New Testament embarks upon the study of the Revelation he feels himself projected into a different world. Here is something quite unlike the rest of the New Testament. Not only is the Revelation different; it is also notoriously difficult for a modern mind to understand. The result is that it has sometimes been abandoned as quite unintelligible and it has sometimes become the playground of religious eccentrics, who use it to map out celestial time-tables of what is to come or find in it evidence for their own eccentricities. One despairing commentator said that there are as many riddles in the Revelation as there are words, and another that the study of the Revelation either finds or leaves a man mad.

Luther would have denied the Revelation a place in the New Testament. Along with James, Jude, Second Peter and Hebrews he relegated it to a separate list at the end of his New Testament. He declared that in it there are only images and visions such as are found nowhere else in the Bible. He complained that, notwithstanding the obscurity of his writing, the writer had the boldness to add threats and promises for those who kept or disobeyed his words, unintelligible though they were. In it, said Luther, Christ is neither taught nor acknowledged; and the inspiration of the Holy Spirit is not perceptible in it. Zwingli is equally hostile to the Revelation. "With the Apocalypse," he writes, "we have no concern, for it is not a biblical book.... The Apocalypse has no savour of the mouth or the mind of John. I can, if I so will, reject its testimonies." Most voices have stressed the unintelligibility of the Revelation and not a few have questioned its right to a place in the New Testament.

On the other hand there are those in every generation who have loved this book. T. S. Kepler quotes the verdict of Philip Carrington and makes it his own: "In the case of the Revelation we are dealing with an artist greater than Stevenson or Coleridge or Bach. St. John has a better sense of the right word than Stevenson; he has a greater command of unearthly supernatural loveliness than Coleridge; he has a richer sense of melody and rhythm and composition than Bach.... It is the only masterpiece of pure art in the New Testament.... Its fullness and richness and harmonic variety place it far above Greek tragedy."

We shall no doubt find this book difficult and bewildering; but doubtless, too, we shall find it infinitely worthwhile to wrestle with it until it gives us its blessing and opens its riches to us.

Apocalyptic Literature

In any study of the Revelation we must begin by remembering the basic fact that although unique in the New Testament, it is nonetheless representative of a kind of literature which was the commonest of all between the Old and the New Testaments. The Revelation is commonly called the Apocalypse, being in Greek Apokalupsis. Between the Old and the New Testaments there grew up a great mass of what is called Apocalyptic literature, the product of an indestructible Jewish hope.

The Jews could not forget that they were the chosen people of God. To them that involved the certainty that some day they would arrive at world supremacy. In their early history they looked forward to the coming of a king of Davidline who would unite the nation and lead them to greatness. There was to come forth a shoot from the stump of Jesse (Isa_11:1 , Isa_11:10 ). God would raise up a righteous branch for David (Jer_23:5 ). Some day the people would serve David their king (Jer_30:9 ). David would be their shepherd and their king (Eze_34:23 ; Eze_37:24 ). The booth of David would be repaired (Amo_9:11 ); out of Bethlehem there would come a ruler who would be great to the ends of the earth (Mic_5:2-4 ).

But the whole history of Israel gave the lie to these hopes. After the death of Solomon, the kingdom, small enough to begin with, split into two under Rehoboam and Jeroboam and so lost its unity. The northern kingdom, with its capital at Samaria, vanished in the last quarter of the eighth century B.C. before the assault of the Assyrians, never again reappeared in history and is now the lost ten tribes. The southern kingdom, with its capital at Jerusalem, was reduced to slavery and exile by the Babylonians in the early part of the sixth century B.C. It was later the subject state of the Persians, the Greeks and the Romans. History for the Jews was a catalogue of disasters from which it became clear that no human deliverer could rescue them.

The Two Ages

Jewish thought stubbornly held to the conviction of the chosenness of the Jews but had to adjust itself to the facts of history. It did so by working out a scheme of history. The Jews divided all time into two ages. There was this present age, which is wholly bad and beyond redemption. For it there can be nothing but total destruction. The Jews, therefore, waited for the end of things as they are. There was the age which is to come which was to be wholly good, the golden age of God in which would be peace, prosperity and righteousness and Godchosen people would at last be vindicated and receive the place that was theirs by right.

How was this present age to become the age which is to come? The Jews believed that the change could never be brought about by human agency and, therefore, looked for the direct intervention of God. He would come striding on to the stage of history to blast this present world out of existence and bring in his golden time. The day of the coming of God was called The Day of the Lord and was to be a terrible time of terror and destruction and judgment which would be the birthpangs of the new age.

All apocalyptic literature deals with these events, the sin of the present age, the terrors of the time between, and the blessings of the time to come. It is entirely composed of dreams and visions of the end. That means that all apocalyptic literature is necessarily cryptic. It is continually attempting to describe the indescribable, to say the unsayable, to paint the unpaintable.

This is further complicated by another fact. It was only natural that these apocalyptic visions should flame the more brightly in the minds of men living under tyranny and oppression. The more some alien power held them down, the more they dreamed of the destruction of that power and of their own vindication. But it would only have worsened the situation, if the oppressing power could have understood these dreams. Such writings would have seemed the works of rebellious revolutionaries. Such books, therefore, were frequently written in code, deliberately couched in language which was unintelligible to the outsider; and there are many cases in which they must remain unintelligible because the key to the code no longer exists. But the more we know about the historical background of such books, the better we can interpret them.

The Revelation

All this is the precise picture of our Revelation. There are any number of Jewish Apocalypses--Enoch, The Sibylline Oracles, The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, The Ascension of Isaiah, The Assumption of Moses, The Apocalypse of Baruch, Fourth Ezra. Our Revelation is a Christian Apocalypse. It is the only one in the New Testament, although there were many others which did not gain admission. It is written exactly on the Jewish pattern and follows the basic conception of the two ages. The only difference is that for the day of the Lord it substitutes the coming in power of Jesus Christ. Not only the pattern but the details are the same. The Jewish apocalypses had a standard apparatus of events which were to happen at the last time; these events all have their place in Revelation.

Before we go on to outline that pattern of events, another question arises. Both apocalyptic and prophecy deal with the events which are to come. What, then, is the difference between them?

Apocalyptic And Prophecy

The difference between the prophets and the apocalyptists was very real. There were two main differences, one of message and one of method.

(i) The prophet thought in terms of this present world. His message was often a cry for social, economic and political justice; and was always a summons to obey and serve God within this present world. To the prophet it was this world which was to be reformed and in which Godkingdom would come. This has been expressed by saying that the prophet believed in history. He believed that in the events of history Godpurpose was being worked out. In one sense the prophet was an optimist, for, however sternly he condemned things as they were, he nonetheless believed that they could be mended, if men would accept the will of God. To the apocalyptist the world was beyond mending. He believed, not in the reformation, but in the dissolution of this present world. He looked forward to the creation of a new world, when this one had been shattered by the avenging wrath of God. In one sense, therefore, the apocalyptist was a pessimist, for he did not believe that things as they were could ever be cured. True, he was quite certain that the golden age would come, but only after this world had been destroyed.

(ii) The prophetmessage was spoken; the message of the apocalyptist was always written. Apocalyptic is a literary production. Had it been delivered by word of mouth, men would never have understood it. It is difficult, involved, often unintelligible; it has to be pored over before it can be understood. Further, the prophet always spoke under his own name; all apocalyptic writings--except our New Testament one--are pseudonymous. They are put into the mouths of great ones of the past, like Noah, Enoch, Isaiah, Moses, The Twelve Patriarchs, Ezra and Baruch. There is something pathetic about this. The men who wrote the apocalyptic literature had the feeling that greatness was gone from the earth; they were too self-distrusting to put their names to their works and attributed them to the great figures of the past, thereby seeking to give them an authority greater than their own names could have given. As Julicher put it: "Apocalyptic is prophecy turned senile."

The Apparatus Of Apocalyptic

Apocalyptic literature has a pattern; it seeks to describe the things which will happen at the last times and the blessedness which will follow; and the same pictures occur over and over again. It always, so to speak, worked with the same materials; and these materials find their place in our Book of the Revelation.

(i) In apocalyptic literature the Messiah was a divine, preexistent, otherworldly figure of power and glory, waiting to descend into the world to begin his all-conquering career. He existed in heaven before the creation of the world, before the sun and the stars were made, and he is preserved in the presence of the Almighty (Enoch 48:3, 6; 62:7; 4Ezra 13:25-26). He will come to put down the mighty from their seats, to dethrone the kings of the earth, and to break the teeth of sinners (Enoch 42:2-6; 48:2-9; 62:5-9; 69:26-29). In apocalyptic there was nothing human or gentle about the Messiah; he was a divine figure of avenging power and glory before whom the earth trembled in terror.

(ii) The coming of the Messiah was to be preceded by the return of Elijah who would prepare the way for him (Mal_4:5-6 ). Elijah was to stand upon the hills of Israel, so the Rabbis said, and announce the coming of the Messiah with a voice so great that it would sound from one end of the earth to the other.

(iii) The last terrible times were known as "the travail of the Messiah." The coming of the Messianic age would be like the agony of birth. In the Gospels Jesus is depicted as foretelling the signs of the end and is reported as saying: "All these things are the beginnings of sorrows" (Mat_24:8 ; Mar_13:8 ). The word for sorrows is odinai (G5604), and it literally means birthpangs.

(iv) The last days will be a time of terror. Even the mighty men will cry bitterly (Zep_1:14 ); the inhabitants of the land shall tremble (Joe_2:1 ); men will be affrighted with fear and will seek some place to hide and will find none (Enoch 102:1,3).

(v) The last days will be a time when the world will be shattered, a time of cosmic upheaval when the universe, as men know it, will be disintegrated. The stars will be extinguished; the sun will be turned into darkness and the moon into blood (Isa_13:10 ; Joe_2:30-31 ; Joe_3:15 ). The firmament will crash in ruins; there will be a cataract of raging fire, and creation will become a molten mass (Sibylline Oracles 3: 83-89). The seasons will lose their order, and there will be neither night nor dawn (Sibylline Oracles 3: 796-806).

(vi) The last days will be a time when human relationships will be destroyed. Hatred and enmity will reign upon the earth. Every manhand will be against his neighbour (Zec_14:13 ). Brothers will kill each other; parents will murder their own children; from dawn to sunset they shall slay one another (Enoch 100:1-2). Honour will be turned into shame, and strength into humiliation, and beauty into ugliness. The man of humility will become the man of envy; and passion will hold sway over the man who once was peaceful (Bar 48:31-37).

(vii) The last days will be a time of judgment. God will come like a refinerfire, and who can endure the day of his coming? (Mal_3:1-3 ). It is by the fire and the sword that God will plead with men (Isa_66:15-16 ). The Son of Man will destroy sinners from the earth (Enoch 69:27), and the smell of brimstone will pervade all things (Sibylline Oracles 3: 58-61). The sinners will be burned up as Sodom was long ago (Jubilees 36:10-11).

(viii) In all these visions the Gentiles have their place, but it is not always the same place.

(a) Sometimes the vision is that the Gentiles will be totally destroyed. Babylon will become such a desolation that there will be no place for the wandering Arab to plant his tent among the ruins, no place for the shepherd to graze his sheep; it will be nothing more than a desert inhabited by the beasts (Isa_13:19-22 ). God will tread down the Gentiles in his anger (Isa_63:6 ). The Gentiles will come over in chains to Israel (Isa_45:14 ).

(b) Sometimes there is depicted one last gathering of the Gentiles against Jerusalem, and one last battle in which they are destroyed (Eze_38:14-23 ; Eze_39:1-16 ; Zec_14:1-11 ). The kings of the nations will throw themselves against Jerusalem; they will seek to ravage the shrine of the Holy One; they will place their thrones in a ring round the city, with their infidel people with them; but it will be only for their final destruction (Sibylline Oracles 3: 663-672).

(c) Sometimes there is the picture of the conversion of the Gentiles through Israel. God has given Israel for a light to the Gentiles, that she may be Godsalvation to the ends of the earth (Isa_49:6 ). The isles wait upon God (Isa_51:5 ); the ends of the earth are invited to look to God and be saved (Isa_45:20-22 ). The Son of Man will be a light to the Gentiles (Enoch 48:4-5). Nations shall come from the ends of the earth to Jerusalem to see the glory of God (Wis 17:34).

Of all the pictures in connection with the Gentiles the commonest is that of the destruction of the Gentiles and the exaltation of Israel.

(ix) In the last days the Jews who have been scattered throughout the earth will be ingathered to the Holy City again. They will come back from Assyria and from Egypt and will worship the Lord in his holy mountain (Isa_27:12-13 ). The hills will be removed and the valleys will be filled in, and even the trees will gather to give them shade, as they come back (Bar 5:5-9). Even those who died as exiles in far countries will be brought back.

(x) In the last days the New Jerusalem, which is already prepared in heaven with God (4Ezra 10:44-59; 4Ezra 2Baruch 4Ezra 4:2-6), will come down among men. It will be beautiful beyond compare with foundations of sapphires, and pinnacles of agate, and gates of carbuncles, on borders of pleasant stones (Isa_54:12-13 ; Tob 13:16-17). The glory of the latter house will be greater than the glory of the former (Hag 2:7-9).

(xi) An essential part of the apocalyptic picture of the last days was the resurrection of the dead. "Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt" (Dan_12:2-3 ). Sheol and the grave will give back that which has been entrusted to them (Enoch 51:1). The scope of the resurrection of the dead varied. Sometimes it was to apply only to the righteous in Israel; sometimes to all Israel; and sometimes to all men everywhere. Whichever form it took, it is true to say that now for the first time we see emerging a strong hope of a life beyond the grave.

(xii) There were differences as to how long the Messianic kingdom was to last. The most natural--and the most usual--view was to think of it as lasting for ever. The kingdom of the saints is an everlasting kingdom (Dan_7:27 ). Some believed that the reign of the Messiah would last for 400 years. They arrived at this figure from a comparison of Gen_15:13 and Psa_90:15 . In Genesis Abraham is told that the period of affliction of the children of Israel will be 400 years; the psalmistprayer is that God will make the nation glad according to the days wherein he has afflicted them and the years wherein they have seen evil. In the Revelation the view is that there is to be a reign of the saints for a thousand years; then the final battle with the assembled powers of evil; then the golden age of God.

Such were the events which the apocalyptic writers pictured in the last days; and practically all of them find their place in the pictures of the Revelation. To complete the picture we may briefly summarize the blessings of the coming age.

The Blessings Of The Age To Come

(i) The divided kingdom will be united again. The house of Judah will walk again with the house of Israel (Jer_3:18 ; Isa_11:13 ; Hos_1:11 ). The old divisions will be healed and the people of God will be one.

(ii) There will be in the world an amazing fertility. The wilderness will become a field (Isa_32:15 ), it will become like the garden of Eden (Isa_51:3 ); the desert will rejoice and blossom like the crocus (Isa_35:1 ). The earth will yield its fruit ten thousandfold; on each vine will be a thousand branches, on each branch a thousand clusters, in each cluster a thousand grapes, and each grape will give a cor (120 gallons) of wine (2 Baruch 29:5-8). There will be a plenty such as the world has never known and the hungry will rejoice.

(iii) A consistent part of the dream of the new age was that in it all wars would cease. The swords will be beaten into ploughshares and the spears into pruning-hooks (Isa_2:4 ). There will be no sword or battle-din. There will be a common law for all men and a great peace throughout the earth, and king will be friendly with king (Sibylline Oracles 3: 751-760).

(iv) One of the loveliest ideas concerning the new age was that in it there would be no more enmity between the beasts or between man and the beasts. The leopard and the kid, the cow and the bear, the lion and the falling will play and lie down together (Isa_11:6-9 ; Isa_65:25 ). There will be a new covenant between man and the beasts of the field (Hos_2:18 ). Even a child will be able to play where the poisonous reptiles have their holes and their dens (Isa_11:6-9 ; Isa 2Baruch Isa_73:6 ). In all nature there will be a universal reign of friendship in which none will wish to do another any harm.

(v) The coming age will bring the end of weariness, of sorrow and of pain. The people will not sorrow any more (Jer_31:12 ); everlasting joy will be upon their heads (Isa_35:10 ). There will be no such thing as an untimely death (Isa_65:20-22 ); no man will say: "I am sick" (Isa_33:24 ); death will be swallowed up in victory and God will wipe tears from all faces (Isa_25:8 ). Disease will withdraw; anxiety, anguish and lamentation will pass away; childbirth will have no pain; the reaper will not grow weary and the builder will not be toilworn (Bar 73:2-74:4). The age to come will be one when what Virgil called "the tears of things" will be no more.

(vi) The age to come will be an age of righteousness. There will be perfect holiness among men. Mankind will be a good generation, living in the fear of the Lord in the days of mercy (Wis 17:28-49; Wis 18:9-10).

The Revelation is the New Testament representative of all these apocalyptic works which tell of the terrors before the end of time and of the blessings of the age to come; and it uses all the familiar imagery. It may often be difficult and even unintelligible to us, but for the most part it was using pictures and ideas which those who read it would know and understand.

The Author Of The Revelation

(i) The Revelation was written by a man called John. He begins by saying that God sent the visions he is going to relate to his servant John (Rev_1:1 ). He begins the body of his book by saying that it is from John to the Seven Churches in Asia (Rev_1:4 ). He speaks of himself as John the brother and companion in tribulation of those to whom he writes (Rev_1:9 ). "I John," he says, "am he who heard and saw these things" (Rev_22:8 ).

(ii) This John was a Christian who lived in Asia in the same sphere as the Christians of the Seven Churches. He calls himself the brother of those to whom he writes; and he says he too shares in the tribulations through which they are passing (Rev_1:9 ).

(iii) He was most probably a Jew of Palestine who had come to Asia Minor late in life. We can deduce that from the kind of Greek he writes. It is vivid, powerful, and pictorial; but from the point of view of grammar it is easily the worst Greek in the New Testament. He makes mistakes which no schoolboy who knew Greek could make. Greek is certainly not his native language; and it is often clear that he is writing in Greek and thinking in Hebrew. He is steeped in the Old Testament. He quotes it or alludes to it 245 times. These quotations come from about twenty Old Testament books; his favourites are Isaiah, Daniel, Ezekiel, Psalms, Exodus, Jeremiah, Zechariah. Not only does he know the Old Testament intimately; he is also familiar with the apocalyptic books written between the Testaments.

(iv) His claim for himself is that he is a prophet, and it is on that fact that he rests his right to speak. The command of the Risen Christ to him is that he must prophesy (Rev_10:11 ). It is through the spirit of prophecy that Jesus gives his witness to the Church (Rev_19:10 ). God is the God of the holy prophets and sends his angel to show his servants what is going to happen in the world (Rev_22:6 ). The angel speaks to him of his brothers the prophets (Rev_22:9 ). His book is characteristically prophecy or the words of prophecy (Rev_22:7 , Rev_22:10 ; Rev_22:18-19 ).

It is here that Johnauthority lies. He does not call himself an apostle, as Paul does when he wishes to underline his right to speak. He has no "official" or administrative position in the Church; he is a prophet. He writes what he sees; and since what he sees comes from God, his word is faithful and true (Rev_1:11 , Rev_1:19 ).

When John was writing, the prophets had a very special place in the Church. He was writing, as we shall see, about A.D. 90. By that time the Church had two kinds of ministry. There was the local ministry; those engaged in it were settled permanently in one congregation, the elders, the deacons and the teachers. And there was the itinerant ministry of those whose sphere of labour was not confined to any one congregation. In it were the apostles, whose writ ran throughout the whole Church; and there were the prophets, who were wandering preachers. The prophets were greatly respected; to question the words of a true prophet was to sin against the Holy Spirit, the Didache says (Rev_11:7 ). The accepted order of service for the celebration of the Eucharist is laid down in the Didache, but at the end comes the sentence: "But allow the prophets to hold the Eucharist as they will" (Rev_10:7 ). The prophets were regarded as uniquely the men of God, and John was a prophet.

(v) It is not likely that he was an apostle. Otherwise he would hardly have so stressed the fact that he was a prophet. Further, he speaks of the apostles as if he was looking back on them as the great foundations of the Church. He speaks of the twelve foundations of the wall of the Holy City and then says, "and on them were the twelve names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb" (Rev_21:14 ). He would scarcely have spoken of the apostles like that if he himself was one of them.

This conclusion is rendered even more likely by the title of the book. In the King James and English Revised Versions it is called The Revelation of St. John the Divine. In the Revised Standard Version and in Moffattand in J. B. Phillipsranslations the Divine is omitted, because it is absent from the majority of the oldest Greek manuscripts; but it does go very far back. The Greek is theologos (G2312 and the word is here used in the sense in which we speak of "the Puritan divines" and means, not John the saintly but John the theologian; and the very addition of that title seems to distinguish this John from the John who was the apostle.

As long ago as A.D. 250 Dionysius, the great scholar who was head of the Christian school at Alexandria, saw that it was well nigh impossible that the same man could have written the Revelation and the Fourth Gospel, if for no other reason than that the Greek is so different. The Greek of the Fourth Gospel is simple but correct; the Greek of the Revelation is rugged and vivid, but notoriously incorrect. Further, the writer of the Fourth Gospel studiously avoids any mention of his own name; the John of the Revelation repeatedly mentions it. Still further, the ideas of the two books are different. The great ideas of the Fourth Gospel, light, life, truth and grace, do not dominate the Revelation. At the same time there are enough resemblances in thought and language to make it clear that both books come from the same centre and from the same world of thought.

The Date Of The Revelation

We have two sources which enable us to fix the date.

(i) There is the account which tradition gives to us. The consistent tradition is that John was banished to Patmos in the time of Domitian; that he saw his visions there; at the death of Domitian was liberated and came back to Ephesus; and there set down the visions he had seen. Victorinus, who wrote towards the end of the third century A.D., says in his commentary on the Revelation: "John, when he saw these things, was in the island of Patmos, condemned to the mines by Domitian the Emperor. There, therefore, he saw the revelation... When he was afterwards set free from the mines, he handed down this revelation which he had received from God." Jerome is even more detailed: "In the fourteenth year after the persecution of Nero, John was banished to the island of Patmos, and there wrote the Revelation... Upon the death of Domitian, and upon the repeal of his acts by the senate, because of their excessive cruelty, he returned to Ephesus, when Nerva was emperor." Eusebius says: "The apostle and evangelist John related these things to the Churches, when he had returned from exile in the island after the death of Domitian." Tradition makes it certain that John saw his visions in exile in Patmos; the only thing that is doubtful--and it is not important--is whether he wrote them down during the time of his banishment or when he returned to Ephesus. On this evidence we will not be wrong if we date the Revelation about A.D. 95.

