Leviticus 5:2-3
touches <05060> [touch.]
realize <05956> [hidden.]
guilty <0816> [and guilty.]
uncleanness <02932> [the uncleanness.]
Leviticus 12:1-8
woman <0802> [If a woman.]
days ........ days <03117> [according.]
lamb <03532> [a lamb.]
son ........... year ... lamb ........ young <01121 08141> [of the first year. Heb. a son of his year.]
atonement <03722> [make.]
clean <02891> [be cleansed.]
male <02145> [a male.]
afford ... sheep <07716 04672> [she be not able to bring a lamb. Heb. her hand find not sufficiency of a lamb.]
atonement <03722> [make an atonement.]
When burnt offerings and sin offerings were brought together, the sin offerings were first offered.
Leviticus 1:1--13:59
called <07121> [called.]
Tent <0168> [out of.]
someone <0120> [If any.]
offering ......... offering <07133> [an offering.]
{Korban,} from {karav} to approach, an introductory offering, or offering of access, in allusion to the present which is always required in the East, on being introduced to a superior.
burnt offering <05930> [a burnt.]
male <02145> [a male.]
acceptance <07522> [his own.]
entrance <06607> [at the.]
lay <05564> [put.]
accepted <07521> [be accepted.]
atonement <03722> [atonement.]
slaughter <07819> [kill.]
priests <03548> [the priests.]
splash <02236> [sprinkle.]
fire .......... fire <0784> [fire.]
wood <06086> [lay.]
entrails <07130> [inwards.]
offer .......... altar <06999 04196> [burn all.]
aroma <05207> [a sweet.]
flock <06629> [of the flocks.]
burnt offering <05930> [a burnt sacrifice.]
{Olah,} a burnt offering, from {ƒlah,} to ascend, because this offering ascended, as it were, to God in flame and smoke, being wholly consumed; for which reason its is called in the Septuagint, [holo kaut¢ma,] a whole burnt offering. This was the most important of all the sacrifices; and no part of it was eaten either by the priest or the offerer, but the whole was offered to God. It has been sufficiently shown by learned men, that almost every nation of the earth, in every age, had their burnt offerings, from the persuasion that there was no other way to appease the incensed gods; and they even offered human sacrifices, because they imagined that life was necessary to redeem life, and that the gods would be satisfied with nothing less.
male <02145> [a male.]
slaughter <07819> [he shall.]
north <06828> [northward.]
priests <03548> [and the.]
birds <05775> [of fowls.]
pinch .... head <07218 04454> [wring off his head. or, pinch off the head with the nail.]
feathers <05133> [his feathers. or, the filth thereof.]
place <04725> [by the place.]
dividing <0914> [shall not.]
burnt offering <05930> [it is.]
grain offering ...... offering <07133 04503> [meat offering.]
{Minchah,} from the Arabic {manacha,} to give, especially as a reciprocal gift, a gift, oblation, or eucharistical or gratitude offering, for the bounties of providence displayed in the fruits of the earth. It is termed a meat offering by our translators, because the term meat in their time was the general name for food.
choice wheat flour <05560> [fine flour.]
pour olive oil <08081 03332> [pour oil.]
frankincense <03828> [frankincense.]
memorial portion <0234> [the memorial.]
remainder <03498> [the remnant.]
most holy <06944> [most holy.]
offering of grain <04503> [meat offering.]
oven <08574> [the oven.]
{Tannur}, probably such an oven as that described by D'Arvieux, as used by the Arabs. He states that they make a fire in a great stone pitcher, and when heated, mix meal and water, which they apply with the hollow of their hands to the outside, and this soft paste spreading itself upon it, is baked in an instant, and the bread comes of as thin as our wafers.
wafers <07550> [wafers.]
griddle <04227> [in a pan. or, on a flat plate, or slice.]
{Machavath,} a flat iron plate, such as the Arabs still use to bake their cakes on, and which is called a griddle in some of our counties.
pan <04802> [the frying-pan.]
{Marchesheth}, a shallow earthen vessel, like a frying pan, which the Arabs call a {tajen.}
choice wheat flour <05560> [of fine.]
memorial <0234> [a memorial.]
gift <0801> [an offering.]
yeast <07603> [no leaven.]
honey <01706> [honey.]
offering <07133> [the oblation.]
up <05927> [be burnt. Heb. ascend.]
salt ....... salt ......................... salt <04417> [with salt.]
salt ....... salt ......................... salt <04417> [the salt.]
offerings <07133> [with all thine.]
grain offering ............. grain offering <04503> [a meat offering.]
These first fruits seem to have been the voluntary oblation brought by individuals, of the finest ears of corn out of the field, before the harvest was ripe.
crushed bits <01643> [corn beaten.]
sacrifice <02077> [a sacrifice.]
flawless <08549> [without.]
lay <05564> [lay.]
slaughter ..... entrance <07819 06607> [kill it.]
fat ......... fat <02459> [the fat. or, suet.]
kidneys .......... protruding lobe .... liver .......... kidneys <03629 03516 03508> [caul above the liver, with the kidneys. or, midriff over the liver, and over the kidneys.]
Aaron <0175> [Aaron's.]
burnt offering <05930> [upon the burnt.]
sacrifice <02077> [a sacrifice.]
flock <06629> [be of.]
male <02145> [male.]
present <07126> [he shall.]
presents ......... present ... before <07126 06440> [offer it.]
lay <05564> [he shall.]
slaughter ... before <07819 06440> [kill it.]
splash <02236> [sprinkle.]
fatty ........... fat ........ fat <02459> [the fat.]
must ..... fatty tail <0451 08549> [the whole rump.]
To what has already been said on the tails of eastern sheep, we may add the testimony of Ludolf, who states that they are so very large, some of them weighing from twelve to fourteen pounds, "that the owners are obliged to tie a little cart behind them, whereupon they put the tail of the sheep, as well for the convenience of carriage, and to ease the poor creatures, as to preserve the wool from dirt, and the tail from being torn among the bushes and stones." The same is testified by Dr. Russell, who says, "In some other places where they feed in the fields, the shepherds are obliged to fix a piece of thin board to the under part of the tail, to prevent its being torn by bushes, thistles, etc., as it is not covered underneath with thick wool, like the upper part; and some have small wheels to facilitate the dragging of the board after them."
protruding lobe <03508> [the caul.]
smoke <06999> [burn.]
food <03899> [the food.]
goat <05795> [a goat.]
lay ... hand <03027 05564> [lay his hand.]
splash <02236> [sprinkle.]
fat ... covers ....... fat <02459 03680> [the fat that covereth.]
food <03899> [it is the food.]
fat <02459> [all the fat.]
perpetual <05769> [a perpetual.]
eat ... fat <0398 02459> [eat neither.]