(ii) The second line of evidence is the material in the book. There is a completely new attitude to Rome and to the Roman Empire.

In Acts the tribunal of the Roman magistrate was often the safest refuge of the Christian missionaries against the hatred of the Jews and the fury of the mob. Paul was proud that he was a Roman citizen and again and again claimed the rights to which every Roman citizen was entitled. In Philippi he brought the local magistrates to heel by revealing his citizenship (Act_16:36-40 ). In Corinth Gallio dismissed the complaints against him with impartial Roman justice (Act_18:1-17 ). In Ephesus the Roman authorities were careful for his safety against the rioting mob (Act_19:13-41 ). In Jerusalem the Roman tribune rescued him from what might have become a lynching (Act_21:30-40 ). When the Roman tribune in Jerusalem heard that there was to be an attempt on Paullift on the way to Caesarea, he took every possible step to ensure his safety (Act_23:12-31 ). When Paul despaired of justice in Palestine, he exercised his right as a citizen and appealed direct to Caesar (Act_25:10-11 ). When he wrote to the Romans, he urged upon them obedience to the powers that be, because they were ordained by God and were a terror only to the evil, and not to the good (Rom_13:1-7 ). Peteradvice is exactly the same. Governors and kings are to be obeyed, for their task is given them by God. It is a Christianduty to fear God and honour the emperor (1Pe_2:12-17 ). In writing to the Thessalonians it is likely that Paul points to the power of Rome as the one thing which is controlling the threatening chaos of the world (2Th_2:7 ).

In the Revelation there is nothing but blazing hatred for Rome. Rome is a Babylon, the mother of harlots, drunk with the blood of the saints and the martyrs (Rev_17:5-6 ). John hopes for nothing but her total destruction.

The explanation of this change in attitude lies in the wide development of Caesar worship which, with its accompanying persecution, is the background of the Revelation.

By the time of the Revelation Caesar worship was the one religion which covered the whole Roman Empire; and it was because of their refusal to conform to its demands that Christians were persecuted and killed. Its essence was that the reigning Roman Emperor, as embodying the spirit of Rome, was divine. Once a year everyone in the Empire had to appear before the magistrates to burn a pinch of incense to the god-head of Caesar and to say: "Caesar is Lord." After he had done that, a man might go away and worship any god or goddess he liked, so long as that worship did not infringe decency and good order; but he must go through this ceremony in which he acknowledged the Emperordivinity.

The reason was very simple. Rome had a vast heterogeneous empire, stretching from one end of the known world to another. It had in it many tongues, races and traditions. The problem was how to weld this varied mass into a self-conscious unity. There is no unifying force like that of a common religion but none of the national religions could conceivably have become universal. Caesar worship could. It was the one common act and belief which turned the Empire into a unity. To refuse to burn the pinch of incense and to say: "Caesar is Lord," was not an act of irreligion; it was an act of political disloyalty. That is why the Romans dealt with the utmost severity with the man who would not say: "Caesar is Lord." And no Christian could give the title Lord to any other than Jesus Christ. This was the centre of his creed.

We must see how this Caesar worship developed and how it was at its peak when the Revelation was written

One basic fact must be noted. Caesar worship was not imposed on the people from above. It arose from the people; it might even be said that it arose in spite of efforts by the early emperors to stop it, or at least to curb it. And it is to be noted that of all the people in the Empire only the Jews were exempt from it.

Caesar worship began as a spontaneous outburst of gratitude to Rome. The people of the provinces well knew what they owed to Rome. Impartial Roman justice had taken the place of capricious and tyrannical oppression. Security had taken the place of insecurity. The great Roman roads spanned the world; and the roads were safe from brigands and the seas were clear of pirates. The pax Romana, the Roman peace, was the greatest thing which ever happened to the ancient world. As Virgil had it, Rome felt her destiny to be "to spare the fallen and to cast down the proud." Life had a new order about it. E. J. Goodspeed writes: "This was the pax Romana. The provincial under Roman sway found himself in a position to conduct his business, provide for his family, send his letters, and make his journeys in security, thanks to the strong hand of Rome."

Caesar worship did not begin with the deification of the Emperor. It began with the deification of Rome. The spirit of the Empire was deified under the name of the goddess Roma. Roma stood for all the strong and benevolent power of the Empire. The first temple to Roma was erected in Smyrna as far back as 195 B.C. It was no great step to think of the spirit of Rome being incarnated in one man, the Emperor. The worship of the Emperor began with the worship of Julius Caesar after his death. In 29 B.C. the Emperor Augustus granted to the provinces of Asia and Bithynia permission to erect temples in Ephesus and Nicaea for the joint worship of the goddess Roma and the deified Julius Caesar. At these shrines Roman citizens were encouraged and even exhorted to worship. Then another step was taken. To provincials who were not Roman citizens Augustus gave permission to erect temples in Pergamum in Asia and in Nicomedia in Bithynia, for the worship of Roma and himself. At first the worship of the reigning Emperor was considered to be something permissible for provincial non-citizens, but not for those who had the dignity of the citizenship.

There was an inevitable development. It is human to worship a god who can be seen rather than a spirit. Gradually men began more and more to worship the Emperor himself instead of the goddess Roma. It still required special permission from the senate to erect a temple to the living Emperor, but by the middle of the first century that permission was more and more freely given. Caesar worship was becoming the universal religion of the Roman Empire. A priesthood developed and the worship was organized into presbyteries, whose officials were held in the highest honour.

This worship was never intended to wipe out other religions. Rome was essentially tolerant. A man might worship Caesar and his own god. But more and more Caesar worship became a test of political loyalty; it became, as has been said, the recognition of the dominion of Caesar over a manlife and soul. Let us, then trace the development of this worship up to, and immediately beyond, the writing of the Revelation.

(i) Augustus, who died in A.D. 14, allowed the worship of Julius Caesar, his great predecessor. He allowed non-citizens in the provinces to worship himself but he did not permit citizens to do so; and he made no attempt to enforce this worship.

(ii) Tiberius (A.D. 14-37) could not halt Caesar worship. He forbade temples to be built and priests to be appointed for his own worship; and in a letter to Gython, a Laconian city, he definitely refused divine honours for himself. So far from enforcing Caesar worship, he actively discouraged it.

(iii) Caligula (A.D. 37-41), the next Emperor, was an epileptic, a madman and a megalomaniac. He insisted on divine honours. He attempted to enforce Caesar worship even on the Jews, who had always been and who always were to remain exempt from it. He planned to place his own image in the Holy of Holies in the Temple in Jerusalem, a step which would certainly have provoked unyielding rebellion. Mercifully he died before he could carry out his plans. But in his reign we have an episode when Caesar worship became an imperial demand.

(iv) Caligula was succeeded by Claudius (A.D. 41-54) who completely reversed his insane policy. He wrote to the governor of Egypt--there were a million Jews in Alexandria--fully approving the Jewish refusal to call the Emperor a god and granting them full liberty to enjoy their own worship. On his accession to the throne, he wrote to Alexandria saying: "I deprecate the appointment of a High Priest to me and the erection of temples, for I do not wish to be offensive to my contemporaries, and I hold that sacred fanes and the like have been by all ages attributed to the immortal gods as peculiar honours."

(v) Nero (A.D. 54-68) did not take his own divinity seriously and did nothing to insist on Caesar worship. It is true that he persecuted the Christians; but this was not because they would not worship him, but because he had to find scapegoats for the great fire of Rome.

(vi) On the death of Nero there were three Emperors in eighteen months--Galba, Otto and Vitellius, and in such a time of chaos the question of Caesar worship did not arise.

(vii) The next two Emperors, Vespasian (A.D. 69-79) and Titus (A.D. 79-81), were wise rulers, who made no insistence on Caesar worship.

(viii) The coming of Domitian (A.D. 81-96) brought a complete change. He was a devil. He was the worst of all things--a cold-blooded persecutor. With the exception of Caligula, he in as the first Emperor to take his divinity seriously and to demand Caesar worship. The difference was that Caligula was an insane devil; Domitian was a sane devil, which is much more terrifying. He erected a monument to "the deified Titus son of the deified Vespasian." He began a campaign of bitter persecution against all who would not worship the ancient gods--"the atheists" as he called them. In particular he launched his hatred against the Jews and the Christians. When he arrived in the theatre with his empress, the crowd were urged to rise and shout: "All hail to our Lord and his Lady!" He enacted that he himself was a god. He informed all provincial governors that government announcements and proclamations must begin: "Our Lord and God Domitian commands..." Everyone who addressed him in speech or in writing must begin: "Lord and God."

Here is the background of the Revelation. All over the Empire men and women must call Domitian god--or die. Caesar worship was the deliberate policy; all must say: "Caesar is Lord." There was no escape.

What were the Christians to do? What hope had they? They had not many wise and not many mighty. They had no influence or prestige. Against them had risen the might of Rome which no nation had ever resisted. They were confronted with the choice--Caesar or Christ. It was to encourage men in such times that the Revelation was written. John did not shut his eyes to the terrors; he saw dreadful things and he saw still more dreadful things on the way; but beyond them he saw glory for those who defied Caesar for the love of Christ. The Revelation comes from one of the most heroic ages in all the history of the Christian Church. It is true that Domitiansuccessor Nerva (A.D. 96-98) repealed the savage laws; but the damage was done, the Christians were outlaws, and the Revelation is a clarion call to be faithful unto death in order to win the crown of life.

b The Book Worth Studying

No one can shut his eyes to the difficulty of the Revelation. It is the most difficult book in the Bible; but it is infinitely worth studying, for it contains the blazing faith of the Christian Church in the days when life was an agony and men expected the end of the heavens and the earth as they knew them but still believed that beyond the terror was the glory and above the raging of men was the power of God.

FURTHER READING

Revelation

G. B. Caird, The Revelation of Saint John the Divine (ACB; E)

R. H. Charles, Revelation (ICC; G)

T. S. Kepler, The Book of Revelation

H. B. Swete, The Apocalypse of St John (MmC; G)

Abbreviations

ACB: A. and C. Black New Testament Commentary

ICC: International Critical Commentary

MmC: Macmillan Commentary

E: English Text

G: Greek Text

Barclay: Revelation 2 (Chapter Introduction)

The Letter To Ephesus (Rev_2:1-7)

Ephesus, First And Greatest (Rev_2:1-7 Continued)

Ephesus, Christ And His Church (Rev_2:1-7 Continued)

Ephesus, When Orthodoxy Costs Too Much (Rev_2:1-7 Continued)

Ephesus, The Steps On The Return Journey (Rev_2:1-7 Continued)

Ephesus, A Ruinous Heresy (Rev_2:1-7 Continued)

Ephesus, The Great Reward (Rev_2:1-7 Continued)

The Letter To Smyrna (Rev_2:8-11)

Smyrna, The Crown Of Asia (Rev_2:8-11 Continued)

Smyrna, Under Trial (Rev_2:8-11 Continued)

Smyrna, The Cause Of The Trouble (Rev_2:8-11 Continued)

Smyrna, Christ's Claim And Christ's Demand (Rev_2:8-11 Continued)

Smyrna, The Promised Reward (Rev_2:8-11 Continued)

The Letter To Pergamum (Rev_2:12-17)

Pergamum, The Seat Of Satan (Rev_2:12-17 Continued)

Pergamum, An Engagement Very Difficult (Rev_2:12-17 Continued)

Pergamum, The Doom Of Error (Rev_2:12-17 Continued)

Pergamum, The Bread Of Heaven (Rev_2:12-17 Continued)

Pergamum, The White Stone And The New Name (Rev_2:12-17 Continued)

Pergamum, Renamed By God (Rev_2:12-17 Continued)

The Letter To Thyatira (Rev_2:18-29)

Thyatira, The Peril Of Compromise (Rev_2:18-29 Continued)

Thyatira, The State Of The Church In Thyatira (Rev_2:18-29 Continued)

Thyatira, The Source Of The Error (Rev_2:18-29 Continued)

(1) Thyatira, The Teaching Of Jezebel (Rev_2:18-29 Continued)

(2) Thyatira, The Teaching Of Jezebel (Rev_2:18-29 Continued)

Thyatira, Promises And Threats (Rev_2:18-29 Continued)

Constable: Revelation (Book Introduction)

Introduction

Historical background

The opening verses of the book state that "John" wrote it (1:1, 4, 9; cf. 22:8). >From the first century to the present day almost all orthodox scholars have concluded that this means the Apostle John.¹ Two noteworthy exceptions were Luther and Zwingli.² Today many scholars who accept the divine inspiration of the book believe the Apostle John wrote it.

Some of the early church fathers (Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius, Irenaeus, and Victorinus) wrote that the Apostle John experienced exile on the island of Patmos during Domitian's reign.³ They wrote that the government allowed John to return to Ephesus after this emperor died. Domitian died in A.D. 96. Consequently many conservative interpreters date the writing of this book near A.D. 95 or 96.

"Perhaps more than any other book in the NT, the Apocalypse enjoyed wide distribution and early recognition."⁴

Where did John get the revelation that he wrote down in this book? He said that he received it from Jesus Christ through angelic mediation (1:1). Most of the details of this revelation were undoubtedly new to John. However there are remarkable parallels between this revelation and the Lord Jesus' teaching in the Olivet Discourse (Matt. 24-25; Mark 13; Luke 21). The Book of Revelation clearly builds on that foundation.⁵ The apocalyptic sections of certain books of the Old Testament--particularly Daniel, Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Psalms--contain former revelation that God gave His prophets about the end times.⁶ The revelation that Jesus gave in the Olivet Discourse and later to John on Patmos supplements that earlier revelation.

"Jesus in His [Olivet] discourse was clearly anticipating what He was to show John in much greater detail more than six decades later here on the island of Patmos."⁷

Message⁸

The subject of the Book of Revelation is Jesus Christ (1:1). It is an unveiling ("revelation") of Him. What does this book reveal about Christ? The Book of Revelation is the unveiling of the person of Jesus Christ, the power of Jesus Christ, and the program of Jesus Christ.

First, it is a revelation of the person of Jesus Christ. It unveils who He is and what He is. This book is the climax of Scriptural Christology.

Notice first what the Book reveals about who Jesus Christ is. Three emphases in the book clarify His essential being.

1. He is the same human Jesus Christ who was born on earth at His first coming. He is the same Jesus on whose chest John reclined (1:1, 2, 5). He is a "son of man," possessing a full human nature (1:13). Moreover He will always be that (22:20).

2. He is also fully divine, one with the Father (1:12-18; 3:14). He reveals God fully (19:13). He will share the throne of the universe with the Father eventually (22:1, 3).

3. He is the eternal God (1:8; 21:6; 22:13).

Notice also what the book of Revelation reveals about what Jesus Christ is. Seven titles give us a fuller appreciation of His place in history.

1. In the past He proved to be the Root of David, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the promised Messiah (3:7; 5:5; 22:16). This became clear at His baptism (Matt. 3:17).

2. In the past, also at His first advent, He proved to be the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (5:6, 12-13; 6:1). This became clear at His death.

3. In the past He proved to be the First-born from the dead, the victor over death and Hades (1:5-6, 2:8). This became clear at His resurrection.

4. In the present He is the Lord of the churches (2:1; 3:1; cf. 22:20).

5. In the future He will prove to be the Judge of all mankind (2:12, 18; 3:14; 6:1; et al.). This is His primary role during the Great Tribulation.

6. In the future He will prove to be King of kings and Lord of lords (1:5; 17:14; 19:16). This is His primary role during the Millennium.

7. In the future He will prove to be the Morning Star (22:16; cf. 2:28). His second coming will signal the dawning of a new day in history. This will find its clearest revelation in the new heavens and earth. The Millennium will only be a foretaste of that day.

This book is also a revelation of the power of Jesus Christ. Individuals have various kinds of power. Jesus Christ has all kinds of power and all power of all kinds.

He has all personal power.

1. He has inherent power. We see this in His control of all other beings and forces (e.g., believers, unbelievers, Satan, the beasts, human armies, etc.). He wields the power Himself.

2. He also has acquired power. His Father has given Him this power (5:1, 6-7; cf. Matt. 28:18). He exercises all the power of the Godhead.

Second, He has all instrumental power. That is He has authority over all things as He executes His power. All things are His instruments or tools.

1. He has power over all material objects and forces. He controls the physical universe. We can see this in His using individuals, storms, earthquakes, and even the heavenly bodies to accomplish His will.

2. He also has power over all spiritual entities and authorities. He controls the angels, demons, and Satan. Every power in the universe is under His control (e.g., 13:15).

Third, He has all effectual power. That is He has power to accomplish anything. He can affect any changes He desires.

1. He has all destructive power. He can destroy anything that exists: individuals, systems (e.g., Babylonianism), objects, even the heavens and earth.

2. He also has all constructive power. He can create new human bodies (by resurrection), new systems (new religious and economic orders), and new cities (the new Jerusalem). He will even create new heavens and a new earth.

The Book of Revelation also reveals the program of Jesus Christ (1:19). It gives us much detail about God's program and how it will unfold in the future. However let me point out God's purposes that this program unveils.

Christ's immediate purpose is to defeat and destroy Satan and sin.

We see Him doing this in the church age in Revelation as He deals with believers in the seven churches (chs. 2-3). His purpose is to purify to Himself a people who will be a kingdom and priests to God (1:6).

We also see Him doing this in the Tribulation in Revelation. We see it in His judgment of those who have not believed on Him (chs. 4-18). His purpose is to pour out God's wrath on His enemies for their refusal to receive His grace (16:1).

Christ's ultimate purpose is to dwell among His people and experience intimate fellowship with them.

We see Him doing this in the Millennium to an extent never before attained in history (20:6).

We see Him doing this in the new earth perfectly and eternally (22:3-5). This has always been God's ultimate purpose (e.g., Adam, Noah, the patriarchs, Israel, the church, the Millennium). He will achieve it completely in the new earth.

The Book of Revelation then is an unveiling of Jesus Christ--His person, His power, and His program--for the rest of history. This is the message statement. We must never forget that He is the subject of this book as we seek to understand what He has revealed here.

Constable: Revelation (Outline)

Outline

I. The preparation of the prophet ch. 1

A. The prologue of the book 1:1-8

1. The preface 1:1-3

2. The address and doxology 1:4-6

3. The theme 1:7-8

B. The commission of the prophet 1:9-20

1. The first commission to write 1:9-11

2. The source of the commission 1:12-16

3. The amplification of the commission 1:17-20

II. The letters to the seven churches chs. 2-3

A. The letter to the church in Ephesus 2:1-7

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:1

2. Commendation 2:2-3

3. Rebuke 2:4

4. Exhortation 2:5-6

5. Promise 2:7

B. The letter to the church in Smyrna 2:8-11

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:8

2. Commendation 2:9

3. Exhortation 2:10a

4. Promise 2:10b-11

C. The letter to the church in Pergamum 2:12-17

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:12

2. Commendation 2:13

3. Rebuke 2:14-15

4. Exhortation 2:16

5. Promise 2:17

D. The letter to the church in Thyatira 2:18-29

1. Destination and description of Christ 2:18

2. Commendation 2:19

3. Rebuke 2:20-23

4. Exhortation 2:24-25

5. Promise 2:26-29

E. The letter to the church in Sardis 3:1-6

1. Destination and description of Christ 3:1a-b

2. Commendation and rebuke 3:1c, 2b

3. Exhortation 3:2a, 3

4. Promise 3:4-6

F. The letter to the church in Philadelphia 3:7-13

1. Destination and description of Christ 3:7

2. Commendation 3:8

3. Promise 3:9-11a, 12

4. Exhortation 3:11b, 13

G. The letter to the church in Laodicea 3:14-22

1. Destination and description of Christ 3:14

2. Rebuke 3:15-17

3. Exhortation 3:18-19

4. Promise 3:20-22

III. The revelation of the future 4:1-22:5

A. Introduction to the judgments of the Tribulation chs. 4-5

1. The throne in heaven ch. 4

2. The Lamb on the throne ch. 5

B. The first six seal judgments ch. 6

1. The first seal 6:1-2

2. The second seal 6:3-4

3. The third seal 6:5-6

4. The fourth seal 6:7-8

5. The fifth seal 6:9-11

6. The sixth seal 6:12-17

C. Supplementary revelation of salvation in the Great Tribulation ch. 7

1. The sealing of 144,000 Israelites 7:1-8

2. The salvation of the great multitude 7:9-17

D. The first six trumpet judgments chs. 8-9

1. The first four trumpet judgments ch. 8

2. The fifth and sixth trumpet judgments ch. 9

E. Supplementary revelation of John's preparation for recording the remaining judgments in the Great Tribulation ch. 10

1. The appearance of the mighty angel 10:1-4

2. The announcement of the mighty angel 10:5-7

3. The instruction of the mighty angel 10:8-11

F. Supplementary revelation of the two witnesses in the Great Tribulation 11:1-14

1. The temple in Jerusalem 11:1-2

2. The ministry of the two witnesses 11:3-6

3. The death of the two witnesses 11:7-10

4. The resurrection of the two witnesses 11:11-13

5. The end of the second woe 11:14

G. The seventh trumpet judgment 11:15-19

H. Supplementary revelation of Satan's activity in the Great Tribulation chs. 12-13

1. The activity of Satan himself ch. 12

2. The activity of Satan's agents ch. 13

I. Supplementary revelation of preparations for the final judgments in the Great Tribulation chs. 14-15

1. Judgment at the end of the Great Tribulation ch. 14

2. Preparation for the bowl judgments ch. 15

J. The seven bowl judgments ch. 16

1. The commencement of the bowl judgments 16:1

2. The first bowl 16:2

3. The second bowl 16:3

4. The third bowl 16:4

5. Ascriptions of angelic and martyr praise 16:5-7

6. The fourth bowl 16:8-9

7. The fifth bowl 16:10-11

8. The sixth bowl 16:12-16

9. The seventh bowl 16:17-21

K. Supplementary revelation of the judgment of ungodly systems in the Great Tribulation chs. 17-18

1. Religion in the Great Tribulation ch. 17

2. Commerce in the Great Tribulation ch. 18

L. The Second Coming of Christ ch. 19

1. The praise of God in heaven 19:1-10

2. The return of Christ to earth 19:11-16

3. The destruction of the wicked on earth 19:17-21

M. The millennial reign of Christ ch. 20

1. The binding of Satan 20:1-3

2. The resurrection of tribulation martyrs 20:4-6

3. The final judgment of Satan 20:7-10

4. The judgment of the wicked 20:11-15

N. The eternal state 21:1-22:5

1. The vision of the new heaven and earth 21:1

2. John's first vision of the New Jerusalem 21:2-8

3. John's second vision of the New Jerusalem 21:9-22:5

IV. The epilogue to the book 22:6-21

A. The testimony of the angel 22:6-7

B. The testimony of John 22:8-11

C. The testimony of Jesus and John's response 22:12-20

D. The final benediction 22:21

Constable: Revelation

Revelation

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_____. "The Sixth Last Thing': The Last Judgment and the End of the World (Rev. 20:11-15)." Bibliotheca Sacra 157:627 (July-September 2000):315-30.