That is, neither the blood which is contained in the larger veins and arteries, nor the fat or suet which is within the animal, which exists in a separate or unmixed state, as the {omentum} or {caul,} the fat of the {mesentery,} or fatty part of the substance which connects the convolutions of the alimentary canal or small intestines, the fat of the kidneys, and whatever else of the internal fat was easily separable, together with the whole of the tail already described; for the blood which assumes the form of gravy, and the fat which is intermixed with the other flesh, might be eaten. This law not only related to the sacrifices, but to all the cattle which the Israelites slaughtered for food.
blood <01818> [blood.]
unintentionally <07684> [through.]
violated ... violates <06213> [which ought.]
priest <03548> [the priest.]
bull <01241 06499> [a young bullock.]
sin ................. sin offering <02403> [for a sin.]
bring <0935> [bring.]
lay ... hand <03027 05564> [lay his hand.]
dip <02881> [dip.]
seven times <07651 06471> [seven times.]
The number seven is what is called a number of perfection among the Hebrews; and is often used to denote the completion, fulness, or perfection of a thing.
horns <07161> [the horns.]
blood ........................... blood <01818> [all the blood.]
[without the camp. Heb. to without the camp.]
This was intended, figuratively, to express the enormity of this sin, and the availableness of the atonement. The sacrifice, as having the sin of the priest transferred from himself to it, by his confession and imposition of hands, was become unclean and abominable, and was carried, as it were, out of God's sight; and thus its own offensiveness was removed, with the sin of the person in whose behalf it was offered.
fatty ash .................. fatty ash <01880> [the ashes.]
burn ..... wood ...... burned <08313 06086> [burn him.]
to ...... to ... fatty ash pile ................. fatty ash pile <01880 08211 0413> [where the ashes are poured out. Heb. at the pouring out of the ashes.]
congregation <05712> [the whole congregation.]
This may refer to some oversight in acts of religious worship, or to some transgression of the letter of the law, which arose out of the peculiar circumstances in which they were found, as in the case mentioned in 1 Sa 14:32, et seq. The sacrifices and rites in this case were the same as in the preceding; only here the elders laid their hands on the head of the victim, in the name of all the congregation.
unintentionally <07686> [through ignorance.]
guilty <0816> [and are guilty.]
young bull <06499 01241> [young bullock.]
elders <02205> [the elders.]
lay <05564> [lay.]
horns <07161> [upon the.]
pour <08210> [and shall pour out.]
The reason for pouring out the blood, which is so constantly and strictly required by the law, was in opposition to an idolatrous custom of the ancient Zabii, who "were accustomed to eat of the blood of their sacrifices, because they imagined this to be the food of their gods, with whom they thought they had such communion, by eating their meat, that they revealed to them future things."--Maimonides
bull ........ bull <06499> [with the.]
atonement <03722> [an atonement.]
burn ...... burned <08313> [as he.]
sin offering <02403> [a sin offering.]
leader ..... sins <02398 05387> [a ruler hath sinned.]
Under the term {nasi,} that is, one preferred or elevated above others, from {nasa,} to exalt, it is probable that any person is meant who held any kind of political dignity among the people; and it evidently means the head of a tribe as in Nu 1:4, 16; 7:2. But the Rabbins generally understand it of the prince of the great sanhedrin, who, when they were under the regal form of government, was the king. A kid of the goats was the sacrifice in this case; and the rites were nearly the same as in the preceding, only the fat was burnt as that of the peace offering. (ver. 26.)
violates ............... violated <06213> [and done.]
sin <02403> [if his sin.]
male <08163> [a kid.]
lay <05564> [And he.]
place <04725> [in the place.]
sin offering <02403> [it is a sin.]
put <05414> [put.]
fat .......... fat <02459> [the fat.]
[See on ch.]
atonement <03722> [an atonement.]
[any one. Heb. any soul.]
<05971 0776> [common people. Heb. people of the land .]
{Am ha„retz;} that is, any individual who was not a priest, king, or ruler among the people; an ordinary person. Any of these having transgressed, was obliged to bring a lamb or kid, the ceremonies being nearly the same as in the preceding cases.
<08166> [a kid.]
female <05347> [a female.]
horns <07161> [upon the horns.]
pour <08210> [pour out.]
There may have been some place at the bottom of the altar to receive and carry off the blood.
fat .... fat <02459> [all the fat.]
aroma <05207> [a sweet.]
priest .................... priest <03548> [and the priest.]
sheep <03532> [a lamb.]
flawless <08549> [without blemish.]
horns .... altar ..................... altar <04196 07161> [the horns of the altar.]
remove ............. removed <05493> [And he.]
gifts <0801> [according.]
priest ...................... priest .... atonement <03548 03722> [and the priest shall make.]
person <05315> [a soul.]
hears <08085> [hear.]
curse <06963 0423> [the voice of swearing.]
{Kol alah,} rather, "the voice of adjuration," [ph¢n‚n orkismou,] as the LXX. render; for this does not relate to the duty of informing against a common swearer, but to the case of a person who, being adjured by the civil magistrate to answer upon oath, refuses to declare what he knows upon the subject--such an one shall bear his iniquity--shall be considered as guilty in the sight of God of the transgression which he has endeavoured to conceal, and must expect to be punished for hiding the iniquity with which he was acquainted.
bear <05375> [bear.]
touches <05060> [touch.]
realize <05956> [hidden.]
guilty <0816> [and guilty.]
uncleanness <02932> [the uncleanness.]
person <05315> [if a soul.]
This relates to rash oaths or vows, which a man was afterwards unable, or which it would have been sinful, to perform.
evil <07489> [to do evil.]
confess <03034> [confess.]
penalty for guilt <0817> [trespass offering.]