_____. "The Third Last Thing': The Binding of Satan (Rev. 20:1-3)." Bibliotheca Sacra 156:624 (October-December 1999):469-86.

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_____. "Problems in Rebuilding the Tribulation Temple." Bibliotheca Sacra 129:513 (January-March 1972):75-80.

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_____. Life After Death. Condensed Books series. Condensation of We Live Forever. New York: Loizeaux Brothers, 1947; condensed ed., Westchester, Ill.: Good News Publishers, 1961.

_____. Prophetic Mysteries Revealed. Neptune, N.J.: Loizeaux Brothers, 1980.

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_____. "The Glorified Christ on Patmos." Bibliotheca Sacra 122:487 (July-September 1965):241-47.

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_____. "John's Apocalyptic Outline." Bibliotheca Sacra 123:492 (October- December 1966):334-41.

_____. Revelation 1-7: An Exegetical Commentary. Chicago: Moody Press, 1992.

_____. Revelation 8-22: An Exegetical Commentary. Chicago: Moody Press, 1995.

_____. "The Spiritual Gift of Prophecy in Rev 22:18." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 32:2 (June 1989):201-16.

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_____. "Making Sense of Rev 20:1-10? Harold Hoehner Versus Recapitulation." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 37:4 (December 1994):539-51.

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_____. "Who Are The Outsiders? Revelation 22:14-17." Grace Evangelical Society News 8:6 (November-December 1993):2-3.

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_____. "The Two Witnesses in Revelation 11." Bibliotheca Sacra 154:615 (July-September 1997):344-54.

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Copyright 2003 by Thomas L. Constable

Haydock: Revelation (Book Introduction)

THE

APOCALYPSE OF ST. JOHN,

THE APOSTLE.

INTRODUCTION.

Though some in the first ages [centuries] doubted whether this book was canonical, and who was the author of it, (see Eusebius, lib. 7, History of the Church, chap. xxv.) yet it is certain much the part of the ancient fathers acknowledged both that it was a part of the canon, and that it was written by St. John, the apostle and evangelist. See Tillemont, in his ninth note upon St. John, where he cites St. Justin Martyr, St. Irenæus, St. Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, St. Cyprian, St. Athanasius., Eusebius, St. Ambrose, St. Jerome, St. Augustine, &c. It was written in Greek to the churches in Asia [Asia Minor], under Domitian, about the year 96 or 97, long after the destruction of Jerusalem, when St. John was banished to the island of Patmos, in the Ægean Sea. It is by some called the prophecy of the New Testament, and the accomplishment of the predictions of all other prophets, by the first coming of Christ at his incarnation, and by his second coming at the end of the world. As to the time when the chief predictions should come to pass, we have no certainty, as appears by the different opinions, both of the ancient fathers, and late interpreters. Many think that most things set down from the fourth chapter to the end, will not be fulfilled till a little time before the end of the world. Others are of an opinion, that a great part of them, and particularly the fall of the wicked Babylon, happened at the destruction of paganism, by the destruction of heathen Rome, and its persecuting heathen emperors. Of these interpretations, see Alcazar in his long commentary, the learned Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, in his treatise on this book, and P. Alleman, in his notes on the same Apocalypse, tom. xii, who, in his preface, says, that this is in a great measure may be now looked upon as the opinion followed by the learned men. In fine, others think St. John's design was in a mystical way, by metaphors and allegories, to represent the attempts and persecutions of the wicked against the servants of God, the punishments that should in a short time fall upon Babylon, that is, upon all the wicked in general; the eternal happiness and reward which God had reserved for the pious inhabitants of Jerusalem, that is, for his faithful servants, after their short trials and tribulations of this mortal life. In the mean time we meet with many profitable instructions and admonitions, which we may easily enough understand; but we have no certainty, when we apply these predictions to particular events; for as St. Jerome takes notice, the Apocalypse has as many mysteries as words, or rather mysteries in every word. Apocalypsis Joannis tot habet sacramenta quot verba....parum dixi, in verbis singulus multiplices latent intelligentiæ . (Ep. ad Paulin. t. iv., p. 574. Edit. Benedict.) (Witham) --- In the first, second, and third chapters of this book are contained instructions and admonitions which St. John was commanded to write to the seven bishops of the churches in Asia. And in the following chapters, to the end, are contained prophecies of things that are to come to pass in the Church of Christ, particularly towards the end of the world, in the time of antichrist. It was written in Greek, in the island of Patmos, where St. John was in banishment by order of the cruel emperor Domitian, about sixty-four years after our Lord's ascension. (Challoner) --- This is the last in order of the sacred writings, and contains, in twenty-two chapters, revelations, as the name imports, extremely obscure, it must be acknowledged, yet undoubtedly of utmost importance to the Christian Church, if we may judge from the dignity of the author, who is the beloved disciple, or the grandeur and majesty of the ideas, which pervade every chapter of the work. Being a sealed book, or a hidden mystery, in the beginning of the Church, when nothing of this important prophecy had yet been fulfilled, it is no wonder we are deprived of the usual lights which we have hitherto followed in expounding the Scripture, viz. the works of the fathers. So little was it indeed understood at that time, that by many it was long considered as a reverie, and an extravagant composition, though the most learned always looked upon it as an inspired work. One reason, which may have led the faithful to class this among the apocryphal works, was the number of fables and illusions published by the misguided piety of the ignorant. We know at least, that on account of the heresy of Cerinthus, which was filled up with illusion and fanaticism, this book was not circulated among the faithful: a few copies were kept with care in the archives of the Churches, to be perused only by the bishop, or such as he thought not likely to abuse it. With regard to the interpretation of it, it will not be expected that it should be attempted in a work of this kind. We shall therefore only give a short account of the principal commentators, and their plans, that the enlightened reader may consult their works, if he wish to enter deeper into the subject. But it should never be forgotten, that the connection of sublime and prophetical ideas which compose this work, has at all times been a labyrinth, in which the greatest geniuses have lost themselves, and a rock on which most commentators have split, the great Sir Isaac Newton not excepted. Hence Scaliger's praise of Calvin; Calvinus sapuit, quia non scripsit in Apocalypsim. 1. The fathers living before the accomplishment of the events, have of course given us no interpretation. Those, therefore, who have written on it at all, have explained it in a mere moral sense, and drawn from it useful parables and instructions. None of them have given a regular systematic explanation. It must, however, be observed, as a circumstance of some moment, that many of them, particularly Sts. Augustine and Jerome, thought the Apocalypse contained prophecies regarding the whole time of the existence of the Church of Christ, till its triumphant state in the new Jerusalem. 2. Among the moderns we have abundant interpreters of the Apocalypse in all the reformed Churches. It has indeed grown into a mania among them, the only difference being their respective degrees of absurdity. This has been to all of them the common quarry, whence they have hewn the stones to cast at their mother Church. For to this day they have continued to disgrace themselves and Christianity, by depicting the Church of Rome as the scarlet whore of Babylon, popery the beast, and the pope antichrist. We must, however, except Grotius and Hammond, who have given historical interpretations, and some few others. 3. Among Catholic expositors stands eminently conspicuous the learned bishop of Meaux, Bosseut. This light of the Galican Church has improved upon and filled up the outlines which Grotius had only sketched. The first three chapters, according to him, regard only the Churches of Asia, to which they are addressed; the other chapters, to nineteen, have been fulfilled in the persecutions which the Church endured under the pagan emperors. The last three are merely allegorical of the triumphs which the Church finally gained over her persecutors. 4. Du Pin has taken a wider range. The last three chapters regard the final judgment, and the establishment of the Church in heaven. And all the chapters between the first three and last three, are mere general descriptions of persecutions, fall of tyrants, heresies, &c. which shall happen in the Church; represented under the various figures which the rich imagination of St. John supplied. This system certainly removes all difficulties at once, by saving the trouble of comparing each figure with corresponding historical facts; but substitutes a vague and indeterminate sense, which we do not expect in prophecy. 5. Calmet does not vary a great deal in the outlines with Bossuet; but their applications of the text to the history are in many points widely different. He conceives the intermediate chapters between the first three and last three to have been fulfilled in the general persecution begun by Diocletian, in 303, and the destruction of Rome, in 410, by Alaric. The last three chapters give the triumph of the martyrs at that period, as well as many things, which are to take place at the coming of antichrist, and the dissolution of the world. 6. Conceiving that all the above commentators had too much contracted the time for the accomplishment of the prophecy, by limiting it to the establishment of Christianity, Monsieur de la Chetardie established a new system upon the supposition that the Apocalypse includes the whole history of Christ's Church upon earth. In doing this, he had the authority of St. Augustine, and other fathers. Observing, therefore, upon an attentive perusal of this work, that there were seven seals, seven trumpets, seven vials, and that at the opening of such seals a new revelation was made, he ingeniously concluded, that the history of the whole Church was divided into seven periods or ages, and that to each period belonged one seal, one trumpet, and one vial. Six of these periods he conceives to be already accomplished, the seventh yet remains concealed in the womb of futurity. 7. Ingenious as is this system of Chetardie, it was not adopted, since Calmet, who wrote after him, preferred his own, which resembled that of Bossuet. It has, however, been renewed by this late bishop Walmsley, under the name of Signor Pastorini, who has taken up the idea and general outline from Chetardie, but illustrated the same with his own interpretation and application to historical facts. The erudition with which the latter author has clothed this system, and the striking aptness of his comparisons of the words of the prophecy to the events which have passed, have gained a very general approbation, and he is almost exclusively followed in the interpretation of this sealed book. How far he has succeeded in his explanation of the seventh age of the Church, cannot be determined by us, since it is shut up in the dark recess of futurity. Posterity will decide. To him we refer the English reader for any further information on the subject, convinced that his researches will be amply gratified, his education wonderfully improved. For, says the illustrious prelate Bossuet, "notwithstanding the obscurities of this book, we experience in its perusal an impression so sweet, and at the same time so magnificent, of the majesty of God; such sublime ideas present themselves of the mystery of Jesus Christ, such noble images of his victories and his reign, and such terrible effects of his judgment, that the soul is quite moved and penetrated. All the beauties of the Scriptures are collected in this book. Whatever there is melting, lively, and majestic in either the law or the prophets, acquires in this book an additional lustre." O truly adorable truths contained herein! of which God is the plentitude and eternal source; of which Jesus Christ is the prophet, the teacher and master; truths which have the angels for servants and ministers; the apostles and bishops for witnesses and depositaries; and all faithful souls, ver. 3. for children and disciples. Let us prepare our hearts to hear Jesus Christ arisen from the dead, discovering to us the mysteries of his kingdom, and the truths of the gospel of his glory. Let us hear his warning voice, and prepare for his speedy coming by a strict observance of every duty. Happy, thrice happy that Christian whom the death of sin, and the sleep of tepidity shall not render deaf to this voice!

====================

Gill: Revelation (Book Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO REVELATION

That this book was written by the Apostle and Evangelist John, is clear not only from the express mention of his name, and from his office, a servant of Jesus Christ, Rev 1:1; but also from the character this writer gives of himself, Rev 1:2; as being an eyewitness of the essential Logos, or Word of God, and who bore a faithful record of him as such, as John did in his Gospel, in a very peculiar and remarkable manner, and from this writer's being in the isle of Patmos when he wrote, Rev 1:9; for of what other John can this be said? to which may be added the testimonies of the ancient writers, as Justin Martyr ^a, who lived within fifty years of the apostle, and Irenaeus ^b, who was the disciple of Polycarp, an hearer of this apostle, and Clemens Alexandrinus ^c, Tertullian ^d, Origen ^e, and others, who ascribe it to him. It was a most monstrously stupid notion of Caius, Dionysius of Alexandria mentions ^f, that it was written by Cerinthus the heretic, when his heresies concerning the divinity and humanity of Christ are most strongly refuted in it. What seems to have led to such a thought is, that the account of the thousand years' reign, and the descent of the new Jerusalem from heaven, seemed to favour the judaism of this man, and his carnal notions of an earthly paradise, whereas they have no such tendency. And as for its being written by another John, who is said to be presbyter at Ephesus, after the apostle, it is not certain there ever was such a man; and if there was, he must be too late to be the writer of this book; nor to him can the above characters agree. What is observed in favour of him, that the penman of this book is called, in the title, John the divine, and not the evangelist, or apostle, will do him no service; for to whom does this character so well agree, as to the Evangelist John, who wrote of divine things in so divine a manner, and particularly concerning the divinity of Christ? hence this book was sometimes called yeologia, "Divinity" ^g: besides, the title of the book is not original, but is what has been affixed to it by others, and varies; for in the Complutensian edition it runs thus,

"the Revelation of the holy Apostle and Evangelist John the Divine.''

In the Vulgate Latin version it is called the Apocalypse of the blessed John the Apostle; and in the Syriac version, the Revelation which was made to John the Evangelist; and in the Arabic version, the Vision of John, the Apostle and Evangelist, to wit, the Apocalypse. All which acknowledge the Apostle John to be the writer of it, and show the sense of the ancients concerning it. Nor is it of any moment what is alleged, that this writer makes mention of his name several times, whereas it was usual with John, both in his Gospel and epistles, to conceal his name; since there is a wide difference between writing an history and epistles to friends, and prophecy which requires the author's name, on whom the authority and truth of the prophecy greatly depend: and so likewise the disagreement of style observed in this book, with the other writings of John, has no force in it; since the prophetic style is always different from an historical and epistolary one; and yet, after all, in many things, there is an agreement; John in this, as in his other writings, speaks of Christ as the Word and Son of God and under the character of the Lamb; and likewise the following: passages may be compared together, as Rev 1:2 with Joh 19:35 and 1Jo 1:1, Rev 1:5 with 1Jo 1:7. All which being observed there no room to doubt, neither of the writer nor of the authority of this book; especially when the agreement of the doctrine contained in it with other parts of the Scripture, the majesty of its style, and above all the many prophecies of things to come to pass in it, several of which have been already fulfilled, are considered; and though it was called in question and rejected by some heretical men, because some things in it did not suit with their tenets, yet we have not the least reason to doubt of its being authentic who have lived to see so much of it already accomplished and which could come from no other but God. As for the time of its writing this is not agreed upon on all hands; the place where, seems to be the isle of Patmos, which yet some question. Some think it was written in the times of Claudius Caesar ^h, before the destruction of Jerusalem. In the title of the Syriac version, this revelation is said to be made to John in the isle of Patmos, into which he was cast by Nero Caesar. But the more commonly received opinion is, that he had this vision there, at the latter end of Domitian's reign ⁱ by whom he was there banished, about the year 95, or 96. But be this as it will, the book is certainly of divine authority, and exceeding useful and instructive; and contains in it the most momentous and important doctrines of the Gospel, concerning a trinity of persons in the Godhead, the deity and sonship of Christ, the divinity and personality of the Spirit, the offices of Christ, the state and condition of man by nature, justification, pardon, and reconciliation by the blood of Christ; and it recommends the several duties of religion, and encourages to the exercise of every grace and gives a very particular account of the rise, power, and fall of antichrist, and of the state of the church of Christ in all the periods of time to the end of the world. And though it is written in an uncommon style, yet may be understood, by the use of proper means, as by prayer and meditation, by comparing it with other prophetic writings, and the history of past times, by which many things in it will appear to have had their accomplishment; and it ought to be observed, that it is a revelation, and not a hidden thing; that it is now not a sealed book, but an open one; and that such are pronounced blessed that read and hear it, and observe the things in it, Rev 1:3; and which is no small encouragement to attempt an explanation of it.

Gill: Revelation 2 (Chapter Introduction)

INTRODUCTION TO REVELATION 2

This chapter contains the epistles to the churches at Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, and Thyatira. It begins with that to Ephesus, in which the sender of it describes himself by some of his characters mentioned in the preceding chapter; takes notice of some things commendable in this church, Rev 2:1, reproves her for leaving her first love; gives some advice upon it; threatens her in case of non-repentance; yet notwithstanding commends her for her detestation of some bad practices; and concludes the epistle with a phrase exciting to attention to what is written, and with a promise to them that are constant and conquering, Rev 2:4, next follows the epistle to the church at Smyrna, in which the sender assumes some of his former titles; takes notice of her works in general, and of her afflictions in particular, and of the blasphemy of others, Rev 2:8, fortifies her against a great affliction to be endured, described by its author, kind, use, and duration; and exhorts to faithfulness and constancy, with a promise of a crown of life, Rev 2:10, and closes the epistle in the same form as the preceding, promising security from the second death to the persevering and conquering Christian, Rev 2:11, and next in order is the epistle to the church at Pergamos, in which the sender takes to him one of the above characters in the description of him; observes her works and place of abode, and commends her faithfulness to him in the worst of times and places, Rev 2:12, yet exhibits a complaint against her for having, and conniving at persons of bad principles and practice, called Balaamites and Nicolaitans, Rev 2:14, exhorts to repentance, and in failure of it threatens to come and fight against them; and closes the epistle in the same manner as the two former, with a promise of hidden manna, a white stone, and a new name to him that overcomes, Rev 2:16, and the last epistle in this chapter is that to the church at Thyatira, in which the sender makes use of some other titles and characters of his before mentioned; takes notice of her good works, and yet signifies he had a controversy with her, for permitting a false prophetess to teach in her, who seduced men to fornication and idolatry, Rev 2:18, whose impenitence is complained of, and which was aggravated by having space for repentance given her, Rev 2:21, wherefore, in case of continuance in impenitence, he threatens both her and her followers with tribulation and death, whereby the omniscience and justice of Christ would be manifest to all the churches, Rev 2:22, and then another and better sort of men in this church are addressed, who are described as not having imbibed the doctrine of the false prophetess, and as not approving the depths of Satan, or her doctrines of devils; and these are told that no other burden should be laid on them than was, and are exhorted to hold fast what they had, until the coming of Christ, Rev 2:24, and for their encouragement to hold on to the end, many promises are made unto them respecting their power and rule over their enemies, and the happy days that they should enjoy, Rev 2:26, and the epistle is concluded with the usual epiphonema, Rev 2:29.

College: Revelation (Book Introduction)

PREFACE

This commentary on the Revelation of John has been prepared for general readers of the Bible who desire to deepen their understanding of God's inspired word. It is not a technical commentary, although it draws on the best in current biblical scholarship. It is not a devotional commentary, although the reader will find that Revelation certainly speaks to our day. My primary aim has been to provide a clear, concise explanation of what the biblical text means, showing the evidence on which my conclusions are based.

Extensive cross-referencing makes this volume a convenient reference tool for those seeking insight into a particular passage. However, I strongly recommend that users read through the entire commentary from beginning to end, considering each text in its broader context. It is particularly important to read the Introduction. There I define key terms ("kingdom of God," "labor pains," "apocalypse," etc.) and explain the historical, literary, and theological setting for John's work. Readers who truly desire to understand Revelation will find this approach most productive.

For many years I have taught Revelation at Minnesota Bible College and in other settings. Therefore most of the research for writing this commentary was already done. Nevertheless, completing this project on a tight deadline has been a major undertaking. Many people have provided assistance and support to make this book possible. MBC's President, Mr. Robert Cash, relieved me from certain duties as Vice President of Academics and Professor of New Testament so that I could make a research trip to Virginia. Dr. Mark Mangano, MBC's Professor of Old Testament and Biblical Languages, took over one of my classes to reduce my teaching load. The elders of the Meadow Park Church of Christ in Rochester, Minnesota, granted me a leave of absence from elders' duties so I could devote more time to writing. Dr. Harold Mahan, Director of the G.H. Cachiaras Memorial Library at MBC, provided research assistance. Dr. John Trotti and Mr. Roger Pittard, of Union Theological Seminary in Virginia, also provided library support. My dear wife Cathy read the entire manuscript and provided secretarial assistance. The series editors, Dr. Jack Cottrell and Dr. Tony Ash, also read the manuscript and offered helpful suggestions. Mr. John Hunter of College Press guided me through the publication process. My students and colleagues at MBC, my family members, and so many others offered help and encouragement along the way. The women of the Disciple's Prayer Life Sunday School class have bathed this entire project in prayer. To all these brothers and sisters in Christ, I offer my sincere thanks.

Christopher A. Davis

Rochester, Minnesota

July 2, 2000

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

INTRODUCTION

I. INTENDED TO REVEAL NOT TO CONCEAL

The Revelation of John is one of the most often read, but least understood books of the Bible. The first three words of the Greek text of Revelation are ajpokavluyi" =Ihsou' Cristou' (apokalypsis Içsou Christou), or "apocalypse from Jesus Christ." Apokalypsis is a combination of two Greek terms: The noun kaluvptra ( kalyptra ) refers to some sort of "covering," particularly a woman's "veil." The preposition ajpov ( apo ) communicates the idea of "movement away from" or "removing" something from one location to another. The term apokalypsis literally means, then, "the removal of that which conceals" or "the removal of the veil" (so that one may see what is under it). In English, the term is usually translated "revelation" - something that does not "conceal" or "cover," but which "unveils" or "reveals." So John's own title for his book is "Apocalypse from Jesus Christ" or "Revelation from Jesus Christ."

Beginning with the very first word of the book, the author claims to be revealing something. John expects that his Christian readers will not be puzzled, but able to comprehend his meaning. He does not intend the Revelation to be an enigma, but to be understood . For centuries, however, the book's mysterious symbolism has served to hide more than it reveals. Anyone who reads interpretations of Revelation - from Irenaeus in the second century, to Joachim of Fiore in the twelfth century, to Hal Lindsey in the twentieth century - finds very little agreement regarding what the book means. The reason is that Revelation is so unusual, so unique in the New Testament, that many Bible students simply do not know how to approach it. They lack the "key" for unlocking the secrets John intends to share.

II. APPROACH TO REVELATION

A. AN HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL APPROACH

A breakthrough has come in our own time. Before the mid-1800s, the Bible was viewed as little more than a vast collection of proof texts that could be taken apart and used to support the doctrinal systems of the various churches. No serious effort was made to understand each book as a whole or to seek insight into the meaning of the biblical books by examining the historical circumstances in which they were written. Beginning with Ferdinand Christian Baur in the mid-nineteenth century, a new group of scholars has urged a different approach to Scripture - an historical and critical approach. This is the kind of approach to Revelation adopted in this commentary.

By "critical" we do not mean mere "faultfinding." Instead, being "critical" involves asking questions, weighing evidence, and forming judgments. If we ask no questions of Revelation, then we get no answers. Since we wish to understand this word from God, we ask the same kinds of penetrating questions of it that we ask of any other piece of literature, whether it be the orations of Cicero, the plays of Shakespeare, or the novels of Mark Twain. We ask questions such as: Who wrote this book? When? Where? How? For what purpose? To what audience? In what circumstances? Using what sources? Why is the book structured in the way it is? What did the terminology used by the author mean to the readers of his time? What literary techniques does he employ?

We take an "historical" approach to Revelation because we believe that the Bible should not be studied in a vacuum as if it had no relationship to the events surrounding its writing. One of the primary convictions of the Christian faith is that God does not reveal himself in a vacuum, but in history. He is not just "God." He is the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob; the God of Moses and the Exodus; the God who made an eternal covenant with King David; the God who came among us in the person of Jesus Christ in history. For this reason, one of the best ways to gain an understanding of the Bible is to learn something about the historical settings in which it was produced.

In this commentary, we uncover the meaning of Revelation by asking an historical question: What did this book communicate to its first readers? What did Revelation reveal to the Christians for whom John wrote? How would they have understood its message? In order to answer this question, we must learn all we can about who the first readers were. We must acquaint ourselves with their time, their location, their circumstances, their language, their literature, and their culture. Only then will we be able to discern what Revelation meant to the believers for whom it was intended. Only then will we begin to work out an accurate interpretation of Revelation in its historical context. We will find that most of the truths Christ revealed to the first readers are applicable to his modern-day disciples as well.

B. RESOURCES FOR THE STUDY OF REVELATION

What resources from the ancient world assist us in our efforts to correctly understand and interpret Revelation? Primary texts include:

1. The Hebrew Old Testament

The Old Testament contains history and theological reflection regarding God's covenant relationship with the people of Israel. Christians consider the Old Testament and New Testament (see below) to be the inspired, authoritative word of God.

2. The Septuagint

The Septuagint is a Greek version of the Old Testament. This translation was begun in the third century B.C. after Alexander the Great made Greek the common language uniting his empire. According to legend, seventy Jewish scholars independently produced identical translations of the Hebrew Scriptures, thus attesting to divine inspiration of the Greek text. For this reason, "LXX" (the Roman numeral for "70") serves as the common abbreviation designating the Septuagint translation. The Septuagint was the "Bible" of most of the first Christians, who lived in the Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire. Nearly every line of Revelation contains allusions to either the Septuagint or the Hebrew Old Testament. The Septuagint also includes the Apocrypha.

3. The Old Testament Apocrypha

The Apocrypha is a collection of Jewish writings, most of which date from the second century B.C. through the first century A.D. Christians from the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox traditions consider them part of the authoritative Christian canon. Most Protestants view the Apocrypha as useful, edifying works, but do not give them a status equal to that of the Old and New Testaments.

4. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha

The Pseudepigrapha is a collection of Jewish and Christian documents, with the majority dating from the third century B.C. through the second century A.D. About one-third are called "apocalypses" because they resemble the Revelation of John in their language, style, use of symbolism, and/or shared concepts. Since they represent the same literary type, or "genre," they prove an invaluable aid to the study of John's vision (as discussed below in Part III). James H. Charlesworth has edited a two-volume collection of these writings in English.

5. Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Texts surviving from the Ancient Near East shed light on the cultural roots of ideas found in Revelation. To illustrate, the Babylonian Creation Myth offers insights into the symbolic meaning of the "sea" and the "sea monster" in John's vision. J.B. Pritchard has edited a useful collection of such texts in English translation.

6. The Dead Sea Scrolls

Called "the greatest manuscript discovery in modern times" by W.F. Albright, the Scrolls were produced by a Jewish community at Qumran on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea. Some of the texts are biblical manuscripts, while others describe the beliefs and rules of the Qumran sect. Dating from the end of third century B.C. to A.D. 70, the Dead Sea Scrolls shed light on Palestinian Judaism in the years prior to the writing of Revelation.

7. The New Testament

Written in the first century A.D., the New Testament draws together writings of the very first Christian communities. As such, it represents our earliest and most precious witness to Jesus and the church he founded.

8. Josephus

A contemporary of John, Flavius Josephus composed valuable histories of the Jewish people. He provides us, for example, with a vivid, first-hand description of the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 - an event alluded to in Revelation.

9. The New Testament Apocrypha

The New Testament Apocrypha is a collection of extracanonical Christian writings (some from Gnostic or other heretical groups) from the second century A.D. and beyond. It provides us with additional samples of early Christian apocalypses.

10. Early Christian Fathers

Writings of Christian leaders from the post-New Testament period cast light on the circumstances surrounding Revelation's composition. To illustrate, Eusebius's History of the Church (ca. A.D. 325) identifies the author and date of Revelation. Eusebius also describes two great persecutions suffered by first-century believers - events that play a role in John's vision.

11. Rabbinical Writings

Although most date to the post-New Testament period, teachings of ancient Jewish rabbis (Mishnah, Talmud, Midrashim, etc.) sometimes illuminate the biblical text. We turn to them, for example, when interpreting the symbolism of the four living creatures in Revelation 4.

12. Classical Greek and Latin Literature

Ancient Greek and Latin writers open a door to the world of the first readers of Revelation. To illustrate, Suetonius has left us biographies of the first twelve Roman emperors, some of whom play a role in Revelation. The correspondence of Governor Pliny and the Emperor Trajan explains Roman policy toward Christians in the early second century. The nearly five hundred volumes of the Loeb Classical Library (Harvard University Press) make this wealth of knowledge available to English readers.

We will utilize all these resources and more as we interpret the Revelation of John. We study other ancient writings not because we consider them to be inspired or authoritative - not because we place them on an equal level with the Bible. Rather, we study them because they help us to enter the thought world of John's first readers, so that we may understand Revelation as they understood it.

C. STRENGTHS OF THE HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL

APPROACH TO REVELATION

The weakness of alternative approaches to Revelation is seen in their failure to create a consensus regarding the meaning of the book. There have been nearly as many interpretations of Revelation as there have been interpreters. The weakness of alternative approaches is further highlighted by the erroneous predictions made on the basis of those approaches. To illustrate, when the former Soviet Union disintegrated, many scholars' interpretations of Revelation perished with it.

The strength of an historical and critical approach to Revelation is demonstrated by several facts: First, there is a great deal of agreement among historical and critical scholars regarding the meaning of John's vision. They have found the key to interpreting Revelation, while others must rely heavily on guesswork. Second, an historical and critical interpretation of Revelation makes sense today, and it would have made sense to the first-century Christians for whom the book was written. Third, an historical and critical interpretation reveals that the message of Revelation is wholly compatible and consistent with the message of the rest of the New Testament. Finally, the accuracy of an historical and critical interpretation of Revelation can be demonstrated with objective evidence drawn from other ancient writings. It does not rest on subjective speculation.

III. APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

Other New Testament writers communicate through narrative or epistle, but in Revelation John employs striking imagery and vivid symbolism. Although Revelation is unique in the New Testament, it was not at all unique in John's time. Revelation belongs to a genre, or type of literature, that was most popular in Palestine from the second century B.C. through the second century A.D. Such writings are called "apocalypses," or "apocalyptic literature," partly because they are revelatory in nature and partly because they resemble the Apocalypse of John (see Part I above).

A. JEWISH AND CHRISTIAN APOCALYPSES

The only apocalyptic writing in the Old Testament is the Book of Daniel. Some believe that Daniel is the oldest apocalypse and that later writers imitate its style. Others argue that the Book of the Watchers ( = 1 Enoch 1-36) is older. Whatever the case, Jewish theologians found apocalyptic to be a powerful tool for expressing their convictions concerning God and his dealings with the world. The most important Jewish apocalypses for our purposes are 1 Enoch (a compilation of five originally independent works dating from the second or third century B.C. to the first century A.D.), 2 Enoch (late first century A.D.), 2 Baruch (ca. A.D. 100), 3 Baruch (first to third century A.D.), 4 Ezra (ca. A.D. 100), the Apocalypse of Abraham (ca. A.D. 100), and the Apocalypse of Zephaniah (first century B.C. to first century A.D.). Beyond the apocalypses themselves, other writings from the period contain apocalyptic sections or features. Two examples are the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (second century B.C.) and the Sibylline Oracles (second century B.C. through seventh century A.D.). All of these writings are preserved in the Pseudepigrapha (described above in Part II.B.4).

Early Christian apocalypses include, for example, the Shepherd of Hermas, 5 Ezra, and the Apocalypse of Peter (all dating to the second century A.D.). The Revelation of John appears to be the first Christian apocalypse - the first Christian adaptation of the apocalyptic form. Other New Testament writings certainly contain apocalyptic ideas, but in Revelation alone do we find a fully developed apocalyptic vision. Since John's Christian apocalypse builds on the earlier Jewish apocalyptic tradition, those Jewish documents serve as one of the most valuable resources for understanding the nature and meaning of Revelation.

B. CHARACTERISTICS OF APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

But what exactly is an "apocalypse"? What sets these books apart and leads us to place them in a special class? First, Jewish apocalyptic literature is characterized by a particular kind of theology - a particular understanding of who God is and how he deals with his creation. Apocalyptic theology is rooted in the Jewish Scriptures since apocalyptic was initially a Jewish phenomenon. Christian apocalyptic writers later modified this theology in significant ways due to their encounter with Jesus Christ (see below).

Second, apocalyptic writers utilize a particular manner of communicating that theology - a distinctive form or style of writing . For example, they tend to make heavy use of symbolism.

So apocalyptic theology is a certain network of beliefs about God and the apocalyptic form is a certain means of expressing those beliefs. It is possible to have a message containing apocalyptic theology that is not communicated in the apocalyptic style. (An example would be the gospel preached by the Apostle Paul, which J. Christiaan Beker rightly describes as an "apocalyptic interpretation of the Christ-event.) However, true apocalypses - like the Revelation of John - display both apocalyptic form and apocalyptic theology.

1. Common Characteristics of the Apocalyptic Form

Some of the most common characteristics of the apocalyptic form are described below. Not every apocalypse includes every feature.

a. Visions or Revelations

Apocalypses take the form of visions or revelations from God. Whereas Old Testament prophets experience God directly ("The word of the Lord came to me" or "In the year that king Uzziah died, I saw the Lord"), the apocalyptic seers receive their revelations through an intermediary - often an angel. Their visions usually concern the future, giving apocalyptic a strong "eschatological" element.

b. Symbolism

Apocalyptic visions are filled with vivid symbolism. Over time, as various apocalyptists adopted and adapted the images used by others, a set of common symbols was developed. For example, the sea typically represents the forces of evil and chaos. Stars often represent angels. Beasts symbolize political powers opposed to God and his people. If we read Revelation alone (as so many do), then we may find John's symbolism puzzling and impenetrable. However, if we study other apocalypses as well, then we begin to see the patterns and Revelation becomes less intimidating.

c. Esoteric Elements

Apocalyptic writings are esoteric; they contain an element of mystery or secrecy. They are not meant for the general public, but for "insiders" who are acquainted, for example, with the meaning of the conventional apocalyptic symbols. John apparently considers his readers to be insiders able to grasp his meaning. By acquainting ourselves with their literature and culture, we can become insiders too.

d. Symbolic Numbers

Apocalyptic writers place symbolic meaning in numbers. Here, too, a set of conventional symbols emerge:

Two is the number of valid witness. Its Jewish roots are found in Deuteronomy 19:15 where the Lord requires at least two witnesses for a matter to be established in a court of law.

Three often relates to God. This symbol also has Old Testament roots in passages such as Isaiah 6:3 where the Lord receives the threefold worship of the seraphim: "Holy, holy, holy is the LORD Almighty." Christian writers tend to see Trinitarian connotations in this number since the Lord has revealed himself to us as God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.

Four often symbolizes the world, or God's creation. This goes back to the idea that the "four corners of the earth" (Ezek 7:2; cf. Rev 7:1), the "four quarters of the earth" (Isa 11:12), or the "four winds" (Jer 49:36; Ezek 7:9; Zech 6:5; Dan 7:2; cf. Matt 24:31//Mark 13:27; Rev 7:1) - i.e., north, south, east, and west - together encompass the whole of creation.

Five, the number of fingers on the human hand, describes a "handful" or a "few."

Ten - two "handfuls" - represents "several." Neither ten nor five should necessarily be interpreted literally in apocalyptic writings.

Seven is the number of "fullness," "completeness," "perfection." In some texts this number carries connotations of goodness or morality, for the author is thinking of persons or things being "complete" in the sense of being everything God intends them to be. However, the dominant meaning for seven is not "perfection" in the sense of being morally faultless, but "perfection" in the sense of being "complete" or "whole." We may trace the origin of this symbol to Old Testament texts such as Genesis 1-2, where seven days form a "complete" week.

Six is one less than seven; it does not "measure up" to seven or attain to the fullness of seven. Six, then, symbolizes "incompleteness," "imperfection," and sometimes evil.

Eight, in Christian apocalypses, symbolizes Jesus Christ. For an explanation, see the comments on Revelation 13:18.

Twelve tends to represent the people of God - those who love him and serve him faithfully (i.e., Law-keeping Jews in Jewish apocalypses and faithful Christians in Christian apocalypses). The idea no doubt comes from the Old Testament, where the twelve tribes of Israel together form the covenant community of God.

Multiples of these numbers typically represent the "fullness" or complete number of the thing symbolized. For example, the 144,000 (12 12 1000) in Revelation 7 represent the full number of the people of God. Other symbolic numbers used in Revelation will be explained at appropriate points in the commentary.

e. Pseudonymity

Rather than writing in their own names, apocalyptists typically employ pseudonyms, or false names. They attribute their works to an ancient hero such as Abraham, Jacob, or Ezra. What is the reason for this practice? Various theories have been put forward.

Many apocalypses (including Revelation) were composed in times of persecution. Some suggest that the pseudonyms and mysterious symbols are aimed at hiding the author's identity and message from hostile political authorities. One may question how successful this tactic would have been. Could any of John's neighbors read his description of the Whore of Babylon (Revelation 17) without seeing in it a criticism of Rome?

Apocalyptic literature became popular during the first and second centuries B.C., as Jewish prophecy declined and the Old Testament canon was being finalized. At the same time, Greco-Roman society tended to devalue the present and glorify the past. All of these factors would have made it difficult for newer theologians to gain a hearing. Perhaps they attributed their works to respected ancient luminaries in order to deceive their readers and add authority to their message. They pretended to predict events leading up to their own time, and thereby added credibility to their real predictions concerning the readers' future. The difficulty with this theory is that it assumes a great deal of gullibility on the part of the readers. Would many people really believe that writings of Enoch, the seventh descendant of Adam (Gen 5:18-24), had suddenly appeared in the second century B.C.?

It seems more likely that pseudonymity was openly used as a literary device. In other words, the readers knew very well that the writer was not Jacob or Moses or Ezra. Attributing a book to one of these Jewish heroes was a way of saying: What you are about to read is an apocalypse, so read and understand it as such. The "pen name" was chosen according to the subject matter of the apocalypse. For example, Baruch was the secretary of the prophet Jeremiah, who interprets the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in the sixth century B.C. (Jer 32:12-16; 36; 43:1-6; 45:1-2). Similarly, the author of the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch writes of the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in A.D. 70. He presents himself as a "second Baruch" helping his readers understand why God again allowed the holy city to fall.

Whereas most apocalypses are pseudonymous, Revelation proves the exception to the rule. As we will see below (Part IV), John writes in his own name.

2. Common Features of Apocalyptic Theology

In addition to sharing a distinctive form of writing, Jewish and Christian apocalyptists tend to hold a number of common convictions concerning God and his ways with the world. This distinctive apocalyptic theology, or worldview, is rooted in the Old Testament. At the risk of oversimplifying a complex matter, we will trace the historical development of the apocalyptic worldview through three primary, overlapping stages: the Old Testament period, the intertestamental period, and the New Testament period.

a. Roots of Apocalyptic Theology in the Old Testament Period

(1) Genesis 1-5. Several key elements of apocalyptic theology appear in the opening chapters of Genesis, the foundational book of the Old Testament. First, God exists and he is the creator of all that is, including human beings. "In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth" (Gen 1:1). God made humankind, both male and female, in his own image and his own likeness (Gen 1:26-27).

Second, by virtue of the fact that he is creator, God is also the owner, the king, the sovereign Lord over all creation. This truth is implicit in Genesis but is made explicit elsewhere in the Old Testament. For example, the Psalms proclaim that

The earth is the LORD's, and everything in it, the world, and all who live in it; for he founded it upon the seas and established it upon the waters (Ps 24:1-2).

God is the King of all the earth (Ps 47:7).

As creator and king, God alone has the right to decide what his world should be - what he considers "good" in his creation and what he considers "evil."

Third, as sovereign Lord, God created the world good. "God saw all that he had made, and it was very good" (Gen 1:31) - that is, pleasing to God, perfectly conforming to his will.

Fourth, Genesis does not state that human beings are immortal by nature. Instead, the first humans, Adam and Eve, were created mortal and their lives were sustained only by God's provision. God placed the tree of life in the center of the garden so that, by eating its fruit, the man and the woman could potentially live forever (Gen 2:9; 3:22). Life is the gift of God and is sustained by God alone at his good pleasure.

Fifth, God's creatures have rebelled against his sovereign will, thus introducing "sin" or "evil" into God's "good" creation. According to Genesis 2:16-17, God issued one command to Adam:

You are free to eat from any tree in the garden; but you must not eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, for when you eat of it you will surely die.

Chapter 3 describes how one of God's creatures, the serpent (discussed below), tempted Eve to sin - that is, to "be like God" by deciding good and evil for herself (Gen 3:5). (Note that the Book of Genesis implies a rebellion against God on the part of the serpent that preceded the rebellion of Adam and Eve.) As a result, she and Adam disobeyed God, ate the forbidden fruit, and thus introduced sin into the human race (Gen 3:6).

Sixth, God has responded to the sin of his creatures by pronouncing several terrible judgments: He cursed the serpent and promised that the woman's "offspring" would crush its head and thereby destroy it (Gen 3:14-15). He condemned the woman to pains in childbearing and domination by her husband (Gen 3:16). He cursed the ground so that it would resist Adam's efforts to cultivate it and would bear fruit only through painful toil (Gen 3:17-19). Finally, God kept the promise made in Genesis 2:17 by condemning Adam and Eve to death. Genesis 3:22-24 reads:

And the LORD God said, "The man has now become like one of us, knowing good and evil. He must not be allowed to reach out his hand and take also from the tree of life and eat, and live forever." So the LORD God banished him from the Garden of Eden to work the ground from which he had been taken. After he drove the man out, he placed on the east side of the Garden of Eden cherubim and a flaming sword flashing back and forth to guard the way to the tree of life.

Separated from the tree of life, "nature" took its course: Adam and Eve - and their descendants after them - eventually died (see Gen 5:5-31).

Note that, within the framework of Genesis, death is the destruction of God's creation. Furthermore, it is God's penalty for sin, for the idolatrous effort to be one's own "god" by deciding good and evil for oneself. Human beings die as a result of their own sin (e.g., Adam and Eve themselves) and/or as a result of their ancestor's sin (Adam and Eve's descendants - including, for example, innocent babies who sometimes die not because they have rebelled against God on their own, but because they have been cut off from the tree of life due to the sin of their ancestors) and as a result of the serpent's sin (since the serpent played a role in the fall of Adam and Eve, which led to their death and that of their descendants). As the Apostle Paul would later phrase it, "the wages of sin is death" (Rom 6:23).

(2) Promised Salvation from Sin and Death. However, throughout the Old Testament, God, in his grace and mercy, declares that he will not allow sin and death to have the last word. For example, he vows that Adam and Eve's "offspring" will crush the serpent's head (Gen 3:14-15). He swears to the nomad Abraham that "all people on earth will be blessed through you" (Gen 12:3). He promises King David that, "when your days are over and you rest with your fathers, I will raise up your offspring to succeed you, who will come from your own body, and I will establish his kingdom . . . forever" (2 Sam 7:12-13). To the prophet Isaiah God reveals his future plans: "Behold, I will create new heavens and a new earth. The former things will not be remembered, nor will they come to mind" (Isa 65:17).

b. Development of Jewish Apocalyptic Theology in the Intertestamental Period

(1) Rebellion in Heaven . In reading the Old Testament and attempting to discern the truths contained in it, Jewish apocalyptists draw the logical conclusion that the serpent of Genesis 3 must have been an angel who rebelled against God. After all, the Scripture says that, "in the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth" (Gen 1:1). The "heavens and earth" include everything that exists - both the natural, "earthly" realities and the supernatural, "heavenly" realities. Therefore the serpent must have been some sort of creature of God.

This talking "serpent" was certainly unlike other serpents; it apparently did not belong to the natural sphere. Therefore it must have been some sort of supernatural creature - a heavenly or angelic being.

Genesis states that " all that [God] had made" was "very good" (Gen 1:31), and yet the serpent reveals itself to be very evil by tempting humans to sin. Apparently, the "serpent" was an angel who had fallen away from God - a heavenly creature who had surrendered its original goodness and rebelled against the creator. Jewish apocalyptists conclude, then, that the "serpent" must have been a supernatural, angelic being (known to Christians as the "devil" or "Satan"), and that rebellion against God in the heavenly sphere must have preceded Adam and Eve's rebellion against God in the earthly sphere.

This type of interpretation of the Genesis story is found, for example, in 2 Enoch, a Jewish apocalypse dating to the late first century A.D.:

But [Satanail] from the order of the archangels deviated, together with the division [of angels] that was under his authority. He thought up the impossible idea, that he might place his throne higher than the clouds which are above the earth, and that he might become equal to my [i.e., God's] power.

And I hurled him out from the height, together with his angels [to the earthly sphere] . . . . And he will become a demon, because he fled from heaven; Sotona, because his name was Satanail. In this way he did become different from the angels. His nature did not change, [but] his thought did, since his consciousness of righteous and sinful things changed. And he became aware of his condemnation and of the sin which he sinned previously. And that is why he thought up the scheme against Adam. In such a form he entered paradise, and corrupted Eve (2 Enoch 29:4-5 and 31:4-6 [J]).