It is remarkable, that in this and the following verse, the sacrifice offered is indifferently called {asham,} a trespass offering, and {chattath,} a sin offering; yet the Marginal References show that these differ in several respects. Sin offerings were sometimes offered for the whole congregation; trespass offerings never, but only for particular persons. Bullocks were sometimes used for sin offerings, never for trespass offerings. The blood of the sin offerings was put on the horns of the altar, that of the trespass offerings was only sprinkled round the bottom of the altar. The sin offering seems to have been for the expiation of offences committed in matters of religion, from a mistake or inadvertency respecting the law; but the trespass offering was required for the casual deviations from the ritual law, when well known, or for crimes against moral precepts, implying injustice to man.
female <05347> [a female.]
priest <03548> [the priest.]
afford ...... flock <01767 05060 07716 03027> [he be not able to bring a lamb. Heb. his hand cannot reach to the sufficiency of a lamb.]
two turtledoves ... two <08147 08449> [two turtle-doves.]
one ....... one <0259> [one.]
pinch <04454> [wring off.]
sprinkle <05137> [sprinkle.]
remainder <07604> [the rest.]
make <06213> [offer.]
regulation <04941> [manner. or, ordinance.]
atonement <03722> [make.]
forgiven <05545> [it.]
afford <03027> [But if.]
tenth .... ephah <06224 0374> [the tenth part.]
choice wheat flour <05560> [fine flour.]
olive oil <08081> [no oil.]
sin offering ...................... sin offering <02403> [for it is.]
memorial portion <0234> [a memorial.]
gifts <0801> [according.]
priest ................................... priest <03548> [the priest.]
priest ......................... forgiven ........... priest <05545 03548> [shall be.]
person <05315> [a soul.]
holy .............................. sanctuary <06944> [in the.]
ram <0352> [ram.]
convertible <06187> [thy estimation.]
shekels ......... shekel <08255> [the shekel.]
thing ...... restore .................... atonement <07999 03722> [make.]
fifth <02549> [the fifth.]
priest .... priest <03548> [and the priest.]
person sins <02398 05315> [a soul sin.]
This case is supposed to differ from the preceding, merely in that the person concerned was not certain whether he had or had not committed the trespass. It is therefore called by the Hebrews a doubtful trespass offering.
know <03045> [though.]
guilty <0816> [yet is he.]
bring <0935> [And he.]
guilt offering <0817> [for a trespass.]
priest .... priest <03548> [and the priest.]
guilty <0816> [trespassed.]
[commit,]
deceiving <03584> [lie.]
in <06487> [in that.]
pledge <08667> [in fellowship. or, in dealing. Heb. in putting of the hand.]
extorting <06231> [deceived.]
found <04672> [have found.]
swears <07650> [sweareth.]
sins <02398> [because.]
stolen ...... extorted .................. found <01497 06231 04672> [which he.]
restore <07999> [restore.]
full <07218> [in the principal.]
The property itself, if still remaining, or its full value, to which a fifth part more was to be added, to compensate the owner for the loss he had sustained by being deprived of the use of his goods. He must also bring a trespass offering to the Lord; which was intended to show that disobedience to God is the great evil, even of those crimes which are injurious to man, and that repentance, and even restitution, though needful in order to forgiveness, cannot atone for sin.
guilty <0819> [of his trespass offering. or, of his being found guilty.]
Heb. of trespass.
ram <0352> [a ram.]
atonement <03722> [make.]
forgiven <05545> [it shall be.]
At this verse the Jews begin the twenty-fifth section of the law, and also, in the best Hebrew Bibles, the sixth chapter, which undoubtedly ought to begin here, as the inspired writer enters upon a new subject; the former part of the book being intended for the instruction of the people relative to the several sacrifices to be brought; but this for the instruction of the priests respecting some particulars of their official services.
burnt offering ... burnt offering <05930> [of the burnt.]
hearth <04169> [because of the burning. or, for the burning.]
linen robe ..... linen <04055 0906> [linen garment.]
consumed <0398> [consumed.]
beside <0681> [beside.]
off <06584> [put off.]
outside <02351> [without.]
fire <0784> [the fire.]
kindle wood <06086 01197> [burn wood.]
The efficacy of the priesthood and mediation of Christ is perpetual, and we can never approach to God in his name, by day or night, unseasonably. The ministers of Christ should have the fire of their zeal constantly burning.
grain offering <04503> [the meat offering.]
memorial <0234> [the memorial.]
left over <03498> [the remainder.]
unleavened <04682> [unleavened.]
eat ........... eaten .......... eat <0398> [shall it.]
baked <0644> [baken.]
given <05414> [I have.]
most holy <06944> [it is most holy.]
male <02145> [the males.]
portion <02706> [It shall.]
touches <05060> [every one.]
{Kol asher yiggÆ’ bahem yikdash,} "all (whether person or thing) that toucheth them shall be (or must be) holy;" that is, the priests must not eat of these oblations when under any ceremonial defilement, and the sacred utensils used about them must not be employed for any other purpose, or in any other way.
offering <07133> [the offering.]
This oblation, which the Jews call a {mincha} of initiation, seems to have been required of the high priest alone "on the day in which he was anointed," and from that time, every morning and evening, as long as he continued in office, and then in like manner of his successor; for, by "the sons of Aaron," may be understood his descendants and successors in the high priesthood, in their generations.
day <03117> [in the day.]
The word {beyom} signifies not only in the day, but from that day forward; for it was a daily oblation, and for them and their successors, a statue for ever.
tenth <06224> [the tenth.]
grain offering <04503> [a meat offering.]
high <04899> [is anointed.]
whole offering <03632> [wholly.]
whole offering <03632> [shall be.]
The meat offering of the people was eaten by the priests, who typically bore and expiated their sins; but as no priest, being a sinner, could make atonement for himself, his meat offering must not be eaten, but wholly burnt on the altar, which was a typical transfer of his guilt to the great antitype who actually bore and expiated it.
eaten <0398> [it shall not be.]
law <08451> [the law.]
place <04725> [In the.]
most holy <06944> [it is.]
priest <03548> [priest.]
holy <06918> [in the holy.]
court <02691> [in the court.]
touches <05060> [touch.]
wash <03526> [wash.]
male <02145> [the males.]
most holy <06944> [it is.]
law <08451> [the law.]
most holy <06944> [it is.]
place <04725> [in the place.]
must .... blood <01818> [and the.]
male <02145> [male.]
most holy <06944> [it is most holy.]
guilt offering <0817> [the trespass.]
priest .................. him <03548> [even the priest.]
All the flesh of the burnt offerings being consumed upon the altar, as well as the fat, there could nothing fall to the share of the priest but the skin; which must have been very valuable, as they were used as mattresses (ch. 15:17,) or as carpets to sit upon in the day. They are still used for the same purpose by some of the inhabitants and dervishes of the East. Bishop Patrick remarks, that Adam himself offered the first sacrifice, and had the skin given him by God, to make garments for him and his wife; in conformity with which, the priests ever after had the skin of the whole burnt offerings for their portion.
hide <05785> [skin.]
grain offering <04503> [the meat.]
pan <04227> [in the pan. or, on the flat plate, or slice.]
priest <03548> [shall be.]
each <0376 0251> [one as much.]
thanksgiving ..... thank offering <08426> [a thanksgiving.]
unleavened ....... unleavened wafers <04682 07550> [unleavened wafers.]
leavened <02557> [leavened.]
contribution <08641> [an heave.]
priest <03548> [the priest's.]
eaten <0398> [be eaten.]
[See on]
set <03240> [he shall not.]
Mr. Harmer supposes that this law refers to the custom of drying flesh, that had been devoted to a religious purpose, which is practised among the Mohammedans at the present day, on the their pilgrimage to Mecca. "It would not have suited," he observes, "the genius of the Mosaic dispensation, to have allowed them to have dried the flesh of their peace offerings, whether in thanksgiving, in consequence of a vow, or merely voluntary, and have afterwards eaten the flesh very commonly in a sparing manner, or communicated only some small portion of it to their particular friends: their peace offerings were to be eaten, on the contrary, with festivity, communicated to their friends with liberality, and bestowed on the poor with great generosity, that they might partake with them of these sacred repasts with joy before the Lord."
votive <05088> [be a vow.]
freewill <05071> [a voluntary.]
leftovers <03498> [also the.]
third <07992> [on the third.]
burned up <08313> [burnt.]
accepted ................ spoiled .......... bear <07521 06292 05375> [it shall.]
accounted <02803> [be imputed.]
spoiled <06292> [an abomination.]
bear <05375> [bear.]
uncleanness <02932> [having.]
cut off <03772> [shall be.]
uncleanness <02932> [the uncleanness.]
uncleanness <02932> [any unclean.]
detestable <08263> [abominable.]
cut off <03772> [cut off.]
fat <02459> [fat.]
Any other fat they might eat; but the fat of these was sacred, because they were the only animals which were offered in sacrifice, though many others ranked among the clean animals as well as these. This prohibition may, however, be understood of these animals when offered in sacrifice, and then only in reference to the inward fat, described in ver. 4. Of the fat in any other circumstances, it cannot be intended, as it was one of the especial blessings which God gave to his people.--"Butter of kine, and milk of sheep, with fat of lambs, and rams of the breed of Bashan, and goats," were the provision which he graciously bestowed on his followers. (See De 32:12-14.)
died of natural causes <05038> [beast. Heb. carcase.]
cut off <03772> [shall be cut off.]
eat <0398> [ye shall eat.]
The prohibition of the fat or suet, which was restricted to animals offered in sacrifice, taught reverence to the altar and ordinances of God; but that of blood, which was extended to all land animals, had especial respect to the atoning blood of the sacrifice, and of the great antitype which the sacrifice prefigured.
person <05315> [that soul.]
cut off <03772> [shall be.]
Shall be excommunicated or cut off from the people of God, and so deprived of any part of their inheritance or of their blessings.
hands <03027> [own hands.]
breast ..... breast <02373> [with the breast.]
[See on]
priest <03548> [the priest.]
breast <02373> [the breast.]
presents <07126> [that offereth.]
wave offering <08573> [the wave.]
[by a statue.]
allotment ...... allotment <04888> [portion.]
presented <07126> [he presented.]
day <03117> [in the day.]
law <08451> [the law.]
grain offering <04503> [meat.]
sin offering <02403> [sin.]
guilt offering <0817> [trespass.]
ordination <04394> [consecrations.]
sacrifice <02077> [sacrifice.]
commanded .......... commanded <06680> [commanded.]
Aaron <0175> [Aaron.]
garments <0899> [garments.]
anointing <04888> [anointing.]
bull <06499> [bullock.]
Lord ... commanded .... done <06680 06213 03068> [Lord commanded to be done.]
washed <07364> [washed.]
put ................... put <05414> [he put.]
ephod ................. ephod <0646> [the ephod.]
The {ephod} seems to have been a garment worn by persons of distinction of various characters (2 Sa 6:4); the description of which in the book of Exodus (ch. 28:6, etc.) relates only to its materials. As to its shape, the LXX. calls it [ep¢mis,] which signifies that it was worn on the shoulders. So also Josephus, who says it was a cubit long. St. Jerome compares it with the Roman {caracalla,} which was a sort of short cloak, only that it had a head or hood, which the ephod had not.
[the breast plate.]
Urim <0224> [the Urim.]
Moses .......................... Moses <04872> [Moses.]
tunics <03801> [coats.]
The {kethoneth,} or coat, was made of linen; but the form of it is no where described in Scripture, except in the visionary appearance of Christ to St. John, in the form and habit of a priest (Re 1:13); where he is said to be [endedumenos podere,] "clothed with a garment down to the feet," which perfectly agrees with the description the Jewish writers give of it; who also say, that it had sleeves which came down to the wrist, and was tied about the neck; so that it was not unlike a long shirt. It was common to all the priests; but the tunic of the high priest was made of finer linen, or wove in a more curious manner. (Ex 28:4.)
clothed .......... wrapped <03847 02280> [put. Heb. bound. bonnets.]
The {migba“th}, or bonnets, are described by Josephus as being like helmets of linen, one wreath being plaited and folded over another and a thin cap, suited to its shape, put over all, to prevent its unfolding.
near <05066> [he brought.]
his ... laid their hands <05564> [laid.]
slaughtered ... Moses <07819 04872> [he slew it.]
Moses <04872> [Moses.]
atonement <03722> [to make.]
The beginning of this verse may be rendered, "And Moses slew it, and took the blood," etc. We find it expressly said in Exodus, that Moses slew the sacrifices. .# Ex 29:11 Yet, in general, the offerer seems to have killed his own sacrifice.
soothing aroma <07381 05207> [a sweet savour.]
ram ... ram ... ordination ............... ram <0352 04394> [the ram of consecration.]