This passage from 2 Enoch also illustrates another important aspect of apocalyptic theology: While there was a rebellion against God in the heavenly sphere, this rebellion did not succeed. The rebels were put down and God maintained his sovereignty. Apocalyptic writers often express this conviction by speaking of God binding the devil and his angels in prison (e.g., 1 Enoch 10:4-6; cf. 18:12-19:1; 21:1-6; Test. Levi 18:12; Mark 3:26-27; 2 Pet 2:4; Jude 6) or casting them out of heaven onto the earth (as in the passage quoted above). Defeated on the supernatural plane, they continue their warfare on the natural plane by inciting human beings to join their fight against God.

(2) The Present Evil Age and the Kingdom of Satan . As noted above, Genesis 3 attributes pains in childbearing, painful toil, and human death to God's judgment against the sin of Adam and Eve. Jewish apocalyptists read the Scripture, consider the outcome of the Fall, and draw this conclusion: The sin of Adam and Eve caused the world to be afflicted not only with the judgments mentioned above, but with all manner of evils. To illustrate, 2 Baruch (ca. A.D. 100) maintains that

When [Adam] transgressed, untimely death came into being, mourning was mentioned, affliction was prepared, illness was created, labor accomplished, pride began to come into existence, the realm of death began to ask to be renewed with blood, the conception of children came about, the passion of the parents was produced, the loftiness of men was humiliated, and goodness vanished (2 Apoc. Bar. 56 @ :6).

Realizing that the entire human race has been adversely affected by Adam's sin, the author of 4 Ezra (ca. A.D. 100) comes close to despair:

It would have been better if the earth had not produced Adam, or else, when it had produced him, had restrained him from sinning. . . . O Adam, what have you done? For though it was you who sinned, the fall was not yours alone, but ours also who are your descendants (4 Ezra 7:46[116], 48[118]).

Yet Adam does not shoulder the whole blame for warping God's creation. All creatures (both human and angelic) who choose evil over the good, who ally themselves with Satan against God, contribute toward the ruin of God's handiwork. Second Baruch declares:

. . . although Adam sinned first and has brought death upon all who were not in his own time, yet each of them who has been born from him has prepared for himself the coming torment [i.e., the coming judgment/punishment for sin]. . . . Adam is, therefore, not the cause [of "destruction," or "retribution"], except only for himself, but each of us has become our own Adam (2 Apoc. Bar. 54:15a, 19).

Jewish apocalyptists and other writers of their era refer to this world corrupted with evils, this world marred by death, this world fallen away from its original goodness, using a number of different terms. For example, they call it "the present evil age" - they claim that the "present age" is characterized by "evil." They describe this fallen world as the "kingdom of Satan" - that is, a world where Satan and his allies (both human and angelic) exercise a degree of "kingdom" or "kingship" or "rule," a degree of power and influence. Human beings have collaborated with Satan to transform God's good creation into the "present evil age," the "kingdom of Satan," a world twisted and ruined by evil and death.

(3) The Eschatological Age and the Kingdom of God . The Jewish apocalyptists are hardheaded realists who see more clearly than most the nature and pervasiveness of evil in the created order. Still, they do not despair, for they believe the Old Testament promises of redemption. Though extremely pessimistic about the ability of human beings to purge the world of evil, they are extremely optimistic that God will prove true to his word. They trust that God will someday break into history and radically transform the cosmos, that he will "create new heavens and a new earth" through his promised Redeemer. Then sickness and death will be no more. No more will the untamed forces of nature maim and destroy. God will wipe away all tears and restore broken relationships. He will put an end to sin and evil and demonic activity in the world. Death will give way to eternal life. Now evil is tolerated, but then God will suffer evil no more. Now we are living in the "present evil age," but then God will inaugurate a "new age" or "last age" or "eschatological age" (from the Greek term e[scato" [ eschatos ], which means "last"). Now we know only the perversion of creation, but then God will make a "new creation." Now the world is the "kingdom of Satan," but then he will transform it into the "kingdom of God."

(4) The Shift of the Ages. Through what sequence of events will this radical reconfiguration of all things come about? In general, the Jewish apocalyptists anticipate that the world will first undergo a time of terrible "distress" or "tribulation" as Satan and his allies make one last attempt to overcome God and his people. They liken this period of turmoil to the "woes" or "birth pains" that a woman endures in childbirth. In their minds, this time of suffering for God's people will be the "labor pains" preceding the "birth" of the "new creation."

Second, God will send the promised Savior and Redeemer, the Messiah and Christ, the Son of David and Son of Abraham.

Third, they predict that the "labor pains" and the coming of the Messiah will be followed by a great day (sometimes called the "day of the Lord") in which God will suddenly raise the dead (either all the dead or only the servants of God, depending on the writer) to new life.

Fourth, the Messiah will carry out God's final judgment against all his enemies. In other words, God, through his Messiah, will set all wrongs right and put an end to the evil that pollutes his creation. Satan, his angels, and humans allied with them will either be annihilated or forced to suffer an eternal punishment (depending on the writer).

The end result will be a "new age" or "new creation" in which every aspect will conform to God's good and perfect will - the "consummation" of the kingdom of God, or the coming of God's sovereign rule in its fullness.

Who will participate in this new world? Virtually all the Jewish apocalyptists agree that only righteous, covenant-keeping Jews who obey the Law of Moses (not Gentiles) will inherit a place in the consummated kingdom of God.

These sorts of expectations are characteristic features of Jewish apocalyptic theology - common elements of the apocalyptists' understanding of God and his dealings with the world. To illustrate, most are found in two passages from the book of Daniel, a Jewish apocalypse included in the Christian canon.

In Daniel 2, King Nebuchadnezzar has a dream in which he sees an enormous statue with a head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of bronze, legs of iron, and feet made partly of iron and partly of baked clay. As the king watches, a rock "cut out, but not by human hands" (i.e., cut out by God) strikes the statue and shatters it to dust. Then the rock becomes a huge mountain that fills the whole earth (see Dan 2:31-35). In verses 36-45 Daniel interprets the vision, telling Nebuchadnezzar:

. . . You, O king, are the king of kings. . . . You are that head of gold.

After you, another kingdom will rise, inferior to yours. Next, a third kingdom, one of bronze, will rule over the whole earth. Finally, there will be a fourth kingdom, strong as iron - for iron breaks and smashes everything - and as iron breaks things to pieces, so it will crush and break all the others. Just as you saw that the feet and toes were partly of baked clay and partly of iron, so this will be a divided kingdom; yet it will have some of the strength of iron in it, even as you saw iron mixed with clay. . . .

In the time of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed, nor will it be left to another people. It will crush all those kingdoms and bring them to an end, but it will itself endure forever.

Daniel predicts that a series of temporal, human kingdoms (represented by the statue) will be replaced (on the "day of the Lord" at the "final judgment") by the eternal kingdom of God (represented by the rock).

Other common elements of Jewish apocalyptic theology appear in Daniel 12:1-3:

At that time [the archangel] Michael, the great prince who protects your people [ = the Jews], will arise. There will be a time of distress such as has not happened from the beginning of nations until then [ = the period of "labor pains"]. But at that time your people - everyone whose name is found written in the book - will be delivered. Multitudes who sleep in the dust of the earth will awake [ = the resurrection]: some to everlasting life, others to shame and everlasting contempt [ = the division made between the righteous and unrighteous at the final judgment]. Those who are wise will shine like the brightness of the heavens, and those who lead many to righteousness [ = obedience to the Mosaic Law], like the stars for ever and ever.

(5) Apocalyptic Transcendence, Dualism, and Pessimism. We have seen that the Jewish apocalyptists hold a transcendent worldview. They believe that beyond the visible, material, earthly, physical realities, there lie invisible, immaterial, heavenly, spiritual realities. Spiritual powers influence the material universe in significant ways. The apocalyptic worldview makes room for the supernatural.

Since some angels and some humans oppose God, apocalyptic theology also includes a strong element of dualism. In other words, there are two opposing powers in the world - the evil and the good. What we are witnessing in history is a struggle between the forces of good (God, his angels, his righteous servants) and the forces of evil (Satan, demonic powers, unrighteous persons who do not submit to the Lord). Apocalyptists do not believe in an absolute dualism, for the power of Satan and his allies is not equal to that of the creator and Lord of all. However, evil powers do exercise a degree of influence in the world because the sovereign God - for the time being - permits it. One of the reasons the righteous suffer is that they are being attacked and persecuted by the enemies of God, both human and demonic.

Most apocalypses come out of communities experiencing such persecution firsthand. Their prolonged struggle with evil has led them to a certain kind of pessimism. The Old Testament prophets look for God's good purposes to be worked out within the historical process - in the world as we know it. In contrast, Jewish apocalyptists do not expect the world to improve. They doubt that human beings will ever overcome evil to build a good, just, and godly society on their own.

(6) Apocalyptic Optimism, Determinism, and Triumph. Although they are pessimistic about humanity's ability to redeem a fallen world, the apocalyptists are optimistic that God will do just that. From the Old Testament, they know that God is good, just, powerful, and true. If he is good, then he will not allow evil to stand forever. If he is just, then he will punish the wicked and reward the righteous. If he is powerful, then he can do it; and if he can do it, then he will do it. But if this is so, then why do so many of God's faithful servants suffer hardship, poverty, and even violent death? If this is so, then why do so many of the wicked live prosperous lives and then die peacefully in bed? With remarkable faith, apocalyptic writers conclude that God will be true to himself and true to his promises. He will punish evildoers and vindicate his holy people - if not before death then after death, if not in this life then in another, if not in this world then in a new world created just for them. History has a goal predetermined by God: The Sovereign Lord will redeem his fallen creation, purging it from evil and bringing every detail into conformity with his good and perfect will. The Lord will indeed triumph; his kingdom will come.

c. Development of Christian Apocalyptic Theology in the New Testament Period

Against this background, we now turn our attention to the New Testament period. When the German theologian Ernst Käsemann identifies Jewish apocalyptic as "the mother of Christian theology," he is not far off the mark. When Jesus of Nazareth arrives on the scene, he confirms that much of the apocalyptists' interpretation of the Old Testament is correct. Influenced by Jesus and the first disciples taught by him, New Testament writers introduce many elements of Jewish apocalyptic theology into the Christian Bible. Some elements they adopt wholesale; others they modify or transform as their insight into God's purpose - enacted through Christ - surpasses that of their predecessors. Christian theology, then, is largely apocalyptic theology.

(1) Supernatural Forces of Evil . New Testament writers share the apocalyptists' belief in both the earthly and heavenly, the natural and supernatural spheres. Behind the evils plaguing this world - behind the deeply rooted systemic wickedness, behind the sophisticated lies that have for centuries held entire civilizations captive under false worldviews - lies an intelligence, a power beside and beyond that of mere human beings. As Paul says,

Our struggle is not against flesh and blood [i.e., human beings - creatures of the earthly, natural sphere], but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly [supernatural] realms (Eph 6:12).

(2) Adam and the Present Evil Age. New Testament writers also hold to the notion of the "kingdom of Satan" or "present evil age" - an era marred by sin and death that begins with the rebellion of Adam and ends with the consummation of God's kingdom. To illustrate, Paul maintains that

. . . sin entered the world through one man [Adam], and death through sin, . . . many died by the trespass of the one man . . . . The judgment [of God] followed one sin and brought condemnation . . . . by the trespass of the one man, death reigned through that one man . . . (Rom 5:12,15,16,17).

The creation waits in eager expectation for the sons of God to be revealed [at the resurrection]. For the creation was subjected to frustration, not by its own choice, but by the will of the one who subjected it, in hope that the creation itself will be liberated from its bondage to decay [including death] and brought into the glorious freedom [from decay] of the children of God (Rom 8:19-21).

(3) The Kingdom of God and the Ministry of Jesus . Working from within this kind of apocalyptic worldview, New Testament writers show that Jesus - in his words and even more so in his deeds - claimed to be the promised Messiah, the one sent by God to annihilate the kingdom of Satan and inaugurate the kingdom of God. As 1 John 3:8 words it, "The reason the Son of God appeared was to destroy the devil's work."

That this was Jesus' purpose and mission is seen in every aspect of his ministry. For example, the coming of God's kingdom was the subject of Jesus' preaching, as shown by the summary of his message found in Mark 1:14-15:

After John [the Baptist] was put in prison, Jesus went into Galilee, proclaiming the good news [or "gospel"] of God. "The time has come," he said. "The kingdom of God is near. Repent and believe the good news!"

Note that the "gospel" message, according to Jesus, is the proclamation of the "good news" - the apocalyptic promise - that God will soon annihilate evil and transform the entire cosmos to conform to his will.

God's coming kingdom was also the focus of Jesus' teaching. For example, in teaching his disciples to pray, Jesus tells them:

This, then, is how you should pray: "Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name, your kingdom come, your will be done on earth as it is in heaven" (Matt 6:9-10).

When Jesus calls on people to repent and "leave your life of sin" (John 8:11), he is urging them to turn away from evil - to renounce their alliance with Satan (whether conscious or unconscious) and conform their lives to the coming "kingdom" or "rule" or "Lordship" of God. When Jesus forgives sins as only God can (see, e.g., Luke 5:17-26), he shows that God - through his Messiah Jesus - is in the process of doing away with evil, in the process of wiping away the sin that has corrupted his creation for so long. When Jesus gathers disciples to himself and commands them to "love each other as I have loved you" (see, e.g., John 15:12), then he is beginning to form the community of the "eschatological age," when men and women from all nations will live together in peace forever under the beneficent kingship of God.

Jesus' miracles also proclaim the "good news" of God's emerging kingdom. They show that, in the person of Jesus the Christ, God has entered into his sinful, fallen, perverted creation in order to set things right - to reestablish his kingdom rule over it. For example, by healing the sick, Jesus shows that God is going to put an end to the pain and suffering and misery that have warped his good creation. This is why Jesus, in Luke 10:8-9, gives these instructions to his disciples when he sends them out with authority to preach and heal in his name:

When you enter a town and are welcomed, eat what is set before you. Heal the sick who are there and tell them, "The kingdom of God is near you" (italics added for emphasis here and throughout the commentary).

He says, when you heal the sick, you must not forget to tell them what it means - what it signifies. The healings are intended to show that the kingdom or lordship of God is near - that it is becoming a reality through the Messiah Jesus (here working through his disciples).

When Jesus exorcises demons, he shows that God is in the process of destroying the kingdom of Satan and establishing the kingdom of God. To illustrate, Luke 11:14-20 recounts how, on one occasion,

Jesus was driving out a demon that was mute. When the demon left, the man who had been mute spoke, and the crowd was amazed. But some of them said, "By Beelzebub [another name for Satan], the prince of demons, he is driving out demons." Others tested him by asking for a sign from heaven.

Jesus knew their thoughts and said to them: "Any kingdom divided against itself will be ruined, and a house divided against itself will fall. If Satan is divided against himself, how can his kingdom stand? I say this because you claim that I drive out demons by Beelzebub. Now if I drive out demons by Beelzebub, by whom do your followers drive them out? So then, they will be your judges. But if I drive out demons by the finger of God [i.e., by the power of God], then the kingdom of God has [already] come to you."

When Jesus calms the storm and walks on water (see Matt 14:22-33; Mark 6:45-52; John 6:16-21), he shows that even the forces of nature - all God's creation - will be brought under his lordship so that they bend to his will and no longer hurt and destroy. When Jesus resuscitates the dead (e.g., Lazarus in John 11), he points forward to the day when all God's people will be raised up to eternal life in his consummated kingdom.

(4) The Kingdom of God and the Death of Jesus . What is the relationship between Jesus' death on the cross and the kingdom of God? During the Old Testament period, covenants - i.e., formal relationships between two parties - were established or sealed through animal sacrifices. To illustrate, Exodus 24:1-11 describes how God established a covenant with the people of Israel that was mediated by Moses (the so-called "Mosaic Covenant"). The Law of the Lord was read to the people, specifying the behavior that would be required of them in their new relationship with God. Israel then "responded with one voice, 'Everything the Lord has said we will do'" ( vv. 3,7). They agreed to enter into the type of covenantal relationship with God described by the Law. Next, animals were sacrificed and Moses sealed the covenant with blood: He "took the blood, sprinkled it on the people and said, 'This is the blood of the covenant that the Lord has made with you'" ( v. 8) - i.e., the sacrificial blood that seals or establishes the Mosaic Covenant. Finally, the elders of Israel, on behalf of the entire nation, ascended Mount Sinai, saw God, and ate and drank with him. They shared a "covenant meal" celebrating the new relationship with God Israel now enjoyed through the blood sacrifices.

During his last meal with his disciples - on the evening before his crucifixion - Jesus took simple bread and a cup of wine, and he used them to offer the most detailed explanation of his death in the Gospels:

When the hour came, Jesus and his apostles reclined at the table. And he said to them, "I have eagerly desired to eat this Passover with you before I suffer. For I tell you, I will not eat it again until it finds fulfilllment in the kingdom of God."

After taking the cup, he gave thanks and said, "Take this and divide it among you. For I tell you I will not drink again of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God comes."

And he took bread, gave thanks and broke it, and gave it to them, saying, "This is my body given for you; do this in remembrance of me."

In the same way, after the supper he took the cup, saying, "This cup is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you" (Luke 22:14-20).

Jesus says, "This is my body given for you (uJpeÉr uJmw'n, hyper hymôn) . . . . my blood, which is poured out for you (hyper hymôn)." Although not readily apparent in English translation, this is sacrificial language from the Greek version of the Old Testament. Jesus is saying that his impending death will be a sacrifice. But what kind of sacrifice? The Lord tells them: "This cup is the new covenant in my blood." He uses language nearly identical to that employed in Exodus 24:8 ("This is the blood of the covenant") to identify his death precisely as the kind of sacrifice that establishes a covenant. What covenant? Not the Mosaic Covenant, but a "new covenant." What, then, is the significance of the ritual meal of bread and wine - the "Eucharist" or "Lord's Supper" Jesus commands his disciples to observe "in remembrance of me"? It is the "covenant meal" celebrating the establishment of the "new covenant" through Jesus' sacrifice. Who participates in this "new covenant"? God, who sent Jesus to establish the covenant, and Jesus' disciples - those from "all nations" (see Matt 28:19), Jews and Gentiles alike , who accept God's lordship over their lives as exercised through his Messiah. In other words, those persons to whom the "covenant meal" is offered. Finally, when may Jesus' disciples participate in this "new covenant" relationship with God? The answer is: Both now and, more completely, in the future. The "new covenant" was established in the past by Jesus' sacrificial death. It is in place now, in the present , so that Jesus' disciples - who were once "God's enemies" - are now at "peace with God" and "reconciled to him through the death of his Son" (Rom 5:1,10). Yet disciples of Christ will experience this new relationship with God on an even deeper, more intimate level, in the future - when they are raised from the dead, when they "see him as he is" (1 John 3:2), when the new covenant "finds fulfilllment in the [consummated] kingdom of God."

Who participates in the Kingdom of God - the coming "new creation" in which every detail will conform to the will of God? All those who share in the "new covenant." And who participates in the "new covenant"? All those who choose to be disciples of Jesus. All those who conform to the will of God as he makes that will known through his Messiah. All those who embrace God's kingdom rule over their lives in Christ. In essence, Jesus offers "all nations" a place in the kingdom of God now in the form of the "new covenant" established by his sacrificial death. This truth is extremely important: Jesus' death on the cross forgives sins not merely in the sense that, through it, God pardons wrong deeds. (The sinner receiving such a pardon would still be trapped in a fallen world and doomed to death.) Jesus' death forgives sins in the sense that it provides an escape from the "present evil age" - and entrance into the emerging kingdom of God - in the form of a "new covenant" relationship with God. By his sacrificial death, Jesus shattered the kingdom of Satan, the powers of sin and death, and thus established the kingdom of God. The New Testament writers testify to this wonderful truth:

. . . the Lord Jesus Christ . . . gave himself for our sins to rescue us from the present evil age, according to the will of our God and Father . . . (Gal 1:3-4).

Since the children have flesh and blood, he too shared in their humanity so that by his death he might destroy him who holds the power of death - that is, the devil - and free those who all their lives were held in slavery by their fear of death (Heb 2:14-15).

[God] has rescued us from the dominion of darkness and brought us into the kingdom of the Son he loves, in whom we have redemption, the forgiveness of sins (Col 1:13-14).

. . . our Savior, Christ Jesus, . . . has destroyed death and has brought life and immortality to light through the gospel (2 Tim 1:10).

Since death came through a man [Adam], the resurrection of the dead comes also through a man [Jesus Christ] (1 Cor 15:21).

Jesus is the full realization of the Old Testament and apocalyptic hopes. He is the "son of Adam" who crushes the serpent's head for his disciples by dying to make a place for them in God's kingdom. He is the "Son of Abraham" who offers this blessing to "all people on earth." He is the "Son of David" who rules over an eternal Kingdom - not through military force, but by dying as a sacrifice for his people. He is the promised one who freely offers "new heavens and a new earth" to all who desire it - to everyone willing to live as his disciple, willing to accept the beneficent rule of God over his or her life.

(5) The Kingdom of God and the Resurrection of Jesus . Jesus died on the cross, and on the third day - much to the surprise of his disciples - God raised him from the dead. What is the meaning and significance of his resurrection? Many answers to that question are found in the New Testament, but we shall mention only four: First, the fact that Jesus was raised from the dead means that he is our contemporary, that he continues to live and work among us. His Spirit is continuously present with us today in accordance with the promise he gave to his first disciples: "Surely I am with you always, to the consummation of the age" (Matt 28:20).

Second, Jesus' return from the grave shows that life after death is possible. Furthermore, such life takes the form of resurrection, by which the biblical writers mean transformed, bodily existence in the eschatological age . Resurrection is a bodily form of existence in the sense that, like the risen Jesus, raised persons possess bodies (sw'ma, sôma). They are not ghosts or disembodied spirits. Like Jesus, they also retain their memories, their personalities, their identities - everything that made them who they were before death, everything that made them some body . (The Greek idea of the sôma includes both the "body" in the sense of the "physical frame" and the "body" in the sense of the "person.") Resurrection is a transformed kind of existence in the sense that, like Jesus, raised persons enjoy a better, higher, more glorious, more exalted, more lasting form of existence than they knew before death. Resurrection is existence in the eschatological age in the sense described below.

Third, the resurrection of Jesus marks the beginning of the general resurrection of the righteous anticipated by the apocalyptists. Thus Paul calls Christ "the firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep" (1 Cor 15:20) and "the firstborn from among the dead" (Col 1:18) - that is, the first of many to rise from death to eternal life. This is why Christ's resurrection was more than an anomaly, why it gives Christians sure hope for their own resurrection. Jesus' emergence from the tomb shows that the apocalyptists' hopes were not misplaced - that there is indeed such a thing as the resurrection, that it has begun, and that we should expect for many more to be raised in the future. When will this "general resurrection" take place? Jesus indicated that it would occur at his "Second Coming" or "Parousia" (from the Greek term parousiva for "coming," "arrival" or "appearing"), when he returns to carry out the final judgment and consummate the kingdom of God. Paul describes this event in 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18:

Brothers, we do not want you to be ignorant about those who fall asleep, or to grieve like the rest of men, who have no hope. We believe that Jesus died and rose again and so we believe that God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him. According to the Lord's own word, we tell you that we who are still alive, who are left till the coming [ parousia ] of the Lord, will certainly not precede those who have fallen asleep. For the Lord himself will come down from heaven, with a loud command, with the voice of the archangel and with the trumpet call of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. After that, we who are still alive and are left will be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air. And so we will be with the Lord forever. Therefore encourage each other with these words (1 Thess 4:13-18).

From that time forward, "there will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away" (Rev 21:4).

Fourth, the resurrection of Jesus marks the beginning of the eschatological age and the kingdom of God. The Jewish apocalyptists had predicted that the resurrection of the dead would announce the coming of God's kingdom (see above). The resurrection of Jesus, "the firstborn from among the dead," showed his first disciples that the anticipated event had begun - that God was beginning to fulfilll his eschatological promises, that the kingdom of God had arrived. At the same time, the fact that sin and evil continued to mar the world, the fact that human beings continued to die, demonstrated to first century Christians that the kingdom of Satan had not yet entirely passed away. In light of these two undeniable realities (the continued presence of evil in the world and the eschatological event of Christ's resurrection), they concluded that God's intention must be to establish his kingdom more gradually than the Jewish apocalyptists had anticipated. In other words, the "present evil age" and the "eschatological age" would coexist - or "overlap" - for a time.

Day of the

Sin of Adam Lord

& Eve

PRESENT EVIL AGE

(Kingdom of Satan)

Eternal life for

"Labor pains" righteous Jews and Gentiles

Rebellion ("overlap" of the ages)

in heaven

ESCHATOLOGICAL AGE

(Kingdom of God)

Creation Messiah comes Messiah returns

Resurrection

Final Judgment

Fig. 2. The Shape of Christian Apocalyptic Theology

In the recent past, the kingdom of God had invaded the kingdom of Satan with the coming, the ministry, the death, and the resurrection of the Messiah. In the present (which becomes the period of "labor pains" in Christian theology - see below), God is allowing the two kingdoms, the two realities, to coexist. The "new covenant" is in place and Christians are embracing the kingdom of God over their lives; but death, the "last enemy," has not yet been completely "destroyed." In the future, however, Christ will return a second time to annihilate the kingdom of Satan and consummate the kingdom of God. In this way, Jesus' resurrection from the dead gave Christian theology its distinctive shape as compared to Jewish apocalyptic theology (compare Fig. 2 with Fig. 1).

Romans 13:11-14 shows that the Apostle Paul arrived at this understanding of God's actions in Christ. In this text, he compares the kingdom of Satan to the darkness or nighttime and the kingdom of God to the light or daytime:

And do this [i.e., live as kingdom people by obeying Christ's command to "love one another"], understanding the present time [oJ nu'n kairov" ( ho nyn kairos ), Paul's technical term for the "overlap" of the ages]. The hour has come for you to wake up from your slumber [i.e., act as if the daytime/kingdom of God has arrived and the nighttime/kingdom of Satan has ended], because our salvation [i.e., our resurrection to eternal life in the consummated kingdom of God] is nearer now than when we first believed. The night is nearly over [i.e., the kingdom of Satan has not entirely ended, but its days are numbered]; the day is almost here [i.e., the kingdom of God has not yet completely arrived, but it has "dawned"]. So let us put aside the deeds of darkness and put on the armor of light. Let us behave decently, as in the daytime [i.e., as if God's kingdom rule had already fully come], not in orgies and drunkenness, not in sexual immorality and debauchery, not in dissension and jealousy. Rather, clothe yourselves with the Lord Jesus Christ, and do not think about how to gratify the desires of the sinful nature.

That the "overlap" of the ages was Jesus' own understanding of God's plan is shown by his masterful Parable of the Weeds:

Jesus told them another parable: "The kingdom of heaven [ = the kingdom of God - the sovereignty God exercises from the heavenly sphere, rather than any human sovereignty exercised from the earthly sphere] is like a man who sowed good seed in his field. But while everyone was sleeping, his enemy came and sowed weeds among the wheat, and went away. When the wheat sprouted and formed heads, then the weeds also appeared.

"The owner's servants came to him and said, 'Sir, didn't you sow good seed in your field? Where then did the weeds come from?'

"'An enemy did this,' he replied.

"The servants asked him, 'Do you want us to go and pull them up?'

"'No,' he answered, 'because while you are pulling the weeds, you may root up the wheat with them. Let both grow together [ = the "overlap" of the ages when the kingdom of Satan and kingdom of God coexist - see the interpretation of the parable given below] until the harvest. At that time I will tell the harvesters: First collect the weeds and tie them in bundles to be burned; then gather the wheat and bring it into my barn.'"

Then he left the crowd and went into the house. His disciples came to him and said, "Explain to us the parable of the weeds in the field."

He answered, "The one who sowed the good seed is the Son of Man [i.e., Jesus, the Messiah, who inaugurates the kingdom of God by preaching the gospel and dying as the sacrifice that makes it possible for people to become disciples/participants in the "new covenant"/"sons of the kingdom"]. The field is the world, and the good seed stands for the sons of the kingdom. The weeds are the sons of the evil one, and the enemy who sows them is the devil. The harvest is the end of the age [i.e., the final judgment when a division is made between the wicked and the righteous, when the "present evil age" is ended and the "eschatological age" comes in its fullness], and the harvesters are angels.

"As the weeds are pulled up and burned in the fire, so it will be at the end of the age. The Son of Man will send out his angels, and they will weed out of his kingdom everything that causes sin and all who do evil. [Note that Jesus considers the field/world to be his kingdom. God has never surrendered his good creation to the evil one, but at the final judgment will root out and destroy his evil works.] They will throw them into the fiery furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth [i.e., eschatological condemnation for the wicked]. Then the righteous will shine like the sun [i.e., the radiant glory of the resurrection body] in the kingdom of their Father. He who has ears, let him hear" (Matt 13:24-30,36-43).

d. Major Differences between Jewish and Christian Apocalyptic Theology

Jewish apocalyptic is indeed "the mother of Christian theology." The first Christians interpret Jesus in apocalyptic terms, as the Lord himself taught them to do. However, while Jesus does fulfill apocalyptic expectations, he does not do it in the way most Jews expect. Consequently, their first-hand experience with God's Messiah leads the early Christians to recast apocalyptic theology in several significant ways (again, compare Fig. 1 with Fig. 2).

(1) Identity of the Messiah . Christian apocalyptic writers name Jesus of Nazareth as the promised Messiah who destroys the kingdom of Satan and establishes the kingdom of God. Non-Christian Jewish apocalyptists do not, of course, make that identification.

(2) The Coming of God's Kingdom. From the point of view of Jewish apocalyptists, the coming of God's kingdom rule lies in the future, at the long-anticipated "Day of the Lord." In contrast, Jesus' first disciples see the kingdom as both a present and a future reality. They proclaim not that God has made promises that he will someday fulfill, but that he has made promises that he has already begun to fulfill in their own lifetime. The kingdom of God has begun to appear with the first coming of Jesus. With his Second Coming it will reach its sudden and swift consummation. In other words, for Jewish apocalyptists the kingdom of God comes suddenly in the future. For Christian apocalyptists it comes more gradually, in two stages.

Scholars sometimes refer to this idea as "the already, but not yet" of Christian theology. The kingdom of God has already broken into history with the coming of Jesus, but it has not yet come in its fullness. Another way of saying this is that Christian theology contains a strong element of "realized eschatology." This is the belief that many of the eschatological events (e.g., the "labor pains," the coming of the Messiah, the resurrection, the coming of God's kingdom) are already, to some extent, being "realized" or experienced in the present.

(3) The "Labor Pains." Jewish apocalyptists view the period immediately preceding the consummation of God's kingdom as the "labor pains" - a time of intense suffering and persecution for God's people. Christian writers agree that the "labor pains" precede the consummation. However, they differ from their predecessors by identifying the "labor pains" with the period between Christ's first and second comings - the "overlap" of the ages.

(4) Participants in God's Kingdom . Both Jewish and Christian apocalyptists agree that resurrection to eternal life in the consummated kingdom of God is for the "righteous" - that is, for covenant-keepers. They disagree regarding which covenant leads to this salvation. Jewish apocalyptists reserve resurrection to life for persons who participate in the Mosaic covenant and obey the Mosaic Law. In most cases, this limits salvation to Jews, since the Mosaic Law was given to the Jewish people. Christian apocalyptists believe that salvation comes to those who share in the new covenant established by Christ's sacrificial death. This new covenant is based not on Jewish descent, but on "faith" or commitment to God/Christ as Lord. It therefore opens the way for both Jews and Gentiles to enter the rule of God.

(5) Expectation and Fulfillment. The gap between Jewish expectation and the actual fulfilllment of God's promises proved a stumbling block to many Jews of the first century. Luke shows that even John the Baptist was bewildered by the way in which Jesus carried out his messianic mission:

John's disciples told him about all these things [Jesus was doing]. Calling two of them, he sent them to the Lord to ask, "Are you the one who was to come, or should we expect someone else?"

When the men came to Jesus, they said, "John the Baptist sent us to you to ask, 'Are you the one who was to come, or should we expect someone else?'"

At that very time Jesus cured many who had diseases, sicknesses and evil spirits, and gave sight to many who were blind. So he replied to the messengers, "Go back and report to John what you have seen and heard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosy are cured, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good news is preached to the poor. [As we have seen, all these activities are manifestations of the end of Satan's rule and the coming of God's rule through Jesus the Messiah.] Blessed is the man who does not fall away on account of me" (Luke 7:18-23//Matt 11:2-6).

In other words, blessed is the one who does not miss the coming of the Messiah and God's kingdom because Jesus does not fulfill the apocalyptic prophecies in the way that most Jews expect.

The Revelation of John is an expression of Christian apocalyptic theology in the apocalyptic form. For this reason, its message goes far beyond that of non-Christian apocalypses. Christian theology is rooted in Jewish apocalyptic theology, but Jesus Christ transforms apocalyptic expectation in significant ways.

IV. AUTHOR, DATE, PLACE OF WRITING,

OCCASION, AND FIRST READERS

Before examining the message of Revelation, we must first address several important introductory questions concerning this book: Who is the author? When was the book written? Where was the author when he wrote the book? To whom was Revelation written? What occasion or situation does the author address? In seeking answers to these questions, we will examine both internal evidence (i.e., answers found within Revelation itself) and external evidence (i.e., clues to the origin of Revelation from outside the book).

A. INTERNAL EVIDENCE

In the first chapter of Revelation, the author provides us with important information concerning himself and his intended readers:

John,

To the seven churches in the province of Asia: (Rev 1:4)

I, John, your brother and companion in the suffering and kingdom and patient endurance that are ours in Jesus, was on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus. On the Lord's Day I was in the Spirit, and I heard behind me a loud voice like a trumpet, which said: "Write on a scroll what you see and send it to the seven churches: to Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea" (Rev 1:9-11).

1. First Readers

The author identifies his audience as "the seven churches in the province of Asia" - specifically the Christian congregations in the cities of "Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea." The Roman "province of Asia" made up the western third of Asia Minor (modern Turkey), with Ephesus serving as the provincial capital. The churches here had historical ties to the Apostle Paul, who established several congregations in this region during the late 40s and early 50s. For two or three years, Paul used Ephesus as his base of operations for training leaders and evangelizing the whole province (see Acts 19:8-10). John's "seven churches" may refer to seven literal churches. However, since the number "seven" tends to symbolize "completeness" in apocalyptic literature, these churches probably represent the whole of the Christian community in Asia.

The Asian churches were mixed bodies of Gentile and Jewish believers, reflecting the ethnic diversity of the province. By the late first century, about one million Jews made their homes in Asia Minor where they established more than fifty synagogues. Some had migrated to Asia from Palestine after the Jewish revolt against Rome in A.D. 66-73. Jewish Christians from Palestine would have been familiar with apocalyptic, for many apocalypses were produced in Palestine during this period.

2. Author

The author's name is "John." He calls himself a "brother" - that is, a Christian. He functions as a prophet or spokesman for God.

Revelation contains several indications that the author was a Palestinian Jew: First, the name "John" (=Iwavnnh", Iôannçs), a Greek form of the Hebrew "Johanan" (meaning "the LORD is gracious"), was common among first century Jews. Second, the structure and phrasing of Revelation suggest that the author thought in Hebrew (the original language of the Jewish Scriptures) and/or Aramaic (the closely related language spoken by ethnic Jews in Palestine). He spoke Greek only as a second language. Third, through over one hundred allusions to the Scriptures, the author demonstrates extensive knowledge of the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, as well as the Greek. Fourth, John writes in the apocalyptic genre, which was most popular in Jewish circles in Palestine. Finally, symbols such as Armageddon (Rev 16:16), the new Jerusalem (21:2), and the temple (11:1-2) are based on actual places located in Palestine (although such knowledge could have been drawn not from firsthand exposure but from the Old Testament). It may be, then, that the author of Revelation was one of the Jewish Christians who moved to Asia from Palestine due to the war with Rome. Who this "John" was cannot be determined from the book of Revelation in itself.

3. Occasion and Place of Writing

John identifies with his readers by describing himself as their "companion in suffering . . . and patient endurance." John himself has been exiled to the island of Patmos, just off the western coast of Asia, "because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus." Other portions of Revelation (particularly the letters to the seven churches in chs. 2-3) show that at least some of John's readers are also being persecuted for their faith. To Ephesus and Smyrna the Lord writes:

You have persevered and have endured hardships for my name, and have not grown weary (Rev 2:3).

I know your afflictions and your poverty - yet you are rich! I know the slander of those who say they are Jews and are not, but are a synagogue of Satan. Do not be afraid of what you are about to suffer. I tell you, the devil will put some of you in prison to test you, and you will suffer persecution for ten days. Be faithful, even to the point of death, and I will give you the crown of life (Rev 2:9-10).

Christ mentions past afflictions, hardships, poverty, and slanders from Jews. When he speaks of "what you are about to suffer," he anticipates still more difficulties to come - persecution, imprisonment, and perhaps even death.

The Lord addresses these words to the church in Pergamum:

I know where you live - where Satan has his throne. Yet you remain true to my name. You did not renounce your faith in me, even in the days of Antipas, my faithful witness, who was put to death in your city - where Satan lives (Rev 2:13).

At the time when John writes Revelation, Christians in Asia are under intense pressure to renounce their faith in Christ. At least one martyrdom (Antipas) has already occurred.

Philadelphia and Laodicea receive these assurances:

I know your deeds, your love and faith, your service and perseverance, and that you are now doing more than you did at first (Rev 2:19).

I know your deeds. See, I have placed before you an open door that no one can shut. I know that you have little strength, yet you have kept my word and have not denied my name. I will make those who are of the synagogue of Satan, who claim to be Jews though they are not, but are liars - I will make them come and fall down at your feet and acknowledge that I have loved you. Since you have kept my command to endure patiently, I will also keep you from the hour of trial that is going to come upon the whole world to test those who live on the earth (Rev 3:8-10).

Again we see pressure to deny Christ, troubles with Jews, and an expectation of further hardships to come ("the hour of trial that is going to come upon the whole world").

The vision of the fifth seal describes multiple Christian martyrs, whose numbers will continue to grow:

When he opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar the souls of those who had been slain because of the word of God and the testimony they had maintained. They called out in a loud voice, "How long, Sovereign Lord, holy and true, until you judge the inhabitants of the earth and avenge our blood?" Then each of them was given a white robe, and they were told to wait a little longer, until the number of their fellow servants and brothers who were to be killed as they had been was completed (Rev 6:9-11).

John later sees a woman symbolizing Rome, with a golden cup, "drunk with the blood of the saints, the blood of those who bore testimony to Jesus" (Rev 17:6). She has not merely sipped from her gruesome cup; she has gorged herself with the blood of God's people to the point of intoxication. Numerous Christians are being murdered for their loyalty to Christ.

4. Summary

Internal evidence suggests that Revelation was written by a Jewish Christian from Palestine named "John." John received the Revelation on the island of Patmos, where he had been banished for witnessing to Christ. The book addresses all the churches in the Roman province of Asia. Together with John, these believers are being harassed and persecuted because of their commitment to Christ - some to the point of death. At the time of writing, the author expects the suffering to continue and the number of martyrs to grow.

B. EXTERNAL EVIDENCE

Revelation itself gives us a good start in discovering the origins of this book. Yet important questions remain unanswered: When was Revelation written? Precisely why were the first readers being persecuted and killed? Who is John? For insights into these issues, we turn to "external evidence" from outside the New Testament.

1. Author

Regarding the identity of "John," three possibilities seem most likely: First, the author could be John the Apostle, brother of James and son of Zebedee, one of the original Twelve disciples of Jesus (see Matt 10:2). Second, he could be someone writing in the name of John the Apostle, in which case Revelation would be pseudonymous like so many other apocalypses. Third, the writer could be some other person named "John" writing in his own name.

a. "John" a Pseudonym?

Of these three possibilities, we may eliminate the second immediately. Revelation is certainly not pseudonymous - not because such a practice would be unthinkable in a Christian apocalypse, but because the evidence makes this theory untenable. The author of Revelation never gives any indication that he is an Apostle. He simply calls himself a "servant" of God (21:1) and "your brother" (21:9). He recounts no stories or sayings from the ministry of Jesus, nor does he give any other indication that he had known Jesus during his earthly ministry. Many scholars (this writer not included) think that the author actually distinguishes himself from the Apostles in Revelation 21:14: "The wall of the city had twelve foundations, and on them were the names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb" - that is, the past founders of the people of God.

If the author of Revelation is someone other than John the Apostle, then this easily explains why he does not identify himself as the Apostle. If the author actually is John the Apostle, then we could attribute his silence to modesty. (The author of the Gospel and letters attributed to John displays similar modesty, being more interested in telling others about Jesus than in telling them about himself.) However, if what we have in Revelation is someone who wants to present himself as John the Apostle, then he fails miserably by never clearly identifying himself as that hero of the faith. The theory of pseudonymity seems quite implausible in the case of Revelation.

b. Evidence from the Early Christian Fathers

We are left, then, with two possibilities: Is the author of Revelation John the Apostle, or is he some other "John" entirely? Perhaps the Early Christian Fathers can help us with this question. As leaders of the Church in the postapostolic period, they were certainly closer to John in time and space than we are. What do they tell us regarding the origin of Revelation?

(1) Timeline. Before we put the Fathers on the "witness stand," we should acquaint ourselves with the time period in question. Revelation - like all New Testament books - was written during the first century A.D. Thirteen Roman emperors reigned during that century, as outlined below:

Augustus (30 B.C.-A.D 14) was emperor at the time of Jesus' birth (which took place in 4-6 B.C. - see Luke 2:1) and also during his boyhood.

Tiberius (A.D. 14-37) ruled throughout the period of Jesus' adulthood, his public ministry (see Luke 3:1), and his death and resurrection (which occurred in A.D. 33).

Caligula, Claudius (mentioned in Acts 11:28

Caligula (37-41) and 18:2), and Nero reigned during the period when the Apostle Paul carried out

Claudius (41-54) his mission to the Gentiles and Christianity spread across the Mediterranean world.

Nero (54-68) According to the Church Fathers, both Peter and Paul died under a persecution of Christians sparked by Nero.

Galba, Otho, and Vitellius (68-69) held power only briefly as the Empire suffered through a period of murder, intrigue, and civil war.

Vespasian (69-79) was the Roman general charged with putting down the Jewish revolt that began in A.D. 66. When his forces defeated Vitellius and made him emperor, Vespasian left the siege of Jerusalem to return to Rome.

Titus (79-81), the son of Vespasian, took over his father's command and destroyed Jerusalem in A.D. 70. He later succeeded his father as emperor.

Domitian (81-96) According to the Church Fathers, Domitian (another son of Vespasian), Nerva, and Trajan

Nerva (96-98) played a role in the events surrounding the writing of Revelation (see below).

Trajan (98-117)

Against this background, what do the Church Fathers tell us about "John" and the writing of Revelation? Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Eusebius prove particularly helpful to our inquiry.

(2) The Testimony of Justin Martyr. Our earliest evidence that Revelation was written by John the Apostle comes from Justin Martyr, a teacher of the church at Rome in the mid-second century. In his Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, Justin recalls:

. . . a man among us [Christians] named John, one of Christ's Apostles, received a revelation and foretold that the followers of Christ would dwell in Jerusalem for a thousand years, and that afterwards the universal and, in short, everlasting resurrection and judgment would take place. (Justin refers to John's vision in Rev 20:4-22:5.)

As we will see, some of Justin's fellow believers agree that the Apostle wrote Revelation, while others have their doubts.

(3) The Testimony of Irenaeus. During the late second century, Irenaeus served as bishop of Lyons in what is now France. In Against Heresies (ca. 180), a refutation of Gnosticism, he defends the apostolic origin of the Christian gospel. In the process, he provides details concerning the later life of John the Apostle.

For we learned the plan of our salvation from no others than from those through whom the gospel came to us. They first preached it abroad, and then later by the will of God handed it down to us in Writings, to be the foundation and pillar of our faith. For it is not right to say that they preached before they had come to perfect knowledge, as some [Gnostics] dare to say, boasting that they are the correctors of the apostles. For after our Lord had risen from the dead, and they were enclothed with the power from on high when the Holy Spirit came upon them, they were filled with all things and had perfect knowledge. They went out to the ends of the earth, preaching the good things that come to us from God, and proclaiming peace from heaven to men, all and each of them equally being in possession of the gospel of God. So Matthew among the Hebrews issued a Writing of the gospel in their own tongue, while Peter and Paul were preaching the gospel at Rome, and founding the Church. After their decease Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, also handed down to us in writing what Peter had preached. Then Luke, the follower of Paul, recorded in a book the gospel as it was preached by him. Finally John, the disciple of the Lord, who had also lain on his breast, published the Gospel, while he was residing at Ephesus in Asia. All of these handed down to us that there is one God, maker of heaven and earth, proclaimed by the Law and the Prophets, and one Christ the Son of God. If anyone does not agree with them he despises the companions of the Lord, he despises Christ the Lord himself, he even despises the Father, and he is self-condemned, resisting and refusing his own salvation, as all the heretics do.