"The ram of consecration" was evidently a sacrifice of peace offering though presented on a particular occasion. Part of the blood was applied, not as that of the sin offering, to the horns of the altar, but to Aaron and his sons; to the tips of their right ears, the thumbs of their right hands, and the great toes of their right feet: implying their obligation to hearken diligently to the word of God--to do his work in the best manner which they could, and to walk in his ways with steady perseverance; and also, that they could not do these things acceptably except through the atoning blood, received and applied by faith. Then part of the blood reserved upon the altar, probably in a basin for that purpose, was mingled with the holy anointing oil, and sprinkled on the garments both of Aaron and his sons, to hallow them to the Lord. "This may be looked upon as a lively representation of our purification by the blood of Jesus Christ, through his Holy Spirit."--Bp. Patrick
Moses ... took <03947 04872> [Moses took.]
Moses ......................... Moses splashed <02236 04872> [Moses sprinkled.]
Aaron <0175> [upon Aaron's.]
waved <05130> [and waved.]
Moses <04872> [Moses.]
ordination <04394> [they were.]
anointing <04888> [the anointing.]
consecrated <06942> [and sanctified.]
Boil <01310> [Boil.]
eat ..... bread ..................... eat <0398 03899> [eat it.]
seven days .... day .... days ............. seven-day period <03117 07651> [seven days.]
Tent <0168> [the tabernacle.]
keep <08104> [keep.]
Aaron <0175> [Aaron.]
This was necessary to be added, to show the exact fulfilment of the commandments delivered to Moses, and which are recorded in Exodus, ch. 29; and consequently the complete consecration and preparation of Aaron and his sons to fill the awfully important office of priests and mediators between God and the children of Israel, to offer sacrifices, and make atonement for the sins of the people.
On ... eighth day <03117 08066> [the eighth day.]
Not on the eighth day of the month, but on the first day after their consecration, which occupied seven days, and before which they were deemed unfit to minister in holy things, being considered in a state of imperfection. All creatures, for the most part, were considered as in a state of uncleanness and imperfection, seven days, and perfected on the eighth. (see ch. 12:2, 3; 14:8-10; 15:13, 14; 22:27; Nu 6:9, 10.)
bull <01241> [a young.]
ram <0352> [and a ram.]
Take ... male <03947 08163> [Take ye.]
male <08163> [a kid.]
As the offering here is a kid, which was the sacrifice of the sin of the ruler, some think that the reading of the Samaritan and the LXX. is to be preferred: "Speak unto the Elders of Israel."
calf <05695> [a calf.]
Israelites ................ a <01121> [both.]
ox <07794> [a bullock.]
grain offering <04503> [and a meat.]
today <03117> [to-day.]
congregation <05712> [and all the congregation.]
glory <03519> [and the glory.]
make ... sin offering ..................... make <06213 02403> [offer thy.]
make ........................ make .... offering <06213 07133> [offer the.]
fat <02459> [the fat.]
Lord <03068> [as the Lord.]
regulation <04941> [manner. or, ordinance.]
grain offering <04503> [the meat.]
filled ... hand <03709 04390> [took an handful thereof. Heb. filled his hand out of it. beside.]
sacrifices <02077> [a sacrifice.]
set <07760> [they put.]
smoke <06999> [burnt.]
breasts <02373> [the breasts.]
Moses ... commanded <04872 06680> [as Moses commanded.]
The Samaritan text, and thirty MSS. have, {kaasher tzivvah yehowah eth Moshe,} "as Jehovah commanded Moses;" which is also the reading of the LXX., Arabic, and Targum of Onkelos, and seems to be the true reading, being supported, not only by these authorities, but by the whole chapter itself.'
hands <03027> [his hand. or, as the Greek has it, "his hands."]
Menachem gives reason why it is written hand, to signify the right hand, because that was lifted up higher than the left. The lifting up of the hand was a gesture used in speaking, and signifying any weighty thing, Isa 49:22; and particularly in swearing, Ge 14:22; praying, Ps 28:2; and blessing, either of God, Ps 134:2, or of men, as in this place. Paul, speaking of prayer, uses the phrase, "lifting up holy hands;" as also David: "Let the lifting up of my hands be as the evening sacrifice."
out <03318> [came out.]
glory <03519> [the glory.]
fire ... out <0784 03318> [there came a fire.]
These victims were consumed by a fire of no human kindling. Josephus says that "a fire proceeded from the victims themselves, of its own accord, which had the appearance of a flash of lightning, and consumed all that was upon the altar."
shouted <07442> [they shouted.]
Nadab <05070> [Nadab.]
fire pan <04289> [censer.]
set incense <07004 07760> [put incense.]
strange <02114> [strange.]
commanded <06680> [which.]
Bp. Hall says, "It is a dangerous thing, in the service of God, to decline from his institutions; we have to do with a God, who is wise to prescribe his own worship--just to require what he has prescribed--and powerful to avenge what he has not prescribed."
fire <0784> [fire.]
died <04191> [they died.]
This fire, which destroyed the sacrificers, came from the same source with that which had consumed the sacrifices.
[See ch.]
Note. They died.--The wages of sin is death.--They died suddenly--they died before the Lord; that is, before the vail that covered the mercy-seat.--They died by fire, as by fire they sinned. The fire did not burn them to ashes, as it had done the sacrifices, nor so much as singe their coats, (ver. 5) but struck them dead in an instant. By these different effects of the same fire, we learn that it was no common fire, but kindled by the breath of the Almighty. .# Isa 30:33
holy ............. honored <06942 03513> [I will be.]
presence <06440> [before.]
Aaron ................................ Aaron <0175> [Aaron.]
Uzziel <05816> [Uzziel.]
carry <05375> [carry.]
dishevel <06544> [Uncover.]
wrath <07107> [lest wrath.]
out <03318> [ye shall.]
anointing <04888> [the anointing.]
drink <08354> [Do not.]
strong drink <07941> [strong drink.]
The Hebrew {shecher,} Arabic {sakar,} or {sukr,} Greek [sikera,] from {shachar,} to inebriate, signifies any kind of fermented and inebriating liquor beside wine. So St. Jerome informs us, that {sicera} in Hebrew denotes any inebriating liquor, whether made of corn, the juice of apples, honey, dates, or any other fruit. These different kinds of liquors are described by Pliny, who calls then {vina factitia}. One of the four prohibited drinks among the Mohammedans in India is called {sakar,} which denotes inebriating liquor in general, but especially date wine.
statute <02708> [it shall be.]
Take <03947> [Take.]
most holy <06944> [for it is most.]
eat <0398> [ye shall.]
commanded <06680> [for so I.]
thigh .... contribution <07785 08641> [heave shoulder.]
perpetual <05769> [for ever.]
male goat <08163> [the goat.]
angry <07107> [angry.]
eat <0398> [Wherefore.]
bear <05375> [to bear.]
blood <01818> [the blood.]
commanded <06680> [as I commanded.]
today .............................. today <03117> [this day.]
pleased <03190> [should.]
explanation <03190> [he was content.]
Of the laws relative to clean and unclean beasts, which are recorded in this chapter and Deut. ch. 14 the following may be found a useful abstract. 1. In regard to quadrupeds, all beasts that have their feet completely cloven, above as well as below, and at the same time chew the cud, are clean. Those which have neither, or indeed want one of these distinguishing marks, are unclean. This is a systematic division of quadrupeds so excellent, as never yet, after all the improvements in natural history, to have become obsolete, but, on the contrary, to be still considered as useful by the greatest masters of the science. 2. With regard to fishes, Moses has in like manner, made a very simple systematic distinction. All that have scales and fins are clean; all others unclean. 3. Of birds, he merely specifies certain sorts as forbidden, thereby permitting all others to be eaten. 4. Insects, serpents, worms, etc., are prohibited; but with regard, however to those winged insects, which besides four walking legs, also have two longer springing legs, (Pedes saltatorii,) Moses makes an exception, and under the denomination of locusts, declares them clean in all four stages of their existence. In Palestine, Arabia, and the adjoining countries, locusts are one of the most common articles of food, and people would be very ill of if they durst not eat them: For, when a swarm of them desolates the fields, they prove in some measure themselves an antidote to the famine which they occasion. They are not only eaten fresh, immediately on their appearance, but the people collect them, and know a method of preserving them for a long time for food, after they have dried them in an oven. --Niebuhr's Description of Arabia, pp. 170-175.
divided <06536> [parteth.]
chews <05927> [cheweth.]
rock badger <08227> [the coney.]
{Shaphan,} most probably an animal resembling the rabbit, called by Dr. Shaw, {daman} (probably for {ganam}) Israel, "Israel's lamb," and by Bruce, {ashkoko,} which name he imagines is "derived from the singularity of these long herenacious hairs, which, like small thorns, grow about his back, and which an Amhara are called {ashok.}" This curious animal abounds in Judea, Palestine, Arabia, and Ethiopia; and is described as being about seventeen inches when sitting. It has no tail; and at first sight gives the idea of a rat. Its colour is grey, mixed with reddish brown; the belly white, the body covered with strong polished hairs, for the most part about two inches in length; the ears round, and not pointed; the feet round, of a soft, pulpy, tender substance; the toes projecting beyond the nails, which are rather broad than sharp; the upper jaw is longer than the other; it lives upon grain, fruit, and roots, and certainly chews the cud; and it does not burrow like the hare and rabbit, but lives in clefts of the rocks.
divided <06536> [but divideth.]
hare <0768> [the hare.]
pig <02386> [swine.]
unclean <02931> [they are unclean.]
detestable <08263> [they shall be.]
griffon vulture <05404> [the eagle.]
In Hebrew, {nesher,} Chaldee, {neshar,} Syriac, {neshro,} and Arabic, {nishr,} the eagle, one of the largest, strongest, swiftest, fiercest, and most rapacious of the feathered race. His eye is large, dark, and piercing; his beak powerful and hooked; his legs strong and feathered; his feet yellow and armed with four very long and terrific claws; his wings very large and powerful; his body compact and robust; his bones hard; his flesh firm; his feathers coarse; his attitude fierce and erect; his motions lively; his flight extremely rapid and towering; and his cry the terror of every wing.
the ossifrage. {Peres,} from {paras} to break, probably the species of eagle anciently called {ossifraga} or bone-breaker, (from {os,} a bone, and {frango,} to break,) because it not only strips off the flesh, but breaks the bone, in order to extract the marrow. the ospray. Hebrew {¢zniyah,} Arabic {azan,} and Chaldee {azyah,} (from {azaz,} to be strong,) a species of eagle, probably the black eagle, so remarkable for its strength.
wash ... clothes ..... unclean <0899 02930 03526> [wash his clothes, and be unclean.]
carries <05375> [beareth.]
wash <03526> [shall wash.]
swarming things ... swarm <08317 08318> [creeping things that creep.]
immersed ... water <0935 04325> [it must be put into water.]
break <07665> [ye shall break it.]
smashed <05422> [they shall be.]
spring <04599> [a fountain.]
collects water <04723 04325> [wherein there is plenty of water. Heb. a gathering together of waters.]
sowing seed <02233 02221> [sowing seed.]
eats <0398> [eateth.]
wash ................ wash <03526> [shall wash.]
crawls .... belly ..... walks <01512 01980> [goeth upon the belly.]
number ... legs <07272 07235> [hath more feet. Heb. doth multiply feet.]
detestable <08262> [Ye shall.]
yourselves ................. become unclean <05315 02933> [yourselves. Heb. your souls.]
Lord <03068> [I am the.]
sanctify ..... holy ..... holy <06942 06918> [ye shall.]
up <05927> [that bringeth.]
holy ..... holy <06918> [be holy.]
law <08451> [This.]
The distinction of clean and unclean animals, (see note on Le 11:2) existed even before the flood, though it probably then only related to sacrifices; but at this time we find there were very particular laws enacted respecting the diet of the people, and the ceremonial uncleanness contracted by touching the carcases of unclean animals. The reasons for the enactment of these laws seem to be--1. As a test of obedience, and to teach the Israelites habits of self-denial, and the government of their appetites. 2. To keep them distinct from other nations, and consequently from their idolatrous usages, by throwing hindrances in the way of their social intercourse; for these distinctions were applicable both to persons and things. The Canaanites not only ate the animals prohibited by Moses, which we usually eat, but others also, among which dogs were one. Besides, many of those declared unclean were sacred among the heathen, and sacrificed to their gods. 3. Because those prohibited were innutritive and unwholesome; as the swine, the flesh of which being strong and difficult to digest, affords a very gross aliment, and produces, especially in hot climates, cutaneous, scrophulous, and scorbutic disorders, as the itch, leprosy, etc.
woman <0802> [If a woman.]
days ........ days <03117> [according.]
lamb <03532> [a lamb.]
son ........... year ... lamb ........ young <01121 08141> [of the first year. Heb. a son of his year.]
atonement <03722> [make.]
clean <02891> [be cleansed.]
male <02145> [a male.]
afford ... sheep <07716 04672> [she be not able to bring a lamb. Heb. her hand find not sufficiency of a lamb.]
atonement <03722> [make an atonement.]