Note that, according to Irenaeus, the Fourth Gospel was written by the Apostle John (whom he identifies with the "disciple whom Jesus loved," who reclined next to the Lord at the "Last Supper" - see John 13:23). The bishop also identifies John's home at the time of the writing as Ephesus in the Roman province of Asia.

Elsewhere in Against Heresies , Irenaeus writes:

The church in Ephesus also, which was founded by Paul, and where John survived until the time of Trajan, is a true witness of the tradition of the apostles.

Here the writer again locates John at Ephesus. Furthermore, he dates John's death to the reign of Trajan (A.D. 98-117). If John was as young as fifteen when called to be Jesus' disciple in about A.D. 30, then the Apostle would have been eighty-three years old when Trajan's reign began in A.D. 98. The Apostle John could have been in his nineties - or even one hundred years old - when he died (hence the rumors that he would not die mentioned in John 21).

(4) The Testimony of Eusebius, Origen, and Papias. Eusebius was bishop of Caesarea in Palestine and a confidant of Constantine, the first Christian emperor of Rome. After Constantine legalized Christianity, Eusebius wrote a History of the Church from its origins with Jesus and the Apostles to his own time in A.D. 325. In constructing this history, he used a number of sources, including the writings of Origen (Christian teacher in Caesarea active during the first half of the third century) and Papias (a bishop from Phyrgia who lived in the early second century). In several passages, Eusebius discusses the authorship of Revelation.

Meanwhile the holy apostles and disciples of our Saviour were scattered over the whole world. Thomas, tradition tells us, was chosen for Parthia, Andrew for Scythia, John for Asia, where he remained till his death at Ephesus. Peter seems to have preached in Pontus, Galatia and Bithynia, Cappadocia and Asia, to the Jews of the Dispersion. Finally, he came to Rome where he was crucified, head downwards at his own request. What need be said of Paul, who from Jerusalem as far as Illyricum preached in all its fulness the gospel of Christ, and later was martyred in Rome under Nero? This is exactly what Origen tells us in Volume III of his Commentary on Genesis.

Note that Peter and Paul were martyred at Rome during the reign of Nero, who persecuted Christians there. Furthermore, Eusebius - like Irenaeus - places John's death at Ephesus.

Elsewhere Eusebius describes a later persecution carried out against Christians by another emperor after Nero:

Many were victims of Domitian's appalling cruelty. At Rome great numbers of men distinguished by birth and attainments were executed without a fair trial, and countless other eminent men were for no reason at all banished from the country and their property confiscated. Finally, he showed himself the successor of Nero in enmity and hostility to God. He was, in fact, the second to organize persecution against us, though his father Vespasian had had no mischievous designs against us.

There is ample evidence that at that time the apostle and evangelist John was still alive, and because of his testimony to the word of God was sentenced to confinement on the island of Patmos. Writing about the number of the name given to antichrist in what is called the Revelation of John, Irenaeus has this to say about John in Book V of his Heresies Answered :

Had there been any need for his name to be openly announced at the present time, it would have been stated by the one who saw the actual revelation. For it was seen not a long time back, but almost in my own lifetime, at the end of Domitian's reign. . . .

After fifteen years of Domitian's rule Nerva succeeded to the throne. By vote of the Roman senate Domitian's honours were removed, and those unjustly banished returned to their homes and had their property restored to them. This is noted by the chroniclers of the period. At that time too the apostle John, after his exile on the island, resumed residence at Ephesus, as early Christian tradition records.

According to Eusebius, Domitian carried out an organized persecution against Christians involving confiscation of property, banishment, and executions. He was the second Roman emperor to persecute Christians after Nero. During this time, John the Apostle was exiled to the island of Patmos. There he wrote the Revelation "at the end of Domitian's reign" (i.e., A.D. 95-96). After Domitian's death and during the reign of Nerva (A.D. 96-98), John was released from Patmos and allowed to return to his home at Ephesus.

The author of Revelation identifies himself as "John" (Rev 1:1,4, 9). Eusebius quotes Irenaeus, who suggests that this was probably ("ample evidence") the same John who wrote the Fourth Gospel - that is, John the Apostle. Irenaeus also says that the "antichrist" mentioned in Revelation refers to Domitian, and that his identity would have been clear to anyone living at that time.

If Eusebius' information is correct, then we have the author, date, occasion, and an important key to understanding the book of Revelation here in his History of the Church . We will see, however, that Eusebius and other Christians of his time were not certain that this tradition was entirely accurate.

The bishop continues:

Now let me indicate the unquestioned writings of this apostle [John]. Obviously his gospel, recognized as it is by all the churches in the world, must first be acknowledged. . . .

Of John's writings, besides the gospel, the first of the epistles has been accepted as unquestionably his by scholars both of the present and of a much earlier period: the other two are disputed. As to the Revelation, the views of most people to this day are evenly divided.

Note that, by A.D. 325 (when Eusebius writes his History ), the fourth Gospel and 1 John are generally considered compositions of John the Apostle. However, the authorship of 2-3 John and Revelation are still disputed. Many Christians doubt the "ample evidence" given by Irenaeus and the other Church Fathers.

Eusebius therefore suggests an alternative theory:

Papias has left us five volumes entitled The Sayings of the Lord Explained . These are mentioned by Irenaeus as the only works from his pen:

To these things Papias, who had listened to John and was later a companion of Polycarp, and who lived at a very early date, bears written testimony in the fourth of his books; he composed five.

That is what Irenaeus says; but Papias himself in the preface of his work makes it clear that he was never a hearer or eyewitness of the holy apostles, and tells us that he learnt the essentials of the Faith from their former pupils:

I shall not hesitate to furnish you, along with the interpretations, with all that in days gone by I carefully learnt from the presbyters and have carefully recalled, for I can guarantee its truth. Unlike most people, I felt at home not with those who had a great deal to say, but with those who taught the truth; not with those who appeal to commandments from other sources but with those who appeal to the commandments given by the Lord to faith and coming to us from truth itself. And whenever anyone came who had been a follower of the presbyters, I inquired into the words of the presbyters, what Andrew or Peter had said, or Philip or Thomas or James or John or Matthew, or any other disciple of the Lord, and what Aristion [the reputed author of the present ending of the Second Gospel - i.e., Mark 16:9-20] and the presbyter John, disciples of the Lord, were still saying. For I did not imagine that things out of books would help me as much as the utterances of a living and abiding voice.

Here it should be observed that he twice includes the name of John. The first John he puts in the same list as Peter, James, Matthew, and the rest of the apostles, obviously with the evangelist in mind; the second, with a changed form of expression, he places in a second group outside the number of the apostles, giving precedence to Aristion and clearly calling John a presbyter. He thus confirms the truth of the story that two men in Asia had the same name, and that there were two tombs in Ephesus, each of which is still called John's. This is highly significant, for it is likely that the second - if we cannot accept the first - saw the Revelation that bears the name of John. Papias, whom we are now discussing, owns that he learnt the words of the apostles from their former followers, but says that he listened to Aristion and the presbyter John with his own ears. Certainly he often mentions them by name, and reproduces their teachings in his writings.

Eusebius raises the possibility that there were two Christian leaders, living in Ephesus, who shared the name "John" - namely, John the Apostle and John the Presbyter. He suggests that perhaps John the Presbyter is the "John" who was exiled to Patmos and who wrote the Revelation.

c. Conclusions

We possess significant external evidence from the Early Christian Fathers that John the Apostle wrote Revelation. Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Origen, Papias, and others, together suggest that, later in life, the Apostle moved from Palestine to Ephesus in the Roman province of Asia. There he wrote the fourth Gospel and three New Testament epistles (1-3 John). During the persecution carried out by Domitian, he was exiled to the island of Patmos, where he received the Revelation. After Domitian's death, during the reign of Nerva, John returned to Ephesus. He died during the reign of Trajan after living an unusually long life. The external evidence meshes well with internal evidence suggesting that the author was a Palestinian Jew, exiled to Patmos, writing to Christians in Asia during a time of severe persecution. That John the Apostle wrote Revelation has been the traditional view of the church for centuries.

However, we have seen that - even in ancient times - there were many Christians who doubted this conclusion. As late as A.D. 325, when Eusebius wrote his History of the Church , opinions regarding the apostolic origin of Revelation were "evenly divided." As far back as A.D. 250, Dionysius of Alexandria questioned whether the same person who composed the simple yet profound language of the fourth Gospel and Johannine Epistles could have written the complicated prose of Revelation. (Of course, some of the differences must be attributed to the radically different genre of an apocalypse.) The controversy over whether or not Revelation should be included in the Christian canon was not finally settled until the Councils of Hippo (A.D. 393) and Carthage (A.D. 397).

Did early Church Fathers, such as Justin and Irenaeus, attribute the Revelation to John because they had solid, reliable information that the Apostle did indeed write the book? Or were they making an intelligent (but not necessarily correct) guess based on what evidence they had? For example, did they say that the Apostle John moved to Asia because they knew that he did? Or did they assume that the "John" who wrote Revelation was the Apostle, take note that this "John" was in Asia, and therefore assume that John the Apostle moved to Asia?

The fact that the authorship of Revelation was still heavily debated in Eusebius's time indicates that the early Church lacked solid proof one way or the other. For this reason, we must acknowledge the very real possibility that Revelation was written by someone other than John the Apostle - perhaps by John the Presbyter. We possess very good evidence that Revelation was written by John the Apostle, but not conclusive evidence.

2. Date

According to Irenaeus (see above), John wrote Revelation at the end of Domitian's reign - that is, about A.D. 95 or 96. This date is almost certainly accurate for the reasons given below.

We have already seen that Revelation was written at a time when Christians were beginning to be persecuted and killed by Roman authorities in Asia. The author expected the harassment and killings to escalate. We have also seen that, according to the Church Fathers, second century Christians possessed an historical recollection of two great persecutions during the first century. The earliest occurred during the reign of Nero in A.D. 64 or 65. At that time there was a great fire in Rome. Rumor had it that Nero wanted to build some new buildings, so he had the fire started in order to burn down a lower class part of town to make room for new construction. The fire burned out of control and destroyed a large portion of the city. Nero first tried to use the Jews as scapegoats. When that tactic failed, he blamed the Christians. Large numbers were executed with tortures that sickened even the Romans. Tacitus, a Roman historian writing about fifty years later, describes that terrible time:

But neither human help, nor imperial munificence, nor all the modes of placating Heaven, could stifle scandal or dispel the belief that the fire had taken place by order [of Nero]. Therefore, to scotch the rumor, Nero substituted as culprits, and punished with the utmost refinements of cruelty, a class of men, loathed for their vices, whom the crowd styled Christians. Christus, the founder of the name, had undergone the death penalty in the reign of Tiberius, by sentence of the procurator Pontius Pilate, and the pernicious superstition was checked for a moment, only to break out once more, not merely in Judaea, the home of the disease, but in the capital itself, where all things horrible or shameful in the world collect and find a vogue. First, then, the confessed members of the sect were arrested; next, on their disclosures, vast numbers were convicted, not so much on the count of arson as for hatred of the human race. And derision accompanied their end: they were covered with wild beasts' skins and torn to death by dogs; or they were fastened on crosses, and, when daylight failed were burned to serve as lamps by night. Nero had offered his Gardens for the spectacle, and gave an exhibition in his Circus, mixing with the crowd in the habit of a charioteer, or mounted on his car[riage]. Hence, in spite of a guilt which had earned the most exemplary punishment, there arose a sentiment of pity, due to the impression that they were being sacrificed not for the welfare of the state but to the ferocity of a single man.

Christians remembered Nero as a bloodthirsty "beast" from this time forward.

The second systematic persecution of Christians occurred late in the reign of Domitian, in A.D. 95-96. Roman historians leave no clear record of Domitian himself ever ordering such a persecution. However, church leaders such as Irenaeus and Eusebius testify to at least a localized persecution, in the province of Asia, carried out in Domitian's name (see above). The question, then, is which persecution prompted the writing of Revelation?

Revelation was probably written during the persecution of Domitian, rather than during the persecution of Nero, for the following reasons: First, John (like the authors of 1 Peter, 4 Ezra, and 2 Baruch) uses "Babylon" as a symbol for Rome. He views Rome as a second "Babylon" because, just as Babylon had destroyed Jerusalem and the temple in 587 B.C., so did Rome destroy Jerusalem and its temple in A.D. 70. At the time of Nero's reign (A.D. 54-68) the temple was still standing, so Rome had not yet become "Babylon." However, by Domitian's rule (A.D. 81-96), this potent symbol had become available to John.

Second, Revelation contains many allusions to Roman emperor worship (discussed below in Part 3). As we shall see, such worship was much more prevalent during the reign of Domitian than it was during the reign of Nero.

Third, Revelation frequently portrays Roman political authorities as Nero redivivus ("Nero revivified" or "Nero come back to life") because, like Nero before them, they persecute Christ's church. If he speaks of "Nero come back to life," then John must be writing after Nero's death rather than during the persecution he instigated. Nero redivivus imagery, then, is a symbolic way of referring to Domitian and his deadly agents. (For a fuller explanation of the Nero redivivus idea in Revelation, see the comments on 13:3.)

Finally, the Church Fathers say that John wrote Revelation late in the reign of Domitian (see above), which dates John's Apocalypse to A.D. 95-96.

3. Occasion: Persecution Related to

Emperor Worship in Asia Minor

Domitian's persecution of the church was partly due to the Christians' refusal to engage in emperor worship. What were the issues at stake in this practice, and how did believers respond to it?

a. Historical Background

Although worshiping kings as deities had a long history in the east, the practice did not enter the western world until the time of Alexander the Great (late fourth century B.C.). As the young ruler won victory after victory over Babylonia, Persia, and other eastern lands, the conquered peoples began to proclaim him a god. Alexander encouraged such worship because he thought it would help to unify the diverse peoples making up his empire.

Following his assassination on March 15, 44 B.C., Julius Caesar was declared a god by the Roman Senate. Afterwards it became customary to honor dead emperors in this way. On his deathbed Vespasian announced sarcastically, "I am already becoming a god!"

Tiberius and Claudius discouraged worship of living emperors. However, Nero, Vespasian, and Titus tolerated the practice for its political benefits. Caligula, who suffered from mental illness, was the first emperor who actually believed himself divine.

Domitian insisted on being worshiped as a god during his lifetime, which scandalized his biographer Suetonius:

When [Domitian] became emperor, he did not hesitate to boast in the senate that he had conferred their power on both his father (Vespasian) and his brother (Titus), and that they had but returned him his own; nor on taking back his wife after their divorce, that he had "recalled her to his divine couch." He delighted to hear the people in the amphitheatre shout on his feast day: "Good Fortune attend our Lord [ Dominus ] and Mistress.". . . With no less arrogance he began as follows in issuing a circular letter in the name of his procurators, "Our Master [ Dominus ] and our God [ Deus ] bids that this be done." And so the custom arose of henceforth addressing him in no other way even in writing or in conversation. He suffered no statues to be set up in his honour in the Capitol, except of gold and silver and of a fixed weight. He erected so many and such huge vaulted passage-ways and arches in the various regions of the city, adorned with chariots and triumphal emblems, that on one of them someone wrote in Greek: "It is enough."

During Domitian's reign, at least three of the seven cities to which John addressed the Revelation had temples dedicated to the worship of Caesar - namely, Ephesus, Smyrna and Pergamum. Since 29 B.C., Pergamum (called "the place where Satan has his throne" in Rev 2:13) had been the official center of emperor worship in Asia.

b. Emperor Worship in Daily Life

By the late first century, emperor worship touched many aspects of Roman life, embracing the political, the economic, and the social. Civic events and legal transactions included pledges of allegiance to Caesar as "Lord" and "God" (i.e., dominus and deus in Latin, or kuvrio" ( kyrios ) and qeov" ( theos ) in Greek - the biblical titles Christians used for God the Creator and his Son Jesus Christ). As they entered the theater, sporting competitions, gladiatorial games, or public festivals, citizens tossed a pinch of incense on a small altar as a sacrifice to the "divine Caesar." When animals were slaughtered to provide meat for the marketplace, a small portion was set aside as a sacrifice for the gods. Collegia (private men's clubs) and trade guilds (similar clubs made up of people who practiced the same vocation) held banquets honoring the emperor and their patron gods as silent guests.

Such practices were not necessarily taken seriously as major religious events. Rather, they were expressions of patriotism, national unity, and gratitude for the benevolent rule of the Roman emperor. They were the equivalent of saluting the flag or removing one's hat at the playing of the national anthem. However, refusal to participate called into question one's loyalty to the emperor, and this could lead to the most severe of consequences.

c. Exemptions for Jews and Christians

The only groups really troubled by such practices were Jews and Christians, who were monotheists believing in one God alone. To them, honoring Caesar (a mere man) as "Lord and God" was idolatry. To avoid this sin, Jews of the first century B.C. worked out an agreement that convinced the Romans of their loyalty to the empire: They agreed to pray for the emperor, but not to him. In the temple at Jerusalem they offered sacrifices for the benefit of Caesar, but not to Caesar. This arrangement satisfied the Romans that the Jews were not dangerous rebels, and it was preferable to fighting a war against irrational religious zealots. So Jews were exempted from worship of the Roman gods - including the emperor - and permitted to practice their own religion. Titus instituted a two-drachma tax on each Jew for continuing this special privilege.

At first, the Romans viewed Christians as simply another variety of Jew - messianic Jews. Christians therefore enjoyed the same exemption from emperor worship given to other Jews. Over time, several events altered their status: First, through the successful missionary activity of Paul and others, Christianity became a predominantly Gentile faith. Second, when Jews rebelled against Rome in A.D. 66-73, Christians began to distinguish themselves from that group in order to keep themselves out of trouble. Finally, after the war, Judaism closed ranks and expelled "heretics" such as Christians from the synagogues. Jews quit saying that the Christians were part of their community, which removed the churches' exemption from emperor worship.

d. Christian Responses to the Emperor Cult

How did Christians respond to this situation? Some favored acknowledging the emperor as "Lord," offering sacrifice to his image, and eating with the collegia as harmless expressions of patriotism. After all, they could hail Caesar as "god," giving him that title of honor, without really believing that he was a deity in the literal sense. Did not Jesus himself command us to "Give to Caesar what is Caesar's, and to God what is God's" (Matt 22:21)? Did not our beloved Apostle Paul teach us to "Submit to the governing authorities" (Rom 13:1)? Should we give up our social life, invite financial ruin, and even risk death over a pinch of incense that means nothing?!

Others argued that confessing Caesar as "Lord and god," and offering sacrifice to the "divine Caesar," was rank idolatry. And did not Christ also say, "Worship the Lord your God, and serve him only" (Matt 4:10)? Did not Paul also say that "for us there is but one God ( theos ) . . . and there is but one Lord ( kyrios )"? John belonged to this latter camp that wanted nothing to do with worshiping the emperor or the other Roman gods. He has harsh words for compromisers in Revelation 2-3.

To avoid committing idolatry, Christians tended to withdraw from much of the social life of the city. Over time, they gained a reputation for being a rather strange and suspicious group, antisocial and lacking community spirit. Eventually the gossip mill started up, and vicious rumors spread:

These Christians are so unpatriotic! They refuse to honor the emperor! And what do they do in those secret meetings of theirs? You don't suppose they are plotting some sort of rebellion, do you? Hmmm . . . wasn't their own leader, Christos, crucified for claiming to be a king?

I heard that those "love feasts" of theirs are incestuous orgies. They say Christos taught them to love their "brothers" and "sisters"!

It's even worse! I heard them talking about eating the flesh and drinking the blood of the "Son." They are sacrificing babies and practicing cannibalism!

These "Christ people" are impious atheists! They say idols are not real and refuse to worship any of our gods.

As their neighbors turned against them, Christians became subject to social and economic discrimination, pressures and harassment, unofficial mob violence, and the plundering of their property. Later books of the New Testament mention these kinds of persecution (see, e.g., Heb 10:34; 13:3; 1 Pet 4:14-16; 5:9).

Tensions focused on Christians' refusal to worship the emperor, for this was not simply a religious infraction but apparent political subversion. Domitian, who had once said, "Not good is a number of rulers," prosecuted this crime without mercy. A possible reference to Christians being punished for such transgressions appears in Dio Cassius' Roman History :

. . . the same year (i.e., A.D. 95) Domitian slew, along with many others, Flavius Clemens the consul, although he was a cousin and had to wife Flavia Domitilla, who was also a relative of the emperor's. The charge brought against them both was that of atheism (i.e., refusal to worship the Roman gods - including the emperor?), a charge on which many others who drifted into Jewish ways (i.e., many Christians?) were condemned . Some of these were put to death, and the rest were at least deprived of their property. Domitilla was merely banished to [the island of] Pandateria.

Note that Dio describes events of the year 95, the very time period in which John wrote Revelation. Note also the kinds of penalties Domitian prescribed for "atheism" - namely, confiscation of property, banishment to an island (as John was exiled to Patmos), and death (as Antipas was killed in Pergamum).

There were political, social, and economic benefits to be gained by turning Christians over to the Roman authorities. For example, if there were two silversmiths in a city, and one was a Christian, then the other could eliminate his competitor by accusing the "disloyal" Christian. Jews could purge their synagogues of "heretics" by reporting that Christians were not true Jews and therefore not entitled to exemption from emperor worship. One's social or political rivals could be removed by posting an anonymous notice exposing them as Christians. The emperor cult handed a deadly weapon to anyone with a grudge or petty jealousy against any Christian.

e. The Correspondence of Pliny and Trajan

Unfortunately, we have no historical documents from Domitian's reign detailing governmental policy toward Christians in Asia. However, we do possess a series of official letters exchanged by Pliny Secundus, the Roman governor of Bithynia, and the Emperor Trajan. Bithynia was just north of Asia, and the letters were written only fifteen or sixteen years after Revelation, in A.D. 111-112. So this correspondence may offer a glimpse into the kinds of pressures faced by Christians during John's time.

Pliny to the Emperor Trajan

It is my custom to refer all my difficulties to you, Sir, for no one is better able to resolve my doubts and to inform my ignorance.

I have never been present at an examination of Christians. Consequently, I do not know the nature or the extent of the punishments usually meted out to them, nor the grounds for starting an investigation and how far it should be pressed. Nor am I at all sure whether any distinction should be made between them on the grounds of age, or if young people and adults should be treated alike; whether a pardon ought to be granted to anyone retracting his beliefs, or if he has once professed Christianity, he shall gain nothing by renouncing it; and whether it is the mere name of Christian which is punishable, even if innocent of crime, or rather the crimes associated with the name.