When burnt offerings and sin offerings were brought together, the sin offerings were first offered.
swelling <07613> [rising. or, swelling. a scab.]
diseased infection <06883 05061> [the plague of leprosy.]
{Tzar„ƒth,} the Leprosy, from the Greek [lepra,] from [lepis,] a scale; so called, because in this disease the body is covered with thin white scales, so as to give it the appearance of snow. The leprosy is a dreadful, contagious disorder, common in Egypt and Syria, and generally manifests itself at first in the manner described in the text. Its commencement is imperceptible; there appearing only a few reddish spots on the skin, which are not attended with pain or any other symptom, but cannot be removed. It increases imperceptibly, and continues for some years to be more and more manifest. The spots become larger, spread over the whole skin, and are sometimes rather raised, though generally flat. When it increases the upper part of the nose swells, the nostrils distend, the nose becomes soft, swellings appear on the under jaws, the eyebrows are elevated, the ears grow thick, the ends of the fingers, feet, and toes, swell, the nails grow scaly, the joints of the hands and feet separate, the palms of hands and soles of the feet are ulcerated, and in its last stage the patient becomes horrible, and falls to pieces.
brought <0935> [he shall.]
examine ........................................ when .... examines <07200> [shall look.]
turned <02015> [turned.]
deeper <06013> [deeper.]
unclean <02930> [pronounce.]
quarantine ...... infection <05462 05061> [shut up.]
clean .............. clean <02891> [pronounce.]
scab <04556> [a scab.]
wash <03526> [wash.]
examine ....... swelling ................... swelling <07200 07613> [shall see him.]
raw flesh <02416 01320 04241> [quick raw flesh. Heb. the quickening of living flesh.]
skin ...... covers .... skin <03680 05785> [cover all.]
disease <06883> [if the leprosy.]
It may seem strange that the partial leper should be pronounced unclean, and the person totally covered with the disease clean. This was probably owing to a different species or stage of the disease; the partial being contagious, the total not. That there are two different species, or degrees, of the disease described here, is sufficiently evident: in one, the person was all covered with a white enamelled scurf; in the other, there was a quick raw flesh in the risings. On this account, the one was deemed unclean, or contagious, the other not; for contact with the quick raw flesh would be more likely to communicate the disease, than the touch of the hard dry scurf. The ichor proceeding from the former, when brought into contact with the flesh of another, would soon be taken into constitution by means of the absorbent vessels; but where the surface was perfectly dry; the absorbent vessels of another, coming in contact with the diseased man, could imbibe nothing, and there was consequently but little or no danger of infection. This is the learned Dr. Mead's view of the subject; who thus accounts for the circumstances mentioned in the text.
clean <02889> [he is clean.]
boil <07822> [a boil.]
appears <04758> [in sight.]
quarantine .... seven <05462 07651> [shut him.]
infection <05061> [a plague. i,e., "The plague of leprosy."]
burn ........... burn <04348 0784> [a hot burning. Heb. a burning of fire.]
This is supposed to state the case of such as had been hurt by fire; which would leave a scar, in which the leprosy might appear, and which was to be distinguished by the rules here given.
turned white <03836 02015> [turned white.]
priest ........................... priest <03548> [then the priest.]
diseased infection <05061 06883> [it is the plague of leprosy. See on ver.]
scall <05424> [scall.]
seven days <07651 03117> [seven days.]
yellow hair <08181 06669> [yellow hair.]
seventh <07637> [the seventh.]
spread <06581> [be not.]
wash <03526> [and he shall.]
bright spots <0934> [if the bright.]
harmless <0933> [a freckled spot.]
The word {bohak,} from the Syriac {behak,} to be white, or shining, here rendered "a freckled spot," is used by the Arabs to denote a kind of leprosy, of which Niebuhr says, "{Bohak} is neither contagious nor dangerous. A black boy at Mocha, who was affected with this eruption, had here and there upon his body white spots. We were told that the use of sulphur had relieved this boy for a time, but had not entirely removed the disease." He adds subsequently from Forskal's papers, "The Arabs call a sort of leprosy, in which some little spots shew themselves here and there on the body, {behaq;} and it is without doubt the same as is named {bohak,} (Le ch. 13). They believe it to be so far from contagious, that one may sleep with a person affected without danger." "On the 15th day of May, 1765, I myself first saw the {Bohak} leprosy in a Jew at Mocha. The spots in this disease are of an unequal size. They do not shine; are not perceptibly higher than the skin; and do not change the colour of the hair. Their colour is an obscure white, inclining to red. The rest of the skin of the patient was darker than that of the people of the country in general; but the spots were not so white as the skin of an European, when not sun-burnt. The spots in this leprosy do not appear on the hands, or near the navel, but on the neck and face, yet not on that part where the hair grows thick. They gradually spread, and continue sometimes only about two months, but in some cases one or two years, and then disappear by degrees, of themselves. This disorder is neither contagious nor hereditary, nor does it occasion any inconvenience." Hence a person infected with the {bohak} is declared clean.
head <07218 04803> [hair is fallen off his head. Heb. head is pilled.]
unclean because <02930> [utterly unclean.]
infection <05061> [his plague.]
clothes <0899> [his clothes.]
head <07218> [and his head.]
cover <05844> [put.]
Unclean Unclean <02931> [Unclean.]
time <03117> [the days.]
outside <02351> [without.]
garment ............. garment <0899> [The garment.]
This leprosy in garments appears so strange to us, that it has induced some, with Bp. Patrick, to consider it as an extraordinary punishment inflicted by God upon the Israelites, as a sign of his high displeasure; while others consider the leprosy in clothes (and also houses) as having no relation to the leprosy in man. When Michaelis was considering the subject, he was told by a dealer in wool, that the wool of sheep which die of a disease, if it has not been shorn from the animal while living, is unfit to manufacture cloth, and liable to something like what Moses here describes, and which he imagines to be the plague of leprosy in garments. The whole account, however, as Dr. A. Clarke observes, seems to intimate that the garment was fretted by the contagion of the real leprosy; which it is probable was occasioned by a species of {animacula,} or vermin, burrowing in the skin, which we know to be the cause of the itch; these, by breeding in the garments, must necessarily multiply their kind, and fret the garments, i.e., corrode a portion of the finer parts, after the manner of moths, for their nourishment. The infection of garments has frequently been known to cause the worst species of scarlet fever, and even the plague; and those infected with {psora}, or itch animal, have communicated the disease even in six or seven years after the infection.
leather .... made ... leather <04399 05785> [thing made of. Heb. work of.]
leather ........ article ... leather <05785 03627> [thing of skin. Heb. vessel, or instrument. it is.]
malignant disease <06883 03992> [fretting leprosy.]
burn .................................. burned up <08313> [burn.]
malignant disease <06883 03992> [fretting leprosy.]
after <0310> [after.]
back side ... front side <01372 07146> [it be bare within or without. Heb. it be bald in the head thereof, or in the forehead thereof.]
burn up <08313> [shalt burn.]
wash .......... washed <03526> [be washed.]
The plague of leprosy was inflicted immediately from the hand of God, and came not from natural causes, as other diseases; and therefore must be managed according to a divine law. Miriam's leprosy, and Gehazi's and King Uzziah's were all the punishments of particular sins; and if generally it was so, no marvel there was so much care taken to distinguish it from a common distemper, that none might be looked upon as lying under this extraordinary token of Divine displeasure, but those that really were so.
Leviticus 15:1-33
Aaron <0175> [Aaron.]
Israelites <01121> [unto the.]
any man <0376> [when any man.]
It is not necessary to consider particularly the laws contained in this chapter, the letter of the text being in general sufficiently plain. It may, however, be observed, that from the pains which persons rendered unclean were obliged to take, the ablutions and separations which they must observe, and the privations to which they must in consequence be exposed, in the way of commerce, traffic, etc., these laws were admirably adapted to prevent contagion of every kind, by keeping the whole from the diseased, and to hinder licentious indulgences and excesses of every description.
discharge <02100> [running issue. or, running of the reins.]
furniture <03627> [thing. Heb. vessel. be unclean.]
means of riding <04817> [saddle.]
The word {merchav,} from {rachav,} to ride, here rendered by our translators saddle, and frequently chariot. Mr. Harmer thinks rather means a litter, or {coune,} of which we have already given a description in Ge 31:34.
touches <05060> [whomsoever.]
It is rather doubtful whether the words hath not rinsed his hands in water refer to him who was diseased, or to him who had his hands touched. Most understand it of the former, that if the person who had the issue rinsed his hands in water, just before he touched any one, he did not communicate any pollution; otherwise, he did. But the Syriac refers it to the person touched by him, though it seems strange that he should be cleansed by washing his hands, when perhaps some other part was touched.
vessel ............... utensil <03627> [vessel.]
broken <07665> [shall be broken.]
seven days <03117 07651> [seven days.]
wash <03526> [wash.]
one ......... other <0259> [the one.]
atonement <03722> [an atonement.]
leather <05785> [skin.]
The poorer class of Arabs of our times make use of mats in their tents; and other inhabitants of these countries, who affect ancient simplicity of manners, make use of goat-skins. Dr. R. Chandler, in his Travels in Greece, tells us, that he saw some dervishes at Athens sitting on goat-skins; and that he was afterwards conducted into a room furnished in like manner, with the same kind of carpeting, where he was treated with a pipe and coffee by the chief dervish. Those that are at all acquainted with Oriental manners, in these later times, know that their dervishes (who are a sort of Mohammedan devotees, a good deal resembling the begging friars of the church or Rome) affect great simplicity, and even sometimes austerity, in their dress and way of living. As these dervishes that Dr. Chandler visited sat on goat-skins, and used no other kind of carpet for the accommodation of those who visited them: so it should seem that the Israelites in the wilderness made use of skins for mattresses to lie upon, and consequently, we may equally suppose to sit upon in the day time, instead of a carpet.
woman <0802> [the woman.]
unclean <02930> [unclean.]
discharge <02101> [and her issue.]
menstruation <05079> [put apart. Heb. in her separation.]
Thus <05144> [Thus shall.]
die <04191> [that they.]
These laws were principally intended to impress the minds of the Israelites with reverence for the sanctuary; and, on the one hand, to shew them what need they had of circumspection, and purity of heart and life, in order to worship the holy God with acceptance; and, on the other hand, that being sinners in a world full of temptations and defilements, they would continually need forgiveness, through the great atonement typified by all the sacrifices, and the sanctification of the Spirit, showed forth by all the purifications. While they were encamped in the desert, it would not be very burdensome to bring the prescribed oblations; but after they were settled in Canaan, many of them at a great distance from the tabernacle, this would become much more difficult. We may, however, observe, continues Mr. Scott, that many of the cases stated only required such washings as might any where be performed, and that those, respecting which sacrifices were appointed, would more rarely occur. We may also suppose, that provided these were brought, when the person who had been unclean first came to the sanctuary, it would suffice: though distance or other hindrances prevented its being done immediately, at the expiration of the seven days.
sick .... menstruation <01739 05079> [of her.]
man <02100 0376> [and of him.]
Leviticus 22:4
descendants ........................................ emission <02233> [the seed.]
These words include the daughters as well as the sons of Aaron.
diseased <06879> [a leper.]
discharge <02100> [running issue. Heb. running of the reins.]
holy offerings <06944> [holy things.]
clean <02891> [until.]
unclean <02931> [unclean.]
descendants ........................................ emission <02233> [whose.]
Numbers 19:11-16
touches ... corpse <04191 05060> [toucheth the dead.]
He who touched a dead beast was only unclean for one day, (Le 11:12, 27, 39;) but he who touches a dead man is unclean for seven days. This was certainly designed to show the peculiar impurity and sinfulness of man, and the hatefulness of sin, seven times worse than the vilest animal!
person <0120> [man. Heb. soul of man.]
purify ........................ purify <02398> [He shall purify.]
"Yithchatta," literally, "he shall sin himself," i.e., not add sin, but take it away, purify. So we say to fleece, and to skin, which do not signify to add a fleece, or a skin, but to take one away.
on ... third day ... on .... day .............. on ... third day ..... day <03117 07992> [third day.]
purify <02398> [purifieth.]
water <04325> [the water.]
uncleanness <02932> [his uncleanness.]
touches <05060> [toucheth.]
bone <06106> [a bone.]
grave <06913> [a grave.]