For the moment this is the line I have taken with all persons brought before me on the charge of being Christians. I have asked them in person if they are Christians, and if they admit it, I repeat the question a second and third time, with a warning of the punishment awaiting them. If they persist, I order them to be led away for execution; for, whatever the nature of their admission, I am convinced that their stubbornness and unshakeable obstinacy ought not to go unpunished. There have been others similarly fanatical who are Roman citizens. I have entered them on the list of persons to be sent to Rome for trial.

Now that I have begun to deal with this problem, as so often happens, the charges are becoming more widespread and increasing in variety. An anonymous pamphlet has been circulated which contains the names of a number of accused persons. Among these I considered that I should dismiss any who denied that they were or ever had been Christians when they had repeated after me a formula of invocation to the gods and had made offerings of wine and incense to your statue (which I had ordered to be brought into court for this purpose along with the images of the gods), and furthermore had reviled the name of Christ: none of which things, I understand, any genuine Christian can be induced to do.

Others, whose names were given to me by an informer, first admitted the charge and then denied it; they said that they had ceased to be Christians two or more years previously, and some of them even twenty years ago. They all did reverence to your statue and the images of the gods in the same way as the others, and reviled the name of Christ. They also declared that the sum total of their guilt or error amounted to no more than this: they had met regularly before dawn on a fixed day to chant verses alternately among themselves in honour of Christ as if to a god, and also to bind themselves by oath, not for any criminal purpose, but to abstain from theft, robbery and adultery, to commit no breach of trust and not to deny a deposit when called upon to restore it. After this ceremony it had been their custom to disperse and reassemble later to take food of an ordinary, harmless kind; but they had in fact given up this practice since my edict, issued on your instructions, which banned all political societies. This made me decide it was all the more necessary to extract the truth by torture from two slave-women, whom they call deaconesses. I found nothing but a degenerate sort of cult carried to extravagant lengths. I have therefore postponed any further examination and hastened to consult you. The question seems to me to be worthy of your consideration, especially in view of the number of persons endangered; for a great many individuals of every age and class, both men and women, are being brought to trial, and this is likely to continue. It is not only the towns, but villages and rural districts too which are infected through contact with this wretched cult. I think though that it is still possible for it to be checked and directed to better ends, for there is no doubt that people have begun to throng the temples which had been almost entirely deserted for a long time; the sacred rites which had been allowed to lapse are being performed again, and flesh of sacrificial victims is on sale everywhere, though up till recently scarcely anyone could be found to buy it. It is easy to infer from this that a great many people could be reformed if they were given an opportunity to repent.

Trajan's Reply to Pliny

You have followed the right course of procedure, my dear Pliny, in your examination of the cases of persons charged with being Christians, for it is impossible to lay down a general rule to a fixed formula. These people must not be hunted out; if they are brought before you and the charge against them is proved, they must be punished, but in the case of anyone who denies that he is a Christian, and makes it clear that he is not by offering prayers to our gods, he is to be pardoned as a result of his repentance however suspect his past conduct may be. But pamphlets circulated anonymously must play no part in any accusation. They create the worst sort of precedent and are quite out of keeping with the spirit of our age.

The Pliny/Trajan correspondence illustrates that, if Christians were hauled before a Roman magistrate, they were required to prove their patriotism in three basic ways: They must sacrifice wine and incense to images of Caesar and the other Roman gods. They must declare Kyrios Kaisaros ("Caesar is Lord," an exact counterpart to the basic Christian confession "Jesus is Lord"). They must "repent" of their faith and curse Christ. If they refused, they would be executed.

f. The Christians' Choice

In such a terrible circumstance, what choices did Christians have? Dr. Boring summarizes them nicely: They could surrender their faith in Christ, but for John this would be to surrender "the crown of life" (see Rev 2:10). They could lie about their loyalty to Christ, but John reserves a place in the "fiery lake of burning sulfur" for liars (see Rev 21:8). They could try to change the laws, but this was not possible since Rome was not a democracy and Domitian would never accept a rival "Lord." They could fight the Roman government, but this was not practical. They could "adjust" by confessing Caesar as "god" without meaning it, but John rejects even feigned idolatry as unworthy of Christ. Finally, they could die, as Jesus himself had died. John affirms death for Christ's sake as the only truly "Christian" response. There is no other way.

He who has an ear, let him hear: If anyone is to go into captivity, into captivity he will go. If anyone is to be killed with the sword, with the sword he will be killed. Here is the patient endurance and the faithfulness of the saints. (Rev 13:10)

This is the challenge faced by the churches of Asia when John writes Revelation. It is a terribly hard book for terribly hard times.

V. THE STRUCTURE OF REVELATION

In Part III of the Introduction we identify Revelation as a Christian apocalypse - probably the first Christian apocalypse. Such writings often incorporate elements of other genres. For example, Daniel 1-6 consists largely of a narrative prologue to the apocalypse proper found in chapters 7-12. In the case of Revelation, John's apocalyptic vision is presented within the framework of a first-century letter.

A. THE FIRST CENTURY HELLENISTIC

LETTER FORM IN REVELATION

Letters written today generally bear certain standard features that conform to cultural norms (e.g., the name and address of the sender and receiver, a greeting formula such as "Dear Sir," and a closing formula such as "Sincerely yours"). New Testament epistles likewise conform to the standard Hellenistic letter form used in the Roman world of the first century A.D. The elements of this common letter form are listed below, along with examples of each element from Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians and his Letter to Philemon:

The name of the sender(s) (see 1 Cor 1:1; Phlm 1a)

The name of the recipient(s) (see 1 Cor 1:2; Phlm 1b-2)

The prescript , which is a greeting formula (see 1 Cor 1:3; Phlm 3)

The proem , which is a word of thanks, praise, or petition to a god (see 1 Cor 1:4-9; Phlm 4-7).

The introductory formula , which serves as the transition into the primary subject matter of the letter (see 1 Cor 1:10; Phlm 8-9).

The main body of the letter (see 1 Cor 1:11-16:18; Phlm 10-22)

Greetings (see 1 Cor 16:19-20; Phlm 23-24)

Benedictory wishes in the sender's own hand (rather than that of a secretary, if used), which serve to personalize the letter (see 1 Cor 16:21-24; Phlm 25)

Revelation bears most of the features of a first century Hellenistic letter, as shown below. This observation is important because it explains why certain elements appear in Revelation and why they are arranged as they are. John is simply following the conventions of his culture.

Name of Sender (Rev 1:4a):

John

Name of Recipient(s) (Rev 1:4b):

To the seven churches in the province of Asia:

Prescript (Rev 1:4c-5a):

Grace and peace to you from him who is, and who was, and who is to come, and from the seven spirits before his throne, and from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth.

Proem (Rev1:5b-6): In this part of the letter, a pagan would often call upon the gods to grant good health and prosperity to the addressee(s). John Christianizes this portion of the standard letter form and transforms it into a doxology of praise to God:

To him who loves us and has freed us from our sins by his blood, and has made us to be a kingdom and priests to serve his God and Father - to him be glory and power for ever and ever! Amen.

Introductory Formula (Rev 1:9):

I, John, your brother and companion in the suffering and kingdom and patient endurance that are ours in Jesus, was on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus.

Main Body of the Letter (Rev 1:10-22:20)

Greetings are not found in Revelation.

Benedictory Wishes in the Sender's Own Hand (Rev 22:21):

The grace of the Lord Jesus be with God's people. Amen.

B. THE STRUCTURE OF JOHN'S VISION

Within the Hellenistic letter form, John structures Revelation in four main parts, as a careful examination clearly shows. The book begins with a Prologue (1:1-20) in which the author describes how Christ commissioned him to deliver a revelation to the seven churches of Asia. Near the end of this Prologue, in 1:19, the Lord summarizes the contents of the revelation itself:

Write, therefore, what you have seen, what is now and what will take place later.

Notice that the vision contains two main elements: First, there is a revelation of the present - a revelation of "what is now." The "present," of course, refers to "what is now" from John's perspective. Christ offers John a vision of the late first century A.D. in Asia. Second, the Lord promises a revelation of the future - a vision of "what will take place later." Again, this is the "future" from John's point of view - the period from A.D. 95-96 through Christ's return and the consummation of the kingdom of God.

Which part of the book reveals John's "present" and which part reveals the "future"? John treats these two subjects in the order in which they are mentioned. His discussion of the "present" appears in 2:1-3:22 and takes the form of seven letters to the churches of Asia. This part of the vision describes the "present" circumstances of the Asian churches from Christ's point of view.

The Lord's revelation of the "future" appears in 4:1-22:6, as the structure of the passage makes clear. The first verse of this section (4:1) reads:

After this I looked, and there before me was a door standing open in heaven. And the voice I had first heard speaking to me like a trumpet said, "Come up here, and I will show you what must take place after this."

The initial phrase "After this," in and of itself, marks a transition - the end of one discussion and the beginning of another. Christ then introduces the next major portion of the book when he says, "I will show you what must take place after this" - that is, "after" the "present" described in chapters 2 and 3. Revelation 4:1 marks the beginning of the promised vision of "what will take place later."

Where does the vision of the future end? After a long series of images we come to Revelation 22:6:

The angel said to me, "These words are trustworthy and true. The Lord, the God of the spirits of the prophets, sent his angel to show his servants the things that must soon take place ."

This verse marks the end of John's discussion of the future. The remainder of the book (22:7-21) consists of a short Epilogue.

By far the largest portion of Revelation describes John's vision of the future (4:1-22:6). How has the author structured this important part of the book? The revelation of "what will take place later" begins with an introduction (4:1-5:14) in which John describes his new vantage point in heaven ("Come up here , and I will show you"). The prophet will see the future from God's point of view.

The rest of the section (6:1-22:6) contains the revelation of the future itself. However, a careful reading shows that John does not receive one long, sequential vision of the future. Instead, he receives three separate revelations of the complete future from John's time through the consummation of the kingdom of God . John describes how the future unfolds in 6:1-8:1. Then he starts over and describes the same period again in 8:2-11:19. Then he reviews the same period a third time in 12:1-22:6. The approach is cyclical, with each vision examining the future from a slightly different angle, and the third vision offering the most detail.

In view of these considerations, we outline Revelation as follows. The Commentary is structured accordingly.

I. Prologue (1:1-20)

II. The Revelation of "What Is Now" (2:1-3:22)

III. The Revelation of "What Will Take Place Later" (4:1-22:6)

A. Introduction: John's Heavenly Vantage Point (4:1-5:14)

B. The First Vision of the Future (6:1-8:1)

C. The Second Vision of the Future (8:2-11:19)

D. The Third Vision of the Future (12:1-22:6)

IV. Epilogue (22:7-21)

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

Barr, J. "Jewish Apocalyptic in Recent Scholarly Study." Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 58 (1975): 9-35.

Charlesworth, James H., ed. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Volume 1 - Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments . Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983.

Collins, John J., ed. "Apocalypse: The Morphology of a Genre." Semeia 14. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1979.

. The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to the Jewish Matrix of Christianity . 2 ^nd ed. The Biblical Resource Series. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.

. "Apocalyptic Literature." In Early Judaism and Its Modern Interpreters. Eds. Robert A. Kraft and George W.E. Nickelsburg, 345-370. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986.

Collins, John J., and James H. Charlesworth, eds. Mysteries and Revelations: Apocalyptic Studies Since the Uppsala Colloquium. Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Supplement Series, 9. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991.

Funk, Robert W., ed. Journal for Theology and the Church 6 (1969) [issue on "Apocalypticism"].

Hanson, Paul D. The Dawn of Apocalyptic . Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1975.

. Old Testament Apocalyptic . Interpreting Biblical Texts. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1987.

Hellholm, David, ed. Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean World and the Near East: Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Apocalypticism, Uppsala, August 12-17, 1979. Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1983.

Koch, Klaus. The Rediscovery of Apocalyptic: A Polemical Work on a Neglected Area of Biblical Studies and Its Damaging Effects on Theology and Philosophy . Studies in Biblical Theology, Second Series, 22. London: SCM Press Ltd, 1972.

Marcus, Joel, and Marion L. Soards, eds. Apocalyptic and the New Testament: Essays in Honor of J. Louis Martyn . Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series, 24. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989.

Minear, Paul S. New Testament Apocalyptic . Interpreting Biblical Texts. Nashville: Abingdon, 1981.

Morris, Leon. Apocalyptic . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972.

Murphy, Frederick J. "Apocalypses and Apocalypticism: The State of the Question." Currents in Research: Biblical Studies 2 (1994): 147-179.

Rowley, H.H. The Relevance of Apocalyptic: A Study of Jewish and Christian Apocalypses from Daniel to the Revelation . New York: Association Press, 1964.

Russell, D.S. Divine Disclosure: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992.

. The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic: 200 B.C.-A.D. 100. The Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1964.

Yarbro-Collins, Adela, ed. Early Christian Apocalypticism: Genre and Social Setting . Semeia 36. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986.

THE APOCALYPSE OF JOHN

Aune, David. Revelation . 3 Vols. Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word, 1997-98.

Barclay, William. Letters to the Seven Churches . New York: Abingdon Press, 1957.

. The Revelation of John . 2 Vols. The Daily Bible Study Series. Rev. ed. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1976.

Bauckham, Richard. The Theology of the Book of Revelation . New Testament Theology. Cambridge: University Press, 1993.

Boring, M. Eugene. Revelation . Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1989.

Caird, G.B. The Revelation of St. John the Divine . Harper's New Testament Commentaries. New York and Evanston: Harper & Row, 1966.

Hemer, Colin J. The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting . Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series, 11. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1986.

Murphy, Frederick J. "The Book of Revelation." Currents in Research: Biblical Studies 2 (1994): 181-225.

Pilch, John J. What Are They Saying about the Book of Revelation? New York: Paulist Press, 1978.

Ramsay, W.M. The Letters to the Seven Churches . Updated ed. Edited by Mark W. Wilson. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994.

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV

College: Revelation (Outline)

OUTLINE

I. PROLOGUE - 1:1-20

A. Introduction to the Prophecy - 1:1-3

B. Sender - 1:4a

C. Recipients - 1:4b

D. Prescript - 1:4c-5a

E. Proem - 1:5b-6

F. Prophetic Pronouncement - 1:7

G. The Lord's Self-Introduction - 1:8

H. John's Vision of the Lord - 1:9-20

1. John's Circumstances - 1:9-11

2. John's Vision - 1:12-20

a. Christ's Voice and His Appearance - 1:12-16

b. Christ's Words - 1:17-20

c. Summary: John's Portrait of Christ in Revelation - 1:9-20

II. THE REVELATION OF "WHAT IS NOW" - 2:1-3:22

A. The Seven Churches

B. The Structure of the Letters to the Seven Churches

1. Addressed to the Angels of the Seven Churches

2. A Renewal of the New Covenant

a. Typical Elements of Covenants

b. Covenantal Elements in the Letters to the Seven Churches

c. The Letter to Ephesus - 2:1-7

d. The Letter to Smyrna - 2:8-11

e. The Letter to Pergamum - 2:12-17

f. The Letter to Thyatira - 2:18-29

g. The Letter to Sardis - 3:1-6

h. The Letter to Philadelphia - 3:7-13

i. The Letter to Laodicea - 3:14-22

C. Pressures and Opposition in Asia

1. Pressures and Opposition from Within the Christian Community

a. False Apostles and the Nicolaitans - 2:2,6

b. The Teaching of Balaam - 2:14

c. The Sins of Jezebel - 2:20-25

d. Assessment

2. Pressures and Opposition from Outside the Christian Community

D. "Overcomers" in Revelation

1. Satan as "Overcomer"

2. Christ as "Overcomer"

a. Whom Jesus "Overcomes"

b. How Jesus "Overcomes"

c. The Results of Jesus' "Overcoming"

3. Christians as "Overcomers"

a. Whom Christians "Overcome"

b. How Christians "Overcome"

c. The Result of Christians' "Overcoming"

E. Christ's Promises to "Him Who Overcomes"

1. The Tree of Life - 2:7

2. Escape from the Second Death - 2:11

3. The Hidden Manna, White Stone, and Secret Name - 2:17

a. The Hidden Manna, the Messianic Banquet, Behemoth and Leviathan

b. The White Stone

c. The Secret Name

4. Authority over the Nations and the Morning Star - 2:26-28

5. White Garments and the Book of Life - 3:4-5

6. A Pillar in God's Temple - 3:12

7. A Place on Christ's Throne - 3:21

III. THE REVELATION OF "WHAT WILL TAKE PLACE LATER - 4:1-22:6

A. Introduction: John's Heavenly Vantage Point - 4:1-5:14

1. Transition to the Threefold Vision of the Future - 4:1

2. The Throne of God and the Twenty-Four Elders - 4:2-6a

3. The Four Living Creatures - 4:6b-8

4. The Heavenly Worship - 4:9-11

5. The Scroll with Seven Seals - 5:1

6. The Lion of Judah and the Root of David - 5:2-5

7. The Lamb Who Was Slain - 5:6-14

B. The First Vision of the Future - 6:1-8:1

1. The "Labor Pains:" Seals One through Five - 6:1-11

a. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse - 6:1-8

b. The Souls of the Martyrs - 6:9-11

2. The Final Judgment: Seal Six - 6:12-17

3. Summary of Revelation 6 (Seals 1-6) and Comparison with Matthew 24

4. Interlude: The 144,000 Sealed for Salvation - 7:1-17

a. The Sealing of the 144,000 - 7:1-8

b. A Song of Salvation - 7:9-17

5. The Consummation of God's Kingdom: Seal Seven - 8:1

6. Summary: John's First Vision of the Future - 6:1-8:1

C. The Second Vision of the Future - 8:2-11:19

1. The Structure of the Second Vision

a. Seven Trumpets versus Seven Seals

b. Major Elements of the Vision

c. The Dominant Image: God's Coming Kingdom as a "Second Exodus" for His People

d. Subordinate Imagery in Revelation 8:2-9:21

2. The "Present Evil Age/Labor Pains": Trumpets One through Six - 8:2-9:21

a. Hail, Blood, Bitter Waters, Darkness, Locusts, and Death: The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as Eschatological "Plagues"

1) Present Evils as "Plagues"

2) The First Trumpet - 8:6-7

3) The Second Trumpet - 8:8-9

4) The Third Trumpet - 8:10-11

5) The Fourth Trumpet - 8:12

6) The Fifth Trumpet - 8:13-9:12

7) The Sixth Trumpet - 9:13-21

8) Heightened Imagery Portraying Eschatological Events

9) Partial Destruction versus Total Destruction

b. Earth, Trees, Grass, Springs, Rivers, Sea, and Sea Creatures: The Effect of the "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" on the Natural World

c. The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as God's Judgment on Sin and Call to Repentance

d. The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as a Source of Hope and a Call to Perseverance

e. The Blazing Mountain, Falling Stars, Wormwood, Demon Locusts from the Abyss, Abaddon, Apollyon, and a Demon Army: The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as God's Unleashing Demonic Forces on the Earth

f. Fire from the Altar: The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as an Answer to Prayer

g. The Sounding of Seven Trumpets: The "Present Evil Age" and "Labor Pains" as the Announcement of the Day of the Lord

h. The Eagle and the Three "Woes"

3. Interlude: The Mighty Angel and the Two Witnesses - 10:1-11:14

a. The Mighty Angel with the Little Scroll - 10:1-11

1) The Angel's Appearance

2) The Angel's Voice

3) The Little Scroll

4) Comparison with Daniel 12

b. The Measuring of the Temple and the Two Witnesses - 11:1-14

1) A Note on the "Rapture"

2) A Note on the "Protection" of the "New Israel" from the "Plagues"

4. The Final Judgment and Consummation of God's Kingdom: Trumpet Seven - 11:15-19

5. Summary: John's Second Vision of the Future - 8:2-11:19

D. The Third Vision of the Future - 12:1-22:6

1. The Structure of the Third Vision

2. The "Labor Pains": The Dragon's War against the Saints - 12:1-13:18

a. The Dragon, the Woman, and the Male Child - 12:1-17

1) The Identity of the Male Child

2) The Identity of the Red Dragon

3) Five Theories Regarding the Identity of the Woman

4) A Sixth Theory: John's Adaptation of the Apollo Myth

5) Interpretation of Revelation 12

b. The Beast from the Sea - 13:1-10

c. The Beast from the Land - 13:11-18

d. Satan's Parody of Christ

e. Summary of Revelation 12-13: The "Labor Pains"

3. The Final Judgment and Consummation of God's Kingdom - 14:1-22:6

a. The Relationship between Salvation and Condemnation, Final Judgment and Consummation

b. The Structure of Revelation 14:1-22:6

c. Announcement of the Final Judgment - 14:1-13

1) The 144,000 - 14:1-5

2) Threefold Announcement of the Judgment - 14:6-13

d. The Harvest of the Earth - 14:14-20

e. The Seven Last Plagues or Seven Bowls of God's Wrath - 15:1-16:21

1) The Structure of Revelation 15-16

2) The Sea of Glass and Fire - 15:1-4

3) The Heavenly Tabernacle - 15:5-8

4) The Meaning of the Seven Bowls of God's Wrath - 16:1

5) The First Bowl of Wrath - 16:2

6) The Second Bowl of Wrath - 16:3

7) The Third Bowl of Wrath - 16:4-7

8) The Fourth Bowl of Wrath - 16:8-9

9) The Fifth Bowl of Wrath - 16:10-11

10) The Sixth Bowl of Wrath - 16:12-14,16

11) Interlude - 16:15

12) The Seventh Bowl of Wrath - 16:17-21

f. God's Final Judgment against Babylon - 17:1-19:4

1) The Great Prostitute - 17:1-18

2) The Scarlet Beast - 17:1-18

3) The Fall of Babylon - 18:1-19:4

g. Announcement of the Wedding Supper of the Lamb - 19:5-10

1) The Wedding of the Lamb - 19:5-9

2) The Testimony of Jesus - 19:10

h. The Victorious Christ - 19:11-21

1) The King of Kings - 19:11-16

2) The Great Supper of God - 19:17-21

i. Deliverance from Babylonian Captivity - 20:1-22:6

1) Element One: The Binding of Satan - 20:1-3

2) Element Two: The Resurrection of Christian Martyrs - 20:4a

3) Element Three: The Millennial Reign of Christ - 20:4b-6

4) Element Four: God's Judgment of Gog and Magog - 20:7-15

5) Element Five: The New Jerusalem - 21:1-22:5

6) Comparison of Revelation 20:1-22:5 with Ezekiel 37-48

7) Conclusions Regarding the Meaning of Revelation 20:1-22:5

8) Climax: The Consummated Kingdom of God - 21:1-22:5

9) Conclusion of the Third Vision of the Future - 22:6

IV. EPILOGUE - 22:7-21

-College Press New Testament Commentary: with the NIV